10 UNIT 3.

METALS
Occurrence of Metals
A mineral where most metals come from, is a naturally occurring substance with a range of chemical
composition
A mineral deposit concentrated enough to allow economical recovery of a desired metal is known as
ore. Thus, an ore is a deposit in Earth's crust of one or more valuable minerals.

Occurrence of Metals
Most abundant metals which exists as minerals in the Earth's crust
• Aluminum Iron, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Titanium, Manganese

Occurrence of Metals
 Seawater is a rich source of some metal ions, such as Na+, Mg2+ and Ca2+
 Moreover, vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with manganese nodules which are made
up mostly of manganese, along with iron, nickel, copper, and cobalt in a chemically combine
state.
 Manganese nodules are combinations of rock on the sea bottom which is composed of
concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a core.

 Metals having low reactivity show little affinity for air, moisture, carbon dioxide or other non-
metals present in nature. Such metals may remain in elemental or native (free) state in nature.
Such metals are called "noble metals as they show the least chemical reactivity. For example
gold, silver, mercury and platinum occur in free state
 On the other hand, most of the metals are active and combine with air, moisture carbon
dioxide and non-metals like oxygen, sulphur, halogens, etc to form their compounds, like
oxides, sulphides, carbonates, halides and silicates Le, they occur in nature in a combined
state.

Metallic Bonding

 Metallic bond, force that holds atoms together in a metalic substance. Such a solid consists of closely packed
atoms
 A metallic bond is a type of chemical bond formed between positively charged atoms in which the free electrons
are shared among a lattice of cations
 A delocalized electron is an electron in an atom, ion, or molecule not associated with any
single atom or a single covalent bond
 Delocalized electrons are also commonly seen in solid metals, where they form a “sea” of electrons that are free
to move throughout the material. This is why metals are typically excellent electrical conductors.

Metallurgy
 The science and technology of separating metals from their ores and of compounding alloys is
called metallurgical process.
 An alloy is a solid solution either of two or more metals, or of a metal or metals with one or
more nonmetals

The three principal steps in the recovery of a metal from its ore are
1) Preparation of the ore
2) Production of the metal, and
3) Purification of the metal

1. Preparation of the Ore

 In ore prior treatment, the desired mineral is separated from waste materials that is usually
clay and silicate minerals which are collectively called the gangue
 Simply put, this is the removal of impurities, aka. Gangue which are usually clay and silicate
materials.
2. Production of Metals
 The production of a free metal is a reduction process. It is because metals in their combined
forms always have positive oxidation numbers.
 Preliminary operations may be necessary to convert the ore to a chemical state more suitable
for reduction.
 For example, an ore may be roasted to drive off volatile impurities and at the same time to
convert the carbonates and sulfides, to the corresponding oxides, which can be reduced more
conveniently to yield the pure metals:
CaCD,(s) → CaO(s) + C0,(9)
2PbS (s) + 30, (g) 2PbO(s) + 250 (g)
CaCO,(s) → CaD(s) +C0,(8)
2PbS(s)+30, (g) 2Pb0 (s) + 250₂ (g)
 Most major metallurgical processes now in use involve pyrometallurgy, procedures carried
out at high temperatures.

Types of reduction that can be used in the production of metals:

1. Chemical Reduction
2. Electrolytic Reduction

3. The Purification of Metals

 Metals prepared by reduction usually need further treatment to remove impurities
The extent of purification, of course, depends on how the metal will be used.

Three common purification procedures are:

1. Distillation
2. Electrolysis
3. Zone refining
1. Distillation
 Metals that have low boiling points, such as mercury, magnesium, and zinc, can be separated
from other metals by fractional distillation. One well-known method of fractional distillation is
the Mond process (named after Ludwig Mond, a British chemist of German origin) for the
purification of nickel.

 Pure metallic nickel is recovered from Ni(CO) by heating the gas at 200°C
Ni(CD), (g) →→ Ni(s) + 4CD(g)
  The carbon monoxide that is released is recycled back into theprocess.
2. Electrolysis
 Another important purification technique is electrolysis.
 The copper metal obtained by roasting copper sulfide usually contains impurities such as zinc,
iron, silver, and gold. The more electropositive metals are removed by an electrolysis process
in which the impure copper acts as the anode and pure copper acts as the cathode in a sulfuric
acid solution containing Cu2+ ions.
 The reactions are:

3. Zone Refining
 In this process, a metal rod containing a few impurities is drawn through an electrical heating coil
that melts the metal.
 Most impurities dissolve in the molten metal. As the metal rod emerges from the heating coil, it
cools and the pure metal crystallizes, leaving the impurities in the molten metal portion that is still
in the heating coil.
 In zone refining, the liquid metal acts as the solvent and the impurities as the solutes.) When
the molten zone carrying the impurities, now at increased concentration, reaches the end of
the rod, it is allowed to cool and is then cut off.

Top to bottom: An impure metal rod is moved slowly through a heating coil. As the metal rod moves
forward, the impurities dissolve in the molten portion of the metal while pure metal crystallizes out in
front of the molten zone.

The Metallurgy of Iron

Raw Materials
 Iron Ore - Iron ores contain from 50% to around 70% iron, depending on grade (hematite is
almost 70% iron).
 Scrap iron and steel are also widely used today as raw materials in iron- and steel making.
 Coke - Supplies heat for chemical reactions and produces carbon monoxide (CO) to reduce
iron ore
 Limestone - Used as a flux to react with and remove impurities in molten iron
 Hot gases (CO, H2, CO2, H2O, N2, O2, and fuels) - Used to burn coke

Blast Furnace Process – a refractory-lined chamber with a diameter of about 9 to 11 m (30 to 35 ft)
at its widest and a height of 40 m (125 ft).
Pig iron – product of blast furnace. It contains over 4% C, plus other impurities: 0.3-1.3% Si, 0.5-
2.0% Mn, 0.1-1.0% P, and 0.02-0.08% S.

Steel
 It is an alloy of iron containing from 0.02% and 2.11% carbon by weight. It often includes other
alloying elements: manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum.
Steel alloys can be grouped into four categories:
1.Plain carbon steels
2.Low alloy steels
3.Stainless steels
4.Tool steels

● Casting of ingots – a discrete production process

Molds made of high carbon iron, tapered at top or bottom for removal of solid casting. The mold is
placed on a platform called a stool. After solidification the mold is lifted, leaving the casting on the
stool. 10-12 hrs may be required for casting to solidify.
Steel
● Continuous casting – a semi-continuous process
 Continuous casting is widely applied in aluminum and copper production, but its most
noteworthy application is in steel-making. Dramatic productivity increases over ingot casting.
Continuous casting reduces solidification time by an order of magnitude. Steel is poured into
tundish and flows into a watercooled continuous mold; it solidifies as it travels down in mold
 Pig iron is the iron obtained from the blast furnace and it contains about 4% of carbon as
impurity. Along with carbon, Si, P and Mn are also present in pig iron as impurity. Pig iron is
malleable and can be molded into a variety of shapes.
 Cast iron is the iron obtained by melting of the mixture of pig iron and scrap iron and coke by
hot air blast. It has around 3% of carbon content. So, it is more pure than pig iron. Cast iron is
extremely hard and brittle.
 Cast iron has lower carbon content (3%) as compared to pig iron (4%) and is extremely hard
and brittle.
Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)
 Accounts for 70% of steel production in

Four Categories of Steel

1.Plain carbon steels. Carbon is the principal alloying element, only small amounts of other
elements (.5% manganese is normal); strength increases with carbon content, but ductility is reduced;
high carbon steels can be heat treated to form martensite, making the steel very hard and strong.
 Low carbon steels - contain less than 0.20% C, used in automobile sheet-metal parts, plate
steel for fabrication, railroad rails
 Medium carbon steels - range between 0.20% and 0.50% C, used in machinery components
and engine parts such as crankshafts and connecting rods
 High carbon steels - contain carbon in amounts greater than 0.50%, used in springs, cutting
tools and blades, wear-resistant parts
2.Low alloy steels
 Iron-carbon alloys that contain additional alloying elements in amounts totaling less than 5% wt.
 Mechanical properties superior to plain carbon steels for given applications due to higher
strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear resistance, toughness, and more desirable combinations
of these properties
 Heat treatment is often required to achieve these improved properties
3.Stainless steels
 Highly alloyed steels (typically with Cr and/or Ni) designed for corrosion resistance.
 In addition to corrosion resistance, stainless steels are noted for their combination of strength
and ductility.
  While desirable in many applications, these properties generally make SS difficult to work in
manufacturing.
 Significantly more expensive than plain C or low alloy steels since chromium carbide forms to
reduce available free Cr.
 Duplex stainless - mixture of austenite and ferrite in roughly equal amounts
4.Tool steels – is a class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed for use as industrial cutting tools,
dies, and molds. To perform in these applications, they must possess high strength, hardness, hot
hardness, wear resistance, and toughness under impact. Tool steels are heat treated.

Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity

 It states that delocalized electrons move freely through “bands” formed by overlapping
molecular orbitals.
 In a metallic crystal, the atoms are packed closely together, so the energy levels of each atom
are affected by the immediate neighbors of the atom as a result of orbital overlaps. The
interaction between two atomic orbitals leads to the formation of a bonding and an
antibonding molecular orbital.

Electronegativity
 Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electrons when the atom is
part of a compound. Electronegativity values generally increase from left to right across the
periodic table.
 Electronegativities generally decrease from top to bottom of a group. The highest
electronegativity value is for fluorine (4.0) and Cesium the lowest (EN = 0.79).
 This indicates that fluorine has a high tendency to gain electrons from other elements with
lower electronegativities. We can use these values to predict what happens when certain
elements combine.
 Since metals have few valence electrons, they tend to increase their stability by losing
electrons to become cations. Consequently, the electronegativities of metals are generally
low.
Metallic Property
 Metallic character increases as you move down an element group in the periodic table. This is
because electrons become easier to lose as the atomic radius increases, where there is less
attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons because of the increased distance
between them.
Atomic Radius
 Atomic radius is determined as the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms bonded
together. The atomic radius of atoms generally decreases from left to right across a period.
The atomic radius of atoms generally increases from top to bottom within a group.
 The smaller the atomic radius, the more influence the nucleus has on reactivity. Since the
nucleus of an atom contains positively charged protons, it also attracts electrons. Halogen
atoms already want to gain electrons, so the added force of nuclear pull makes them more
reactive.
  From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity decreases. This is because atomic
number increases down a group, and thus there is an increased distance between the
valence electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic radius.

Electron Affinity
 Electron Affinity is the degree to which an atom or molecule attracts additional electrons; the
minimum energy required to remove an electron from a negative ion to produce a neutral atom
or molecule.
 Electron affinity increases upward across periods of a periodic table for the groups and from
left to right, because the electrons added to the energy levels get closer to the nucleus, making
the nucleus and its electrons more attractive.
 Electronegativity refers to the ability of the atoms to attract the electrons from the other
elements. Electron affinity refers to the amount of energy that is liberated whenever a molecule
or a neutral atom tends to acquire an electron from the other elements.
Physical Properties of Metals
 Shiny appearance. Metals show a metallic luster. Due to their shiny appearance they can be
used in jewelry and decorations. Particularly gold and silver are widely used for jewelry. In the
old days, mirrors were made of shiny metals like silver. Silver is a very good reflector. It reflects
about 90% of the light falling on it. All modern mirrors contain a thin coating of metals.
 Hardness. Metals are mostly harder to cut. Their hardness varies from one metal to another.
Some metals like sodium, potassium and magnesium are easy to cut.
 Malleability. Metals can be hammered into thin sheets. Most metals are malleable. Gold and
Silver metals are the most malleable metals. They can be hammered into very fine sheets.
Thin aluminium foils are widely used for safe wrapping of medicines, chocolates and food
material.
 Ductility. Metals can be drawn into thin wires. Wires are made from copper, aluminium, iron
and magnesium.
 Electrical conductivity. Electric wires in our homes are made of aluminium and copper. They
are good conductor of electricity. Electricity flows most easily through gold, silver, copper and
aluminium. Gold and silver are used for electrical contacts in computers. Copper wires are
used in electrical appliances while aluminium is generally used for making electrical cables.
No two metals are absolutely identical.

Chemical Properties of Metals

 When metals are burned with the presence of oxygen, they combine with oxygen to form
metallic oxides.
 Water reactivity. Different metals react differently with water. Sodium reacts violently with
water forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. Magnesium reacts mildly with water but
vigorously with steam. Zinc and iron react mildly with steam. Copper, gold and silver do not
react with water at all. Most metals, on reacting with water produce hydroxide.
 Acid reactivity. Most metals react with acids to produce salts and hydrogen.
Corrosion
 Corrosion is the deterioration of metals by an electrochemical process like rusting of iron and
tarnishing of silver.
 Copper forms a layer of copper carbonate (CuCO 3), a greenish substance called platina
 Silver forms silver sulfide (Ag2S) 
Corrosion Protection
 Passivation – the surface of the iron metal is made inactive by treating it with a strong
oxidizing agent such as nitric acid to form a thin oxide layer at the surface. Sodium chromate is
used for radiators and cooling systems.
 Alloys – combining the metal with other metals to reduce its tendency to oxidize.
 Plating- applying a thin layer of other metals like tin or zinc on the surface of the iron.
 Cathodic protection - a process in which metal that is to be protected from corrosion is made
the cathode in what amounts to a galvanic cell.
Designation Schemes for Steels
 Designation Scheme for Steels - developed by American Iron and Steel Institute 
(AISI) and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), so designation often expressed as AISI or SAE

Nonferrous Metals
 Nonferrous Metals – metal elements and alloys not based on iron
 Most important engineering metals in nonferrous group are aluminum, copper, magnesium,
nickel, titanium, and zinc, and their alloys. 
 Although not as strong as steels, certain nonferrous alloys have corrosion resistance and/or
strength-to-weight ratios that make them competitive with steels in moderate-to-high stress
applications. Many nonferrous metals have properties other than mechanical that make them
ideal for applications in which steel would not be suitable.
Alkali Metals
 The most electropositive or the least electronegative elements known are the alkali metals.
 These metals have a body-centered crystal structure with low packing efficiency.
 They are also known because of their low melting point and soft enough to be sliced with a
knife.
 The lightest known metal is lithium and has great chemical reactivity. Lithium never occur
naturally in elemental form and they are found with halide, sulfate, carbonate, and silicate ions.

Alkaline Earth Metals

 The alkaline earth metals (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium)
are the second most reactive metals in the periodic table, and, like the Group 1 metals, have
increasing reactivity in the higher periods.
 shiny
 silvery-white
 somewhat reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure
 readily lose their two outermost electrons to form cations with a 2+ charge ●low densities
 low melting points
  low boiling points

Aluminum
 High electrical and thermal conductivity
 Corrosion resistance is excellent due to formation of a hard thin oxide surface film
 Very ductile metal, noted for its formability
 Pure aluminum is relatively low in strength, but it can be alloyed and heat treated to compete
with some steels, especially when weight is taken into consideration.
 Properties of Al alloys are influenced by work hardening and heat treatment, so temper must be
designated in addition to composition. This designation is attached to the 4-digit code, separated
by a hyphen, to indicate treatment or no treatment. 

Transitional Metals
Copper
 Low electrical resistivity - commercially pure copper is widely used as an electrical conductor
excellent thermal conductor
Properties of Copper
 Strength and hardness of copper is relatively low; to improve strength, copper is frequently
alloyed
 Bronze - alloy of copper and tin (typically ~90% Cu, 10% Sn), widely used today and in ancient
times (i.e., the Bronze Age). Additional bronzes include aluminum bronzes and silicon bronzes
 Brass - alloy of copper and zinc (typically ~65% Cu, 35% Zn).
 Highest strength alloy is beryllium-copper (only about 2% Be), which can be heat treated to
high strengths and used for springs

Nickel and Its Alloys
Similar to iron in some respects:
 Magnetic
 Modulus of elasticity is approximately same for iron and steel
 Much more corrosion resistant - widely used as (1) an alloying element in steel, 
e.g., stainless steel, and (2) as a plating metal on metals such as plain carbon steel
 High temperature properties of alloys are superior

Titanium and Its Alloys

 density of Ti is between aluminum and iron
 light weight and good strength-to-weight ratio (thus used in aerospace applications)
Properties of Titanium
 Coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively low among metals
 Stiffer and stronger than Al
 Retains good strength at elevated temperatures
 Pure Ti is reactive, which presents problems in processing, especially in molten state
 At room temperature Ti forms a thin adherent oxide coating (TiO 2) that provides excellent
corrosion resistance.
Applications of Titanium
 In the commercially pure state, Ti is used for corrosion resistant components, such as marine
components and prosthetic implants
 Titanium alloys are used as high strength components in temperatures ranging from ambient
to above 550°C (1000°F), especially where its excellent strength-to-weight ratio is exploited
 Alloying elements used with titanium include aluminum, manganese, tin, and vanadium
Zinc and Its Alloys
 Low melting point makes it attractive as a casting metal, especially die casting
 Also provides corrosion protection when coated onto steel or iron
 The term galvanized steel refers to steel coated with zinc
 Widely used as alloy with copper (brass)

Lead and Tin

- often considered together because of their low melting temperatures and use as soldering alloys
Lead - dense, low melting point; low strength, low hardness, high ductility, good corrosion resistance
 Applications: solder, plumbing pipes, bearings, ammunition, type metals, xray shielding,
storage batteries, and vibration damping
Tin - even lower melting point than lead; low strength, low hardness, good ductility
 Applications: solder, bronze, "tin cans" for storing food

Refractory Metals
Molybdenum
 Used as a pure metal (99.9+% Mo) and alloyed
 Properties: high melting point, stiff, strong, good high temperature strength
 Applications: heat shields, heating elements, electrodes for resistance welding, dies for high
temperature work (e.g., die casting molds), and parts for rocket and jet engines. Also widely
used as an alloying ingredient in steels and superalloys

Tungsten
 Properties: highest melting point among metals, one of the densest, also the stiffest (highest
modulus of elasticity) and hardest of all pure metals
 Applications typically characterized by high operating temperatures: filament wire in
incandescent light bulbs, parts for rocket and jet engines, and electrodes for arc welding. Also
widely used as an element in tool steels, heat resistant alloys, and tungsten carbide

Columbum Tantalum
Superalloys - high-performance alloys designed to meet demanding requirements for
strength and resistance to surface degradation at high service temperatures
 Many superalloys contain substantial amounts of three or more metals, rather than consisting
of one base metal plus alloying elements.
 Commercially important because they are very expensive.
 Technologically important because of their unique properties.
 Room temperature strength properties are good but not outstanding.
  High temperature performance is excellent – tensile strength, hot hardness, creep resistance,
and corrosion resistance at very elevated temperatures.
 Applications: gas turbines - jet and rocket engines, steam turbines, and nuclear power plants –
systems in which operating efficiency increases with higher temperatures

Three Groups of Superalloys

1. Iron-based alloys - in some cases iron is less than 50% of total composition
2. Nickel-based alloys - better high temperature strength than alloy steels Other elements: Cr, Co;
also: Al, Ti, Mo, and Fe
3. Cobalt-based alloys ≈40% Co and ≈20% chromium Other alloying elements include Ni, Mo, and
W
Shaping, Assembly and Finishing Processes for Metals
 Metals are shaped by all of the basic processes: casting, powder metallurgy, deformation, and
material removal
 Metal parts are joined to form assemblies by welding, brazing and soldering, and mechanical
fastening
 Heat treating is performed to enhance properties
 Finishing processes (e.g., electroplating and painting) are commonly used to improve
appearance of metal parts and/or to provide corrosion protection

 Alloying - important technique to strengthen metals

 working - strain hardening during deformation to increase strength (also reduces ductility).
Strengthening of the metal occurs as a byproduct of the forming operation
 Heat treatment - heating and cooling cycles performed on a metal to beneficially change its
mechanical properties. They operate by altering the microstructure of the metal, which in turn
determines properties.

Types of Heat Treatments to improve quality:

 Normalizing - The material is heated to between 750-980 °C then cooled at room temperature;
product: high strength and high ductility, tougher than annealed steel.
 Annealing – heating above the critical temperature then controlled cooling inside a furnace.
During normalizing, thinner pieces will cool faster in the air and become harder than thicker pieces.
But, with annealing and its furnace cooling, the hardness of both thick and thin parts will be
comparable.
 Quenching – heating then rapid cooling in water or oil, for hardening steel.
 Tempering – reheating below critical temperature, holding the temperature for a specific period,
then then slowly cooling in still air.