metals

Article
Thermal Model of Rotary Friction Welding for
Similar and Dissimilar Metals
Abu Bakar Dawood 1 , Shahid Ikramullah Butt 1, *, Ghulam Hussain 2 ,
Mansoor Ahmed Siddiqui 1 , Adnan Maqsood 3 and Faping Zhang 4
1 School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology,
H-12 Campus, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan; dawood.abubakar32@gmail.com (A.B.D.);
mani_290@yahoo.com (M.A.S.)
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology,
Topi 23640, Pakistan; ghulam.hussain@giki.edu.pk
3 National University of Sciences and Technology, Research Center for Modeling & Simulation, H-12 Campus,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan; adnan@rcms.nust.edu.pk
4 School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China; zfpnew@163.com
* Correspondence: drshahid@smme.nust.edu.pk; Tel.: +92-307-432-9009

Received: 28 March 2017; Accepted: 12 June 2017; Published: 16 June 2017

Abstract: Friction welding is one of the foremost welding processes for similar and dissimilar metals.
Previously, the process has been modeled utilizing the rudimentary techniques of constant friction
and slip-stick friction. The motivation behind this article is to present a new characteristic for
temperature profile estimation in modeling of the rotary friction welding process. For the first time,
a unified model has been exhibited, with an implementation of the phase transformation of similar
and dissimilar materials. The model was generated on COMSOL Multiphysics® and thermal and
structural modules were used to plot the temperature curve. The curve for the welding of dissimilar
metals using the model was generated, compared and analyzed with that of practical curves already
acquired through experimentation available in the literature, and then the effect of varying the
parameters on the welding of similar metals was also studied.

Keywords: rotary friction welding; COMSOL modeling; steel; aluminum; Cu; dissimilar metals

1. Introduction
Welding is a fabrication technique used extensively for joining metals and plastics. There are
two main ways of integrating the components, i.e., fusion welding and solid state welding. In fusion
welding, the joining edges are melted, while in solid state welding, these edges are heated to red-hot
temperature and pressurized to create a joint. The former method has a disadvantage of substantial
micro-structure and property changes. Conversely, the latter method does not evidently demonstrate
such changes.
Friction welding is a solid state welding process. The American Welding Society defines friction
welding to be a joining process, using compressive force, utilizing heat from frictional contact, resulting
into a joint without employing filler material, flux or shielding gases.
Friction welding develops excellent quality weld joints between similar and dissimilar metals.
The weld is developed using heat, generated from frictional force by rubbing two work-pieces. In the
most unpretentious form of frictional welding, pressure on the rotating metal piece is escalated to reach
an appropriate welding temperature. Once nominal temperature is achieved, the rotating work-piece
is stopped and the stationary piece is forced with increased pressure to coalesce with the counter-piece.
Figure 1 shows the illustration of three variants of the friction welding process.

Metals 2017, 7, 224; doi:10.3390/met7060224 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

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Figure 1. The three variants of the friction welding process [1].

Figure 1. The three variants of the friction welding process [1].
Figure 1. The three variants of the friction welding process [1].

TheTherotary
rotary method
methodofoffriction
frictionwelding
weldingisisthe thesimplest
simplestone,one,but
butit ithas
hasananinherent
inherentlimitation,
limitation,i.e.,
i.e.,
The rotary method of friction welding is the simplest one, but it has an inherent limitation, i.e.,
it it
cannot
cannot bebe employed
employed for the
for thewelding
welding ofofparts
partswith
witha anon-circular
non-circularcross-sectional
cross-sectional area.
area.Another
Another main
main
it cannot be employed for the welding of parts with a non-circular cross-sectional area. Another main
disadvantage
disadvantageofof‘rotary ‘rotaryfriction
frictionwelding’
welding’isisthe thenon-uniform
non-uniformthickness
thicknessofofthe theHeat
HeatAffected
AffectedZoneZone
disadvantage of ‘rotary friction welding’ is the non-uniform thickness of the Heat Affected Zone
(HAZ).
(HAZ). This
This disadvantage
disadvantage is is
because
because ofof the
thegeneration
generation ofof
non-uniform
non-uniform heat
heatatatthe interface
the interface resulting
resulting
(HAZ). This disadvantage is because of the generation of non-uniform heat at the interface resulting
from
from the linear
the linear change
change ininrotational
rotational speed
speed ofofthe work-piece
the work-piece over
overthetheradial
radialdistance
distancefrom
from the center.
the center.
from the linear change in rotational speed of the work-piece over the radial distance from the center.
During
During this process,
this process, thethe
foremost
foremost thing is the
thing selection
is the of the
selection offriction welding
the friction parameters
welding [2]. In[2].
parameters theIn
During this process, the foremost thing is the selection of the friction welding parameters [2]. In
process, one part is held stationary and the other is rotated at a certain speed,
the process, one part is held stationary and the other is rotated at a certain speed, while the stationarywhile the stationary part
the process, one part is held stationary and the other is rotated at a certain speed, while the stationary
is part
pushed axially axially
is pushed with a specific force until
with a specific theuntil
force plasticthedeformation is started.isAt
plastic deformation that point,
started. the point,
At that rotationthe
part is pushed axially with a specific force until the plastic deformation is started. At that point, the
stops and the
rotation stopspart
and is the
subjected
part is to high pressure
subjected to highuntil the joint
pressure untilcools
the down. Figure
joint cools 2 shows
down. Figuredifferent
2 shows
rotation stops and the part is subjected to high pressure until the joint cools down. Figure 2 shows
parameters influencinginfluencing
different parameters the friction thewelding.
friction The parameters
welding. being used for
The parameters modulating
being the quality of
used for modulating the
different parameters influencing the friction welding. The parameters being used for modulating the
the developed
quality of theweld are time,
developed weld pressure,
are time,and rotational
pressure, andspeed.
rotational speed.
quality of the developed weld are time, pressure, and rotational speed.

Figure 2. 2.Variation
Figure Variationofof
welding parameters
welding with
parameters time
with inin
time direct drive
direct friction
drive welding
friction [1].[1].
welding
Figure 2. Variation of welding parameters with time in direct drive friction welding [1].

2.2.Literature
LiteratureReview
Review
2. Literature Review
AAmathematical
mathematicalmodel modelofofa aprocess
processoffers
offers apprehensionand
apprehension andenables
enablesthe theprediction
predictionofofprocess
process
A mathematical model of a process offers apprehension and enables the prediction of process
attributes,
attributes, asas well
well asas
itsits performance.Comparisons
performance. Comparisonsbetweenbetweenmathematical
mathematicalmodels models andand experimental
experimental
attributes, as well as its performance. Comparisons between mathematical models and experimental
results
results obtained
obtained from
from thethe thermocouple
thermocouple has
has always
always been
been anan area
area ofof interest.
interest. Cheng
Cheng [3][3]used
usedmeasured
measured
results obtained from the thermocouple has always been an area of interest. Cheng [3] used measured
power
power toto define
define a hypothetical
a hypothetical heat
heat flux
flux uniformlydistributed
uniformly distributedononthe thefriction
frictioninterface
interfaceininhishismodel,
model,
power to define a hypothetical heat flux uniformly distributed on the friction interface in his model,
followedbybya comparison.
followed a comparison.AAsimilar similarapproach
approachhas hasbeen
beenused
usedbyby Nguyen
Nguyen [4].Maalekian
[4]. Maalekian[5,6] [5,6]has
has
followed by a comparison. A similar approach has been used by Nguyen [4]. Maalekian [5,6] has
presented
presented thethe comparative
comparative analysis
analysis of generation,
of heat heat generation, andonlater
and later on temperature
temperature prediction, prediction,
for frictionfor
presented the comparative analysis of heat generation, and later on temperature prediction, for
frictionofwelding
welding of Steels. Maalekian
Steels. Maalekian used DEFORM™ used DEFORM™ for of
for verification verification
his resultsof andhistheresults and the
temperature
friction welding of Steels. Maalekian used DEFORM™ for verification of his results and the
temperature
dependent dependent
properties. Theproperties.
comparison Themade
comparison
was amongmade temperature
was among temperature
profiles obtainedprofilesbyobtained
using
temperature dependent properties. The comparison made was among temperature profiles obtained
by using
four fourmethods:
different different themethods:
constantthefriction
constant friction coefficient
coefficient method, the method, the slip-stick
slip-stick method, the method,
power the
by using four different methods: the constant friction coefficient method, the slip-stick method, the
power method
method and the and the inverse
inverse method. method. The power
The power method method
and andthe the inverse
inverse method
method showed
showed excellent
excellent
power method and the inverse method. The power method and the inverse method showed excellent
results
results because
because they
they werewere based
based on on experimental
experimental results.
results. Moreover,
Moreover, inverse
inverse method
method waswas important
important to
results because they were based on experimental results. Moreover, inverse method was important
to predict
predict temperature
temperature on theon the friction
friction interface,
interface, becausebecause that temperature
that temperature cannot becannot
measured be measured
directly.
to predict temperature on the friction interface, because that temperature cannot be measured
directly.
Can Can
et al. [7] haveet also
al. [7] have also
modeled thismodeled
process andthis has
process and has
established theestablished
dependence theofdependence
temperatureof
directly. Can et al. [7] have also modeled this process and has established the dependence of
temperature
profiles profiles
on different on different
work-piece work-piece parameters.
parameters.
temperature profiles on different work-piece parameters.
Thelimitation
The limitationininthe themodels
modelspresented
presented by by Nguyen was the the use
useof ofaverage
averageororconstant
constantvalues
values for
The limitation in the models presented by Nguyen was the use of average or constant values for
the
for thetemperature
temperaturedependent
dependentproperties,
properties,namely,
namely, density, thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity and andspecific
specificheat.
heat.
the temperature dependent properties, namely, density, thermal conductivity and specific heat.
Metals 2017, 7, 224 3 of 14

Maalekian analyzed that the methods based on the experimental data produced exceptional results,
but the profiles generated from the mathematical model were not reliable at all. In other words,
Maalekian only established this fact, and nothing was done to improve the results obtained from
the mathematical model. Can et al.’s [7] work was somehow restricted to work-piece parameters,
for example, dependence of temperature on the radius of the work-piece.
In this research, firstly the temperature profile was developed for the complete duration of the
process, instead of its dependence on a particular parameter. Secondly, COMSOL Mutliphysics®
software material library was used in utilizing the temperature dependent properties of the materials
used; thus not allowing for the use of constant values for such properties. Thirdly, using ‘heat
transfer in solids’ and ‘mechanics structural’ modules in COMSOL software simultaneously, helped in
developing better temperature profiles.

3. Proposed Approach for Modeling of RFW

When the phase change occurs, the heat supplied to the metal is used to change the molecular
form instead of the increase in temperature [8]. Friction welding being a multi-physics phenomenon
cannot be just expressed as a model of a single physical process. For this purpose, the modules of ‘solid
mechanics’ and ‘heat transfer in solids’ were used. In solid mechanics, the contact pair was defined as
a frictional contact with a static frictional coefficient of 0.61 between Aluminum and Steel [9]. In heat
transfer in solids, the process is to determine the ‘pair thermal contact’ and use the following equation,
.
as used by Can et al. [7] for calculation of the heat flux q.
.
 
q = π·ω · P·r W/m2 , (1)

In this equation, ω is the rotational speed of the work-piece, P is the pressure being applied, and r
is the radius of the work-piece.
The ‘heat transfer module’ in COMSOL uses the ‘apparent heat capacity method’ [10] for the
modeling of phase change phenomenon. In this method, an additional term is added to heat capacity
i.e., ‘latent heat’. The heat transfer equation along with a convective term is as follows:

ρ·Cp ·∇ T = ∇·(k ·∇· T ), (2)

In this equation ρ is the density, Cp is the heat capacity, T is the temperature and k is the
thermal conductivity.
This ‘apparent heat capacity method’ uses a phase transition function α(T). During the
implementation of the phase change, the interval (∆T1→2 ) is to be defined, through which a smooth
transition occurs. The material has mixed properties of liquid and solid forms in this interval, with its
density ‘ρ’ (kg/m3 ) and thermal conductivity ‘k’ (W/(m·K). Figure 3 shows an example of the phase
transition function for the phase change of iron [11].
The transition function α(T) changes its value from 0 to 1 during this whole process of transition.,
namely α(T) = 0 for pure solid and for pure liquid α(T) = 1. In COMSOL, the material properties for
solid and liquid phases are defined separately, but during the phase change, an equation depending
on the transition function is used to find the combined properties for the transition phase. For the
phase change, heat capacity ‘Cp ’ is given in Equation (3); wherein, ‘α’ is the ‘linear thermal expansion
coefficient’ (◦ K−1 ) and ‘T’ is the ‘temperature’ in (◦ K) [12]:

Cp = Cp,solid × (1 − α(T)) + Cp,liquid × α(T), (3)

Metals 2017, 7, 224 4 of 14
Metals 2017, 7, 224 4 of 14
Metals 2017, 7, 224 4 of 14

Figure 3. Phase transition function [11].

Figure 3. Phase transition function [11].
Figure 3. Phase transition function [11].
The same process is used for finding other temperature dependent parameters, such as density
The
and The sameconductivity.
same
thermal process is used
process for equation
The finding othercaterstemperature
for the change dependent
dependent parameters,
parameters,
of properties such as
such
during as density
thedensity
phase
and
and thermal
thermal
transition. conductivity.
Whenconductivity. The
‘apparent heat equation
The capacity
equation caters for the
caters isfor
method’ change
used,the an of properties
change
additional during
of properties the phase
during
term for ‘latent transition.
theis added
heat’ phase
When ‘apparent
transition. When(3).
to the Equation heat capacity
‘apparent heatmethod’
capacity is used, an
method’ additional
is used, term forterm
an additional ‘latent
for heat’
‘latentisheat’
added to the
is added
Equation
to (3). (3).
the Equation
Cp = Cp,solid × (1 − α(T)) + Cp,liquid × α(T) + L1→2 , dα (4)
Cp =CCpp,solid × (×1(1
= Cp,solid − −α(α(T))
T )) ++ C × α( T ) + L
p,liquid × α(T) + L1→2 1→,2
Cp,liquid , (4)
(4)
dT
In Equation (4), L1→2 represents the latent heat from Phase 1 to Phase 2. The integration of this
In Equation
In Equation (4), L11→
(4), L representsthe
→22represents thelatent
latentheat
heatfrom
fromPhasePhase 1 to PhasePhase 2.
2. The
The integration
integration ofof this
this
function during the interval ∆T1→2 gives the total value of 1, and 1itstomultiplication with L1→2 gives the
function during
duringthe theinterval
interval∆T ∆T1→ 2 gives the total value of 1, and its multiplication with L →2 gives
function
amount of ‘latent heat’, which is1→
2 gives
released the total
over ∆Tvalue
1→2 asof 1, and
shown itsFigure
in multiplication
4 below. with L1→2 1gives the
the amount
amount of ‘latent
of ‘latent heat’,
heat’, whichwhich is released
is released overover
∆T1→ ∆T 2 as shown
1→shown
2 as
in Figure
in Figure 4 below.
4 below.

Figure 4. Plot example for dα/dT—derivative of phase transition function [11].

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Plot
Plot example
example for
for dα/dT—derivative
dα/dT—derivativeof
ofphase
phasetransition
transitionfunction
function [11].
[11].
4. Setup of Finite Element Model
4. Setup of Finite Element Model
4. Setup
FirstofofFinite
all, Element Model
the software for the modeling of rotary friction welding as a multi-physics
First of all,
phenomenon was the software
selected. for the modeling
COMSOL, because ofofitsrotary friction welding as
user-friendly anda diversity,
multi-physics
First of all, the software for the modeling of rotary friction welding asinterface
a multi-physics phenomenon was
phenomenon
shortlisted. was selected. COMSOL, because of its user-friendly interface and diversity, was
was selected. COMSOL, because of its user-friendly interface and diversity, was shortlisted.
shortlisted.
Later, a 2D axisymmetric feature of COMSOL was used for the modeling because of the large
Later, atime
simulation 2D axisymmetric
required for 3D feature of COMSOL
simulations. was used
The meshing infor the modeling
COMSOL because of
was calibrated forthe large
General
simulation time required for 3D simulations. The meshing in COMSOL was calibrated
Physics and a predefined finer mesh size was selected, with the maximum element size of 0.0078 m for General
Physics and a predefined finer mesh size was selected, with the maximum element size of 0.0078 m
Metals 2017, 7, 224 5 of 14

Later, a 2D axisymmetric feature of COMSOL was used for the modeling because of the large
simulation time required for 3D simulations. The meshing in COMSOL was calibrated for General
Metals 2017, 7, 224 5 of 14
Physics and a predefined finer mesh size was selected, with the maximum element size of 0.0078 m
and minimum element sizesize
of 2.63 × 10 −5
and minimum element of 2.63 × 10−5 m. Sinceititisisanan
m. Since axisymmetric
axisymmetric problem,
problem, the element
the element type type
selectedselected
was free wastriangular. TheThe
free triangular. meshed
meshedgeometry ofboth
geometry of boththethe rods
rods is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 5 below.
5 below.

Figure5.5.Geometry
Figure anditsitsmeshing.
Geometry and meshing.

COMSOL provides a probe tool that facilitates the measurement of different parameters
COMSOL
throughout provides
the coursea of
probe tool that
simulation. So, forfacilitates the measurement
the measurement of temperatureofat different
the core ofparameters
the
throughout theofcourse
interface the twoof simulation.
rods, a probe was So, foratthe
placed measurement
(0, 0) of temperature
for the simulation at i.e.,
of similar metals, theSteel,
core of the
and
interface ofatthe
(0, two
0.012)rods,
m foradissimilar
probe was metals, i.e., at
placed Steel
(0, and Aluminum.
0) for As the simulation
the simulation of similarwas run, the
metals, i.e., Steel,
temperature probe started plotting the temperature with respect to time.
and at (0, 0.012) m for dissimilar metals, i.e., Steel and Aluminum. As the simulation was run,
the temperature probe started plotting the temperature with respect to time.
4.1. For Dissimilar Metals

4.1. For4.1.1.
Dissimilar Metals
Parameters
As a first step of the modeling process, parameters were defined for the experimental
4.1.1. Parameters
determination of temperature for the rotary friction welding of dissimilar metals. In this regard,
Asparameters
a first step of by
defined the modeling
Alves et al. [13] process, parameters
have been used were work.
for this research defined for
These the experimental
parameters are
given in Table 1 below.
determination of temperature for the rotary friction welding of dissimilar metals. In this regard,
parameters defined by Alves et al. [13] have been used for this research work. These parameters are
Table 1. Parameters defined for dissimilar metals welding.
given in Table 1 below.
Name Value Description
t1 Table 1. Parameters defined60 for dissimilar metals welding. Time
Friction
P1 2.10 × 106 Friction Pressure
P2 1.40 × 106 Forging Pressure
Name Value Description
Rad 7.4 (mm) Radius of the rods
length_Al t1 60
100 (mm) Friction Time
Length of Al rod
2.10 × 6
length_st P1 10(mm)
110 Friction Pressure
Length of Steel rod
P2 1.40 × 10 6 Forging Pressure RPM
W 3200
t_ap Rad 7.4 (mm) 10 Radius of the rods
Approach Time
t_total length_Al 100 (mm) 120 Length of Al rod Total Time
length_st 110 (mm) Length of Steel rod
W 3200 RPM
t_ap 10 Approach Time
t_total 120 Total Time
Metals 2017,7,7,224
Metals2017, 224 6 6ofof1414

Table 2 and the graph in Figure 6 show how RPM is varied during the whole process. A
Table 2 and the graph in Figure 6 show how RPM is varied during the whole process. A piecewise
piecewise function, shown in Table 2, was developed that used the parameter of friction time in order
function, shown in Table 2, was developed that used the parameter of friction time in order to define
to define the time period for which the RPM was to be kept at 3200. It can be seen in the function and
the time period for which the RPM was to be kept at 3200. It can be seen in the function and plot that
plot that as soon as the friction time ends, i.e., 60 s, the RPM decreases rapidly to zero.
as soon as the friction time ends, i.e., 60 s, the RPM decreases rapidly to zero.
Table 2. Piecewise function of Omega, for dissimilar metals welding.
Table 2. Piecewise function of Omega, for dissimilar metals welding.
Start End Function
Start
0 End t1 Function W
t10 t1 t1 + 3 WW − ((t − t1) × (w/3))
t1 +t13 t1 + 3 t2 W − ((t − t1 ) × (w/3))
0
t1 + 3 t2 0

Figure6.6.Omega
Figure Omegafor
forwelding
weldingofofdissimilar
dissimilarmetals.
metals.

Table33and
Table andthe
theplot
plotininFigure
Figure7 7show
showpressure
pressureacting
actingononthethetwo
twowork-pieces.
work-pieces.AApiecewise
piecewise
functionwas
function wasdeveloped,
developed,asasshown
shownininTable
Table3.3.From
From00totot_ap
t_apisisthe
the‘approach
‘approachtime’
time’and
andafter
afterthat
thatthe
the
pressure rises when the two work pieces come in contact. Then, a pressure P1, i.e., 2.1 × 10
pressure rises when the two work pieces come in contact. Then, a pressure P1 , i.e., 2.1 × 10 Pa is 6 6 Pa is

applied,which
applied, whichisisthe
thefriction
frictionphase.
phase.When
Whenthe thefriction
frictionphase
phaseisisover,
over,the
theforging
forgingphase
phasestarts
startsand
andthe
the
pressuredrops
pressure dropsfrom
from P1Pto
1 to P2, i.e., 1.4 × 106 . All the parameters are in accordance with the experimental
6
P2 , i.e., 1.4 × 10 . All the parameters are in accordance with the experimental
work carried out by Alves
work carried out by Alves [13]. [13].

Table3.3.Piecewise
Table Piecewisefunction
functionofofpressure
pressurefor
forwelding
weldingofofdissimilar
dissimilarmetals.
metals.

Start End Function

Start End Function
0 t_ap 0
t_ap 0 t_ap
t_ap + 1 (t0− t_ap) × P1
t_ap t_ap + 1 (t − t_ap) × P1
t_ap +1
t_ap + 1 t1
t1 P1
P1
t1t1 t
t1 + 1 1 + 1 P1 − ((t − t1 ) × (P)1×−(P
P 1 − ((t − t 1 − P2))
P12 ))
t1t1+ +1 1 t_total
t_total P2 P2
Metals 2017, 7, 224 7 of 14
Metals 2017, 7, 224 7 of 14

Figure 7. Pressure
Figure 7. Pressure for
for the
the welding
weldingof
ofdissimilar
dissimilarmetals.
metals.

4.1.2.
4.1.2. Geometry
Geometry
Since
Since aa 2D
2D axisymmetric
axisymmetric feature
feature is
is used,
used, the
the geometry
geometry consists
consists of
of only
only two
two rectangles,
rectangles, having
having
their
their one
one side
side overlapping
overlapping the
the axis.
axis. According
According to to the
the dimensions
dimensions mentioned,
mentioned, the
the diameter
diameter of
of Steel
Steel as
as
well
wellasasAluminum
Aluminumrodsrodsused
usedfor
forthe
theexperiment,
experiment,werewerefixed
fixedat
at14.8
14.8mm,
mm,while
whilethe
thelengths
lengthsof
ofthe
the Steel
Steel
and
and Aluminum
Aluminumrods rodswere
werekept
keptatat110
110mmmmandand100100mm,
mm,respectively.
respectively.

4.1.3.
4.1.3. Material
Material
The
The materials
materials chosen
chosen for
for the
the experiment
experiment were
were AA1050
AA1050 Aluminum
Aluminum alloy
alloy and
and AISI
AISI 304
304 austenitic
austenitic
Steel.
Steel. The
The COMSOL
COMSOL material
material database
database provides
provides the
the liberty
liberty of
of choosing
choosing aa material,
material, and
and then
then all
all the
the
properties of that particular material are used from the database. The main concern was
properties of that particular material are used from the database. The main concern was to use theto use the
temperature
temperature dependent
dependent properties,
properties, such
such as
as thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity and
and the
the specific
specific heat,
heat, as
as these
these are
are
important
importantinintemperature
temperaturedetermination.
determination.

4.1.4. Results
4.1.4. Results
The image in Figure 8 shows the temperature distribution when maximum temperature is
The image in Figure 8 shows the temperature distribution when maximum temperature is
achieved. The figure clearly shows the two different materials; the one with the expanded color
achieved. The figure clearly shows the two different materials; the one with the expanded color bands
bands is Aluminum. This is because the thermal conductivity of Aluminum is far greater than that
is Aluminum. This is because the thermal conductivity of Aluminum is far greater than that of Steel.
of Steel. Theoretically, the heat generated at the center of the rods is zero, and the maximum heat is
Theoretically, the heat generated at the center of the rods is zero, and the maximum heat is generated
generated at a distance ‘r’ from the center. The data extracted from the model was converted from
at a distance ‘r’ from the center. The data extracted from the model was converted from Kelvin to
Kelvin to Centigrade. The results of the temperature profile from the mathematical model of the rotary
Centigrade. The results of the temperature profile from the mathematical model of the rotary friction
friction welding of Steel and Aluminum alloy at a distance of 12 mm from the contact surface are
welding of Steel and Aluminum alloy at a distance of 12 mm from the contact surface are shown in
shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
It is evident from Figure 8 that the initial 10 s constitute the approach time. When the two
It is evident from Figure 8 that the initial 10 s constitute the approach time. When the two work-
work-pieces come into contact, the temperature at the interface rises suddenly. The slope of the plot
pieces come into contact, the temperature at the interface rises suddenly. The slope of the plot
decreases when the temperature reaches approximately 250 ◦ C. This is because the phase change
decreases when the temperature reaches approximately 250 °C. This is because the phase change
temperature of Aluminum is taken from 0.5 to 0.6 of the temperature of metal ‘Tm ’ and during this
temperature of Aluminum is taken from 0.5 to 0.6 of the temperature of metal ‘Tm’ and during this
phase, the rate of temperature change decreases. After that, the temperature still rises because of the
phase, the rate of temperature change decreases. After that, the temperature still rises because of the
continuous application of pressure and it reaches a maximum temperature of 460 ◦ C. At this point,
continuous application of pressure and it reaches a maximum temperature of 460 °C. At this point,
the friction phase ends and the forging phase starts, in which the omega (ω) is reduced to zero and
the friction phase ends and the forging phase starts, in which the omega ( ) is reduced to zero and
the
the pressure
pressureisischanged
changed to to forging
forging pressure.
pressure. In
In this
this phase,
phase, the
the temperature
temperature initially
initially decreases
decreases rapidly
rapidly
because
because of the large temperature difference with the atmosphere and the conduction of heat away
of the large temperature difference with the atmosphere and the conduction of heat away
from
from the
the interface;
interface; as
as the
the temperature
temperature ofof the
the work
work pieces
pieces decreases,
decreases, the
the rate
rate of
oftemperature
temperature change
change
also
also decreases.
decreases.
Metals 2017, 7, 224 8 of 14
Metals 2017, 7, 224 8 of 14
Metals 2017, 7, 224 8 of 14

Figure 8. Temperature distribution for dissimilar metals.

8. Temperature
FigureFigure distribution for dissimilar metals.
8. Temperature distribution for dissimilar metals.

Steel & Aluminum

Steel & Aluminum
500.0
500.0
450.0
450.0
400.0
400.0
350.0
(◦C)

350.0
(◦C)

300.0
Temperature

300.0
Temperature

250.0
250.0
200.0
200.0
150.0
150.0
100.0
100.0
50.0
50.0
0.0
0.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
0.0 20.0 40.0 Time60.0 80.0 100.0
Time

Figure 9. Temperature profile for the welding of dissimilar metals.

Figure 9. Temperature profile for the welding of dissimilar metals.
Figure 9. Temperature profile for the welding of dissimilar metals.
4.2. For Similar Metals
4.2. For Similar Metals
4.2. For Similar Metals
4.2.1. Parameters
4.2.1. Parameters
The first step in modeling, similar to the previous model, was to define parameters, and the
4.2.1. Parameters
values The first step
of these in modeling,
parameters were tosimilar
be set to
so the
as toprevious
validate model, was to define
the experimental parameters,
results and the
already present in
values
the of theseasparameters
literature, were4to
given in Table be set so as to validate the experimental results already present in
below.
The first step in modeling,
the literature, similar
as given in Table to the previous model, was to define parameters, and the values
4 below.
of these parameters were to beTableset 4.soParameters
as to validate the experimental
for the welding of similar metals. results already present in the
Table 4. Parameters for the welding of similar metals.
literature, as given in Table 4 below.
Name Value Description
Name
t1 Value
3 Description
Friction Time
Pt11
Table 4. Parameters
1.31 3× 10
for the Friction
7 welding Time metals.
of Pressure
Friction similar
P1 1.31 × 107 Friction Pressure
Name Value Description
t1 3 Friction Time
P1 1.31 × 107 Friction Pressure
P2 1.00 × 108 Forging Pressure
Rad 7.4 (mm) Radius of the rods
length_Al 100 (mm) Length of Al rod
length_st 110 (mm) Length of Steel rod
W 1410 RPM
t_total 4 Total Time
 Rad 7.4 (mm) Radius of the rods
length_Al 100 (mm) Length of Al rod
length_st 110 (mm) Length of Steel rod
W 1410 RPM
Metals 2017, 7, 224 t_total 4 Total Time 9 of 14

Table 5 shows the pressure changes during the whole process and the same is graphically
Table 5 shows the pressure changes during the whole process and the same is graphically
represented in Figure 10.
represented in Figure 10.
Table 5. Piecewise function of pressure for the welding of similar metals.
Table 5. Piecewise function of pressure for the welding of similar metals.
Start End Function
Start
0 End
0.1 t Function
× (P1/0.1)
0.10 t10.1 t × (P
P11 /0.1)
t10.1 t1
t1 + 0.1 P1 + ((t − t1P) 1× (P1 − P2))
t1 t1 + 0.1 P1 + ((t − t1 ) × (P1 − P2 ))
t1 + 0.1 t_total P2
t1 + 0.1 t_total P2

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Pressure applied
applied for
for the
the welding
welding of
of similar
similar metals.
metals.

Table 66 shows
Table shows the
the RPM
RPM of
of one
one work-piece
work-piece during
during the
the whole
whole process
process and
and the
the same
same is
is graphically
graphically
represented in
represented in Figure
Figure 11.
11.

Table 6.
Table 6. Piecewise
Piecewise function
function of
of Omega
Omega for
for the
the welding
welding of
of similar
similar metals.
metals.

Start End Function

Start End Function
0 t1 w
0t1 t1 +t0.1
1 W − ((t − t1)w× (w/0.1))
t t1 + 0.1 W − ((t − t1 ) × (w/0.1))
t1 +1 0.1 t_total 0
t1 + 0.1 t_total 0
Metals 2017, 7, 224 10 of 14

Metals 2017, 7, 224 10 of 14

Metals 2017, 7, 224 10 of 14

Figure 11. Omega applied for the welding of similar metals.

4.2.2. Material Figure 11. Omega applied for the welding of similar metals.

The material used for modeling the friction welding process of Steel is AISI 304 austenitic Steel.
4.2.2. Material
4.2.2. Material
The material was available in the COMSOL materials database, and the main purpose of using this
The material
The material
information used
from used for modeling
modeling
the database,
for was tothe
use
the friction welding
welding process
the temperature
friction of
of Steel
dependent
process is
is AISI
material
Steel 304
304 austenitic
AISIproperties Steel.
of metals
austenitic Steel.
The material
in the
The modeling
material was available
wasofavailable in
the process, the COMSOL
as COMSOL
in the materials
mentionedmaterials database, and the main purpose of
earlier. database, and the main purpose of using thisusing this
information
The same
information from
from thedatabase,
modules
the database,
have beenwasto
was touse
used use the
inthe
the temperature
modeling of
temperature dependent
the process
dependent material properties
for Steel,
material of
as theyofwere
properties metals
used
metals in
in the modeling
for modeling
the dissimilar of of the
metals. process, as mentioned
The coefficient
the process, of static
as mentioned earlier.
friction has been assigned a value of 0.7 as suggested
earlier.
The same
The same
by Sullivan modules
[14]. The same
modules have
have been used
used
equations
been werein used
in the modeling
the modeling of the
for the heat
of the process
flux, forthat
as those
process for Steel, as they
were
Steel, as they were
usedwere used
above for
used
for dissimilar
dissimilar metals.
metals The
modeling. coefficient of static friction has been assigned a value of 0.7
for dissimilar metals. The coefficient of static friction has been assigned a value of 0.7 as suggested as suggested
by Sullivan
by Sullivan [14].
[14]. The same equations
The same equations were
were used
used for the heat
for the heat flux,
flux, as
as those
those that
that were
were used
used above
above for
for
dissimilar
4.2.3. metals modeling.
Results
dissimilar metals modeling.
Figure 12 shows the temperature profile of the model at the interface of welding. As the process
4.2.3. Results
starts, the temperature rises quickly, and at about 550 °C, the slopes decrease and the temperature
Figurebecomes
somehow 12 shows the temperature
constant. The phaseprofile
profile
change of the
of the model
model at
temperature at the
the Steel
for interface
interface of
wasof welding.
welding.
taken to be As
fromthe0.5
process
to 0.6
starts, the temperature rises quickly, and
and at
at about
about 550
550 ◦°C,
C, the
the slopes
slopes decrease
decrease and the
the temperature
temperature
of metal temperature ‘Tm’. At this moment, the heat being generated is used for the phase change or
somehow becomes constant.
atomic restructuring. The phase
As the change change
of phase temperature
is completed, thefor Steel was taken
temperature to be from
rises again 0.5 to 0.6
to a maximum
of metal
value of temperature ‘Tmm’. At
‘T
about 1000 °C. At this moment, the heat being generated is used for the phase change or
atomic
atomic restructuring.
Atrestructuring.
this point theAs the change
friction phaseofends, is completed,
phaseand the pressure temperature
therises
temperature rises again
to the forging to a maximum
pressure, while the
value about 1000
1000 ◦°C.
omegaofreduces
about C. The temperature then decreases rapidly, but the slope decreases gradually.
to zero.
At this point the friction phase ends, and the pressure rises to the forging pressure, while the
omega reduces to zero. The temperature then decreases rapidly, but the slope decreases gradually.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Temperature profile for
Temperature profile for the
the welding
welding of
of similar
similar metals.
metals.

Figure 12. Temperature profile for the welding of similar metals.

Metals 2017, 7, 224 11 of 14

At this point the friction phase ends, and the pressure rises to the forging pressure, while the
omega reduces
Metals 2017, 7, 224 to zero. The temperature then decreases rapidly, but the slope decreases gradually.
11 of 14

5. Analysis
For the first time, the modeling of rotary friction welding for metals using the phase change
property of metals hashas been
been done.
done.
While this is a model with phase change implementation, because of the linearity of the phase
change function during the solid and liquid phases, the temperature profile gets less steep at about
250 ◦°C.
C. Comparison of both of the profiles is shown inin Figure
Figure 13
13 below.
below.

500.0
Experimental
400.0
Temperature (◦C)

Model
300.0

200.0

100.0

0.0
0.0 50.0 100.0
Time (s)

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Comparison
Comparisonofof experimental
experimental andand model
model generated
generated temperature
temperature profileprofile for dissimilar
for dissimilar metals.
metals.

Figure 13 shows that the maximum difference of the two values, i.e., experimental and the model,
Figure 13 shows that the maximum difference of the two values, i.e., experimental and the
is found to be at 21.5 s. The values of temperature in Kelvin for both these profiles at 21.5 s are 605.9 K
model, is found to be at 21.5 s. The values of temperature in Kelvin for both these profiles at 21.5 s
and 534.1 K, respectively, and the maximum error found at this point is 11.84%. The peak temperature
are 605.9 K and 534.1 K, respectively, and the maximum error found at this point is 11.84%. The peak
for both the profiles is at 57.7 s and the error calculated at this moment is found to be 3.72%.
temperature for both the profiles is at 57.7 s and the error calculated at this moment is found to be
For welding of Steel, Figure 14 shows three data sets, i.e., constant friction, power method and
3.72%.
phase change model. The constant friction model was previously used to approximate the temperature
For welding of Steel, Figure 14 shows three data sets, i.e., constant friction, power method and
of friction welding process. The power method is analyzed by Maalikian [5] for approximation of the
phase change model. The constant friction model was previously used to approximate the
temperature at the interface, by using the experimentally measured power. In other words, it has been
temperature of friction welding process. The power method is analyzed by Maalikian [5] for
proved to be the most accurate method for predicting the temperature at the interface.
approximation of the temperature at the interface, by using the experimentally measured power. In
If Figure 14 is carefully analyzed, the approximation is better than the constant friction method,
other words, it has been proved to be the most accurate method for predicting the temperature at the
because of the phase change implementation and also the use of temperature dependent properties
interface.
of the materials, e.g., thermal conductivity and specific heat. The error of the peak temperature
If Figure 14 is carefully analyzed, the approximation is better than the constant friction method,
calculated is found to be 3% and the COMSOL profile follows the power method profile, which is
because of the phase change implementation and also the use of temperature dependent properties
the experimental method curve used here for comparison purpose, in a much better way than in
of the materials, e.g., thermal conductivity and specific heat. The error of the peak temperature
comparison to the constant friction method. The difference in the temperature profile could be due to
calculated is found to be 3% and the COMSOL profile follows the power method profile, which is the
surrounding temperature when the actual experiment was performed.
experimental method curve used here for comparison purpose, in a much better way than in
comparison to the constant friction method. The difference in the temperature profile could be due
to surrounding temperature when the actual experiment was performed.
Metals 2017, 7, 224 12 of 14
Metals 2017, 7, 224 12 of 14

Metals 2017, 7, 224 12 of 14

1200

1000
1200
constant
Temperature (◦C)

800
1000 Friction
constant
Temperature (◦C)

600
800 Power Method
Friction

600 Power Method

400
Phase Change
400 Model
200 Phase Change
Model
200
0
2 3 4 0 5 1
Time (s) 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 14.
14. Comparison
Comparison of Time
the temperature (s)
temperature profiles
profiles generated
generated by
by constant
constant friction
friction method,
method, power
power
Figure of the
method,
method, and
Figureand phase change
14. phase change
Comparison model.
ofmodel.
the temperature profiles generated by constant friction method, power
method, and phase change model.
6. Discussion
6. Discussion
6. Discussion
After thethe modeling
modeling and and validation
validation of of the
the rotary
rotary friction
friction COMSOL
COMSOL model, model, the the model
model was was then
then
After
used to
used toAfter
study
study thethe
the dependence
modeling
dependence of temperature
temperature
and validation
of profile
of the profile on the
rotary friction
on the COMSOL
three parameters
three parameters
model, the discussed
model was
discussed above,
theni.e.,
above, i.e.,
radius,
used pressure
to study and
the omega,
dependence andof the material
temperature selected
profile on forthethis study
three
radius, pressure and omega, and the material selected for this study was Copper. The range of was
parameters Copper. The
discussed range
above, of the
the
i.e.,
radius,
parameters pressure
used and
for omega,
this study and
was the
kept material
the selected
same
parameters used for this study was kept the same as used by Alves [13]. as usedfor this
by study
Alves was
[13]. Copper. The range of the
parameters
It is
is quite used for thisEquation
study was (1)kept
thatthe same as useddirectly
by Alves [13].
It quite clear
clear from
from Equation (1) that the
the heat
heat flux
flux is
is directly proportional
proportional to to the
the pressure, omega
pressure, omega
and It is quite
radius. clearthe
Initially, from Equation
effect of (1) that the
changing the heat
radiusflux is directly
was studied proportional
by keeping to
thethe pressure,
pressure omega
and omega
and radius. Initially, the effect of changing the radius was studied by keeping the pressure and omega
and radius.
constant. The Initially,
values the
of effect
the of changing
pressure and the radiuswere
omega was studied
taken bybe
to keeping
2.1 × the
10 6pressure and omega
6 MPa and 3200 rpm,
MPa and 3200
constant. The values of the pressure and omega were taken to be 2.1 × 10 rpm,
constant.
respectively. TheThe values
radius of
of the
the pressure
work-pieces and omega
was were
changed taken
from 1tommbe 2.1
to 7 × 10
mm,
6 MPa and 3200 rpm,
with 1 mm increment.
respectively. The radius of the work-pieces was changed from 1 mm to 7 mm, with 1 mm increment.
respectively. The
Corresponding radius of the
temperature work-pieces
profiles areshown
shownwas in
changed
Figurefrom 15. 1 mm to 7 mm, with 1 mm increment.
Corresponding
Corresponding
temperature
temperature
profiles
profiles
are
are shown
in
in
Figure
Figure
15.
15.
To study
To study the
the effects
effects of the nextnext parameter, i.e., i.e., pressure
pressure during
during thethe friction
friction phase
phase of the process,
To study the effectsofofthethe nextparameter,
parameter, i.e., pressure during the friction phase of of
thethe process,
process,
the radius
the radius and and omega
omega were were kept
kept constant
constant at at 55 mm
mm andand 3200
3200 rpm,
rpm, respectively,
respectively, and the
and the pressure
pressure waswas
the radius and omega were kept constant at 5 mm and 3200 rpm, respectively, and the pressure was
varied
varied from
from 0.1 to 3 MPa,
0.10.1toto3 3MPa, with an incremental step of 0.4 and then 0.5 MPa. A similar trend was
varied from MPa,with withan anincremental
incremental stepstep of
of 0.4 and then
0.4 and then 0.5
0.5MPa.
MPa.AAsimilar
similar trend
trend waswas
observed,
observed, as
asas before,
before, while
while varying the pressure as shown in Figure 16.
observed, before, whilevarying
varyingthe thepressure
pressure asas shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 16.
16.

170
170
150
150
130 rad= =1 1mm
mm
Temperature (◦C)

130 rad
Temperature (◦C)

110
110 rad= =2 2mm
rad mm
9090 rad= =3 3mm
rad mm
7070 rad= =4 4mm
rad mm
5050 rad= =5 5mm
rad mm
3030 rad
rad= =6 6mm
mm
1010 rad
rad= =7 7mm
mm
00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40
Time (s)
Time (s)

Figure 15. Temperature profiles generated by varying radius of the work-piece.

Figure 15. Temperature profiles
profiles generated
generated by
by varying
varying radius
radius of
of the
the work-piece.
work-piece.
Metals 2017, 7, 224 13 of 14
Metals 2017, 7, 224 13 of 14
Metals 2017, 7, 224 13 of 14

180
180
160
160 0.1 MPa

(◦C)
140
0.1 MPa

(◦C)
140
120 0.5 MPa
Temperature
120
100 0.5 MPa
Temperature 1 MPa
100
80 1 MPa
80
60 1.5 MPa
60 1.5 MPa
40 2 MPa
40
20 2 MPa
200 2.5 MPa
2.5 MPa
0 0 10 20 30 40 3 MPa
0 10 20 30 40 3 MPa
Time (s)
Time (s)

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Temperature profiles generated
Temperature profiles generated by
by varying
varying applied
appliedpressure.
pressure.
Figure 16. Temperature profiles generated by varying applied pressure.
The last parameter in Equation (1) to be varied is the omega, i.e., the rotating speed of one of the
The
The last
last parameter
parameter in Equation (1) to
to be varied is
is the omega, i.e., the
the rotating speed of
of one of
of the
two work-pieces. OmegainwasEquation
varied(1)
from be varied
500 to 3500 the omega,
rpm, i.e.,increment
with an rotating speed
of 500 rpm. one
While the
the
two
two work-pieces.
work-pieces. Omega
Omega was
was varied
varied from
from 500
500 to
to 3500
3500 rpm,
rpm, with
with an
an increment
increment of
of 500
500 rpm.
rpm. While
While the
the
pressure and radius was kept constant at 1 MPa and 5 mm, respectively. The profiles generated are
pressure
pressure and radius
radius was kept
kept constant
constant atat 11 MPa
MPa and
and 55 mm,
mm, respectively.
respectively. The
The profiles
profiles generated
generated are
shown inand
the Figure was
17 below. are
shown
shown in
in the
the Figure
Figure 17
17 below.
below.

160
160
140
500 rpm
(◦C)

140
120 500 rpm
(◦C)

120 1000 rpm

Temperature

100
1000 rpm
Temperature

100
80 1500 rpm
80
60 1500 rpm
60 2000 rpm
40 2000 rpm
40
20 2500 rpm
200 2500 rpm
3000 rpm
0 0 10 20 30 40 3000 rpm
0 10 20 30 40 3500 rpm
Time (s) 3500 rpm
Time (s)

Figure 17. Temperature profiles generated by varying rotational speed.

Figure
Figure 17.
17. Temperature profiles generated
Temperature profiles generated by
by varying
varying rotational
rotational speed.
speed.
7. Conclusions
7. Conclusions
7. Conclusions
Temperature profiles are generated by employing a new module of phase transformation in
COMSOLTemperature profiles
and theprofiles
‘apparent are generated by employing hasaa been
new used module of phase transformation in
Temperature are heat capacity
generated by method’
employing new module in ofthis module.
phase A model was
transformation in
COMSOL and
initially developed the ‘apparent
for the weldingheat capacity
of similar method’
metals, has been used in this module. A model was
COMSOL and the ‘apparent heat capacity method’ has i.e.,
beenSteel,
usedas inwell as dissimilar
this module. A modelmetals,
wasi.e., Steel
initially
initially developed
and Aluminum, and for theitwelding
later was usedof to
similar metals,
develop i.e., Steel,profiles
as wellaccording
as dissimilar metals, i.e., Steel
developed for the welding of similar metals, i.e.,temperature
Steel, as well as dissimilar metals, to the parameters
i.e., Steel and of
and Aluminum,
experiments and later
conducted byitAlves
was used[13].toStructural
develop temperature
modules were profiles according
introduced to to the parameters
accommodate contactof
Aluminum, and later it was used to develop temperature profiles according to the parameters of
experiments
conditions, whileconducted
thermal by Alves [13]. Structural modules were introduced to accommodate contact
experiments conducted by modules
Alves [13]. were used tomodules
Structural define heat
wereflux and phase
introduced transformationcontact
to accommodate of the
conditions,
metals. When while thermal
boththermal modules
profilesmodules were used
were compared, to define
an error heat flux found
of 3.72% and phase transformation of the
conditions, while were used to define heat was
flux and phase in thetransformation
peak values. of the
metals.
TheWhen
same both
model profiles
was wereused
then compared,
to an error
generate the of 3.72% was found
temperature profile infor
thethepeak values.
welding of similar
metals. When both profiles were compared, an error of 3.72% was found in the peak values.
The same
metals, model was then used to generate the temperature profile for the weldingand of similar
Thei.e.,
samecopper,
model andwas the effect
then usedof to
varying
generatedifferent parameters,profile
the temperature i.e., radius,
for thepressure
welding of similar omega
metals, i.e.,
on thesei.e., copper,
profiles, and the effect of varying different parameters, i.e., radius, pressure and omega
metals, copper,was andstudied
the effectindividually. It is pertinent
of varying different to mention
parameters, that when
i.e., radius, one of
pressure and theomega
three
on these
parameters profiles, was
was raised, studied
the maximumindividually.
temperatureIt is pertinent
range alsoto to mention
increased. that when one of the three
on these profiles, was studied individually. It is pertinent mentionHence, that when the existence
one of the of direct
three
parameters
proportionality was raised,
of thethe the maximum
peak temperature
temperature with range range also
these increased.
parameters hasHence,
beenthe the existence of direct
established.
parameters was raised, maximum temperature also increased. Hence, existence ofResults
direct
proportionality
presented by Serio of et theal.peak temperature with these theparameters hasthermal
been established. Results
proportionality of the peakintemperature
their research also
with thesesupport
parameters facthasthatbeenthe established. behavior
Results of joints
presented is
presented
closely by Serio et al. in their research also support the fact that the thermal behavior of joints is
by Serioconnected to theresearch
et al. in their process also
parameters,
supportwhich the fact therefore,
that thealso strengthens
thermal behavior theofsimulation model
joints is closely
closely
presentedconnected to the process
in the research [15,16].parameters, which therefore, also strengthens the simulation model
presented in the research [15,16].
Metals 2017, 7, 224 14 of 14

connected to the process parameters, which therefore, also strengthens the simulation model presented
in the research [15,16].

Acknowledgments: Source of funding is partially from National University of Sciences and Technology and
partial contribution of authors.
Author Contributions: Shahid Butt and Ghulam Hussain conceived and designed the experiments along with
guidance during the research phase; Abu Bakar did the literature review, performed the Simulation model and
verified the experimental results; Adnan Maqsood and Faping Zhang helped in performing Simulations and
Analyzing the data; Mansoor Siddiqui formatted paper as well as corrected text and font etc.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsor NUST had no role in the
design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in
the decision to publish the results except the authors.

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Design; 2011 (SCAD); Ghent University, Laboratory Soete: Gent, Belgium, 2011; Volume 2, No. 3.
2. Murti, K.; Sundaresan, S. Parameter optimisation in friction welding dissimilar materials. Met. Constr. 1983,
15, 331–335.
3. Cheng, C. Transient temperature distribution during friction welding of two similar materials in tubular
form. Weld. J. 1962, 41, 542–550.
4. Nguyen, T.C.; Weckman, D.C. A Thermal and Microstructure Evolution Model of Direct-Drive Friction
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