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Companion animal practice

Blood transfusions in dogs and cats

2. Practicalities of blood collection
and administration
Jenny Helm and Clare Knottenbelt

Part 1 of this article, published in the May issue of In Practice (volume 32,
pp 184-189), described the properties of different blood products in
transfusion medicine and outlined how they might be used to best effect
in veterinary practice. However, despite the increasing availability of such Jenny Helm graduated from
blood products, veterinary surgeons still need to know how to collect blood Glasgow in 2005, after which
in emergency situations, and how to administer blood and blood products she undertook a small animal
safely. As there is currently no blood banking system available for cats in rotating internship at the Royal
the UK, collection and administration of blood in-house remains the only Veterinary College and spent a
alternative for this species. This article discusses the selection of appropriate short time in small animal practice.
canine and feline donors and describes how to collect blood safely. In She subsequently returned to
addition, it highlights the problems associated with the selection of feline Glasgow to undertake a residency
donors with appropriate blood type. in oncology and internal medicine
and where she is currently
oncology clinician at the small
animal hospital. She holds the
Advantages of blood banking also a number of web-based donor registers (see fur- RCVS certificate in small animal
and component therapy ther information) that practices can join to access a list medicine and is working towards
of available donors in their area. As there is currently the European diploma in internal
Blood banking offers clear advantages to the vet- no feline blood banking system in the UK, the use of medicine.
erinary surgeon, patient and donor in terms of both in-house blood donors is the only option for cats requir-
convenience and the ability to tailor blood products ing transfusion.
to an individual animal’s needs, thereby maximising
the benefits and minimising the risk of complications
associated with transfusion. Blood banking systems Donor selection
ensure there is appropriate donor screening and typ-
ing, and increase the products available for an indi- Donor welfare is paramount and therefore careful
vidual patient. selection of a donor and a clear understanding of the
In some circumstances, such as emergencies or if methods and amounts of blood that can be collected
there are financial constraints, obtaining blood from an are vital. The table below lists the criteria for suitable
in-house donor is necessary. Some larger hospitals have canine and feline blood donors. Donors need to be
in-house blood donors, or a list of staff- or client-owned matched to the recipient; in dogs, this is less important Clare Knottenbelt graduated
dogs and cats that can be called on to act as donors for first transfusions, but becomes vital for subsequent from Bristol in 1994 and worked
when blood or blood products are required. There are transfusions. See Part 1 for a discussion on blood typ- for a year in mixed practice.
She subsequently undertook a
residency in small animal internal
Criteria for selecting blood donors medicine at Edinburgh, after which
Canine donors Feline donors she became a lecturer at Glasgow,
Should be healthy and friendly Should be healthy and friendly where she is currently a senior
clinician in small animal medicine
Should be normal on physical examination Should be normal on physical examination
and oncology, and head of the
Should have a lean bodyweight of >25 kg Should have a lean bodyweight of >4·5 kg,
division of companion animal
and, ideally, should be non-brachycephalic
sciences. She holds an MSc in
Should be young to middle-aged (1 to 8 years old) Should be young to middle-aged (1 to 8 years old) feline transfusion medicine and
Should have had no previous pregnancies and Should have had no previous pregnancies and the RCVS diploma in small animal
female donors should be neutered female donors should be neutered medicine.
Should have a packed cell volume of >35% Should have a packed cell volume of >35%
Should be vaccinated and wormed Should be vaccinated and wormed, and should be negative
for retrovirus, Mycoplasma haemofelis, and possibly for feline
coronavirus
Should be free from infectious disease, ideally without Should be free from infectious disease, ideally without
a history of foreign travel or contact with travelled pets a history of foreign travel or contact with travelled pets
Ideally, should be DEA 1.1 or 1.2 negative Blood group of donors should be known doi:10.1136/inp.c2902

In Practice  June 2010 | Volume 32 | 231–237 231

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Companion animal practice
ing and cross-matching. In cats, blood typing (and
preferably cross-matching) is crucial before the first
and every subsequent transfusion. Donors and recipi-
ents should be appropriately matched before donation
unless there are facilities to store blood for future use.
How much blood can be collected?
Collection of large volumes of blood from donor
animals results in hypovolaemia and anaemia within
hours of collection. These adverse effects can easily be
avoided if the donor’s total blood volume and packed
cell volume (PCV) are calculated before collection.
Dogs and cats can donate 10 per cent of their total
blood volume with no adverse effect (blood volume =
66 ml/kg in cats and 90 ml/kg in dogs [Turnwald and
Pichler 1985]). Collection of 20 per cent of blood vol-
ume should not result in clinically significant anaemia
provided the donor has a normal PCV at collection,
although it can produce hypovolaemia in the short term.
Collection of >20 per cent of blood volume can produce
hypovolaemia of sufficient magnitude to compromise
the health of the donor and is not recommended.
Blood collection from a dog. In this case,
the owner is present to minimise stress.
(Picture, Jenny Walton)
Practical guidelines for canine blood collection
The procedure outlined below usually takes 10 to 15 minutes to complete.
■■ Instruct the assistants restraining the donor dog and mixing the blood bag
■■ Use sedation, if necessary
■■ Place the dog in lateral or sternal recumbency
■■ Clip the area surrounding the point of collection, apply topical local anaesthetic and
prepare aseptically
■■ Ensure that both the staff and the donor dog are comfortable
■■ Insert the needle connected to the donation bag or an intravenous catheter (usually
into the jugular vein)
■■ Ensure the blood bag is held well below the level of the patient to allow gravity to
enhance flow rates
■■ Gently mix/rock the collection bag every few minutes
■■ Periodically weigh the collection bag until the target weight (usually 450 to 500 ml,
equivalent to 450 to 500 g) is obtained
232 In Practice  June 2010 | Volume 32 | 231–237
Hence, patients commonly donate up to 20 per cent
of their blood volume, which equates to 50 ml from
a 4·5 kg cat and up to 500 ml from a 30 kg dog. It is
important to remember that blood volume depends
on lean bodyweight, so collection of large volumes of
blood from obese donor animals should be avoided.
Collection of 20 per cent of blood volume would result
in a reduction in PCV of a similar magnitude to the
total reduction in blood volume (ie, a dog with a PCV of
45 per cent will have a post-collection PCV of approxi-
mately 36 per cent). It is therefore important to assess
a donor’s PCV before collection to avoid making the
donor more anaemic than the recipient and to ensure
that normal regeneration has occurred between col-
lections. Red blood cells will regenerate over a period
of days to a month, so donors can be used every four
to six weeks if necessary; however, using donors very
regularly may impair the regenerative response unless
they are receiving iron supplementation. Most blood
banks do not use donors more than four to five times
a year.
Blood collection
Under optimal circumstances to ensure that a dona-
tion goes smoothly, at least three members of staff
should be available for blood collection, with one
person restraining the donor, another holding the nee-
dle in place and a third weighing and gently mixing
the donation bag or applying suction and mixing the
syringe to make sure that anticoagulant is thoroughly
mixed with the blood. A skilled phlebotomist is pre-
ferred to minimise stress to the patient, aid blood flow
and to help prevent complications such as the devel-
opment of microthrombi at the site of venepuncture.
During collection, the needle should be held as still as
possible while another person gently mixes the bag or
syringe. The bag should be weighed periodically until
the target weight is obtained.
Dogs
Blood may be collected from donor dogs without seda-
tion, although mild sedation will reduce the stress
associated with the procedure in many dogs. The most
commonly used sedatives can cause hypotension and
should be avoided unless absolutely necessary. For this
reason, heavy sedation is not recommended, so if a
donor is very agitated, aggressive or difficult to han-
dle, a more suitable donor should be used. In the first
instance, an opioid such as butorphanol (0·1 to 0·3 mg/
kg intramuscularly or intravenously) may be enough
to reduce anxiety in a nervous donor. However, for
a more profound effect, acepromazine can be used at
low doses (0·01 to 0·03 mg/kg intravenously combined
with 0·1 to 0·3 mg/kg butorphanol) but, due to the risk
of hypotension, intravenous fluids should be given for
up to an hour following donation.
Ideally, blood should be collected from the jugular
vein with the dog either sitting or in lateral recum-
bency. The jugular vein should be clipped and asepti-
cally prepared. The application of a local anaesthetic
gel (eg, EMLA 5% cream, Astra Zeneca) will minimise
discomfort during collection. Collection of blood
from the cephalic vein in larger dogs is possible but less
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Weighing the blood collection bag during blood
donation ensures that the correct amount of blood is
collected. A unit of canine blood is considered to be
500 ml, which weighs about 500 g. A unit of feline
blood is 50 ml, which weighs approximately 50 g
desirable, as flow rates are slower, which can increase
the risk of microthrombi developing and venous
thrombosis/needle occlusions.
Canine blood is normally collected directly into a
human blood collection bag which contains enough
acid citrate dextrose (ACD) or citrate phosphate dex-
trose (CPD) anticoagulant for approximately 500 ml
of blood. The use of ACD or CPD as anticoagulant
allows the blood to be stored for up to three to four
weeks without significant loss of red blood cell viabil-
ity, provided it is kept at 4 to 5°C (Wardrop 1995).
Cats
In cats, blood should always be collected from the jugu-
lar vein, as blood flow rates are too slow from periph-
eral veins. Donor cats should be sedated to ensure
proper restraint before being positioned in lateral
recumbency. Placing some padding under the cat’s neck
often improves access to the jugular vein during collec-
tion. A sedative combination (eg, ketamine and mida-
zolam or diazepam) is preferred. Any sedation that can
cause hypotension (eg, acepromazine or medetomidine)
should always be avoided. The usual donation volume
for cats is 11 ml/kg; for most cats, it may be useful to
administer intravenous saline to maintain normovolae-
mia. An acceptable fluid therapy protocol is to give 90
ml of saline subcutaneously immediately before dona-
tion, and to infuse 60 to 90 ml saline over 15 to 20 min-
utes starting half way through a donation (this equates
to two to four times the volume collected).
As smaller volumes of feline blood are collected
and the flow rate is much slower, collection directly
into human blood bags is inappropriate. Blood from
cats should therefore routinely be collected into a 50
ml syringe attached to a butterfly needle or catheter.
Although heparin can be added to the syringe, ACD or
CPD are preferred since the blood can then be stored
for up to four weeks after collection provided it is kept
refrigerated. The syringe should contain 1·3 ml ACD
or CPD (withdrawn from a human blood collection
bag) per 10 ml of blood to be collected. When adminis-
Companion animal practice
tering blood collected in a syringe, an inline filter must
always be used as there is an increased risk of micro-
thrombi formation. Blood must be stored in a sterile
fashion as bacterial contamination of blood can result
in a severe transfusion reaction.
Blood administration
Ideally, blood should be given into the cephalic or
jugular vein via an intravenous catheter. In severely
hypotensive or paediatric patients, blood can be
administered into the proximal femur using an 18 to
20 gauge intravenous needle or a spinal needle placed
in the trochanteric fossa. Extraction of blood from the
marrow cavity into the bloodstream is highly efficient
and marrow transfusion is therefore almost as effec-
tive as direct intravenous infusion. Blood is absorbed
from the marrow at a rate of one drop per minute,
but may be administered at a faster rate by using an
appropriate infusion pump. Intraperitoneal adminis-
tration of blood is inefficient, achieving only a 40 per
cent extraction of blood given (Turnwald and Pichler
1985) and is therefore not recommended. Blood and
blood products can be administered safely via cer-
tain types of infusion pump or syringe driver. Some
infusion pumps have pumping mechanisms that will
damage red blood cells, so it is important to check the
manufacturers’ guidelines before using them to admin-
ister blood products. Administration of damaged red
blood cells will reduce the benefit of a transfusion and
increase the risk of a transfusion reaction.
Although blood can be administered through an
unfiltered standard intravenous giving set, filtered giv-
ing sets specifically designed for blood products will
remove the cellular aggregates and microthrombi that
can lead to thrombosis, pulmonary capillary damage
and pulmonary oedema. Damaged red blood cells will
also have a shorter life span and are, hence, less ben-
eficial to a recipient. The filters present in standard
giving sets are too small and will tend to clog when
blood is administered through them. All stored blood
and any blood products including plasma should be
given via a blood giving set.
Blood should not be administered concurrently
(ie, through the same catheter) with intravenous flu-
ids containing calcium or glucose, or with lactated
Ringer’s solution (eg, Hartmann’s solution). No medi-
cations or solutions other than 0·9 per cent sodium
chloride or species-specific plasma should be added or
infused through the same tubing as blood products.
Any red blood cell transfusion (eg, whole blood or
packed red blood cells) should be gently warmed to 37°C
before administration in order to reduce blood viscos-
ity, prevent patient chilling and minimise vasoconstric-
tion. If blood is overheated, clotting and haemolysis
can occur. Where products have been stored in a refrig-
erator, they should be removed before use and allowed
to warm to room temperature. Where active warming
is required, do not use a microwave oven, as this will in
effect cook the blood; instead, immerse the bag in warm
water (ie, <37°C). Placing the blood bag inside another
sealable plastic bag will prevent contamination of the
giving ports. Where possible, warming the tubing as
the blood is administered is preferable to warming the
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Companion animal practice
(left and above) Two examples of inline
filters that can be used when administering
blood transfusions. The administration
of blood through a filtered giving set
specifically designed for blood products
will reduce the risk of microthrombi
entering the circulation. This is particularly
important when blood has been stored
blood collection bag excessively, as the movement of
the blood along the tube prevents the blood becoming
overheated. Frozen products, such as plasma, should be
carefully removed from the freezer (as they can become
brittle) and placed in a warm water bath (ie, <37°C),
again placing the bag inside another sealable plastic bag
to avoid contamination of the giving ports. The blood
or blood product should be at room temperature before
administration (ie, between 21 and 37°C). Once any
bag has been warmed it must be used within 24 hours
as the warming process will promote bacterial growth
within the product. If leakage occurs at any stage
in the warming process, the entire contents must be
discarded.
Transfusion reactions
Transfusion reactions are adverse events occurring fol-
lowing the administration of blood or blood products.
Their effects can be fatal in some cases or may merely
result in the transfusion giving limited benefits to the
recipient. Reactions that occur within 24 hours of
administration are termed acute reactions while those
occurring more than 24 hours following transfusion
are referred to as delayed reactions. Reactions can
Possible transfusion reactions seen in dogs and cats
Immune reactions Non-immune reactions
Acute haemolytic transfusion reaction Mechanical or thermal haemolysis
Delayed haemolytic transfusion reaction Circulatory overload
Anaphylactic reaction Hypocalcaemia (including citrate toxicity)
Pyrexia Dilutional coagulopathy
Pulmonary microembolism
Hypercalcaemia
Infectious disease
Vomiting
Hypothermia
Air embolism
Bacteraemia/infectious disease
234 In Practice  June 2010 | Volume 32 | 231–237
be caused by immunological or non-immunological
mechanisms, both of which should be rare provided
a matched transfusion is given and blood has been
stored and administered appropriately. Despite this,
all patients receiving blood or blood products should
be monitored closely during the transfusion period.
If signs associated with a potential transfusion
reaction are seen (see table, below left), the transfu-
sion should be stopped immediately. The type of reac-
tion encountered should then be determined and the
appropriate treatment given. Although transfusion
reactions can be due to poor storage or administration
techniques, most significant reactions are associated
with the administration of mismatched transfusions.
Some clinicians recommend slow flow rates (0·5 ml/
kg/hour) during the first 30 minutes of transfusion
in order to detect unexpected transfusion reactions
(Turnwald and Pichler 1985).
Specific reactions and
complications
Haemolytic reactions
Acute haemolysis associated with
mismatched transfusions
Acute haemolysis is caused by the destruction of donor
erythrocytes by alloantibodies and occurs during or
soon after a transfusion. Acute haemolytic reactions
associated with mismatched transfusions are rare in
first transfusions in dogs due to the low incidence of
naturally occurring antibodies against DEA 1.1 and
DEA 1.2. However, the incidence of a reaction is much
higher in subsequent transfusions due to induction of
these antibodies (Harrell and Kristensen 1995), which
is why cross-matching should be performed in every
dog that has received a blood transfusion more than 72
hours previously. Generally, the severity of the reac-
tion depends on the titre of antibodies present in the
recipient.
In cats, transfusion reactions associated with AB
mismatched transfusions can vary from mild delayed
reactions to severe life-threatening reactions with even
Monitoring of animals is essential to ensure a blood
transfusion is carried out safely
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small volumes of mismatched blood due to the pres-
ence of naturally occurring alloantibodies:
■■ Type B cats receiving type A blood. Massive intra-
vascular haemolysis of type A (donor) cells occurs
due to the presence of a high titre of naturally
occurring anti-A antibodies. This early reaction
can be fatal, which is why unmatched blood should
never be used for feline blood transfusions;
■■ Type A cats receiving type B blood. Although type
A cats often have weak anti-B alloantibodies, trans-
fused type B (donor) cells can have a mean half-life
of as little as two days. The haemolysis that occurs
is extravascular and clinical signs are therefore
much milder. The main clinical significance is that
PCV will fall to pretransfusion levels within days of
the transfusion (Callan and Giger 1994).
In both dogs and cats, acute haemolytic reactions
are characterised clinically by depression, recum-
bency, cardiac arrhythmia, apnoea, seizures or clini-
cal signs of shock. Patients may urinate, defecate,
salivate and cats may vocalise, after which animals can
become tachycardic and tachypnoeic for a prolonged
period of time. Haemoglobinaemia and haemoglob-
inuria can occur within hours of transfusion but are
only clinically apparent after large volumes of blood
have been transfused, and hepatic and renal excretion
mechanisms are overwhelmed. The rapid destruction
of transfused red blood cells also results in a dramatic
fall in recipient PCV, which may clinically compro-
mise the patient.
Delayed haemolytic transfusion reactions
Delayed haemolytic reactions result in a slower removal
of transfused red blood cells from the circulation. This
delayed haemolysis may be subclinical or mild, and
may even be missed if the underlying disease process
involves ongoing haemolysis (eg, immune-mediated
haemolytic anaemia or sepsis). Transfused red blood
cells are removed one to three weeks after transfusion
and the course of delayed haemolysis is usually benign
and requires no immediate treatment, although the
longer term benefits of the transfusion will be lost. In
cats, these reactions are associated with the induction
Vocalisation in cats can be a sign of a transfusion
reaction. (Picture, Samantha Fontaine)
Companion animal practice
Handling suspected haemolytic transfusion reactions
■■ Stop the transfusion immediately
■■ Maintain the intravenous line and administer crystalloid solutions
■■ Monitor the animal for evidence of shock or disseminated intravascular coagulation,
and check the patient’s temperature. In addition, test serum and urine for evidence
of haemoglobinaemia and haemoglobinuria, respectively
■■ Administer supportive therapy (eg, oxygen supplementation, antihistamines,
adrenaline)
■■ Check the blood bag for evidence of lysis by capillary tube centrifugation and collect
a sample of blood for culture and sensitivity testing
■■ Check blood typing or cross-matching
of antibodies to red blood cell antigens other than the
AB group or the induction of anti-B antibodies in type
A cats without naturally occurring alloantibodies. In
dogs, delayed haemolytic reactions occur in association
with the induction of DEA 1.1 and DEA 1.2 antibodies
by a first or previous transfusion. Due to the absence or
low titres of these antibodies at the time of first trans-
fusion, the risk of a delayed reaction can often not be
predicted by cross-matching techniques.
Pretransfusion haemolysis
Haemolysis can occur during the storage of whole
blood, particularly if the blood is subjected to over-
heating or freezing or has become contaminated with
microbes (Harrell and Kristensen 1995). The concur-
rent administration of blood and hypotonic solutions
via the same catheter can also result in red blood cell
lysis through osmotic ‘cell bursting’.
Acute hypersensitivity reactions
Allergic reactions to transfused allergens are often
associated with plasma transfusions, but can occur
during the transfusion of whole blood and blood prod-
ucts (Harrell and Kristensen 1995). A reaction usually
occurs within 45 minutes of the start of the transfu-
sion and, in severe cases, can result in cardiopulmo-
nary arrest. Any evidence of anaphylaxis (eg, urticaria,
pruritus, erythema, anxiety, facial swelling, vomiting
or dyspnoea) warrants discontinuation of the transfu-
sion and treatment for an anaphylactic reaction (using
corticosteroids, antihistamines, oxygen, as required,
and adrenaline in severe cases).
Pyrexia
Transfusion-related pyrexia is the most common trans-
fusion reaction and is characterised by an increase in
body temperature of 1°C or more within four hours
of a transfusion (Turnwald and Pichler 1985). The
Acute hypersensitivity reaction
in a dog that received fresh
frozen plasma. This animal
developed facial oedema
shortly after the transfusion.
(Picture, Rory Bell)
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pyrexia usually occurs within 30 minutes of the start
of the transfusion and may continue for up to eight
hours. Clinical signs are usually mild, but may include
vomiting and tremors. The pyrexia may be related
to bacterial contamination of transfused blood or an
acute reaction caused by antibodies to platelets, white
blood cells or plasma proteins that were not detected by
blood typing or cross-matching. The blood bag should
be evaluated for evidence of bacterial contamination
and the patient examined for evidence of haemolysis.
However, non-infectious, non-haemolytic pyrexia is
the most common form of pyrexia seen and this is usu-
ally transient and does not require treatment.
The incorrect collection or storage of whole blood
can result in bacterial contamination of the blood
before administration. Bacteria will survive refrig-
eration and start to multiply once blood is warmed.
Bacteria-related pyrexia develops within 15 minutes of
the start of blood administration and may be accom-
panied by other signs such as shock, abdominal pain,
vomiting and diarrhoea. If bacterial contamination
is suspected, the bag should be checked for evidence
of haemolysis by spinning down the bag, or taking
a sample of blood from the bag and submitting it
for culture and sensitivity testing. Affected animals
should be given antibiotics and supportive therapy, as
necessary.
Vomiting
Vomiting is common during and after transfusions and
may be associated with the rapid administration of
blood or feeding around the time of transfusion. If no
other symptoms of a transfusion reaction or haemolysis
are evident, the transfusion can be continued after 15
minutes at a slower rate. As most blood transfusions
should be administered within four to six hours, it is
wise to avoid feeding animals during transfusions, if
possible.
Circulatory overload
Circulatory overload is a relatively common transfu-
sion complication in small animals (especially in cats)
and is usually associated with the rapid administra-
tion of whole blood to patients with cardiac disease,
renal failure or normovolaemic anaemia (Turnwald
and Pichler 1985). Circulatory overload resulting in
pulmonary oedema is characterised clinically by tach-
ycardia, tachypnoea, dyspnoea and coughing. The
use of appropriate flow rates and packed red blood
cell transfusions rather than whole blood reduces this
problem. If circulatory overload is encountered, the
transfusion should be stopped immediately and furo-
semide and oxygen given as necessary to control the
symptoms.
Hypocalcaemia
Clinical signs of hypocalcaemia (eg, tremors, vomiting
and cardiac arrhythmia) are occasionally associated
with the rapid administration of large amounts of cit-
rate anticoagulant (which chelates calcium) (Turnwald
and Pichler 1985). In practice, this is rarely a problem
unless inappropriate amounts of anticoagulant have
been used, or animals have severe liver disease (due
to failure of citrate metabolism) or when large volume
transfusions are given rapidly.
Companion animal practice
Avoiding transfusion reactions and complications
■■ Always blood type or cross-match feline donors and recipients before any
transfusions. Ideally, cross-match canine donors and recipients or use DEA 1.1
and DEA 1.2 negative donors
■■ Administer transfusions at an appropriate rate for the condition of the patient
■■ Maintain sterility of blood bags when storing blood and avoid prolonged storage
■■ Collect blood in appropriate volumes of anticoagulant and use a filtered giving set
for administration
■■ Watch the recipient closely throughout the transfusion for any potential signs of a
reaction
Infectious diseases
The risk of transmitting infectious disease via a trans-
fusion cannot be completely eradicated. However, in
order to minimise the risk of disease transmission, all
donors should be healthy, fully vaccinated and should
not have a history of foreign travel. Feline donors
should be indoor cats that have been tested for feline
leukaemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus and
infection with Mycoplasma haemofelis. In endemic
areas, canine donors should be tested for heartworm,
rickettsial diseases and blood parasites such as Babesia
or Ehrlichia species.
Summary
The ability to collect and administer blood safely is an
important skill in veterinary practice. The availability
of commercial blood products means that many more
animals can benefit from transfusion therapy and
provides essential support to many critical patients. A
clear understanding of how to avoid and/or manage
transfusion reactions is vital.
References and further reading
ADAMANTOS, S., BOAG, A. & HUGHES, D. (2005) Clinical
use of a haemoglobin-based oxygen-carrying solution in dogs
and cats. In Practice 27, 399-405
CALLAN, M. B. & GIGER, U. (1994) Transfusion medicine.
In Consultations in Feline Internal Medicine. Ed J. R. August.
Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders. pp 525-532
HARRELL, K. A. & KRISTENSEN, A. T. (1995) Canine
transfusion reactions and their management. Veterinary Clinics
of North America: Small Animal Practice 25, 1333-1364
HELM, J. & KNOTTENBELT, C. (2010) Blood transfusions
in dogs and cats 1. Indications. In Practice 32, 184-189
KNOTTENBELT, C. & MACKIN, A. (1998) Blood transfusions
in the dog and cat 1. Blood collection techniques. In Practice 20,
110-114
KNOTTENBELT, C. & MACKIN, A. (1998) Blood transfusions
in the dog and cat 2. Indications and safe administration.
In Practice 20, 191-199
KNOTTENBELT, C. M., ADDIE, D. D., DAY, M. J. & MACKIN,
A. J. (1999) Determination of the prevalence of feline blood types
in the UK. Journal of Small Animal Practice 40, 115-118
TURNWALD, G. H. & PICHLER, M. E. (1985) Blood
transfusion in dogs and cats Part II. Administration, adverse
effects and component therapy. Compendium on Continuing
Education for the Practicing Veterinarian 7, 115-122
WARDROP, K. J. (1995) Selection of anticoagulant-
preservatives for canine and feline blood storage. Veterinary
Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 25, 1263-1276
Further information
■■ www.animalbloodregister.com
■■ www.DogBloodDonors.com
■■ www.CatBloodDonors.com
■■ www.petbloodbankuk.org
In Practice  June 2010 | Volume 32 | 231–237 237
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Blood transfusions in dogs and cats 2.

Practicalities of blood collection and
administration
Jenny Helm and Clare Knottenbelt

In Practice 2010 32: 231-237

doi: 10.1136/inpract.32.6.231

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