Professional Documents
Culture Documents
043
Special article
Lawan Chanhomea, Merel Jack Coxb, Taksa Vasaruchaponga, Narongsak Chaiyabutra, Visith Sitprijaa
a
Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, The Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok 10330, Thailand, b1113
25th Avenue, Altoona, Pennsylvania 16601-2947, USA
Background: Envenoming by snakebite is an important public health problem in rural tropics. Venomous snake
families such as Elapidae and Viperidae frequently produce severe poisoning. Anti-venoms are not available for all
venomous snakes of Thailand and there is need for more development in this field.
Objective: We characterized the important venomous snakes’ distribution of Thailand.
Method: Venomous snake species are described in details including their identification, range, and extraterritorial
distribution.
Result: Eighteen snake species of the family Elapidae are summarized in their characteristics and distribution.
There are three species of Naja, one species of Ophiophagus, three species of Bungarus, four species of Calliophis,
one species of Sinomicrurus, two species of Laticauda, and four species of subfamily Hydrophiinae. Fifteen
snake species of the family Viperidae consisting of one species of subfamily Viperinae and fourteen species of
subfamily Crotalinae are also discussed.
Conclusion: All these snakes are venomous and their venom is potentially fatal since birth.
Venomous snakes are widely distributed species are found and this number will probably
throughout the world and are found on every continent change through the years. It is also important to
except frozen Antarctica. Envenoming by snakebite remember that venom from all venomous snakes is
is an important public health problem in rural tropics potentially fatal since birth. Some of the 59 species
where human populations experience high morbidity and subspecies are discussed in detail.
and mortality. Clinical features of envenomed victims
involve different organs and tissues. Severe cases FAMILY ELAPIDAE
result from bites by snakes of the families Elapidae Each member of this family is capable of inflicting
(cobras, kraits, mambas, coral snakes, Australian fatal bites on human beings. The anterior maxillary
species, and sea snakes) and Viperidae (pit vipers teeth are hollow, fixed fangs used for conducting
and true vipers) [1]. The greatest impact of venomous venom from venom glands into prey or potential
snakes is felt in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and predators. Elapidae found in Thailand are six genera
sub-Saharan Africa, where estimates of at least of Naja, Ophiophagus, Bungarus, Calliophis,
421,000 to 1,841,000 envenomations and 20,000 to Sinomicrurus, Laticauda, and a subfamily
94,000 deaths occur annually [2]. There are at least Hydrophiinae.
196 species and subspecies of snakes presently
indigenous to Thailand and 59 species and subspecies I. Genus Naja
would qualify as venomous members of the families The elongated nuchal ribs enable members of this
Elapidae and Viperidae [3]. However, more new snake genus to expand the anterior of the neck into a “hood”,
which is the characteristic of cobras. When threatened,
cobras will raise the anterior portions of their bodies,
Correspondence to: Lawan Chanhome, Queen Saovabha spread their hood, usually hiss loudly, and strike in an
Memorial Institute, The Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok attempt to bite and defend themselves. A pair of fixed
10330, Thailand. E-mail: lchanhome@yahoo.com anterior fangs is present.
312 L. Chanhome, et al.
Naja kaouthia (Monocled Cobra; Figure 1) the venom is washed from the eye promptly, the
This snake is non-spitting. Median lethal dose irritation is temporary and there are no records of
(LD50) of its venom is 0.28-0.33 mg/gram of mouse permanent blindness or fatalities among humans.
body weight [4-6]. However, if the eyes are not treated promptly or if
Identification victims scratch their eyes to relieve irritation,
Adults are 1000 to 1900 mm in length, with permanent blindness is possible. This cobra also bites
maximum of 2300 mm. The head is barely distinct and injects venom when necessary to defend itself or
from the neck and cylindrical body. The coloration to secure food. LD50 of its venom is 1.07-1.42 mg /
and pattern are variable. The dorsal surface may be gram of mouse body weight [4, 5].
yellow, brown, gray, or blackish and with or without Identification
ragged or clearly defined cross bands. The throat is Adults are from 1200 to 1590 mm in length, but
usually immaculate and followed by a dark band. Hood specimens up to 1600 mm have been recorded. The
marks are usually 0- or mask-shaped, sometimes head is barely distinct from the neck and cylindrical
scrambled but rarely absent. The ventral surface is body. The coloration and pattern are highly variable.
the same color as the dorsal but the sub-caudals are Specimens from north and northeast Thailand tend
light with dark edges. Yellow forms without hood to be uniformly brown or greenish dorsally. Specimens
pattern or throat pattern occur in Thailand. Cobras from central Thailand also are variable. Some may be
are nocturnal and crepuscular. In Thailand, breeding completely black or black and white and with or
occurs during August to January. Gravidity occurs 55 without speckling or crossbanding. Such specimens
to 66 days after copulation as observed in the eggs may have white ventral surfaces with or without
laid in captivity at the QSMI Snake Farm. Clutches markings. Others from central Thailand are primarily
of 10-37 eggs were laid in October to March and then brown or gray brown with or without lighter crossbands
hatched in December to May after 51 to 69 days of on the dorsal surface, but often with several broad
incubation. Eggs averaged 23 to 40 mm in width, 41 dark bands across the ventral surface. Hood markings
to 57 mm in length, and weighed 19.8 to 34.0 gm. of specimens from northern, northeastern, and
Neonates weighed 13.2 to 18.8 gm and were 315 to southeastern Thailand are “V” or “U”-shaped or often
355 mm in length [7]. Prey includes small mammals, spectacle shaped. However, hood markings may be
chicks, other snakes, amphibians, and fish. Captive faint or absent. Specimens from central Thailand often
specimens have been maintained on a diet of rodents, have “H-shaped” hood marking or none at all.
chicks, ducklings, Hemidactylus sp., frogs, and fish. This snake is terrestrial. In Thailand, breeding is
They have also eaten homemade sausages. from March to July, with clutches of 5 to 28 eggs being
Range laid from May to September and hatching from July
Their range is variable but they are found most to November, requiring 55 to 80 days of incubation.
commonly in moist lowlands, in dry evergreen forests, Eggs are 21 to 26 mm in width, 41 to 48 mm in length,
and near human habitation. They frequently seek and weigh 13.4 to 19.4 gm. Neonates weigh 4.0 to
refuge in termite mounds. They are found up to 1620 13.6 gm and are 200 to 320 mm in length [7]. A wide
m in China. In Thailand, they are presumed to be variety of prey is consumed, including other snakes,
present in all provinces. frogs, small mammals, and chicks. Captives have been
Extraterritorial maintained on a diet of mice and an occasional
This snake is found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Hemidactylus sp.
Cambodia, China, India, Laos, West Malaysia, Range
Myanmar, Nepal, and Vietnam. They are found in deciduous and evergreen forests
as well as agricultural areas. Often found in termite
Naja siamensis (Indochinese Spitting Cobra; mounds. Its range includes north, northeast and central
Figure 2) regions of Thailand plus the provinces of Ratchaburi,
The ability to “spit” venom up to two meters gives Phetchaburi, and Kanchanaburi.
this snake a very effective defensive mechanism. Extraterritorial
When the venom enters its antagonist’s eyes, severe The Indochinese Spitting Cobra also inhabits
irritation results in a loss of interest in the cobra. When Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.
Vol. 5 No. 3 Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand 313
June 2011
pattern are variable within Thailand. Adult specimens III. Genus Bungarus
from the north are dark with black bands, those from The head is slightly distinct from the neck. The
southern Thailand olive or brownish without bands. eyes are moderate to small with round pupils. The
Juveniles differ markedly. They are black with distinct dorsal body scales are smooth. The vertebral scale
narrow white or yellow crossbands, chevron-shaped row is distinctly enlarged throughout the body on Thai
with apexes pointing anteriorly. Their heads are black species. The maxillary bone has two anterior fixed,
with four white crossbars, two near the snout, one venom conducting teeth followed by two to four small
just behind the eyes and one farther back. This snake solid teeth. The tail is moderate and the ventral tail
is diurnal and terrestrial. In Thailand, breeding is in scales may be single or paired.
November to March. Observations at the QSMI
Snake Farm revealed that gravidity is 50 and 59 days Bungarus candidus (Malayan Krait; Figure 5)
after observed copulation. Clutches of 12 to 51 eggs This snake accounts for a large number of bites
were laid in January to May and hatched in March to and the highest snakebite fatalities in Thailand [8]. Its
July, after an incubation period of 51 to 79 days. The venom possesses a powerful neurotoxin of which the
eggs were 23 to 33 mm in width, 31 to 73 mm in median lethal dose (LD50) is 0.053-0.070 μg/gram of
length, and weighed 18.4 to 40 gm. Hatchlings were mouse body weight and the dry venom yield range
480 to 650 mm in length and weighed 12.2 to 24 gm 0.023-0.032 % per gram of snake body weight [9].
[7]. Females build a nest, deposit their eggs in it, and The Bungarus candidus bite is often virtually painless
guard them during incubation. King Cobras prey and therefore disregarded by the victim. It quickly
almost exclusively on other snakes and lizards although strikes at night when foraging for food and is often
captives have been trained to eat rodents, frogs, and confused with the harmless Lycodon ophiophagus
homemade sausages. and Lycodon subcinctus.
Range Identification
Primarily a forest snake found in moist, dense Adults average 1000 to 1550 mm in length. The
forests, including mangrove, it ranges from sea level body is cylindrical without a dorsal ridge but the
up to 1300 m. It has been recorded in every region of vertebral scale row is enlarged. The surface has 25
Thailand. to 36 black crossbands separated by white
Extraterritorial interspaces. The black bands do not enter the white
This snake is found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei ventral surface. The scales of the white dorsal bands
Darussalam, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, often have distinct black specks on adults. The dorsal
East and West Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, head surface is black and continuous with the first
Singapore, and Vietnam. black body marking creating an indistinct V-shaped
mark. The chin, neck, and ventral surface are white.
The head is not distinct from the neck. It is nocturnal
and terrestrial. In Thailand, breeding occurs in
December to January with clutches of 4 to 10 eggs
being laid February to March. Hatching is April to
May after 46 to 54 days of incubation. Eggs are 12.0
to 19.5 mm in width, 31 to 59 mm in length, and weigh
3.0 to 7.0 gm. Neonates weigh 5.0 to 8.0 gm and are
270 to 340 mm [7]. Prey includes other snakes, but
also probably includes lizards [10]. Captives have
eaten rodents, fish, chicken, and homemade sausages
[11, 12].
Range
Often found near human habitation and wooded
areas between 545 and 1500 m, it is distributed in
every Thai region.
Extraterritorial
This snake is found in Cambodia, Laos, Peninsular
Figure 4. King Cobra Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam.
Vol. 5 No. 3 Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand 315
June 2011
Bungarus fasciatus (Banded Krait; Figure 6) elevated. The red color of the tail extends slightly
This snake is sluggish during the day but extremely anteriorly on to the back as a red vertebral line. The
active at night. LD50 of its venom is 3.09 mg / gram bluish-black of the body extends on to the neck and
of mouse body weight [13]. head as a central line. The ventral surface is white
Identification with black-edged ventrals. Their ventral surfaces are
Wild caught adults average 1200 to 2070 mm with blackish. It is nocturnal and terrestrial. In Thailand,
a recorded maximum size of 2125 mm. Captive bred breeding occurs in July to October with clutches of
adult specimens average 1200 to 1410 mm in total 4 to 8 eggs laid in September to December. Hatching
length. The head is not distinct from the neck and is in November to February after 81 to 84 days of
body. The body is triangular in cross section; the tail incubation. Eggs are 19 to 23 mm in width, 39 to 50
is short and very blunt. The dorsal body surface has a mm in length, and weigh 9.4 to 10.0 gm. Hatchlings
series of 15 to 30 yellow bands with intervening black weigh 7.2 to 8.5 gm and 330 to 350 mm in length [7].
bands throughout the body. Both yellow and black Prey primarily on other snakes [10] but has eaten
bands are of equal width and encircle the body. The skinks.
head is black with yellow lips. An elongate black Range
marking occurs on the neck and extends forward to Forested lowlands and hilly regions up to 900 m,
the top of the head where it terminates or merges this snake has only been seen in southern and western
with the black color of the head. It is nocturnal and Thailand.
terrestrial. In Thailand, breeding is from January to Extraterritorial
March, with clutches of 4 to 14 eggs laid March to This snake is found in Indonesia, West Malaysia,
May, and hatching in May to July after 59 to 62 days Myanmar, Singapore, and Vietnam.
of incubation. Eggs are 26 to 30 mm in width, 46 to 56
mm in length and weigh 21.4 to 22.8 gm. Hatchlings Asian Coral Snakes
weigh 14.0 to 19.6 gm and are 265 to 335 mm in length IV. Genus Calliophis
[7]. Prey includes mostly other snakes but lizards, The members of this genus are small and not often
rodents, frogs, fish, and chicken eggs [10]. Homemade encountered. Therefore, there are few records of their
sausages also have been eaten by captives [12]. bites.
Range
Recorded up to 2300 m. in scrub woodlands and Calliophis bivirgatus flaviceps (Blue Long-
open fields as well as near human habitation, it inhabits glanded Coral Snake; Figure 8)
every region in Thailand. The venom gland of this snake extends past the
Extraterritorial jaw into the anterior one third of the body. Dry venom
This snake is found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei yield from adults range 56.63-71.40 mg per snake.
Darussalam, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, LD50 of its venom is 0.81 μg/gram of mouse body
East and West Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Singapore, weight [6].
and Vietnam. Identification
Adults average 1060 to 1570 mm; the record
Bungarus flaviceps flaviceps (Red-headed Krait; length is 1850 mm. The dorsal body surface is bluish-
Figure 7) black with a gray or bluish line dorsolaterally from
This snake is an uncommon but truly beautiful head to tail. The head, tail, and ventral surface are
snake. A wild caught female was kept in captivity for surface red. It is nocturnal, terrestrial, and oviparous
seven years and 172 days at the snake farm of the but clutch size is unknown. It preys mainly on other
Thai Red Cross Society on a diet of non-venomous snakes, but also frogs and lizards.
snakes (Enhydris sp.). LD50 of its venom is 0.18 mg/ Range
gram of mouse body weight [13]. This snake is found from sea level to 1330 m in
Identification grassy areas as well as evergreen forests in southern
The average adult length is 1260 to 1740 mm, but Thailand and Petchaburi province.
the record is up to 1955 mm in total length. The head, Extraterritorial
neck, and tail are bright red. The dorsal body surface This snake is found in Indonesia, West Malaysia,
is bluish black with a thin white line separating the and Singapore.
dorsal scales from the ventrals. The vertebral ridge is
316 L. Chanhome, et al.
Calliophis gracilis (Gray Coral Snake) Calliophis intestinalis lineatus (Brown Long-
Identification glanded Coral Snake; Figure 9)
The maximum adult length is 735 mm, the average Identification
is 350 to 500 mm. The dorsal body pattern is light or The maximum adult length is 580 mm. The
brownish gray with black-edged scales and a thin black coloration and pattern are highly variable throughout
vertebral stripe connected to a series of small black its range. The dorsal head surface is dark, the lips
spots. A lateral stripe connects a series of large black light with black edges, and the throat and chin light.
spots that alternate with the smaller vertebral spots. The dorsal body surface is reddish brown with a light
There are black girdles on the neck and tail. The dorsal vertebral stripe extending from the base of the head
surface of the head is dark with symmetrical but becoming faint posterior. As many as 11 dark
markings. The ventral surface of the body has dorsolateral stripes extend from head to tail. The dark
alternating black and yellow bands. The ventral dorsal color extends across the ventral to form bands
surface of the tail has orange and black bands. The separated by light ventral scales with dark edges. The
tail is very short and ends in a blunt point. It is subcaudals are light with one band a few subcaudals
nocturnal, terrestrial, and semi fossorial. Oviparous behind vent. It is nocturnal, semi fossorial, and
but no records of clutch size are known. It preys on oviparous with clutches of up to four eggs. It preys
fossorial snakes and lizards. on fossorial snakes.
Range Range
Found from sea level to 900 m in forests and This snake is found in evergreen forests from
scrublands under logs, forest litter, and in rock sea level up to 1500 m in the southern provinces of
cervices, it is recorded only in the hills of Pattani Thailand.
province.
Vol. 5 No. 3 Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand 317
June 2011
Extraterritorial
This snake is found in Indonesia, West Malaysia,
and Singapore.
located beneath the tongue, so called “sublingual of seven eggs were reported. It preys on fish, including
glands”. In order to maintain a low blood salt level, eels.
the salt gland secretes the concentrated electrolytes Range
into a tongue sheath that is expelled by the extension This species is semi aquatic and often found on
of the tongue [15, 16]. The maxillary bone has anterior, rocky coastal islands. The only Thai record is along
short, fixed fangs followed by one or two solid teeth. the coast of Krabi on the Andaman Sea.
Extraterritorial
Laticauda colubrina (Yellow-lipped Sea Snake) This snake is found in Australia, China, Fiji Islands,
Identification India, Indonesia, Japan, East and West Malaysia,
The maximum adult length is 1525 mm. Adult Melanesia, Myanmar, New Caledonia, Papua New
males average 875 mm in length and adult females Guinea, Philippines, Polynesia, Solomon Islands, and
average 1420 mm. The head is barely distinct from Sri Lanka.
the neck and the only slightly compressed body. The
eyes are small and the pupils round. The dorsal body Subfamily Hydrophiinae
is grayish blue with dark crossbands that may or may Members of this subfamily live in the marine
not encircle body. The ventral surface is yellowish waters of some of the world’s oceans, seas, and gulfs.
between any encircling crossbands that may be Life in a marine environment has been facilitated
present. The head is mostly black with a yellow band by several evolutionary changes and adaptations
extending from eye to eye through the prefrontals. that distinguish them from terrestrial snakes. Each is
The upper lip scales are yellow. Both the chin and ovoviviparous, has a vertically flattened tail to facilitate
throat are black, the black color extending back to locomotion, and has degenerated ventral shields
merge with the first crossband. This snake is nocturnal because they are useless for locomotion in an aquatic
and oviparous with clutches of 7 to 10 eggs laid on environment. Their valved nostrils are closed when
land. Prey includes eels, including the carnivorous diving to keep the salt water from entering their bodies.
Moray Eel. Excessive salt intake is expelled by a salt gland. Their
Range skins are extraordinarily resistant to the passage of
This snake is found in marine water, land rocky water from their bodies and salt into their bodies.
coasts, and islands. It distributes in Krabi, Phang-nga, Oxygen can pass through their skins and cutaneous
and Phuket on the Andaman Sea Coast. respiration is an important mode of oxygen intake for
Extraterritorial hydrophiine sea snakes [17]. Although they must
This snake is found in Australia, China, El Salvador, surface in order to breathe, they require less oxygen
India, Indonesia, Japan, East and West Malaysia, than terrestrial species and can remain submerged
Myanmar, Mexico, New Zealand, Nicaragua, for long periods.
Philippines, West Pacific Ocean to Fiji, New
Caledonia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, and Sri Lanka. Enhydrina schistosa (Common or Beaked Sea
Snake; Figure 12)
Laticauda laticaudata (Black-banded Sea Snake; This snake is reported to have the most potent
Figure 11) venom of any of the sea snakes and to bite readily.
Identification Fatalities have been reported.
Males average 910 mm and females average Identification
1070 mm in total length. The head is barely distinct Adults have an average total length of 1400 mm,
from the neck and sub cylindrical body, which is of with the maximum recorded to 1580 mm. The young
nearly uniform diameter throughout. The dorsal body are 150 to 280 mm at birth. The head is not or is
surface is light or dark bluish gray with black barely distinct from neck and body. The maxillary bone
crossbands of uniform width complete or incomplete has two anterior fixed fangs followed by three or four
ventrally and encircling body. The head is black with solid teeth. The body is elongated, stout, and strongly
a curved yellow mark and may extend to the snout compressed posteriorly. The ventral scales are distinct
and down behind eye. The lips are dark brown; the throughout, but not much wider than adjacent body
ventral surface is yellow with alternating black bands. scales. The head is brownish black; the body is gray
Tails are vertically flattened. It is oviparous. Clutches black with a series of 40 to 55 black bands two to six
Vol. 5 No. 3 Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand 319
June 2011
scales wide that encircle the body. The young are Pattani, Samut Sakhon, Songkhla in Gulf of Thailand
dark gray dorsally but whitish below. With age, this and Trang on the Andaman Sea.
pattern changes to a uniform dark gray. Females Extraterritorial
collected from Songkhla Lake in December to January This snake is found in Indonesia, East and West
were found to be gravid. This snake is a livebearer Malaysia, and Vietnam.
with litters of 4 to 33 young. It preys on eels, catfish,
and other fish. Hydrophis obscurus (Russel’s Sea Snake;
Range Figure 14)
Live primarily in estuaries and coastal waters but Identification
recorded well up the Mekong River and in the Grand The total length of males has been measured
Lake of Cambodia. In Thailand, they are distributed at 1190 mm whereas females grow to a length of 1200
along both coasts of peninsular Thailand. mm. The head is small and not distinct from the neck.
Extraterritorial The body is long and slender anteriorly, but compressed
This snake is found in Australia, Bangladesh, posteriorly. The head is brown with yellow spots on
Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, East and the nasals and prefrontals. Young specimens are black
West Malaysia, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, to bluish black with 35 to 68 yellow or whitish bars,
Philippines, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, United Arab which may encircle the body posteriorly. The tail has
Emirates, and Vietnam. 8 to 10 yellow bands and nine brown bands. The dorsal
surface of the head has a curved yellow mark, its apex
Hydrophis brookii (Brooke’s Sea Snake; at the snout and the remainder extending posteriorly
Figure 13) to the parietals. The ventral scales are not twice as
Identification wide as the adjacent body scales but they remain
Adult males can be up to 1035 mm, whereas distinct throughout. The color and pattern fade with
females have only been recorded at 965 mm of the age. Litters of 5 to 10 are reported.
total length. Neonates are 330 to 340 mm. The head Range
is small and indistinct from the neck. The head is Often found in brackish mouths of rivers but also
blackish or grayish with a curved yellow mark across found along coastal waters. This species was recently
the snout and extending back along the sides of the discovered in Thai waters in Ranong on the Andaman
head. Sometimes there is a connecting band of yellow Sea.
across the frontal and parietals. The body is very long Extraterritorial
and very slender anteriorly but compressed posteriorly, This snake is found in Bangladesh, India,
its greatest diameter is 2.5 to 3 times that of the neck. Myanmar, and Sri Lanka.
The dorsal body surface is grayish with 60 to 80 dark
gray broad bands encircling the body anteriorly but Lapemis curtus (Curtus’ Sea Snake; Figure 15)
narrowing on the sides and perhaps incomplete Identification
posteriorly. The pattern and markings often fade with Adults reach total lengths of 860 mm. Neonates
age. The ventral scales are not twice the size of are 250 to 355 mm. The body is short and stout, the
adjacent body scales but still distinct throughout. diameter of the neck being half or more than half of
Hydrophis brookii collected from Songkhla Lake in the greatest diameter of the body. They have greenish
February to March contained some gravid females. or yellowish dorsally with 35 to 50 pale olive to pale
Copulation was once observed in wild caught, captive gray bars that taper to points on the sides. These bars
specimens in October at the QSMI Snake Farm. Two may continue to encircle body and they may unite along
males performed a pre breeding activity in front of a the vertebral area. A narrow ventral stripe or a broad
female similar to the combat dances observed in irregular band may be present. The head is pale olive
terrestrial elapid snakes. She ultimately bred with both to black, with or without yellow markings across the
males but at different times (unpublished data). This snout and along the sides. The ventral scales are small
snake is a livebearer with 5 to 7 embryos reported. It and usually distinct anteriorly but may be very small
preys on bottom, rock, and reef dwelling prey. or absent posteriorly. This snake is a livebearer with
Range litters of 3 to 6. It preys on pelagic fish as well as eels.
Live in the shallow coastal waters of Chon Buri,
320 L. Chanhome, et al.
Figure 11. Black-banded Sea Snake Figure 12. Common or Beaked Sea Snake
Figure 13. Brooke’s Sea Snake Figure 14. Russel’s Sea Snake
Extraterritorial ventral scales and first dorsal scale rows form a thin
This snake is found in Cambodia, Laos, and line along the body. The head is blackish-brown but
Vietnam. the chin and throat are speckled with dark markings.
The ventral surface is uniform olive or greenish-white
Trimeresurus (Cryptelytrops) purpureomaculatus or speckled. Nocturnal and arboreal but frequently
purpureomaculatus (Shore Pit Viper, Mangrove forages for prey on the ground. In Thailand, breeding
Pit Viper; Figure 21) occurs in September to November with litters of 7 to
This venomous snake is very quick to strike. LD50 15 born from February to May. The neonates weight
of its venom is 0.40 μg / gram of mouse body weight 4.0 to 10.0 gm and are 190 to 270 mm in length [7].
[19]. Prey consists of small mammals, birds, lizards, and
Identification probably frogs.
Adults range from 680 to 1070 mm, with the Range
maximum record of 1000 mm in total length. The head Found off the shores of islands and coastal areas
is triangular and distinct from the neck and relatively in mangrove environments in southern Thailand.
stout body. The dorsal surface is purplish-brown with Extraterritorial
variable crossbands, sometimes with green This snake is found in Indonesia, West Malaysia,
variegations. The dorsolateral surface is greenish with Myanmar, and Singapore.
darker blotches, sometimes the dark edges of the
Figure 20. Big-eyed Pitviper Figure 21. Shore Pit Viper, Mangrove Pitviper
Trimeresurus (Cryptelytrops) venustus (Beautiful from the neck and cylindrical, moderately slender body.
Pitviper; Figure 22) The green head scales do not have black edges but
This snake was formerly confused with there is a pink postocular stripe. The eyes are green.
Trimeresurus (Cryptelytrops) kanburiensis. LD50 The body is predominantly green, usually with a row
of its venom is 3.0 μg/gram of mouse body weight of pink to white spots along the dorsolateral scales.
[19]. The subcaudals are without thick black edges. This
Identification species is reported to be arboreal, with clutches of 13
Adults range from 350 to 700 mm in length and to 17 eggs.
females are larger than males. The head is triangular Range
and distinct from the neck and elongated body. The Found in evergreen forests up to 600 m in the
dorsal surface is dark green with irregular zigzag southern provinces of Thailand.
shaped rusty brown or purplish markings. The tail is Extraterritorial
progressively brown with green dots. The dorsal This snake is found in Indonesia, West Malaysia,
surface and sides of the head are green with some and Singapore.
irregular blotches. The lower lips, chin, and throat are
greenish white. The ventral surface is pale green. The Trimeresurus (Popeia) popeiorum (Pope’s
tail is reddish-brown. It is arboreal and probably Bamboo Pitviper; Figure 24)
nocturnal, with 5 to 16 neonates per litter. Neonates Identification
weigh 1.6 to 2.8 gm and are approximately 190 to Adults average 500 to 700 mm in total length with
196 mm in length [7]. Captive specimens have eaten the maximum confirmed total length of 975 mm. Males
geckos. The species is reported to include small may be up to 821 mm and females grow up to 677
rodents, frogs, and lizards in its diet. mm in total length. Neonates are 120 to 200 mm at
Range birth. The head is short, rounded, triangular, and distinct
Found in the evergreen forests of southern from the neck and cylindrical body. The eyes are large
Thailand. red and the vertical pupils yellow. The dorsal surface
Extraterritorial of the head and body are predominantly green. The
This snake is found in West Malaysia. ventrals and labials are pale green. Males have a red
above white postocular stripe that continue along the
Trimeresurus (Parias) hageni (Hagen’s Pitviper; first body scale row and ventral scales. There are no
Figure 23) such stripes on females. The tail is reddish brown. It
LD50 of the venom of this snake is 0.50 μg/gram is nocturnal and arboreal, but found foraging on the
of mouse body weight [19]. ground. A livebearer with litters of 2 to 12 recorded.
Identification This snake preys on small mammals, frogs, and lizards.
The maximum adult length is 1100 mm; hatchlings Range
are about 240 mm. The head is triangular and distinct This northern species is found in evergreen forests
Vol. 5 No. 3 Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand 325
June 2011
from 790 to 1500 m in the provinces of Chiang Mai, distinct from the neck and cylindrical body. The dorsal
Chiang Rai, Phetchaburi, Lampang, and Uthai Thani. body surface is predominantly green with numerous
Extraterritorial white vertebral dots. There is a white, red-edged
This snake is found in India, Laos, West Malaysia, ventrolateral stripe on males but it is only white in
Myanmar, Vietnam, and Singapore. Locality records females. The ventral surface is a lighter shade of green.
for northeast Bangladesh, Cambodia, Nepal, and The head is green and there is a thin, faint white
Vietnam are under review. postocular stripe in males, but none in females. The
prehensile tail is reddish brown. Prey includes frogs,
Trimeresurus (Viridovipera) gumprechti small mammals, and lizards, which it captures from
(Gumprecht’s Green Pitviper) ambush. This snake is arboreal, often found in low
The past records for Trimeresurus stejnegeri in bushes during day but forages for food on the ground
Thailand were those of Trimeresurus (Viridovipera) during the day. It is a livebearer.
gumprechti. Range
Identification Found in evergreen forests from 200 to 1200 m.
The maximum total length is approximately This snake has been found in Chanthaburi, Nakhon
850 mm in males and approximately 1200 mm in Ratchasima, Prachin Buri, and Trat.
females. The head is triangular and distinct from the Extraterritorial
neck. The body is moderately elongated and cylindrical This snake is found in Cambodia, Laos, and
and the tail is rather long and prehensile. Males are Vietnam.
bright green in overall coloration with red eyes and a
postocular stripe that is white below but thicker and Trimeresurus fucatus (Siamese Peninsular
red above. There also is a ventrolateral stripe that is Pitviper; Figure 26)
red below and white above and a series of white dots This is a new specie whose natural history and
along the vertebral ridge. The tail is mostly rusty brown toxicity is not well known. A wild caught male juvenile
or reddish and the ventral surface is yellow to remained healthy in captivity for eight years and 27
yellowish green. Females are dark green in overall days at the snake farm of the Thai Red Cross Society.
coloration with yellow eyes. Crossbars and white Identification
vertebral dots are absent. A faint white postocular The maximum recorded female length 868 mm
stripe may be present or absent. There is a thin white and that of males is 834 mm. The head is distinct from
or blue ventrolateral stripe. The tail is mostly rusty the neck and the laterally compressed body. Both males
brown or reddish and the ventral surface is yellow to and females are green with dark bands on the body;
yellowish green. The interstitial skin is black in both usually white vertebral dots are present, and the eyes
males and females. This snake is nocturnal and are a shade of yellow. Males usually have a thin,
arboreal but also found foraging for prey on the ground. irregular postocular streak, either entirely white or white
Prey includes small mammals and skinks. It produces below with an irregular, dark red or rusty brown streak
living young. above. This streak is absent in females but some white
Range spots may be present. Males have a vivid bicolor
A forest snake usually found from 350 to 1350 m ventrolateral stripe that is bright and deep orange or
in thick bush, including bamboo thickets, near streams. gold below and white above. Females have a thin, well-
Its range includes northern, northeastern, and eastern defined white stripe. The body has distinct dark
Thailand. crossbars and white vertebral dots. The tail is entirely
Extraterritorial rusty brown or reddish-brown or mottled. This new
This snake is found in China, Laos, Myanmar, and species is an arboreal and livebearer that preys on
Vietnam. lizards and small rodents.
Range
Trimeresurus (Viridovipera) vogeli (Vogel’s Green Found in evergreen forests at 1100 m in southern
Pitviper; Figure 25) Thailand.
Identification Extraterritorial
The maximum total length is 1570 mm in males, This snake is found in Myanmar and West
and 1116 mm in females. The head is triangular and Malaysia.
326 L. Chanhome, et al.
Trimeresurus wiroti (Thai Palm Viper; Figure 27) blotches with small gray or brown dots between them.
A shy snake seemingly reluctant to bite. The dorsal head surface is dark but the chin and throat
Nonetheless, it is venomous and should be considered are paler with black dots and pale brown markings.
dangerous. The ventral surface is darker than the dorsal. The
Identification prehensile tail is mostly reddish-brown. This snake is
Males grow up to 655 mm whereas females may nocturnal and arboreal, with clutches of 7 to 14 eggs.
only reach 410 mm in total length. The flat and Prey includes frogs, lizards, and small mammals.
triangular head is covered with small scales and the Range
snout is upturned and spatula-shaped. The body is This snake inhabits forests at the elevations of
short and stout. The dorsal surface of the body is 500 to 1196 m in southern Thailand.
mottled brown, olive-brown, dark grayish-brown, or Extraterritorial
dark yellowish-gray, with 22 to 35 large dorsolateral This snake is found in West Malaysia.
Figure 24. Pope’s Bamboo Pitviper Figure 25. Vogel’s Green Pitviper
Figure 26. Siamese Peninsular Pitviper Figure 27. Thai Palm Viper
Vol. 5 No. 3 Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand 327
June 2011
Figure 28. Wagler’s Pitviper, Temple Viper Figure 29. Mountain Pitviper
328 L. Chanhome, et al.