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Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128

Thermodynamic analysis of the separation of zinc and lead from electric

arc furnace dust by selective reduction with metallic iron
C.A. Pickles ∗
Department of Mining Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6
Received 6 November 2006; received in revised form 25 May 2007; accepted 29 May 2007

Abstract
During the remelting of automobile scrap in an electric arc furnace, the contained volatile metals and evolved particulates are captured in the
oxidizing off-gas system as a dust. In most countries, this dust is considered as a hazardous waste but contains economically attractive amounts
of various non-ferrous metals, such as zinc and lead. One method for recovering these metals is selective reduction, in which the non-ferrous
metal oxides are reduced and the metals are simultaneously vaporized and separated, while the iron is maintained in oxide form. In the present
research, the utilization of metallic iron as a selective reducing agent was investigated and the equilibrium composition of the reaction products
was calculated using the equilibrium module of Outokumpu HSC Chemistry® 5.1. For the standard conditions, a typical electric arc furnace dust
composition was utilized and the temperature was varied from 1273 to 1873 K at atmospheric pressure (1 bar). The zinc and lead recoveries were
determined and the separation of the metallic zinc or lead from the iron oxide, was quantified in terms of the selectivity factor (β). In addition
to temperature, the effects of the following variables on the zinc and lead recoveries were determined; reactant ratio (moles of metallic iron per
100 g of dust), dust composition, addition of a non-reactive gas such as nitrogen and also reduced total pressure. The results show that under the
appropriate reducing conditions of temperature, reactant ratio and reduced pressure, both high recoveries and selectivity factors can be achieved
for both zinc and lead. The calculated results are in reasonable agreement with experimental results, which have been previously published in the
literature.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Electric arc furnace dust; Separation; Selective reduction; Non-ferrous metals; Equilibrium calculations

1. Introduction
1.1. General
When automobile scrap is remelted in an electric arc fur-
nace (EAF) a dust is produced, which is referred to as electric
arc furnace dust. About 10–12 kg of dust are generated per ton
of steel. The dust components can originate from three sources;
[1] vaporized and subsequently oxidized non-ferrous metals, [2]
both metal and slag constituents, which are created as a result of
the explosion of carbon monoxide gas bubbles at the slag–gas
interface and finally [3] low density furnace additions, such as
carbon and lime, which are captured by the off-gas handling
system. The charge composition and the furnace operating prac-
tice mainly determine the dust characteristics and the amount of
∗ Tel.: +1 613 533 2759.
E-mail address: pickles-c@mine.queensu.ca.
dust. Because of these factors, the chemical composition and the
mineralogy of the dust are relatively complicated. Furthermore,
the dust contains hexavalent chromium, cadmium and lead and
therefore in many countries, the dust is considered as a haz-
ardous waste. Since the furnace atmosphere is oxidizing then
the majority of the species in the dust are oxides, with some
chlorides, sulphides and sulphates. Typically, the main compo-
nents are zinc, iron and calcium. The preponderance of the zinc
is distributed between zincite (ZnO) and zinc ferrite (ZnFe2 O4 ),
with the balance of the iron being present as iron oxide, usu-
ally magnetite (Fe3 O4 ). The calcium can exist as calcium oxide,
calcium carbonate or various calcium ferrites. Some lead is
present as lead oxide (PbO) and there can be some silicates.
Many other elements such as copper, manganese, magnesium,
chlorine, fluorine, sulphur and sodium can be in the dust.
Considerable research has been performed on various meth-
ods for dealing with the dust and there are two major options:
disposal or metals recovery [1–4]. In some regions, disposal in
a landfill is possible but stabilization of the hazardous compo-

1383-5866/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2007.05.032
116 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128

nents may be required. On the other hand, the concentrations monoxide and carbon dioxide at relatively low temperatures of
of the zinc and the lead in the dust are sufficiently high to about 873–1073 K. In the second stage, the zinc oxide in the dust
make the potential recovery of these metals of considerable eco- is reduced by the metallic iron obtained from the first stage, at
nomic interest. A number of processes have been investigated temperatures in the range of 1173–1373 K and under vacuum.
for the recovery of the valuable metals and these are typi- Typically, the zinc recovery is in the range of 95–100%.
cally pyrometallurgical, i.e. high temperature metals recovery
(HTMR), hydrometallurgical and also combined pyrometal- 1.3. Thermodynamic considerations
lurgical plus hydrometallurgical, i.e. hybrid processes. The
concentration of the iron in the dust is considerably below that of From a thermodynamic viewpoint, the primary reactions of
a commercial iron-bearing raw material for iron production and interest in the selective reduction of EAF dust by metallic iron
therefore the contained iron is not of any significant economic are as follows;
value. Consequently, in many of the metal recovery processes
the objective is to extract the valuable non-ferrous metals and 4Fe2 O3 + Fe = 3Fe3 O4 (1)
also to concentrate the iron in the residue. However, in both
Fe3 O4 + Fe = 4FeO (2)
the pyrometallurgical and the hydrometallurgical processes, the
presence of numerous additional elements in the dust leads to Zno + Fe = Zn(g) + FeO (3)
complicated flow sheets and some of the elements in the dust,
such as the alkali metal chlorides, can interfere with the extrac- 4ZnO + 3Fe = 4Zn(g) + Fe3 O4 (4)
tion of the non-ferrous metals.
PbO + Fe = Pb(l) + FeO (5)
1.2. Selective reduction 4PbO + 3Fe = 4Pb(l) + Fe3 O4 (6)

The zinc and lead oxides in the dust are less stable than iron The standard free energy changes for these six reactions are
oxide and also metallic zinc and lead have relatively low boil- shown from room temperature to 1873 K in Fig. 1. The values
ing points in comparison to metallic iron and the other various for Eqs. (1) and (2) were calculated per mole of magnetite. With
oxides in the dust. Therefore, in the pyrometallurgical processes, regards to the reduction of the iron oxides, Eq. (1) exhibits large
the selective reduction and separation of these metals from the negative standard free energy changes at all temperatures in the
iron is a common approach [5–8]. However, because of zinc range investigated, with the values becoming more negative with
vapour reoxidation and other factors, it is technically difficult to increasing temperature and therefore the reduction of hematite
condense the non-ferrous metals in metallic form and therefore (Fe2 O3 ) to magnetite (Fe3 O4 ) is highly favourable. The reduc-
a crude zinc oxide is usually produced and this requires further tion of magnetite to wustite (FeO) becomes thermodynamically
purification. A number of reducing agents, such as carbon, car- feasible at about 900 K and then the standard free energy change
bon monoxide and hydrogen, can be considered for utilization slowly becomes more negative with increasing temperature. For
in a selective reduction process. Another possibility is to use a the non-ferrous metals, the standard free energy changes were
more reactive metal, such as metallic iron, as the reducing agent calculated per mole of the non-ferrous metal. For the non-ferrous
for the non-ferrous metal oxides. The major advantage of metal- metal oxides, the standard free energy changes for reduction
lic iron is the elimination of potential gaseous reaction products to either non-ferrous metal vapour plus wustite or non-ferrous
such as carbon dioxide and water vapour, which can reoxidize metal vapour plus magnetite are similar with reduction to wustite
the non-ferrous metals and therefore interfere with the produc- being slightly more favourable at the higher temperatures.
tion of the these metals in metallic form. An added benefit is that
the metallic iron reducing agent will be highly selective, since it
cannot generate any supplementary metallic iron from the iron
oxide in the dust. Furthermore, the byproduct of the reduction
process is iron oxide and therefore the residue is enriched in iron
oxide and this makes the residue more attractive as a feed for an
iron production process, such as the blast furnace.
A number of experimental studies have been performed on
the reduction of EAF dust with metallic iron, with considerable
effort being devoted to the iron-reduction distillation process
[9–14]. In this process, the metallic iron reducing agent is gen-
erated from the dust itself. Thermodynamically, the reduction
of zinc oxide to zinc is more favourable than the reduction of
iron oxide to iron. However, conditions can be selected such that
kinetically the reduction of iron oxide occurs more readily than
the reduction of zinc oxide. In this case, the reduction process is
carried out in two stages. In the first stage, the iron oxide in the Fig. 1. Standard free energy changes of the primary reactions of interest in the
EAF dust is reduced to metallic iron using a mixture of carbon selective reduction of EAF dust by metallic iron as a function of temperature.
 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128
For zinc oxide, reduction to zinc plus wustite has a lower
standard free energy change than reduction to zinc plus mag-
netite at temperatures above about 900 K. The reduction of zinc
oxide to produce zinc plus wustite, i.e. Eq. (3), becomes negative
at about 1480 K, while the reduction reaction that results in the
production of zinc plus magnetite (Eq. (4)) becomes negative at
a slightly higher temperature of about 1520 K. In comparison
to the iron oxides and also zinc oxide, lead oxide is a relatively
unstable oxide and therefore the standard free energy changes for
Eqs. (5) and (6) are negative from room temperature to 1873 K.
However, in a manner similar to zinc oxide, at temperatures
above about 900 K, the reduction of lead oxide to liquid lead
plus wustite is more favourable than reduction to liquid lead
plus magnetite. Thus, this preliminary thermodynamic evalua-
tion indicates that wustite is the most stable form of iron oxide,
when the zinc and lead oxides in the EAF dust are reduced by
metallic iron.
1.4. Selectivity factor
In order to quantify the separation of the zinc or the lead from
the iron, in oxide form, in a selective reduction process using
iron as a reducing agent, the concept of the selectivity factor (β)
is introduced. Originally, Varteressian and Fenske utilized the
selectivity factor for solvent extraction [15] and the application
of this approach to the selective reduction of EAF dust by vari-
ous reducing agents has been detailed in previous publications
[16,17]. The selectivity factors for zinc and lead can be defined
as follows.
XZng YFeo
For zinc βZn/Fe = (7)
XFem YZno
XPbg YFeo
For lead βPb/Fe = (8)
XFem YPbo+l
where X and Y are the concentrations of the two metals, A and B,
respectively, in the two different phases, i.e. the gas phase and
the condensed phases. The subscript symbols refer to the metal
being present in gaseous (g), metallic solid (m), solid oxide (o)
or metallic liquid (l) form, respectively. Zinc has a low boil-
ing point of 1180 K and therefore for the reduction temperature
range of 1273–1873 K utilized in this study, the metallic zinc
will exist mainly as zinc vapour. On the other hand, lead has a
relatively high boiling point of 2022 K and thus the lead can be
in the condensed state as metallic liquid [1] in addition to being
in the gaseous (g) or oxide form (o). The selectivity factor often
varies between 10 and 100 and therefore it is often more conve-
nient to determine log β, which typically ranges between 1 and
10. Furthermore, it is of importance to maximize the separation
of both the zinc and the lead from the iron and therefore the
combined selectivity factor for zinc plus lead can be defined as
follows:
XZng YFeo XPbg YFeo
β(Zn+Pb/Fe) = βZn/Fe βPb/Fe =
XFem YZno XFem YPbo+l
XZng XPbg YFe2
= o
(9)
YZno YPbo+l YFe
2
m
117
and therefore
logβ(Zn+Pb/Fe) = logβZn/Fe + logβPb/Fe (10)
2. Equilibrium calculations
2.1. Determination of equilibrium composition
The equilibrium module of Outokumpu HSC Chemistry®
5.1 was utilized to calculate the equilibrium composition of the
reaction products [18]. The calculations were performed using
the SOLGASMIX solver and the equilibrium composition was
determined by the Gibbs free energy minimization method for
isothermal, isobaric and fixed mass conditions. The application
of this method to study the selective reduction of EAF dust with
various reducing agents has been described in detail in previous
publications [16,17]. The control dust composition was as fol-
lows (in mass%): 1.344% C, 15.754% Ca, 27.920% Fe, 28.656%
O, 3.500% Pb, 1.345% Si and 21.482% Zn. The following
species were assumed to be present in the dust, with the indicated
composition (in mass%): 8.100% CaO, 8.250% 2CaO·SiO2 ,
11.200% CaCO3 , 8.830% CaO·Fe2 O3 , 7.840% Fe3 O4 , 3.770%
PbO, 38.150% ZnFe2 O4 and 13.860% ZnO. The standard cal-
culations were performed for 100 g of dust over the reduction
temperature range from 1273 to 1873 K and at atmospheric
pressure (1 bar).
The input of the elements iron, zinc, lead, calcium, carbon,
silicon and oxygen into the HSC equilibrium module, gener-
ated a list of 169 possible species. Since, the majority of these
species would be considered unstable, under the conditions of
this study, then only the 31 species shown in Table 1 were utilized
as the input for the calculations. Since the control dust composi-
tion includes calcium carbonate, then carbon, carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide were included as possible reaction products.
When the amount of metallic iron produced is zero then the
HSC program generates a default value of 1 × 10−36 mol and
this would result in values of about 36 for log β, which would be
unrealistic. In the previous publications on the utilization of the
selectivity factor for selective reduction, it has been shown that a
value of about 1 × 10−6 mol (i.e. an iron recovery of 1 × 10−4 )
is more reasonable [16,17]. Therefore, this value was utilized
as the default value for zero metallic iron in the subsequent
calculations.
Table 1
Species considered in the equilibrium calculations
Elements Gases Oxides
Fe CO, CO2 ZnO, PbO
Pb O2 CaO, CaCO3
Zn Pb, PbO 2CaO·SiO2 , 3CaO·SiO2
C Zn, ZnO CaSiO3 , Ca3 SiO5
Fe, FeO CaO·Fe2 O3 , 2CaO·Fe2 O3
SiO2 , 2FeO·SiO2
FeO, Fe3 O4 , Fe2 O3
ZnFe2 O4, ZnSiO4, Fe2 ZnO4
118 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128

Fig. 3. Equilibrium amounts of the iron-, calcium- and calcium plus iron-
containing species as a function of temperature in the absence of metallic iron
as a reducing agent.
Fig. 2. Equilibrium amounts of the zinc- and lead-containing species as a func-
tion of temperature in the absence of a reducing agent.
increasing amount of the lead oxide is converted into liquid lead
The reactant to dust ratio or more simply the reactant ratio and at room temperature about 90% of the lead is present as
(RRFe ) was defined as the number of moles of metallic iron uti- metallic lead. The behaviours of the iron-, calcium- and calcium
lized per 100 g of electric arc furnace dust. The metal recovery plus iron-containing species are shown in Fig. 3. As a result of the
(Ri ), where i represents zinc or lead under a certain set of con- decomposition of zinc ferrite, according to Eq. (12), the amounts
ditions was defined as the amount of metal recovered from the of the various iron oxides increase with temperature. Below
corresponding metal oxide and was calculated as follows: about 1050 K, the amount of free calcium oxide increases with
  temperature as the amount of CaO·Fe2 O3 decreases. At about
mi,m 1050 K, the calcium carbonate begins to decompose and this
Ri = × 100% (11)
mi,o produces additional free lime, which can combine with the free
iron oxide to form increasing amounts of the various calcium fer-
where mi,m is the mass of i in metallic form after reduction and
rites. However, only a portion of the lime reacts and the amount
mi,o is the original mass of i in oxide form. For both zinc and lead,
of free calcium oxide continues to increase. From 1050 K, the
the value utilized for the mass of metal after reduction was that
amount of 2CaO·Fe2 O3 increases rapidly, reaches a plateau
in the gas phase only and any metal produced in the condensed
at about 1300 K and then begins to decrease at about 1500 K.
states was not included in the recovery calculations. In the case
On the other hand, the amount of CaO·Fe2 O3 decreases above
of iron, the amount of metal in the gas phase was negligible and
about 1050 K then begins to increase at about 1500 K. Also,
only the amount in the condensed phases was utilized.
at this temperature the amount of FeO begins to increase. The
behaviours of the calcium-, calcium plus silicon- and calcium
3. Results and discussion plus iron-containing species are shown in Fig. 4. The calcium sil-
icates exhibit different behaviors with regards to both increasing
3.1. Reduction of EAF dust by metallic iron temperature and also the decomposition of the calcium car-
bonate. Below the decomposition temperature of the calcium
In order to fully understand the reduction of EAF dust by
metallic iron, it is useful to consider the behaviour of the
EAF dust in the absence of any reducing agent. Fig. 2 shows
the behaviour of the main zinc- and lead-containing species
in a nitrogen atmosphere. The major effect for zinc is the
increased decomposition of zinc ferrite with increasing temper-
ature according to the following reaction;
ZnO·Fe2 O3 = ZnO + Fe2 O3 (12)
Therefore, the amount of zincite increases with increasing tem-
perature, but considerable zinc ferrite remains even at 1873 K.
With regards to lead, all of the lead exists as lead oxide above
about 800 K. However, below this temperature there is insuffi-
cient oxygen available for the formation of lead oxide, because
of the increasing stability of other species, such as calcium Fig. 4. Equilibrium amounts of the calcium-, calcium plus silicon- and cal-
carbonate, which consume the limited amount of oxygen. Con- cium plus iron-containing species as a function of temperature in the absence of
sequently, as the temperature decreases below about 800 K, an metallic iron as a reducing agent.
 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128
Fig. 5. Equilibrium amounts of the zinc-containing species as a function of
temperature in the presence of metallic iron as a reducing agent. Also included
are the three iron oxides, metallic iron and the two gases, carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide.
carbonate of about 1050 K, the amount of Ca3 SiO5 decreases,
while the amounts of CaSiO3 and 2CaO·SiO2 increase as
the temperature rises. Above 1050 K, the amount of Ca3 SiO5
increases rapidly and then decreases, while the amount of
2CaO·SiO2 decreases and then increases with rising temper-
ature. On the other hand, the amount of CaSiO3 reaches
a peak at about 1050 K and then decreases with increasing
temperature.
For the standard dust composition and for 100 g of dust,
the amount of metallic iron required to reduce all of the zinc
oxide (as both zincite and zinc ferrite) and all of the lead oxide
according to the stoichiometric requirements of Eqs. (3) and
(5), respectively, would be 0.346 mol or a reactant ratio of
0.00346 mol/g. Fig. 5 shows the behaviour of the zinc-containing
species under these conditions and the results can be contrasted
to the values in the absence of a reducing agent as shown in Fig. 2.
Again the atmosphere was nitrogen. Also included in Fig. 5 are
the behaviours of the three iron oxides, metallic iron and the two
gases, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. In the presence of
metallic iron, the equilibrium amount of zinc ferrite is small and
the zinc mainly exists as zincite at temperatures below about
1200 K. Fig. 6 shows the standard free energy changes for the
decomposition of zinc ferrite in the absence of a reducing agent
(Eq. (12)) and also in the presence of metallic iron according to
the following reactions;
ZnFe2 O4 + 2Fe = Zn(g) + 4FeO (13)
ZnFe2 O4 + Fe = Zn(g) + Fe3 O4 (14)
These standard free energy values were calculated per mole of
zinc. The standard free energy change for the decomposition
of pure zinc ferrite (Eq. (12)) to zincite and hematite is slightly
positive at all temperatures and becomes increasingly positive as
the temperature increases. However, in the presence of metallic
iron, the decomposition of zinc ferrite to zinc vapour and iron
oxide becomes highly favourable as the temperature increases.
Eq. (13) is the most favourable with the standard free energy
change becoming negative at temperatures above about 1300 K,
while Eq. (14) has a negative standard free energy change at tem-
119
Fig. 6. Standard free energy changes for the decomposition of zinc ferrite both
in the absence (Eq. (12)) and the presence of metallic iron as a reducing agent
(Eqs. (13) and (14)). Also included is the reaction of metallic iron with carbon
dioxide (Eq. (15)).
peratures above about 1400 K. Furthermore, the standard free
energy change for Eq. (13) is more negative than Eq. (14) at all
temperatures above about 900 K. Therefore, the decomposition
and reduction of zinc ferrite to zinc vapour and wustite is the
most favourable reaction. As shown in Fig. 5, the production of
gaseous zinc begins at about 1100 K. There is very little hematite
under any conditions and although there is a significant amount
of magnetite at room temperature, its concentration decreases
until about 1380 K and then begins to slowly increase. The
major iron oxide reaction product at all temperatures is wustite.
As the magnetite decreases, the amount of wustite increases
from room temperature, then peaks at about 1500 K and finally
decreases.
The reaction of 1 mol of metallic iron with carbon dioxide
generates 1 mol of carbon monoxide according to the following
reaction;
Fe + CO2 (g) = FeO + CO(g) (15)
The standard free energy change for this reaction is also included
in Fig. 6 and becomes negative at temperatures above about
850 K. Therefore, beginning at about 1100 K, carbon monoxide
can participate in the reduction process and reduce the zincite
or zinc ferrite according to the following reactions;
ZnO + CO(g) = Zn(g) + CO2 (g) (16)
ZnFe2 O4 + 2CO(g) = Zn(g) + 2FeO + 2CO2 (g) (17)
All of the metallic iron is consumed by about 1650 K, but the
reduction of zinc oxide to gaseous zinc continues up to 1873 K
and this supplementary reduction can be attributed to the reduc-
tion of some zinc oxide by carbon monoxide. For zincite, Eq.
(3) is equivalent to the sum of Eqs. (15) and (16), while for zinc
ferrite, Eq. (13) is equivalent to the sum of twice Eq. (15) plus
Eq. (17). Thus, it can be seen that in the presence of carbon
dioxide, the reduction of the non-ferrous metals involves not
only metallic iron but also carbon monoxide and is therefore a
coupled reduction reaction. Nonetheless, under the present con-
120 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128

Fig. 7. Equilibrium amounts of the lead-containing species as a function of Fig. 8. Equilibrium amounts of the calcium-, calcium plus silicon- and calcium
temperature in the presence of metallic iron as a reducing agent. plus iron-containing species as a function of temperature in the presence of
metallic iron as a reducing agent.
ditions, even at 1873 K only about 70% of the zinc oxide is
reduced. 3.2. Selective reduction of EAF dust by metallic iron
The behaviours of the lead-containing species are shown in
Fig. 7. As mentioned previously and as shown in Fig. 2, even The zinc and lead recoveries as a function of the reactant ratio
without metallic iron as a reducing agent, liquid lead is the stable and the temperature for reduction by metallic iron are shown in
form of lead at temperatures below about 800 K, above which Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. The reactant ratio was varied from
lead oxide predominates. However, in the presence of metallic 1 × 10−4 to 0.08 mol/g and temperatures from 1273 to 1873 K.
iron, the lead oxide is even less stable and liquid lead exists up Since there is no metallic iron produced under any of the condi-
to about 1250 K and subsequently the liquid lead is converted tions utilized in this work, then the metallic iron recovery was
into lead vapour. This continues up to about 1650 K, where zero. As shown in Fig. 9, at a fixed reactant ratio, the zinc recov-
both the amounts of the metallic iron and liquid lead become eries increased continuously with temperature. The highest zinc
equal to zero and the amount of lead vapour reaches a maxi- recoveries in the range of 90–94% were achieved for tempera-
mum value. Subsequently, above this temperature, the amount tures from 1813 to 1873 K and for reactant ratios from 0.006 to
of lead vapour decreases to some extent. In addition, the con- 0.01 mol/g. Zinc recoveries of over 95% could not be achieved.
ditions become slightly more oxidizing for lead and this results At reactant ratios below 0.006 mol/g there is insufficient reduc-
in the formation of some condensed lead oxide and an even ing agent to reduce all of the zinc oxide, either as zincite or zinc
smaller amount of gaseous lead oxide. This formation of both
condensed and gaseous lead oxide limits the lead recovery for
these selected conditions. Again, as was observed for zinc, the
reduction of the lead oxide is incomplete and only about 87%
of the lead is recovered in gaseous metallic form. This incom-
plete reduction of the non-ferrous metal oxides is due to the
additional consumption of the metallic iron reducing agent due
to the reduction of the iron oxides according to Eqs. (1) and
(2).
Fig. 8 shows the behaviours of the calcium-, calcium plus
iron- and calcium plus silicon-containing oxide species in the
presence of iron as a reducing agent and these can be con-
trasted with the results without iron as a reducing agent, as
shown in Fig. 4. In general, the amounts of the calcium ferrites
(CaO·Fe2 O3 and 2CaO·Fe2 O3 ) decrease with increasing tem-
perature up to about 1500 K. At this temperature the majority
of the calcium carbonate has decomposed and the maximum
amount of lime has been produced. As shown in Fig. 5, at
the same temperature of about 1500 K the amount of wustite
reaches a maximum value. Subsequently, the amounts of both
CaO·Fe2 O3 and 2CaO·Fe2 O3 begin to increase. With regards to
the calcium silicates, the amount of 2CaO·SiO2 increases with
temperature while Ca3 SiO5 exhibits the opposite behaviour. Fig. 9. Zinc recovery as a function of reactant ratio and temperature.
 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128 121

Fig. 10. Lead recovery as a function of reactant ratio and temperature.

Fig. 11. Selectivity factor for zinc as a function of reactant ratio and temperature.

ferrite. On the other hand, at higher reactant ratios, the partial iron utilized in the selectivity calculations for zinc and lead was
pressure of zinc under reducing conditions becomes higher than the default value of 1 × 10−6 mol. Therefore, the regions for the
that in equilibrium with pure liquid metallic zinc at the same maximums in the selectivity factors for zinc and lead would be
temperature. Therefore, some of the zinc from the EAF dust is expected to correspond to those where the maximum gaseous
obtained in liquid form and therefore the recovery of gaseous metal recoveries are attained. For zinc, selectivity factors of
zinc decreases with increasing reactant ratio above 0.01 mol/g. between six and almost seven could be achieved over both a
As mentioned previously, since lead oxide is less stable than wide range of temperatures from 1663 to 1873 K and a wide
zinc oxide, then the reduction of lead oxide occurs more easily range of reactant ratios from 0.005 to 0.08 mol/g. However, the
than zinc oxide, and as a result the range for the maximum in the highest selectivity factors of between 6.5 and 6.9 could only
lead recovery occurs at lower temperatures. As shown in Fig. 10, be achieved over temperatures from 1813 to 1873 K and for
at a given reactant ratio, the lead recovery increases continuously reactant ratios from 0.006 to 0.01 mol/g. As shown in Fig. 12,
with temperature, in a manner similar to zinc, but then reaches
a maximum and subsequently decreases slowly with increasing
temperature. Recoveries of 90–95% could only be achieved over
a narrow temperature range from 1723 to 1873 K and a restricted
range of reactant ratios from 0.004 to 0.005 mol/g. Therefore, the
conditions for the maximum recovery of lead are significantly
more limited than for zinc. However, as mentioned previously,
the boiling point of lead is considerably higher than the temper-
ature range of 1273–1873 K utilized in this study. In a manner
similar to zinc, as the reactant ratio increases, the vapor pressure
of lead under reducing conditions becomes lower than that in
equilibrium with pure liquid lead at the same temperature and
thus an increasing proportion of the lead is obtained as liquid
lead and this reduces the recovery of gaseous lead. Since the
boiling point of lead is much higher than that of zinc then the
effect of this factor on the recovery is even more pronounced
for lead. As a result, beyond the maximum, the lead recovery
decreases rapidly. As noted previously for zinc, lead recoveries
of over 95% could not be achieved.
The selectivity factors for zinc, lead and zinc plus lead
as a function of temperature and reactant ratio are shown in
Figs. 11–13, respectively. Since there is no metallic iron pro-
duced as a result of the reduction process, then the amount of Fig. 12. Selectivity factor for lead as a function of reactant ratio and temperature.
122 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128

Fig. 13. Selectivity factor for zinc plus lead as a function of reactant ratio and Fig. 14. Zinc recovery as a function of temperature and pressure for a reactant
temperature. ratio of 0.003 mol/g.

selectivity factors for lead of again between six and almost seven
could be attained for temperatures from 1633 to 1873 K and for
reactant ratios of 0.002–0.007 mol/g. However, the highest lead
selectivity factors of about 6.7–7 could only be achieved for tem-
peratures from about 1723 to 1873 K and for reactant ratios of
0.004–0.005 mol/g. The range of the highest electivity factors for
lead is again limited for the same reasons mentioned previously
for lead recovery as shown in Fig. 10. The zinc plus lead selectiv-
ity factors are shown in Fig. 13 and it can be seen that combined
selectivity factors in the range of twelve to almost fourteen could
only be achieved in the temperature range of 1723–1873 K and
for reactant ratios of 0.003–0.006 mol/g. Selectivity factors of
over thirteen could only be achieved for temperatures from 1723
to 1873 K and for reactant ratios from 0.005 to 0.006 mol/g.
to 1 × 10−6 bar and temperatures in the range of 1273–1873 K,
zinc recoveries from about 98 to almost 100% could be achieved,
with the higher recoveries occurring at the higher temperatures.
These results are in general agreement with the experimental
results of Itoh and Azakami [13], who reported zinc recoveries
of up to 97% at 1 × 10−5 bar and at 1373 K. Also, Sukon-
thanit et al. [10] reported zinc recoveries of almost 100% at
1273 K and at low vacuum. For the reactant ratio of 0.003 mol/g
utilized in the present calculations and for the standard con-

3.3. Effect of reduced pressure

It would be expected that a reduction in the total pressure

would promote the reduction reactions for both the zinc and
lead oxides since the non-ferrous metals are produced in the
gas phase. Figs. 14 and 15 show three dimensional mesh plots
of the zinc and lead recoveries, respectively, as a function of
temperature in the range of 1273–1873 K and total pressures
in the range of 1 × 10−6 to 1 bar. The reactant ratio was fixed
at 0.003 mol/g, which is slightly less than the stoichiometric
requirement for the complete reduction of only the non-ferrous
metal oxides. As discussed previously and as shown in Fig. 9,
at atmospheric pressure the zinc recovery increased continu-
ously with increasing temperature but zinc recoveries of over
95% could not be achieved. With regards to the effect of total
pressure, the recovery of zinc increased with decreasing pres-
sure, and there was a dramatic increase at low pressures and Fig. 15. Lead recovery as a function of temperature and pressure for a reactant
across the whole temperature range. At pressures of 1 × 10−5 ratio of 0.003 mol/g.
 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128 123

ditions at 1 bar, the amount of iron is insufficient to reduce

all of the zinc oxide. However, at the very low pressures, the
zinc oxide reduction is essentially complete, and this would
indicate that more of the metallic iron reducing agent is being
utilized for the reduction of the zinc oxide rather than for the iron
oxides.
As mentioned previously and as shown in Fig. 10, for a
given set of conditions and at atmospheric pressure (1 bar) the
lead recovery increased with temperature, reached a maximum
and then decreased slowly with temperature. Fig. 15 shows the
effects of both total pressure and temperature on the lead recov-
ery. Since the maximum values of the lead recovery that were
attained at high temperatures and at high to intermediate pres-
sures, were relatively constant in the range of 80–90%, then
a plateau was observed in the lead recovery curve. In a manner
similar to zinc, the lead recovery increased with decreasing pres-
sure below the plateau, with the effect being more pronounced
at both low temperatures and low pressures. A comparison of
Figs. 14 and 15, shows that the effect of pressure was more sig-
nificant for lead below the plateau than for zinc, under similar
conditions. This reflects the fact that because of the relatively
high boiling point of lead, in comparison to zinc, the major-
ity of zinc would be present as gas and the majority of lead
as liquid under normal conditions over the temperature range
of 1273–1873 K. As the pressure decreased, the maximum in
the lead recovery attained higher values and occurred at lower
temperatures. This behaviour can be compared with that of zinc
(see Fig. 14), where the maximum zinc recoveries were also
obtained at low pressures but in contrast at higher temperatures.
Lead recoveries approaching 100% could be achieved at very
low pressures. For example, for total pressures from 0.01 to
1 × 10−6 bar and for temperatures in the range of 1273–1513 K,
lead recoveries of 98–100% could be attained. These lead recov-
ery values are in good agreement with the experimental results
of Sukonthanit et al. [9], who found that over 99% of the lead
was removed from an EAF dust in the temperature range of
1173–1373 K and at 2 × 10−3 bar.
Fig. 16a–c shows the effect of pressure on the behaviour of
the lead-containing species, at the two extremes of the temper-
ature range. As shown in Fig. 16a, at 1273 K a reduction in
pressure converts more of the liquid lead into gaseous lead, with
the effect being more significant at lower pressures. There is a
small amount of condensed lead oxide at very low pressures.
At 1873 K as shown in Fig. 16b, the conditions are more oxi-
dizing with respect to lead and therefore there is considerable
condensed lead oxide at atmospheric pressure. There is no liquid Fig. 16. (a): Equilibrium amounts of the lead-containing species as a function of
metallic lead and as the pressure decreases, the amount of con- pressure at 1273 K and a reactant ratio of 0.003 mol/g. (b) Equilibrium amounts
densed lead oxide decreases continuously. On the other hand, of the lead-containing species as a function of pressure at 1873 K and a reactant
the amounts of both gaseous metallic lead and gaseous lead ratio of 0.003 mol/g. (c) Enlargement of (b) showing the equilibrium amounts
of the lead-containing species for pressures below 0.05 bar.
monoxide increase at the expense of the condensed lead oxide.
As shown more clearly in Fig. 16c, the amount of lead monoxide
gas reaches a maximum and the amount of gaseous lead reaches rapidly while the corresponding amount of gaseous metallic lead
a minimum at about 6 × 10−3 bar. This behaviour reflects the increases.
increasing stability of gaseous lead monoxide, in comparison The selectivity factors for zinc and lead and zinc plus lead
to gaseous metallic lead, at low pressures for the selected con- are shown as a function of temperature and pressure in the three
ditions. At even lower pressures and below the minimum in dimensional mesh plots in Figs. 17–19, respectively. Once more,
lead recovery, the amount of gaseous lead monoxide decreases as for the recovery plots as a function of temperature and pressure
124 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128
Fig. 17. Zinc selectivity factor as a function of temperature and pressure for a
reactant ratio of 0.003 mol/g.
(Figs. 14 and 15), the reactant ratio was fixed at 0.003 mol/g.
Again, since the value for the amount of iron recovered was
the default value of 1 × 10−6 mol then the selectivity factors
reflect the trends observed in the metal recovery curves as shown
in Figs. 14 and 15. Although selectivity factors in the range
of about 5 to about 7.5 can be achieved over a wide range of
conditions, the zinc recovery is low (see Fig. 14) and therefore
these values for the selectivity factor reflect that the amount
of iron recovered was taken as 1 × 10−6 mol. As a result, in a
Fig. 18. Lead selectivity factor as a function of temperature and pressure for a
reactant ratio of 0.003 mol/g.
Fig. 19. Combined zinc plus lead selectivity factor as a function of temperature
and pressure for a reactant ratio of 0.003 mol/g.
manner similar to the recovery curves for zinc (see Fig. 14),
significant zinc selectivity factors in the range of about 7.5 to
almost 8.5 could only be achieved in the temperature range of
about 1673–1873 K and for the pressure range of 1 × 10−4 to
1 × 10−3 bar. Particularly high selectivity factors of about 11
could be achieved at the extremely low pressures of 1 × 10−5
and 1 × 10−6 bar and at the high end of the temperature range.
However, these high selectivity factors are due to a zinc recovery
value of very close to 100%, for example, 99.999%, and thus
represent only a marginal increase in recovery from the values
at the slightly higher pressures of 1 × 10−3 and 1 × 10−4 bar.
With regards to lead, as shown in Fig. 18, high selectivity fac-
tors can be obtained in the range of about 6–7 along the plateau.
However, in a manner corresponding to zinc and as shown
in Fig. 15, under these conditions along the plateau, the lead
recoveries were low, except at low temperatures and pressures.
Significant selectivity factors of about 7–7.5 could be achieved
for total pressures from 0.021 to 1 × 10−5 bar and temperatures
in the range of 1273–1573 K. At a pressure of 1 × 10−6 bar, lead
selectivity factors in the range of 7–7.5 could be attained across
the whole temperature range. Again, the increasing stability of
lead oxide vapour at low pressures results in a decrease in the
lead recovery and therefore there is a valley in the three dimen-
sional mesh plot, with the valley becoming more pronounced at
the higher temperatures.
The combined zinc plus lead selectivity factors, as shown in
Fig. 19, reflect the fact that extremely high selectivity factors for
zinc are attained at high temperatures and low pressures. Fur-
thermore, the plateau in the selectivity mesh plot for lead alone
is evident in the combined selectivity plot and the extremely
high combined selectivity factors at high temperatures and low
pressures reflect the high selectivity factors for zinc. Although
relatively high combined selectivity factors of 12–13 can be
achieved over a wide range of conditions at high temperatures,
 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128 125

Fig. 20. (a) Effect of the calcium oxide content of the dust on the zinc and lead recoveries. The temperature was 1873 K and the reactant ratio was 0.002 mol/g. (b)
Effect of the calcium carbonate content of the dust on the zinc and lead recoveries. The temperature was 1873 K and the reactant ratio was 0.002 mol/g. (c) Effect of
the calcium ferrite content of the dust on the zinc and lead recoveries. The temperature was 1873 K and the reactant ratio was 0.002 mol/g. (d) Effect of the magnetite
content of the dust on the zinc and lead recoveries. The temperature was 1873 K and the reactant ratio was 0.002 mol/g.

the metal recoveries would be relatively low. Significant selec-
tivity factors of 13–15 could be achieved at low pressures from
about 0.410 to 1 × 10−4 bar and factors of from 15 to 19 for
pressures of 1 × 10−4 to 1 × 10−6 bar with the lead recovery
generally being higher at lower temperatures and the zinc recov-
ery being higher at higher temperatures.
3.4. Effect of dust composition and an inert gas
The amounts of the various species in the dust can affect
the equilibrium composition of the reaction products in three
major ways. Firstly, an increase in the amount of free calcium
oxide, which is a very stable oxide and therefore not reduced
under the present conditions, could result in an increase in the
amounts of the various calcium ferrites. Secondly, an increase
in the amount of an oxide, which is relatively easily reduced,
such as the non-ferrous metal oxides and the hematite and mag-
netite, would result in an increased consumption of reducing
agent. Thirdly, an increase in the amount of calcium carbonate
results in an increase in the amounts of both calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide, when the calcium carbonate decomposes. As
mentioned previously, the calcium oxide can affect the equilib-
rium product composition but, in addition, the carbon dioxide
can react with iron to produce carbon monoxide as described
by Eq. (15). This not only consumes the metallic iron reducing
agent but the carbon monoxide can also reduce the non-ferrous
metal oxides and regenerate carbon dioxide. The effects of cal-
cium oxide, calcium carbonate, calcium ferrite and magnetite
on the zinc and lead recoveries are shown in Fig. 20a–d, respec-
tively. The temperature was 1873 K and the reactant ratio was
0.002 mol/g, which is insufficient to reduce all of the non-ferrous
metal oxides. Both the zinc and lead recoveries increased with
calcium oxide and calcium carbonate. The addition of calcium
oxide to the dust resulted in a significant increase in the amount
of 2CaO·Fe2 O3 , which is a very stable oxide, and also a cor-
responding decrease in the amount of FeO. Because of these
factors, the amount of hematite and/or magnetite that is reduced
by the metallic iron is decreased and thus more reducing agent is
available for the non-ferrous metal oxides and this leads to the
improved recovery. Calcium carbonate not only provides cal-
cium oxide but also carbon dioxide. However, 1 mol of carbon
dioxide reacts with 1 mol of metallic iron to produce 1 mol of
carbon monoxide as given by Eq. (15). Therefore, although the
carbon dioxide affects the equilibrium composition of the reac-
tion products, it does not have a significant effect on the amount
of iron consumed. Thus, in a manner similar to calcium oxide,
126 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128
both the zinc and lead recoveries increase with the amount of
calcium carbonate as there is more reducing agent available to
reduce their respective oxides. On the other hand, CaO·Fe2 O3
is relatively unstable in comparison to 2CaO·Fe2 O3 . Thus, the
addition of CaO·Fe2 O3 results in the generation of additional
Fe2 O3 , which consumes the metallic iron reducing agent and
reduces the recovery of the non-ferrous metals. Since magnetite
is reduced by metallic iron in the reduction process, then any
additional Fe3 O4 will consume the metallic iron reducing agent
and the recovery of the non-ferrous metals will decrease.
It would be expected that the addition of an essentially inert
gas, for example, nitrogen, would promote those reactions that
result in the production of gaseous species, such as those for the
non-ferrous metals, while the reduction of the iron oxides would
not be promoted, which should lead to improved separation. The
effect of nitrogen gas on the equilibrium amounts of both the
zinc- and the lead-containing species are shown in Fig. 21a and
b, respectively, for again a reactant ratio of 0.002 mol/g and a
temperature of 1873 K. For zinc as shown in Fig. 21a, the amount
of gaseous zinc increases rapidly with nitrogen and then more
Fig. 21. (a) The effect of nitrogen gas on the equilibrium amounts of the
zinc-containing species for a reactant ratio of 0.002 mol/g and a temperature
of 1873 K. (b) The effect of nitrogen gas on the equilibrium amounts of the
lead-containing species for a reactant ratio of 0.002 mol/g and a temperature of
1873 K.
Fig. 22. The effect of the addition of nitrogen gas on the equilibrium amounts
of the zinc- and the lead-containing species for the same temperature of 1873 K,
but for a reactant ratio of an order of magnitude higher at 0.02 mol/g.
slowly, while the corresponding zinc oxide content decreases
rapidly and then more gradually. There was a small increase
in the amount of zinc ferrite with low nitrogen additions. For
lead as shown in Fig. 21b, initially, the lead-containing species
behaved in a manner similar to the zinc species, with the amount
of gaseous lead increasing and the amount of condensed lead
oxide decreasing. However, since the reactant ratio and there-
fore the amount of iron was insufficient for complete reduction
of the non-ferrous oxides and the temperature was relatively high
at 1873 K, then the amount of gaseous lead monoxide began to
increase more rapidly with nitrogen, than the gaseous metallic
lead. Therefore, the amount of gaseous lead reached a plateau
from about 0.5 to 1.5 mol of nitrogen and then began to rapidly
decrease and subsequently more slowly, while the amount of
gaseous lead monoxide continued to increase. At high nitrogen
levels, the amount of gaseous metallic lead became lower than
the value obtained without any nitrogen addition, as both the
condensed lead oxide and the gaseous lead vapour were con-
verted into gaseous lead monoxide. However, for reactant ratios
approaching those required for complete reduction of the non-
ferrous metal oxides then the amounts of both condensed and
gaseous lead oxide would be significantly reduced. For example,
Fig. 22 shows the behaviour of both the zinc- and the lead-
containing species for the same temperature of 1873 K, but for
a reactant ratio of an order of magnitude higher at 0.02 mol/g.
Under these conditions, the various non-ferrous metal oxides are
not stable and only the metals exist in substantial amounts. Zinc
vapour predominates over the whole range as the major zinc-
containing species. Since the zinc content of the dust is 0.329 mol
then it can be seen that a zinc recovery of 100% is achieved for
nitrogen additions of over 3 mol. However, for lead because of
its high boiling point, as discussed previously, both gaseous lead
and liquid lead coexist with the amount of gaseous lead increas-
ing and the amount of liquid lead decreasing with increasing
nitrogen, as the partial pressure of lead vapour decreases.
Fig. 23 provides a comparison of the effects of the addition
of nitrogen with the effect of reduced pressure on the recover-
ies of zinc and the lead for a reactant ratio of 0.025 mol/g. The
lead recoveries were calculated at 1273 K and the zinc recov-
eries were calculated at 1573 K. Nitrogen additions of up to
 C.A. Pickles / Separation and Purification Technology 59 (2008) 115–128
Fig. 23. Comparison of the effects of the addition of nitrogen with the effect
of reduced pressure on the recoveries of zinc and lead for a reactant ratio
of 0.025 mol/g. The lead recoveries were calculated at 1273 K and the zinc
recoveries were calculated at 1573 K.
about 11 mol resulted in significant improvements in both the
zinc and lead recoveries. However, above about 10 mol of nitro-
gen, the zinc recovery increased slowly while the lead recovery
remained relatively constant. On the other hand, with regards
to the effect of pressure, the zinc and lead recoveries were rela-
tively low except at extremely low pressures. At pressures below
about 0.02 bar, the zinc recovery was higher than that at any
nitrogen addition. Conversely, the lead recovery was always
less than that in nitrogen even at the very low pressures. There-
fore, under these conditions, nitrogen additions can be utilized
to improve the non-ferrous metal recovery. However, recoveries
of zinc approaching 100% can only be achieved by operating at
extremely low pressures.
4. Conclusions
1. The equilibrium module of Outokumpu HSC Chemistry® 5.1
was utilized to calculate the equilibrium composition of the
products resulting from the reaction of a standard electric arc
furnace dust composition with metallic iron, as the reducing
agent. The temperature was varied from 1273 to 1873 K and
the reactant ratio (moles of reducing agent per 100 g of EAF
dust) was varied from 1 × 10−4 to 0.08 mol/g at atmospheric
pressure. The highest zinc recoveries in the range of 90–94%
were achieved over a narrow temperature range from 1813
to 1873 K and for reactant ratios from 0.006 to 0.01 mol/g.
Lead recoveries of 90–95% could only be achieved over the
temperature range from 1723 to 1873 K and a restricted range
of reactant ratios from 0.004 to 0.005 mol/g.
2. The degree of separation of the zinc or lead from the iron
was determined quantitatively using the selectivity factor (β)
over the same temperature and reactant ratio ranges. Since
the iron recovery value utilized in the selectivity factor cal-
culations was the default value of 1 × 10−4 , then the ranges
for the maximum selectivity values were the same as for the
maximum recovery. The highest selectivity factors for zinc
127
of between 6.5 and 6.9 could only be achieved over tempera-
tures from 1813 to 1873 K and for reactant ratios from 0.006
to 0.01 mol/g. The highest lead selectivity factors of about
6.7–7 could only be achieved for temperatures from about
1723 to 1873 K and for reactant ratios of 0.004–0.005 mol/g.
3. Significant improvements in both the non-ferrous metal
recoveries and the selectivity factors could be achieved by
reducing the total pressure. The reactant ratio was fixed at
0.003 mol/g and the pressure was varied from 1 × 10−6 to
1 bar over the temperature range of 1273–1873 K. At pres-
sures of 1 × 10−5 to 1 × 10−6 bar and temperatures in the
range of 1273–1873 K, zinc recoveries from about 98 to
almost 100% could be achieved, with the higher recover-
ies occurring at the higher temperatures. Lead recoveries of
98–100% could be attained for total pressures from 0.01 to
1 × 10−6 bar and temperatures in the range of 1273–1513 K.
Zinc selectivity factors in the range of about 7.5 to almost
8.5 could be achieved in the temperature range of about
1673–1873 K and for the pressure range of 1 × 10−4 to
1 × 10−3 bar. Lead selectivity factors of between 7 and 7.5
could be achieved for total pressures ranging from 0.021 to
1 × 10−5 bar and temperatures in the range of 1273–1573 K.
4. The composition of the dust had a significant effect on the
zinc and lead recoveries. The addition of lime or calcium
carbonate resulted in an increase in the non-ferrous metal
recoveries due to the increased formation of calcium ferrites.
This decreased the amount of free iron oxide and therefore
the amount of the reducing agent consumed by the iron oxide.
On the other hand, the addition of calcium ferrite or magnetite
resulted in a decrease in the non-ferrous metal recovery due
to the increased consumption of the reducing agent by the
additional iron oxide. Nitrogen additions can be utilized to
improve the zinc and lead recoveries at a given temperature
and reactant ratio.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to acknowledge the support of the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC).
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