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com
Companion animal practice
Richard Saunders graduated
from Liverpool in 1994. After
working in general small animal
practice and referral avian and
exotic centres, he divided his
time between private practice
and wildlife management at the
RSPCA East Winch Wildlife Centre.
He is currently staff veterinarian
at Bristol Zoo Gardens and the
Rabbit Welfare Association and
Fund’s veterinary adviser. He holds
the RCVS diploma in zoological
medicine (mammalian).
Louise Harvey graduated from
Bristol in 1999 and spent nine
years in first-opinion and referral
equine practice. She is currently a
third-year senior clinical training
scholar in veterinary anaesthesia
at Bristol. She holds the RCVS
certificate in veterinary anaesthesia
and is working towards the
diploma of the European College
of Veterinary Anaesthesia and
Analgesia.
doi:10.1136/inp.d7730
34 In Practice  January 2012 | Volume 34 | 34–43
Anaesthesia and analgesia
in chinchillas
Richard Saunders and Louise Harvey
Chinchillas are becoming increasingly popular as pets, and so are being
presented more often for veterinary care. The most common indications
for anaesthesia of chinchillas include the diagnosis and treatment of
dental disease, neutering, caesarean section, fracture repair and the
collection of diagnostic samples. For successful anaesthesia of chinchillas,
an understanding of their particular anatomy and physiology, and a
sound knowledge of anaesthesia, is important. This article discusses
the perianaesthetic and anaesthetic management of these animals.
Risk factors for anaesthesia
in chinchillas
The risk of anaesthetic-related death in chinchil-
las is high and has been reported to be 3·29 per cent
(Brodbelt and others 2008). Associated risk factors
may include:
■■ Hypothermia;
■■ Hypoglycaemia;
Fig 1: Chinchillas
■■ Subclinical and clinical disease; should be
■■ A compromised airway; gently but
■■ Relative inexperience with the species on the part firmly restrained
around the
of the clinician.
thorax, with the
Good care before, during and after anaesthesia, hindquarters
paying particular attention to these factors, will help supported
to reduce the risks to these animals.
further anticipated losses of blood (eg, due to haemor-
rhage). In healthy patients, no more than 10 per cent of
Preanaesthetic care the blood volume (2·9 ml for a 450 g chinchilla) should
be removed; it may be unsafe to remove this volume
Environment
The patient should be kept in a quiet, dry environment
maintained at a temperature of 19 to 21°C, with ample
Box 1: Analysis of blood samples
bedding, and in a location where predator species
(eg, cats, dogs, ferrets, birds of prey) are not present. In Most biochemistry analysers need a minimum sample
addition, care should be taken to avoid causing stress of 0·1 ml of plasma or serum, while haematology
to the animal when handling it, for example, for exam- analysers usually need a minimum of 0·2 ml of blood.
ination (Fig 1) (Saunders 2009). Stressed animals have i-STAT analyser cartridges (Abbott) require a minimum
a high sympathetic tone, which can counteract the of 0·1 ml of blood, and can measure a useful range of
parameters. Handheld glucometers generally require
effects of sedatives and will pre­dispose to vasoconstric-
small volumes of blood, although none is validated
tion, excessive myocardial work and arrhythmias. for chinchillas.
Depending on the diagnostic priorities, a
Preanaesthetic investigations small volume of blood (0·2 ml) may be taken for
It is important to perform a physical examination biochemistry, leaving enough for a blood smear.
and obtain an accurate bodyweight measurement. Alternatively, it may be more appropriate to prioritise
Thoracic auscultation should be performed, as cardio- quantitative haematology and collect blood into a
myopathy and valvular disease have been described in microhaematocrit tube, allowing centrifugation of the
sample to measure packed cell volume and determine
chinchillas. Preoperative blood analysis requirements
total solids using a refractometer.
(see Box 1) should be balanced against existing and
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Companion animal practice

Fig 2 (left): Chinchillas have small

but prominent vessels in the ears
which are suitable for obtaining
a single drop of blood for glucose
measurements.
Fig 3 (right): Proprietary herbivore
convalescent diets or soaked
ground chinchilla pellets have
a high water content when
reconstituted, and will supply
some oral fluid as well as nutrition

from sick chinchillas. A single drop of blood for blood
glucose measurement can be readily obtained from a
vessel in the ear (Fig 2).
Fluid therapy
Trauma cases will require fluid therapy if significant
haemorrhage has occurred (eg, at a fracture site).
Dehydration, as a consequence of the animal failing
to eat and drink after an injury, often occurs, and is
also common in dental cases. A prolonged skin tent,
delayed capillary refill time and sunken eyes are sug-
gestive of severe dehydration. However, the absence of
these signs does not rule out milder dehydration.
The use of oral fluid therapy is often sufficient
where the chinchilla will accept syringed fluids,
and is useful for hydrating the gut contents, which
reduces the risk of postoperative ileus. Alternatively,
oral fluids can be provided by offering the animal a
proprietary herbivore convalescent diet or ground
chinchilla pellets soaked in water (Fig 3).
Subcutaneous or intraperitoneal administration
of isotonic crystalloid fluid can also be useful. Box 2
summarises the sites that can be used for injection of
fluids, and also for blood sampling. All fluids should
be warmed to body temperature (37 to 38°C) before
administration.

Box 2: Injection and blood sampling sites

Subcutaneous
Fluids administered by subcutaneous injection
are absorbed relatively slowly. This route is not
effective for rapid replacement (eg, in cases of
shock) or suitable for colloids. The addition of
hyaluronidase (Wydase; Wyeth) will increase the
rate of uptake. A maximum of 3 to 4 ml of fluid
should be injected per site.
Intraperitoneal
To gain intraperitoneal access, first, restrain
the animal (to avoid movement) in dorsal
recumbency. Insert a 25 gauge, 1·6 cm needle
into the right caudal abdominal quadrant at
an angle of 20 to 30° pointing cranially. It is
advisable to perform gentle aspiration to
check for visceral penetration. A maximum of
10 ml of fluid should be administered
intraperitoneally, and repeated injections
should be avoided.
Intramuscular
The epaxial lumbar and quadriceps muscles are
preferred sites for intramuscular injection. The
volume administered must be small, especially
in thin animals (0·3 ml has been suggested),
to avoid causing pain, muscle damage and
potential self-trauma. A fresh 27 to 25 gauge
needle should be used for each injection.
Intravenous
Suitable sites for intravenous injection or
catheterisation include the jugular, lateral
saphenous and cephalic veins. The cranial
vena cava may be used for blood sampling
(Briscoe and Syring 2004).
Intraosseous
The intraosseous route is an alternative to the
intravenous route (Briscoe and Syring 2004).
Suitable sites include the proximal tibia and the
proximal femur. Fluids infused by this route are
rapidly absorbed into the systemic circulation
from the medullary cavity. This route can be
particularly useful in small patients and in cases of
cardiovascular collapse. The use of spinal needles
is preferred to help prevent a core of bone
obstructing the lumen of the needle. Asepsis
is important and anaesthesia must be used.
For very sick chinchillas, local anaesthesia by
infiltration of the site may be most appropriate.

Intraosseous fluid treatment of a chinchilla, using a 25 gauge The position of an intraosseous catheter can be confirmed with a lateral
needle positioned in the proximal tibia. Fluid is delivered via a radiographic view. Correct placement should ideally be verified using
syringe driver. (Picture, Vittorio Capello) two orthographic projections. (Picture, Vittorio Capello)

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Companion animal practice

A B C

Fig 4: (a) Blood sample being collected from the cranial vena cava of a chinchilla under isoflurane anaesthesia. (Picture, Vittorio Capello)
(b) Blood sampling from the external jugular vein of a chinchilla. As with cranial vena cava venepuncture, this is best performed under volatile
anaesthesia. (c) The saphenous vein can also be used to gain intravenous access

Intravenous catheterisation AstraZeneca) 30 minutes before catheter placement

Chinchillas can find being restrained for intravenous
catheter placement and blood sampling extremely
stressful. It may be preferable to carry out such pro­
ced­ures, and especially jugular vein catheterisation,
with the animal anaesthetised using a volatile agent
for a brief period (Fig 4). This will increase the chances
of successful catheter insertion, and reduce stress to
the animal and the risk of respiratory compromise.
Applying topical lidocaine and prilocaine (EMLA;
will reduce pain and improve the animal’s tolerance of
the procedure. The peripheral veins are very small and
will require 24 to 26 gauge catheters. Making a small
stab incision using a hypo­dermic needle or number 11
scalpel blade, lifting the skin to avoid the vein, will
ease catheter entry. It is helpful for an assistant to
thread the catheter into the vein to maintain the posi-
tion of the stylet. The catheter should be flushed with
dilute heparinised saline before insertion.

Table 1: Options for preanaesthetic medication, opioid analgesia and sedation in chinchillas
Drug/combination Dose and route Reference Notes
Butorphanol 1 to 2 mg/kg, sc Flecknell (1998) Useful for debilitated chinchillas. Analgesia may not
0·2 to 2·0 mg/kg, sc or im Riggs and Mitchell (2009) be sufficient for major surgical procedures and may
0·5 to 2·0 mg/kg, im Hoefer and Crossley (2002) be short-acting
Buprenorphine 0·05 mg/kg, sc Flecknell (1998), Riggs and Mitchell (2009) Commonly used, probably most useful due to long
0·01 to 0·05 mg/kg, sc Hawkins (2006), Richardson and Flecknell (2009) duration of effect, which may last six to 12 hours
0·05 to 0·1 mg/kg, sc Johnson-Delaney (2010)
Morphine 2 to 5 mg/kg, im Flecknell (1998), Hoefer and Crossley (2002) The lower dose rate should be used initially. Effect
may be expected to last two to four hours
Midazolam 1 to 2 mg/kg, sc or im Riggs and Mitchell (2009), Useful for debilitated chinchillas
Hoefer and Crossley (2002)

Midazolam/ 0·2 to 0·5 mg/kg midazolam + Riggs and Mitchell (2009) Useful for debilitated chinchillas
butorphanol 0·2 to 0·5 mg/kg butorphanol, im
Acepromazine 0·5 to 1·0 mg/kg, im Hoefer and Crossley (2002) Provides light sedation. Contraindicated if dehydration
is suspected
Ketamine/ 5 to 10 mg/kg ketamine + Riggs and Mitchell (2009) Provides moderate sedation
midazolam 0·5 to 1·0 mg/kg midazolam, im
Ketamine/ 10 to 15 mg/kg ketamine + Hoefer and Crossley (2002) Useful for preanaesthetic sedation before induction
midazolam/ 0·5 mg/kg midazolam + and maintenance with isoflurane
atropine 0·05 mg/kg atropine, im
Acepromazine/ 0·5 mg/kg acepromazine + Hoefer and Crossley (2002) Useful for preanaesthetic sedation
ketamine/atropine 10 mg/kg ketamine +
0·05 mg/kg atropine, im
Fentanyl or 0·5 ml/kg, sc when given with A. Meredith Risk of prolonged postanaesthetic sedation and
fluanisone midazolam at 1 to 2 mg/kg, sc (personal communication) therefore hypothermia and a delay in feeding.
As a sole agent, up to 1 ml/kg, sc Antagonism of fentanyl is possible with naloxone, but
this will remove its analgesic effect. A partial agonist
or mixed agonist-antagonist may potentially be useful
as an antagonist. Fluanisone cannot be antagonised.
Avoid in dehydrated and/or hypovolaemic patients
Atropine 0·1 to 0·2 mg/kg, im Riggs and Mitchell (2009) Useful as an antisialogogue and if bradycardia occurs.
0·05 to 0·1 mg/kg, sc or im Hoefer and Crossley (2002) Can be used during cardiopulmonary resuscitation,
preferably intravenously for rapid onset of effect
Glycopyrrolate 0·01 to 0·02 mg/kg, sc or im Riggs and Mitchell (2009) As for atropine
NB The doses listed above are based overwhelmingly on the authors’ clinical experience and a small number of studies in healthy animals. Extra caution is advised
in sick patients. None of these drugs is licensed for use in chinchillas and so the prescribing cascade system should be followed. Written informed consent should
always be obtained from owners
im Intramuscularly, sc subcutaneously

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Companion animal practice

Preanaesthetic fasting and chinchillas to the smell of a predator. If an induction

water deprivation
Fasting and water deprivation before anaesthesia
are rarely necessary in chinchillas, as they cannot
vomit. Fasting will increase the risk of gastrointesti-
nal disturbances and hypoglycaemia in chinchillas,
and water depriv­ation is likely to cause dehydration.
Residual food ma­terial should be removed from the
mouth by swabbing immediately after induction of
anaesthesia.
Preanaesthetic medication
Preanaesthetic medication (including analgesia) can
produce a smoother, less stressful induction and
recovery, has an anaesthetic drug-sparing effect and
provides a more stable plane of anaesthesia. The
requirement for preanaesthetic medication and the
advantages and disadvantages of different drugs will
vary with the health status of the patient and the anaes-
thetic technique chosen (see Table 1). Sick chinchillas
should be given low doses of drugs, at the lower end of
the ranges suggested in Table 1, which can be repeated
if necessary. Both a2-adrenoceptor agonist drugs and
acepromazine should be avoided in sick patients.
The rate of absorption into the circulation is vari-
able after subcutaneous injection. Intramuscular injec-
tion produces more reliable effects, but the muscle mass
of chinchillas is small.
Some clinicians recommend the administration
of atropine or glycopyrrolate to decrease the vol-
umes of airway and salivary secretions formed dur-
ing anaesthesia in an attempt to avoid blockage of
the airway with such secretions. However, atropine
increases the viscosity of secretions and therefore its
use is controversial. Administration of atropine may
also cause undesirable hypertension and increased
myo­cardial work if given after administration of an
a2-adreno­ceptor agonist.
chamber is not used, supplementary oxygen should be
provided by applying a facemask immediately before
and during the induction of anaesthesia.
The drug requirements will vary markedly depend-
ing on the patient’s health status. It is probably safer
to use low doses of injectable drugs for preanaesthetic
medication or light general anaesthesia and supple-
ment this with a low concentration of volatile anaes-
thetic, if needed, as this will give greater control over
the depth of anaesthesia than using a solely injectable
technique. Table 2 (see p 38) lists injectable agents that
can be used alone or in combination to provide anaes-
thesia or deep sedation in chinchillas.
Intravenous administration via a catheter will
allow anaesthetic agents to be gradually titrated to
effect. Unless the drugs are diluted, over­dosing can
easily occur, especially in sick patients with a slowed
circulation.
When using volatile agents for induction, the time
to induction will depend on many factors, including:
■■ The rate at which the concentration of the agent is
increased;
■■ The level of excitement of the patient;
■■ Whether preanaesthetic medication has been
administered;
■■ The health status of the patient.
Volatile agents with low blood:gas solubility
co­efficients equilibrate quickly, resulting in faster
alterations of anaesthetic depth. Isoflurane and
sevoflurane are the most commonly used volatile
agents, but isoflurane has the disadvantage of being
pungent and irritating to the eyes. The use of ocular
lubricants (see below) can be beneficial in chinchillas
being anaesthetised with isoflurane. Sevoflurane can
be used for induction, with the option to switch to
isoflurane for maintenance.
Maintenance of anaesthesia

Volatile agents are commonly preferred for mainten­

Induction of anaesthesia
An induction chamber can be used to induce anaes-
thesia in small mammals. Purpose-designed induction
chambers are commercially available, or a chamber can
be constructed in the practice (Fig 5). It is important
to ensure that a different induction chamber is used
for small carnivores, such as ferrets, to avoid exposing
ance of anaesthesia, as a greater control of the depth of
anaesthesia is achievable than with injectable agents.
However, if injectable anaesthetics have been used for
induction, they may be adequate for short procedures
without the need for a volatile agent to be adminis-
tered too.
For caesarean sections, it is advisable to use a
volatile agent for induction and maintenance, with-

Fig 5: (a) A ‘do-it-yourself’

induction chamber for small
mammals can be constructed
within the practice from a
suitably sized plastic food
storage box with ports cut or
drilled in the sides. The upside
down box shown allows
rapid access to the animal
on induction. (b) A purpose-
A designed induction chamber B

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Companion animal practice

Table 2: Injectable combinations for deep sedation or general anaesthesia of chinchillas

Drug/combination Dose and route
Ketamine 20 to 40 mg/kg, im
10 to 20 mg/kg, iv
Acepromazine/ 0·5 mg/kg acepromazine +
ketamine 40 mg/kg ketamine, im
Ketamine/midazolam 5 to 10 mg/kg ketamine +
0·5 to 1·0 mg/kg midazolam, im
Ketamine/diazepam 20 to 30 mg/kg ketamine +
1 to 2 mg/kg diazepam, im
Midazolam/ 1 mg/kg midazolam +
medetomidine/ 0·05 mg/kg medetomidine +
fentanyl (MMF) 0·02 mg/kg fentanyl, im
Ketamine/xylazine 40 mg/kg ketamine +
2 mg/kg xylazine, im
Ketamine/ 5 mg/kg ketamine +
medetomidine 0·06 mg/kg medetomidine, im
Ketamine/ 10 mg/kg ketamine +
medetomidine/ 0·1 mg/kg medetomidine +
butorphanol 1·5 mg/kg butorphanol, im
Tiletamine/zolazepam 20 to 40 mg/kg, im
NB The doses listed above are based overwhelmingly on the authors’ clinical experience and a small number of studies in healthy animals. Extra caution is advised
in sick patients. None of these drugs is licensed for use in chinchillas and so the prescribing cascade system should be followed. Written informed consent should
always be obtained from owners
im Intramuscularly, iv intravenously
Reference
Johnson-Delaney (2010)
Morgan and others (1981)
Hoefer and Crossley (2002)
Riggs and Mitchell (2009)
Henke and others (2004)
Henke and others (2004)
Henke and others (2004)
Jepson (2009)
Johnson-Delaney (2010)
Notes
Lower doses are possible if administered in combination with sedatives
Reportedly used in healthy research chinchillas with a 100 per cent survival
rate, even in one animal that was accidentally given a 10-fold overdose.
Induction time was four to six minutes, surgical anaesthesia time was
40 to 60 minutes and recovery took two to five hours. Not reversible.
Acepromazine is not advisable in dehydrated chinchillas
Provides light anaesthesia
Diazepam may be an irritant if injected im, so midazolam may be
preferable via this route
This study used healthy chinchillas and no surgery was performed.
‘Surgical time’ was only 10 to 20 minutes. Anaesthesia was antagonised
after 45 minutes with 0·1 mg/kg flumazenil, 0·05 mg/kg naloxone and
0·5 mg/kg atipamezole, sc. Antagonism produced recovery within five
minutes (40 minutes without antagonism). Analgesia may be challenging
after antagonism of fentanyl with naloxone. Sarmazenil may be used in
place of flumazenil
This study used healthy chinchillas and no surgery was performed. This
combination produced approximately 90 minutes of ‘surgical anaesthesia’
but an increased recovery time of 120 minutes compared with MMF.
Antagonism of the xylazine may decrease recovery time. Lower doses of
ketamine may reduce the risk of excessively deep anaesthesia and may
also reduce the recovery period
This study used healthy chinchillas and no surgery was performed. This
combination provided 30 minutes of ‘surgical anaesthesia’. Recovery time
was approximately 80 to 90 minutes. Antagonism of the medetomidine
may decrease the recovery time
Medetomidine can be antagonised with 0·75 mg/kg atipamezole at the
end of the procedure
Not available in the UK. Prolonged recovery is expected

out preanaesthetic medication, to minimise cen-
tral nervous system depression in the neonate. This
approach is also likely to be safest for sick patients,
as it gives the greatest control of the depth of
anaesthesia.
The requirements for volatile agents can vary
greatly, especially with the patient’s health status and
age. Hypothermia can cause a dramatic reduction in
the concentration of anaesthetic agent required. Most
anaesthetic agents cause hypotension and respiratory
depression, and so excessively deep anaesthesia should
be avoided. It is important to monitor the patient
closely and apply careful clinical judgement. The
breathing system used should pose minimal resistance
to breathing. A T-piece with Jackson-Rees modifica-
tion is appropriate.

Fig 6: (a) The use of a clear

mask will facilitate visualisation
of the eye, which is helpful
A when assessing the depth of
anaesthesia. To avoid excessive
dead space, the nose should
be positioned as close to the
breathing system aperture as is
comfortably possible.
(b) Syringe cases and barrels can
be used to cover the mouth and
nose, or just the nares.
(c) The end of the breathing
system may be placed over the
B nares during oral procedures C

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Intraoperative care
Airway
It is vital to maintain a patent airway, irrespective of
whether intubation is used. Facemasks should be small
and a diaphragm used to maximise the inspired oxygen
concentration, minimise dead space and avoid pollu-
tion of the working environment with volatile anaes-
thetic agents (Fig 6). Where oral access is needed, a
small mask, or the aperture of the breathing system,
can be used over the nares, providing a reasonably tight
seal (Fig 6c). Supplementary oxygen should always
be given throughout anaesthesia, in view of the high
incidence of chronic, subclinical respiratory disease in
chinchillas and the rapidity with which hypoxia can
develop due to their high metabolic rate.
The advantages and disadvantages of intubation
versus mask delivery need to be weighed up for each
individual case by assessing the risk:benefit ratio.
Factors to consider are:
■■ The risk of anaesthesia based on the physical status
of the patient;
■■ The potential risks of the procedure for which the
chinchilla is to be anaesthetised;
■■ The available equipment;
■■ The skill and experience of the clinician.
Endotracheal intubation
Intubation of chinchillas is much more challenging
than in dogs and cats, and more difficult than in rab-
bits. The long, narrow oral cavity with limited gape,
the large tongue and the narrow pharyngeal ostium
Box 3: Endotracheal intubation techniques
Blind technique
When using the blind technique, the position of the
endotracheal tube is adjusted depending on the breath
sounds (Riggs and Mitchell 2009). These sounds can be
amplified by attaching the earpieces of a stethoscope
to the side connector of a minimum dead space
endotracheal tube connector as shown in the figure
below. Apnoea is a major problem if it occurs during
intubation using the blind technique.
Direct visualisation
For direct visualisation (see figure on the right), a side-
by-side technique can be employed, using a 2·7 mm
30º rigid endoscope alongside the tube (Riggs and
Mitchell 2009). An over-the-endoscope technique
with a semi-rigid 1·0 mm or 1·9 mm endoscope is also
recommended (Johnson 2010).
Dead space can be reduced significantly by using a
minimum dead space endotracheal tube connector
(left) rather than a standard connector (right)
Companion animal practice
Fig 7: 1·0 and 1·5 mm endotracheal tubes suitable for
the intubation of chinchillas. (Picture, Vittorio Capello)
hinder visualisation of the larynx, and the glottis is
small. Techniques that can be used for endotracheal
intubation in chinchillas are outlined in Box 3.
Intubation can critically reduce the overall diam-
eter of the airway, which increases the resistance to gas
flow dramatically (eg, a reduction of airway diameter
from 3 mm to 1 mm increases the resistance to flow
80-fold). Tubes vary in their wall thickness:lumen
ratios, so the airway lumen may differ for tubes of a
similar external diameter (see Fig 7).
The anaesthetic induction technique used must pro-
vide sufficient time for the intubation procedure, which
will depend on the veterinary surgeon’s technical abil­
ity and experience. Volatile agent inductions, especially
without preanaesthetic medication, may provide only
a short time in which to intubate the patient. Oxygen
should be provided during intubation by application to
the nares as chinchillas are obligate nasal breathers.
The advantages of endotracheal intubation are:
■■ Protection of the airway;
■■ It allows control over the airway;
■■ It permits intermittent positive pressure ventilation;
■■ It permits capnography.
Endoscopic-assisted orotracheal intubation in a
chinchilla. The pharyngeal ostium, epiglottis and
V-shaped glottis are visible. (Picture, Vittorio Capello)
Factors to consider
Irrespective of the method used, the head and neck
should be held in a straight, extended position.
Uncuffed tubes should be used to maximise the
airway diameter (eg, 1·0 to 2·0 mm). Endotracheal
tubes should be pre-measured from the nostrils to
the point of the shoulder and shortened if necessary
to minimise dead space and avoid endobronchial
intubation. Care should be taken to ensure that
the connector is securely inserted into the tube, as
moisture can loosen this junction.
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Companion animal practice
The disadvantages are:
■■ The greater technical skill and specialist equipment
required;
■■ Tubes can be easily occluded as they are so small.
For example, they may become kinked or occluded
by mucous secretions;
■■ Small tubes may increase the resistance to gas flow
(as described above) and the work of breathing;
■■ Intubation can increase dead space if the tube is
long or if normal connectors are used; the use of
minimum dead space connectors is advisable.
Ocular care
Chinchillas have prominent eyes so ophthalmic lubri-
cant should be applied liberally to reduce the risk of
corneal desiccation. This is especially important when
some warm air heating devices are used (see Box 4)
and also when using isoflurane anaesthesia because it
is an irritant. Care is needed to ensure that the eyes are
not injured by equipment such as facemasks.
Fluid therapy during anaesthesia
The provision of fluids is desirable during anaesthe-
sia because most anaesthetic and sedative drugs cause
significant cardiovascular depression. Furthermore,
during surgical procedures, fluid loss may occur as
evaporative loss from tissue and as haemorrhage.
The options for fluid administration will depend on
whether vascular access has been obtained. If vascular
access is not possible, it is reasonable to give a crystal-
loid fluid at a rate of 10 ml/kg via subcutaneous or
intraperitoneal routes as soon as possible after the
induction of anaesthesia.
The rate of intravenous or intraosseous fluid admin-
istration will depend on ongoing fluid losses and the
expected effects of the anaesthetic and sedative drugs
on vascular tone. A starting point is 10 ml/kg/hour
for crystalloid fluids, with the need for increased rates
monitored thereafter. Infusions should be given accur­
Box 4: Warming devices
Electric heat mats
Electric heat mats should be thermostatically controlled to avoid burns. Examples
of suitable products are Operatherm (Kanmed) mats or the Hot Dog (Augustine
Temperature Management) system.
Warm water circulating beds
Warm water circulating beds, such as T/Pump (Gaymar), are thermostatically controlled.
Microwaveable heat packs
Microwaveable heat packs can be useful but may be too hot for use initially, and become
cold quite quickly afterwards. Mouldable packs, such as wheat bags, can be used as
positioning aids. Heat packs should never be used without extra insulation between
them and the animal.
‘Hot hands’
‘Hot hands’ are latex gloves filled with warm water. They will cool down rapidly unless
they are also positioned on a heat mat. They can be used to help position the animal.
Some clinicians do not recommend the use of ‘hot hands’ due to their potential to leak.
They should not be overfilled, reused or reheated. They should never be used without
a small amount of extra insulation between them and the patient.
Forced warm air circulating blankets
Forced warm air circulating blankets (eg, Bair Hugger [Arizant Healthcare]) are highly
effective. However, they can cause dessication of the patient’s cornea/conjunctiva unless
carbomer lubricating ophthalmic ointment is applied thickly to the eyes every 30 minutes.
40 In Practice  January 2012 | Volume 34 | 34–43
ately but this is difficult, even with a paediatric giving
set typically giving 60 drops per ml: a chinchilla weigh-
ing 450 g, receiving surgical rates of fluid at 10 ml/kg/
hour, would need one drop every 13 seconds. Accidental
increases in the drip rate can be catastrophic. A paedi­
atric burette, where a maximum infusion volume is pos-
sible, or, preferably, a syringe driver should therefore
be used for intra­venous or intraosseous fluid adminis-
tration. If neither of these pieces of equipment is avail-
able, fluid should be divided into frequent (eg, every five
minutes) boluses and administered manually.
Any haemorrhage should be measured by weigh-
ing it to the nearest 0·1 g or by counting the number
of cotton buds or other small swabs used to absorb it.
Crystalloid fluids should be used for losses less than
10 per cent of the total blood volume, and colloids for
losses greater than this.
Blood groups have not been described in chinchil-
las, so blood transfusion is difficult to recommend. The
use of polymerised bovine haemoglobin (Oxyglobin;
OPK Biotech), an oxygen-carrying colloid, has been
reported in several exotic species (Orcutt 2000, 2001),
and may also be helpful in chinchillas. Intravenous
or, less ideally, intraosseous access is required for its
administration. Great care needs to be taken to avoid
volume overload when using this product; it should
be used only after careful calculation of the dose and
rate of administration. In cats, a recommended maxi-
mum rate is 0·5 to 2 ml/kg/hour, and a similar dose
rate is advised in chinchillas. It is also important to be
aware that Oxyglobin does not replace clotting fac-
tors. There have been problems with the availability of
this product in the UK, and so readers are advised to
check availability with the manufacturer.
Many chinchillas will have a reduced water and
feed intake after anaesthesia, so a minimum of main-
tenance fluid therapy (approximately 36 ml/kg/day
[Jepson 2009]) should continue to be provided post-
operatively, although all of this does not necessarily
need to be administered parenterally.
Maintenance of normothermia
Hypothermia is a major physiological stressor in chin-
chillas that can prolong recovery time and increase the
risk of infection. Heat is lost from the body through
evaporation, convection, conduction and radiation.
Hypothermia develops rapidly in chinchillas, mainly
due to their large surface area:bodyweight ratio. It is
therefore important to keep the operating room at a
warm ambient temperature when performing surgery
on these patients; animals should be kept in a simi-
larly warm environment during the immediate post-
operative period until they are ambulatory. Take care
to always place the chinchilla on a warm surface and
insulate it at all times (eg, by using snugly applied bub-
ble wrap). Active warming devices (see Box 4) can also
be invaluable. Surgical preparation fluids should be
warmed and not applied excessively. However, due to
the thick fur of chinchillas, methods of warming can
occasionally cause hyperthermia, and so it is essential
to monitor the patient’s body temperature.
It is particularly difficult to maintain normal body
temperature during a laparotomy, due to latent heat
loss through evaporation, and radiation losses from
the core area, and so surgical time must be minimised.
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Fig 8: Bedding can be used to slightly elevate the
head and thorax to around 10 to 20° higher than the
abdomen to reduce compression of the lungs by the
contents of the abdomen
Strategies to avoid hypothermia in small animals have
been reviewed by Murison (2001).
Positioning
A 10 to 20° chest above abdomen position (Fig 8) will
reduce compression of the lungs by the abdom­inal con-
tents, and so reduce the risk of hypoventilation and
hypoxaemia. However, excessive tilting may cause a
major redistribution of the blood. The animal’s head
and neck should be kept straight and extended to main-
tain a patent airway. It is important not to place weight
on the thorax; a pair of small surgical scissors and rat-
tooth forceps together weigh about 75 g, which equates
to 17 per cent of a 450 g chinchilla’s bodyweight.
Monitoring
Intraoperative monitoring of chinchillas presents a
number of challenges, due to their small body size
and fast respiratory rates.
Respiratory rate
The small size of the patient and the application of sur-
gical drapes makes it difficult to visualise or auscultate
the thorax. Using clear drapes can make visualisation
of thoracic excursions easier. However, the respiratory
rate in chinchillas is normally so high that counting
respiratory movements is difficult. In addition, the
movements of the anaesthetic reservoir bag will be
small. Clear endotracheal tubes allow the detection of
any condensation that forms during expir­ation.
Auscultation of the upper airways may reveal abnor-
mal respiratory noise, indicating the accumulation of
secretions or the presence of food material (which is
common in cases of dental disease). Cotton buds or
suction should be used to remove saliva or any food
material, as aspiration may be a common problem.
Oesophageal stethoscopes allow monitoring of
both heart and respiratory rates of draped patients
without needing to disturb the drapes, but care needs
to be taken to ensure that the equipment does not
compromise the upper airway.
Pulse rate and oxygenation
Peripheral pulses are difficult to palpate in chinchil-
las. The pulse rate will normally be very high, mak-
ing assessment by counting difficult. The colour of the
mucous membranes should be continuously assessed
as an indication of whether oxygenation is adequate.
Companion animal practice
Fig 9: Sidestream capnograph
connected to a minimum dead
space connector
Pulse oximetry and pulse rate monitoring equipment
used to monitor chinchillas will need to cope with a low
signal strength and rapid pulse rates. Finger probes,
applied over an entire foot, work well. However, if the
probe pinches the tissues too tightly, problems with
signal strength will occur. To aid pulse detection, a
Doppler probe can be positioned on the medial aspect
of the upper forelimb after carefully clipping the area to
remove the overlying fur. The Doppler probe can also
be applied over the heart. At either location, the infor-
mation provided is limited to revealing the heart rate.
Arterial blood pressure
No method of arterial blood pressure measurement
has been evaluated in chinchillas. For many reasons
relating to the small size of chinchillas, both the
Doppler method and the oscillometric method are
likely to give highly variable and inaccurate readings.
Capnography
Capnography requires the animal to be intubated for
accurate results. The capnograph can be connected to a
minimum dead space connector (Fig 9). With the high
flow rates needed for a T-piece, measured end-tidal car-
bon dioxide levels can be falsely lowered. Capnography
in chinchillas is described by Bilbrough (2006).
Electrocardiography
Many electrocardiography (ECG) monitors will not
be able to cope with the high heart rate seen in chin-
chillas, but the electrical waveform and rhythm can
be observed. ECG pads are usually too large to secure
without problems of poor conductivity. ‘Soft clips’,
used with ultrasound coupling gel, are therefore often
useful. A relatively normal ECG does not provide any
information about cardiac output.
Body temperature
The rectal temperature should be measured at least
every 10 to 20 minutes so that steps can be taken
quickly to address any hypothermia or hyperthermia.
Depth of anaesthesia
The toe pinch withdrawal and tail pinch reflexes are
useful for assessing the depth of anaesthesia. These
should be absent or barely perceptible at surgical
anaesthetic planes. The tail pinch reflex is lost before
the pedal reflex. The ocular reflexes are not always
helpful, especially in cases where medetomidine/
ketamine combinations have been given, although the
corneal reflex should always be present. A low heart
rate and low respiratory rate may also be indicative of
an excessively deep plane of anaesthesia.
In Practice  January 2012 | Volume 34 | 34–43 41
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Companion animal practice

Perioperative analgesia Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

Like all mammals, chinchillas possess the neurophysio­
logical mechanisms necessary for the detection of pain
(Flecknell 1998). Analgesia should therefore be pro-
vided to the patient in situations where a human would
be expected to feel pain.
The reasons for pain relief being incorrectly with-
held include:
■■ Failure to detect signs of pain. This is due either to a
lack of familiarity with the species, or, as seen with
other prey species, to chinchillas masking the signs
of pain (especially in the presence of an observer)
or their crepuscular behaviour;
■■ ‘Injury protection’. This relates to a concern that
providing pain relief will lead to excessive use of
the limb or body part that has undergone surgery.
There is no evidence for this in any species, and
pain is likely to lead to self-trauma;
■■ Concern about side effects. An example of this is
gastro­intestinal stasis following the use of opioids;
■■ A lack of product licences and information about
analgesic drugs in chinchillas. The need to con-
trol pain in the patient is a legitimate reason to use
unlicensed drugs under the prescribing cascade
system;
■■ Cost. Given the small size of chinchillas, the costs
of analgesic medications will be small.
A multimodal approach, for example, using local
anaesthesia, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
(NSAID) and an opioid, is suggested as being most
effective in addressing pain in chinchillas.
Local anaesthesia
Doses of local anaesthetic agents for chinchillas should
be calculated carefully due to their small body size.
Toxic doses in other small mammals (rats and mice)
are similar to those in dogs and cats (Flecknell 1998).
Local anaesthetic solutions can be used simply to
infiltrate a surgical site. Epidural administration is
impractical in animals of this size.
Lidocaine has a rapid onset of action that lasts for up
to two hours. Doses should not exceed 4 to 5 mg/kg. The
action of bupivacaine lasts for four to six hours; doses
should not exceed 1 to 2 mg/kg. It is usually necessary to
dilute the agent with 0·9 per cent sodium chloride solu-
tion in order to allow complete distribution (eg, along
an incision). Solutions containing adrenaline should not
be applied in the distal limbs, as ischaemia may result.
Ideally, NSAIDs (Table 3) should be administered pre­
operatively for maximum benefit, as they inhibit the
inflammatory cascade. However, as prostaglandins are
important for regulating renal blood flow and anaesthe-
sia commonly causes some degree of hypotension, the
concurrent administration of a NSAID with anaesthesia
could compromise renal perfusion. As it is not possible to
measure arterial blood pressure in chinchillas easily and
accurately, some clinicians prefer to withhold NSAIDs
until the recovery period. Oral meloxicam suspension
seems to be palatable for chinchillas (Jepson 2009).
Opioids
Opioids (Table 1) decrease the requirements for inject­
able and volatile anaesthetic agents in most species. They
are relatively short-acting in rodents. Buprenorphine, a
partial µ-agonist, may provide analgesia for about six
to eight hours. Full µ-agonists, such as morphine, may
be more effective for treating severe pain but the dos-
ing intervals are much shorter. Buprenorphine is easy to
administer by the oral transmucosal route, and its bio-
availability is likely to be high, as chinchilla saliva has
a pH in the range of 8 to 8·5, which favours mucosal
absorption of the drug. However, the bioavailability of
the drug is likely to be greatly reduced if it is swallowed.
Preservative-free preparations may be more palatable.
After major surgery or trauma, opioids should be
given for a minimum of 12 hours, along with NSAIDs
for at least one to two days. For more minor surger-
ies or procedures, one-off administration of NSAIDs
and opioids, ideally with local anaesthesia, may suf-
fice. Reassessment of pain is mandatory in all cases to
judge the need for more frequent and/or repeat dosing.
Concerns about reduced gastrointestinal motility when
opioids are used do not appear to be justified in chin-
chillas. Indeed, as may be the case in other species, the
provision of inadequate analgesia may negatively affect
gastrointestinal motility.
Recovery
Close monitoring, especially of body temperature,
should be continued until a chinchilla has fully re­­
covered from anaesthesia. If significant post­operative
sedation is apparent, the animal should be pos­itioned
with the head and neck extended to help maintain a
patent airway. Parenteral fluid therapy should also be

Table 3: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that can be used in chinchillas

Drug Dose Reference Notes
Meloxicam 0·1 to 0·3 mg/kg, sc or po Hawkins (2006) Higher doses seem to be necessary in rats and
0·2 to 0·4 mg/kg, sc or po Johnson-Delaney (2010) rabbits, and may also be required in chinchillas.
For example, doses of 0·3 to 0·6 mg/kg have
been used. Duration of effect is unknown.
Suggested dosing interval is 24 hours
Carprofen 4 mg/kg, sc Riggs and Mitchell (2009) Suggested doses vary and the optimal dosing
1 to 4 mg/kg, sc Hawkins (2006) interval is unknown, although 12 to 24 hours
1 to 2 mg/kg, sc or po Flecknell (1998), Jepson (2009) has been suggested
Ketoprofen 1 mg/kg, sc or im Hawkins (2006), Suggested dosing interval is 12 to 24 hours
Riggs and Mitchell (2009)
NB The doses listed above are based overwhelmingly on the authors’ clinical experience and a small number of studies in
healthy animals. Extra caution is advised in sick patients. None of these drugs is licensed for use in chinchillas and so the
prescribing cascade system should be followed. Written informed consent should always be obtained from owners
im Intramuscularly, po orally, sc subcutaneously

42 In Practice  January 2012 | Volume 34 | 34–43

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continued until the animal resumes feeding. A sand
bath should not be provided until the chinchilla has
fully recovered due to the risk of ocular trauma.
Intestinal ileus is an ever-present concern in chinchil-
las. Nutri­tional support should be provided as soon as a
chinchilla is alert enough to feed. In some cases, syringe
feeding may be necessary. Proprietary supplementary
feeding mixtures such as Critical Care (Oxbow) are suit-
able for syringe feeding and should be given at the rates
recommended by the manufacturer. The use of pro­
kinetics is often recommended; for example, 0·5 mg/kg
metoclopramide can be administered subcutaneously or
orally every six to eight hours (Jepson 2009). However,
if used excessively, these agents can cause gastrointes­
tinal discomfort. Ranitidine is used in rabbits, at a dose
of 2 to 5 mg/kg subcutaneously or orally twice daily, as
a gastroprotectant. It appears to be useful when ileus is a
problem, and may be of benefit in chinchillas.
Summary
Anaesthesia of chinchillas can be challenging due to
their small body size, narrow airway and high metabolic
rate. The lack of anaesthetic and analgesic drugs licensed
for use in chinchillas, and inexperience with the spe-
cies, may also be perceived as problems. A well-planned
approach, using drugs under the prescribing cascade
that have been shown to be effective in this species, and
taking steps to min­imise stress, provide fluid support,
maintain body temperature and minimise postoperative
pain, will help to achieve a successful outcome.
Companion animal practice
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Vittorio Capello for his help with the section on tracheal intubation
and Pamela Murison for her comments during the preparation of this article.
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Anaesthesia and analgesia in chinchillas

Richard Saunders and Louise Harvey

In Practice 2012 34: 34-43

doi: 10.1136/inp.d7730

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