1.

Introduction

Recently, the development of high strength steels manufactured by the cold drawing process

has become an important subject in the steel pipes and wires industries because the cold drawing

process effectively increases the tensile strength without significantly degrading the ductility

[1,2]. Cold drawn steel pipes contributes to reduced cross sectional area, greater clearance

heights and easier fabrication and inspection [3]. The use of steel pipes has been preferred to a

great extent in high rise buildings that can achieve a combination of lightweight structure with

good architectural aesthetic [4]. Therefore the study of mechanical properties of cold drawn steel

at elevated temperatures is very important to make sure that the high-temperature resistance

design of steel can be done properly. Under elevated temperature condition, the mechanical

properties of steel reduced with increasing temperature. Current literatures including various

steel, design standards do not present accurate reduction factors for the yield strength and

elasticity modulus of cold-formed steels at elevated temperatures because there are no clear

relationship between the elasticity modulus and the steel grade and thickness of steel, but the

steel grade has only an influence on the yield strength [5]. Deterioration of mechanical properties

of steels under high temperature conditions is dependent on steel grades [6]. The value of yield

strength is very important for use in engineering structural design that the structures are able to

perform in the elastic region under normal servicing condition. However, when faced with

unexpected impact loads such as explosions, high temperatures or natural disasters such as

earthquakes, etc, the plastic region of the material becomes crucial. In addition, the values of

Young’s modulus is a material property useful in design for calculating compliance of structural

materials that follow Hooke’s law when subjected to uniaxial loading.

 A better understanding and knowledge of mechanical properties of cold drawn steel is

essential for the development of accurate and cost-effective structure engineering component for

high-temperatures steel applications. The use of accurate mechanical properties for cold drawn

steels will lead to safe design of steel structures under high temperature conditions. Yuan et al.

[4] investigated the high temperature mechanical properties of cold formed Q345 steel pipe using

the steady-state test and transient. Based on the tested results they proposed a material model for

high-temperatue resistant design of Q345 steel pipe product. Chen et al. [7] conducted the

experimental tensile tests for the high strength steel (BISPLATE 80) and mild steel

(XLERPLATE grade 350) at the temperatures ranging from of 22 C940 C. Their results show

that the reduction factors of yield strength and elastic modulus of high strength steel and mild

steel are quite similar for the temperatures ranging from 22 to 540 °C, but this is not the case for

temperatures greater than 540 °C. Qiang et al. [8] reported that the current European standard [9]

and American standard AISC [10] are only conservative for the prediction of elastic modulus of

HSS S690, but non-conservative for predicting the yield strength and the ultimate strength of

HSS S690.

In recent years a comprehensive comparative study which focuses on the influence of the

temperatures with respect to the mechanical properties of cold drawn steel for high-temperatures

design has not been performed so far. In addition, no current design standard can be safely used

to conduct high temperature-resistance design of steel structures with cold rolled mild steel as

well as cold rolled high strength steel. The paper presents a comprehensive experimental study

on the influence of the temperature on the material properties of cold drawn AISI 1018 steel. A

comparative study considering typical mathematical models for high-temperatures mechanical

behaviour of cold drawn steel is numerically derived from the test results. Finally, the test results
are compared to results of high-temperature steady-state tensile tests for cold rolled mild steel

and cold rolled high strength steel, given in a literatures [48] and to current European [9] and

American [10] for elevated temperatures design rules.

2. Experimental Procedure

2.1 Material and test equipments

In this study, all the specimens were cut from a commercial cold drawn AISI 1018 steel round

with diameter of 12 mm. The tensile specimen was machined using CNC Turning Emcotronic

TM02 according to ASTM E8M [11]. The dimensions of the specimen is shown in Fig. 1, and a

photograph of the specimens is shown in Fig. 2. The MTS Landmark with capacity 100 kN

material testing machine and for the heating, the high-temperature furnace with a temperature

controller were used (Fig. 3). The controller can control the accuracy of the temperature to ±1

°C. The furnace has two heating elements and two K type thermocouples. The MTS model

632.13F-20 axial extensometer with a gauge length of 10 mm and the MTS 632.54F-14 high

temperature axial extensometer with a maximum working temperature of 1200 °C and a gauge

length of 12 mm were used.

Figure 1. Detailed dimensions of the specimens (all in mm)

Figure 2. A photograph of specimens
 Figure 3. MTS Landmark material testing

2.2 Tension tests at elevated temperatures.

In the room temperature (RT = 25 C) tension test, strains were measured by using an MTS

model 634.13F-20 axial extensometer, and the sampling frequency was 10 Hz. In the steady state
test, the heating rate was 20 °C/min. The specimen temperatures were recorded using two

thermocouples (XCIB series from Omega) attaching to the specimen one near each end of the

reduced section recommended by ASTM E21 [12], as shown in Fig. 3.

The steady state tests had 10 temperature levels: 100 °C, 200 °C, 300 °C, 400 °C, 500 °C, 550

°C, 600 °C, 650 °C, 700 °C and 750 °C. At the beginning of the steady state test, the specimen

was first heated up to a pre-selected temperature and was held for 35 min at the constant

temperature. During the temperature heating and holding process, the thermal expansion of

specimen was allowed by setting zero tensile load. Then, a tension load was applied at a constant

displacement rate until failure while maintaining the pre-set temperature. Displacement control

was used with a displacement rate of 0.5 mm/min, and the strain rate obtained from the

extensometer was approximately 0.007/min satisfying the requirements of ASTM E21 [12]. The

MTS model 632.54F-14 high temperature axial extensometer was used, and the sampling

frequency was 10 Hz. All of the experiments were repeated three or five times. To avoid the

alumina rod extensometer broken, the extensometer removal point was set up to 0.02 mm/mm. In

the present results, all incremental strains were only recorded up to 0.02 mm/mm for plot the

curves of stress vs. strain. Each data obtained from a different specimens tensile tests at elavated

temperatures was chosen according to the goodness of fit R 2  95% obtained from a polinomial

regression of the reduction factor-temperature relationship curves.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Analysis tested results and proposed models

Fig. 4 shows the tested stress–strain relationships at different temperature levels under

steady-state test condition. The elastic modulus was determined from the curve stress vs. strain

within segment length of 20% slope region of elastic curve. The stress-versus-strain data
obtained in the slope region, further was ploted and fitted graphically a straight line to determine

elastic modulus of the steel by the method of least squares [13]. The reduction factor of the

elastic modulus is defined as the ratio of the elastic modulus, ET, at temperature T and the elastic

modulus at room temperature, E. In this study, the stress with a 0.2% strain was used as the

nominal yield strength of the specimen. The reduction factor of yield strength is then defined as

the ratio of yield strength of steel fyT at temperature T to the yield strength fy at room temperature.

Figure 4. Stress-strain relationship for cold drawn AISI 1018 steel at elevated temperatures

The complete axial force–displacement curves are also displayed in Fig. 5. Fig 5 shows the static

drop due to pausing the applied strain for a minute for removing the extensometer. In that case,

the stress relaxation associated with plastic strain to take place would generate the stress drop for
while [7], but the effect of loading rate can be eliminated. The ultimate strength reduction factors

were calculated based on the ratio of ultimate strength at a particular elevated temperature (fuT) to

that at ambient temperature (fu). The ultimate strengths and their reduction

Figure 5. Typical axial force–displacement curves according to steady state tests for cold drawn

AISI 1018 steel.

factors at elevated temperatures obtained is given in Table 1. The reduction factors

recommended in current design standards are not applicable to cold drawn steels. Therefore,

several sets of predictive equations for cold drawn steel based on available literature were

proposed herein, for accurate evaluating the high temperature performance of steel structures

with cold drawn steel products. As temperature was the main reason causing the deterioration of

material properties of steel, the equations were developed as a function of the elevated
temperature T, which specimens have been exposed to a high tempeartures. Therefore, it is

reasonable to use the material properties tested by the steady-state test method for the high-

temperature resistance design of cold drawn AISI 1018 steel. Therefore in this study, based on

the steady-state test results the three polynomial models for yield strength and four polynomial

model for elastic modulus were developed to calibrate with the test data using numerical analysis

software Origin. We propose three simplified formulas, as shown in Eq. (1) to Eq. 3 for

calculating the reduction factors of the elastic modulus, yield strength, and ultimate strength of

cold drawn AISI 1018 steel at elevated temperatures, respectively. The mathematical model for

prediction of ultimate strength is based on the Ref. [14-16]. Fig. 6 shows the comparison

between the test results and the model's predictions. It is evident that predictions from the

proposed models are in good agreement with the test data.

 Figure 6. Elastic modulus, yield strength, and ultimate strength comparison between tested

results and proposed models.

ET / E=−3.992 ×10−12 T 4 +1.1738 ×10−9 T 3+1.094 × 10−6 T 2−6.106 ×10−4 T +0.987 ( 100 ° C ≪T ≪ 750 ° C )

(1)

f yT /f y =−5.036× 10−9 T 3+2.588 × 10−6 T 2−3.091 ×10−4 T + 0.967 ( 100 ° C ≪T ≪750 ° C ) (2)

f uT /f u =−2.084 ×10−7 T 2 +7.724 ×10−5 T +0.969 ( 100° C ≪ T ≪300 ° C ) (3a)

f uT /f u =−2.168 ×10−5 T 2+1.967 × 10−2 T−3.394 ( 400 ° C ≪T ≪ 600 ° C ) (3b)

f uT /f u =−3.825 ×10−3 T + 2.948 ( 650 ° C ≪T ≪750 ° C ) (3c)

Table 1. Elastic modulus, yield strength, and ultimate strength of cold drawn AISI 1018

steel at elevated temperatures and their reduction factors

 Temp. Reduction factor
E (GPa) fy (MPa) fu (MPa)
(C) ET/E fyT/fY fuT/fu
25 197.162 544.351 554.044 1 1 1
100 184.218 526.245 539.822 0.934 0.968 0.974
200 182.384 523.671 540.638 0.925 0.9628 0.976
300 174.276 524.503 539.145 0.884 0.964 0.973
400 176.693 508.747 556.749 0.896 0.935 1.005
500 166.647 502.643 585.249 0.845 0.923 1.056
550 159.47 418.185 482.999 0.809 0.768 0.872
600 148.262 316.501 331.718 0.752 0.581 0.599
650 130.938 259.456 277.327 0.664 0.477 0.501
700 104.608 150.964 166.763 0.531 0.277 0.301
750 75.158 48.759 65.410 0.3812 0.089 0.118

3.2. Elastic Modulus

As an important factor influencing the stiffness of steel structures, the deterioration of elastic

modulus with temperature increasing affects load-bearing capacity of steel structures evidently.

Thus, it is significant to understand the deterioration of elastic modulus under high temperature

conditions quantitatively, for evaluating the high temperature performance of steel structures and

correspondingly conducting safe high temperature-resistance design. Under high temperature

conditions the elastic modulus of steel is determined from the stress–strain curve at the

corresponding temperature [Fig. 4].

As shown in Fig. 4 and Table 1, the elastic modulus ET of cold drawn AISI 1018 steel

decreases with the increase in temperature T. When T  100 °C, there is considerable reduction

of the elastic modulus ET. At temperature ranging 300 °C-500 °C, the reduction of the elastic

modulus ET decreases gradually. At T = 700 °C, ET = 150.964 GPa which is approximately

53.1% of the elastic modulus E = 197.62 GPa at room temperature. However, when T = 750 °C,

the elastic modulus ET = 75.158 GPa, which is approximately 38.12% of the elastic modulus E at

room temperature.
 Figure 7. Comparison of elastic modulus reduction factor and temperature relationships from

research literatures and current design standards.

The deterioration of elastic modulus under high temperature conditions is represented by

reduction factor at corresponding temperature. Reduction factor of elastic modulus is determined

from the ratio of elastic modulus at some elevated temperature to that at ambient temperature. In

current European and American standards, reduction factors are recommended for high

temperature-resistance design and high temperature evaluation of steel structures because of their

simplicity. Herein the reduction factors of elastic modulus of cold drawn AISI 1018 steel under

various steady state high temperature conditions were obtained and presented in Table 1. The
reduction factors of elastic modulus under steady state high temperature condition obtained from

this experimental study were compared with some current design standards Eurocode 3 [9] and

AISC [10]. The available researches on cold formed mild steel and cold formed HSS, is shown in

Fig. 7. It confirmed the conclusion that the elastic modulus of cold drawn AISI 1018 steel at

elevated temperatures was higher than that of Q356 pipe steel, SG500, and SQ690QL steels. For

Bisplate 80 the results from Chen et al. [7] agree well with this experimental study. Moreover,

Q356 pipe steel [4], SG550 [5], and HSS S690QL [6] are generally non conservative for cold

drawn AISI 1018. The current standards of Eurocode 3 [9] and AISC [10] are not also

conservative for cold drawn AISI 1018, but only conservative for cold formed Q356 pipe steel

[4] and HSS steel [5,6]. It means that the recommendations of Eurocode 3 [9] and AISC [10] for

cold drawn steel is not appropriate.

The comparisons between the proposed models and some existing material models from the

current design codes and research literatures for calculating the elastic modulus and yield

strength are presented in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, respectively. As can be seen from Fig. 6, the reduction

factors of the elastic modulus at elevated temperatures, calculated using different models

considerably vary. Compared to the Eurocode 3 [9] and AISC model designs [10] and previous

studies [4-7], the reduction factors of the elastic modulus at a temperature below 400 C are

relatively lower than those of the current models (Fig. 7). However, the reduction factor of the

elastic modulus at ranging temperature 400C750 C is remarkably higher than the values

predicted by the current models. Hence, all previous models mentioned above are not suitable for

high-temperature resistance design of cold drawn steel. The model proposed in this study gives a

variation values compared to the other models at a different high-temperatures. So, the proposed
models can be used for the high-temperature resistance calculations of cold drawn steel

structures.

Figure 8. Comparison of yield strength reduction factor and temperature relationships from

research literatures and current design standards

3.3. Yield strength

The reduction factors of yield strength recommended by Eurocode [9] are based on the strain

levels of 0.2%. In AISC [10], no specification on strain level accompanies the recommended

reduction factors for yield strength. The yield strength under elevated temperatures conditions

used herein was defined based on a total strain 0.2%, to agree with the commonly used method at
ambient temperature. The reduction factors of yield strength for cold drawn AISI 1018 obtained

from this study are also compared with those of several typical cold formed Q356 pipe steel

product [4] and high strength cold formed steels [5-8], as shown in Fig. 8. The current model

predictions of Eurocode [9] and AISC [10] are also involved as reference. These comparisons

show that there are a considerable discrepancy in the reduction factors for different steel grades

at elevated temperatures. Fig. 8 shows that the predictions of Eurocode [9] and AISC [10] are

applicable to cold drawn steel at ranging temperature 100 C400 C.

It is validated that the yield strength-reduction factors of cold drawn AISI 1018 steel at

elevated temperatures are higher than those of cold formed Q356 steel [4], cold formed SG550

[5], and HSS S690QL [8]. However, there are slighthly good agreements between this

experimental study with those given by Qiang et al. [6] for HSS S460N at ranging temperature

100 C400 C and Chen et al. [8] for Bisplate 80 steel at temperature above 500 C. The

reduction factors recommended in Eurocode 3 [9] and AISC [10] are only conservatife for the

HSS S460N, but they are generally nonconservative for cold formed steel [4,5,7,8] and cold

drawn steel in comparison to this experimental results. These comparisons show that there are a

considerable discrepancy in the reduction factors for different steel grades at elevated

temperatures. Fig. 8 shows that the predictions of Eurocode 3 [9] and AISC [10] are not

applicable to cold drawn steel for exposure higher temperature of 400 C. It seemed that only

cold formed mild steels could be predicted accurately by Eurocode 3 [9] and AISC [10]. Hence,

Eurocode 3 [9] and AISC [10] are confirmed not applicable to a different steel grades. It means

that none current design standard has any specifications on the difference of mechanical

properties for different steel grades, which might raise risks to conduct design of cold drawn

steels for high-temperature applications.

 It can be seen from Table 1 and Fig. 5 that the yield strength of cold drawn AISI 1018 steel

increased with the increase in temperature, the reduction factor of yield strength fyT shows

slightly lower than that of the yield strength of the steel tested at the room temperature. When the

temperature over ranging 500 °C  T  600 °C, the reduction of the yield strength fyT increases

gradually. In particular, when T  600 °C, the yield strength fyT reduces sharply. At T = 650 °C,

the yield strength fyT = 259.456 MPa, which is approximate 48% of the yield strength fy = 544

MPa at room temperature.

Figure 9. Comparison of ultimate strength reduction factors with cold rolled high strength steels

and American design standard AISC.

3.4. Ultimate strength

The ultimate strength reduction factors were calculated based on the ratio of ultimate strength

at a specified elevated temperature to that at ambient temperature. The ultimate strengths

reduction factors obtained under steady state elevated temperature condition are given in Table 1.

They are compared with the recommendations of American design standard AISC [10], as

presented in Fig. 9. The reduction factors of ultimate strength from the cold formed mild steel

and the cold formed HSS [4-6] are not generally adopted for cold drawn steel, except for the

BISPLATE 80 steel, the reduction factor can be adopted for above temperature 500 C [7]. In

AISC [8] the recommendations for ultimate strength reduction factors obtained mainly from mild

steels are uniform for all steel grades, as shown in Fig. 9 which are proved not safe for cold

drawn steel for the temperature below 500 C. Therefore, some unique recommendations are

necessary for cold drawn steel as well as other high strength steel grades, to accurately predict

the deterioration of their ultimate strengths under high temperature conditions.

It can be seen from Table 1 and Fig. 9 that the ultimate strength of cold drawn AISI 1018 steel

increased with the increase in temperature. At the temperature ranging of 400 °C500 °C, the

reduction factor of ultimate strength fuT shows slightly higher than that of the ultimate strength of

the steel tested at the room temperature. Such anomalous behavior of the increased ultimate

strength of the cold drawn steel is attributed to dynamic strain aging (DSA) induced hardening,

where at this range temperature, the production and motion of dislocation during mechanical

testing can generate the high-temperature plastic deformation. The resistance of dislocation

motion and mode of dislocation motion are controlling factors of deformation process [xx]. The

strain hardening of the steel is affected by interstitial solute carbon atoms diffusion from the

pearlite region into the ferrite region [18].

3.5. Microstructural and fractural observations

From a mechanical point of view, the graph in Fig. 4 shows the combinations of stress and

strain curve that have been reached for the cold drawn AISI 1018 steel, according to elevated

temperature conditions. The cold drawn steel has high strength and low ductility (Fig. 5).

According to Fig. 10, the evolution of recrystallized grains can clearly be distinguished from the

elongated deformed grains on the OM microstructues observation (Fig. 10b to Fig.10f) compared

with the Fig. 10a. No remarkable microstrutuctures differences of the steel are observed at test

temperature ranging 100 C400 C (Fig. 10b and 10c). As shown in Fig. 4 and Fig 5, when the

test temperature is elevated above 500 C, the yield strength and elastic modulus of the steel are

significantly reduced with an increase in the elongation. This phenomenon is related to the

formation of recrystallization grain boundary that caused by weakness of dislocations structures

and the interactions between the mobile dislocations because carbon atoms diffused out from the

pearlite region and inward in the ferrite region when the test temperature is above 550 C. The

pearlite structures transformed to the spheredoize pearlite in the ferrite region was affected by

increasing the exposure temperature, leading to a higher fraction of recrystallization. The tensile

testing temperatures carried out at 400 C and 500 C (Fig. 5 and Tabel 1) show the significance

of the increasing temperature effect leads to the strain hardening caused by the subsequent

deformation caused by the quasi-static test. A comparison between the microstructure of virgin

material and the microstructure of specimens at 400 C and 750 C show that the diffusion of

carbon atoms to the dislocations occurs during this delay and this phenomenon results in pinning

of the available dislocations, corresponding to the onset of recrystallization [14-18], therefore the

tensile strength of cold drawn steel can reach more than the ultimate strength at room

temperature (Fig. 5). Additionally, these high strength values can combine with total elongation
values close to 15%. As the static recrystallization progresses, the tensile strength decreases but

the ductility increases, as shown in Fig. 5. The presence of these pinned dislocations can lead to a

higher strength during reloading of the material due to the need to either nucleate new mobile

dislocations, or to unpin the existing dislocations. This leads to the higher yield points for the

specimens tested at room temperature as depicted in Fig. 4 and Table 1. Increasing in the

temperatures tests can facilitate the diffusion of carbon atoms in the ferrite region. Similarly,

applying high strain rate loading also increases the density of dislocations in the structural mild

steel compared to that caused by quasi-static loading. The main factor in strain ageing effect is

the diffusion of solutes to dislocations, where this diffusion is a thermally activated process [19].

With an increase in temperature, the diffusion of carbon occurs much faster [19]. The diffusivity

depends exponentially on temperature and even at 500 C, the carbon diffusion may be so fast

that all the dislocations are saturated in carbon by the time the sample reaches 750 C. At 550 C

and above, the carbon diffusion happens so fast that strain ageing effect is relatively independent

of straining time at room temperature, as shown in Fig. 10e and 10f.

The fracture surfaces of samples tested at elevated temperature are shown in Fig 11. In all

cases, despite the reduced ultimate strains and strain hardening capacities, the failure remains

ductile (as indicated by the dimpled fractures surfaces). We may be tempted to suggest that the

dimples present on the fracture surface of the sample tested at 550 C (Fig. 11c) are larger than

those on fractures surfaces from samples tested at lower temperatures.

Figure 10. Microstructural evolution of cold drawn AISI 1018 in the fracture region after tensile

tests at different temperatures

 It is likely that this is a reflection of the coarsening of the microstructure that occurs during

the elevated temperature testing. These changes in microstructural evolution during elevated

high-temperatures tensile tests clearly affected on the mechanical response of cold drawn AISI

1018 steel. Microstructural changes occur during annealing after cold plastic deformation. These

three mechanisms are sometimes referred to as restoration processes, because they restore the

microstructural configuration to a lower energy level. All three processes involve diffusion and

thus depend on thermal activation to cause rearrangement of dislocations and grain boundaries.

The mechanisms of recovery and recrystallization also depend on the extent of plastic

deformation.
 In contrast, grain growth is not in direct response to deformation, but it is a thermally driven

restoration process that results in lower surface energy of individual grains. Recovery and

recrystallization can occur during hot working or during annealing after cold plastic deformation.

When a metal is cold worked by plastic deformation, a small portion of the mechanical energy

expended in deforming the metal is stored in the specimen. This stored energy resides in the

crystals as point defects (vacancies and interstitials), dislocations, and stacking faults in various

forms and combinations, depending on the metal. Therefore, a cold-worked specimen, being in a

state of higher energy, is thermodynamically unstable. With thermal activation, such as provided

by annealing, the cold-worked specimen tends to transform to states of lower energies through a

sequence of processes with microstructural changes, as shown schematically in Fig.10. Such

classification is approximate; some overlapping between the stages usually occurs because of

microstructural nonhomogeneity of the specimen. To some extent, the annealing behavior of a

metal may be different from metal to metal and for the same metal of different purity, but the

basic phenomena involved in the various annealing stages are similar. During recovery,

accumulated strain is relieved to some extent by microstructural and submicroscopic

rearrangements, but the grains are not entirely strain-free.

Figure 11. SEM images of cold drawn AISI 1018 fracture surface after tensile tests at different

temperatures (a) at RT, (b) 200 C, (c) 550 C, and (d) 750 C. Dimples at fracture surface are

highlighted at right side images with higher magnification.

At higher temperatures, strain-free grains are created during the restoration process of

recrystallization. Along with the microstructural changes, the properties of the specimen also

change correspondingly (Fig. 5). Thus, deformation and testing temperatures are important

processing methods for changing properties of the steel by affecting its microstructures. Similar

restoration process can also occur during hot working. This is shown in Fig. 10 for hot working

with moderate amount of reduction (strain) during working (Fig.10a) and high strain (Fig.10b).

The regions of static recovery and recrystallization, which occur after deformation, are

analogous to restoration of worked structure by annealing. In addition, dynamic recovery can

occur during deformation at high temperature. Figure 10 also illustrates the occurrence of either

static or dynamic recrystallization at moderate or high strains, respectively, depending on the

stacking-fault energy of a metal. Stacking faults in crystalline structures are planar-type defects

that influence hardening and recrystallization. The fracture surface of specimen tested at all

temperatures invariably consists of dimples of varying sizes (Fig. 11), evidencing the

predominantly ductile mode of failure, with voids attributed to the sites of precipitates,which act

as crack initiation points [20]. The difference in respective work hardening parameters with

increase in temperature from room to high temperatures suggests that the dislocation sub-

structural behaviour in its totality is different in the two temperature regimes. At higher

temperatures, significant reduction in strength with increase in temperature indicates the

acceleration in recovery processes [21]. The thermal activation available at high temperature

may also contribute to the low work hardening rateat high temperatures. However, the change of

yield strength and crossover of stress–strain curves in certain region may be related to the texture

effect or intrinsic work hardening effects [19].

 [1] C. Borchers, R. Kirchheim, Cold-drawn pearlitic steel wires, Prog. Mater. Sci. 82 (2016)

405–444.

[2] D.B. Park, J.W. Lee, Y.S. Lee, K.T. Park, W. J. Nam, Effects of the annealing temperature

and time on the microstructural evolution and corresponding the mechanical properties of

cold-drawn steel wires, Met. Mater. Int. 14 (1) (2008) 5964.

[3] C. Maraveas, Z.C. Fasoulakis, K.D. Tsavdaridis, Mechanical properties of high and very

high Steel at elevated temperatures and after cooling down, Sci. Rev. 6:3 (2017) 113.

[4] G. Yuan, Q. Shu, Z. Huang, Q. Li, An experimental investigation of properties of Q345

steel pipe at elevated temperatures, J. Constr. Steel Res. 118 (2016) 41.

[5] T. Ranawaka, M. Mahendran, Experimental study of the mechanical properties of light

gauge cold-formed steels at elevated temperatures, High temperature Saf. J. 44 (2009) 219.

[6] X. Qiang, F.S.K. Bijlaard, H. Kolstein, Deterioration of mechanical properties of high

strength structural steel S460N under steady state high temperature condition, Mater. Des.

36 (2012) 438.

[7] J. Chen, B. Young, Brian Uy, Behavior of high strength structural steel at elevated

temperatures, J. Struct. Eng. 2006.132:1948-1954.

[8] X. Qiang, F. Bijlaard, H. Kolstein, Dependence of mechanical properties of high strength

steel S690, on elevated temperatures, Const. Build. Mater. (2012); 30: 73–79.

[9] ECCS Eurocode Design Manuals, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, part 1–2,

Structural high temperature design, European Convention for Constructional Steelworks, 1st

E-edition, 2012.

[10] AISC 360, Spesification for Structural Steel Building, American Institute of Steel

Contruction Inc., United States of America, 2005.

[11] ASTM E8, 2004, Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials, West

Conshohocken, United States.

[12] ASTM E21, 2005, Standard Test Methods for Elevated Temperature Tension Tests of

Metallic Materials, West Conshohocken, United States.

[13] ASTM E111, 2004, Standard Test Method for Young’s Modulus, Tangent Modulus, and

Chord Modulus, West Conshohocken, United States.

[14] Heidarpour, N.S. Tofts, A.H. Korayem, X.L. Zhao, C.R. Hutchinson, Mechanical properties

of very high strength steel at elevated temperatures, High temperature Saf. J. 64 (2014) 27.

[15] J. Lu, H. Liu, Z. Chen, X. Liao, Experimental investigation into the post-high temperature

mechanical properties of hot-rolled and cold-formed steels, J. Constr. Steel Res. 121 (2016)

291.

[16] S. Gunalan, M. Mahendran, Experimental investigation of post-high temperature

mechanical properties of cold-formed steels, Thin-Walled Struc. 84 (2014) 241.

[17] X. Zhang, A. Godfrey, X. Huang, N. Hansen, Q. Liu, Microstructure and strengthening

mechanisms in cold-drawn pearlitic steel wire, Acta Materia. 59 (2011) 3422–3430.

[18] M.V. Kumar, V. Balasubramanian, A.G. Rao, Hot tensile properties and strain hardening

behaviour of Super 304HCu stainless steel, J. Mater. Res. Technol. (2017); 6: 116–122.

[19] Akbarpour MR, Ekrami A. Effect of temperature on flow and work hardening behavior of

high bainite dual phase (HBDP) steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. A (2008); 475: 293–8.

[20] Yoshimura N, Ushioda K, Yonemura M, Koyama M, Tanaka M, Noguchi H. Effect of the

state of carbon on ductility in Fe-0.017mass%C ferritic steel, Mater. Sci. Eng. A (2017);

701: 120–8.
[21] S. Gunduz, M. Acarer, The effect of heat treatment on high temperature mechanical

properties of microalloyed medium carbon steel, Mater. Des. (2006); 27: 1076-85.