Table of Contents

Content Page Number

Research Area ………………………………………………………………………..…….. 1

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………….….....….. 2

Research Paper ………………………………………………………………………….….. 3- 6

Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………….….. 7

Appendix …...……………………………………………………………………………..... 8- 10
 Research Area

Unit​: 1

Module​: 1 (Indigenous Societies)

Theme​: 2 (Atlantic Connections)

Topic​: Conquest of the Pre-Columbian Empires of the Americas

Thesis​: Diseases played the most pivotal role in the fall of the Aztec and Inca civilizations as diseases

caused manpower reduction, political destabilization, social division, religious doubt and psychological

trauma.

1
 Introduction

The Atlantic ocean was considered a barrier between ‘worlds’ before the development of

maritime technology. There are arguments, such as the Van Sertima thesis, that suggests that Africans

and Nordic people traveled to the Americas before Columbus. However, traditional concepts of ‘New

World contact’ began in 1492 when Columbus stumbled upon the region.

The Renaissance is the period within European history which marked the transition from the

Middle Ages to the Modern Era and covering the span between the 14th and 17th century. This period is

considered that of the ‘rebirth of learning’. At that time, feudalism was ended and new artists,

philosophers and inventors emerged. By the 15​th ​century, the Europeans had made large capacity boats

and accompanying devices such as the mariner's compass. Similarly, the Europeans began to learn

cartography and how to operate these new technologies. This specialisation in maritime learning and

operation was more vast in Portugal as Prince Henry, ‘the navigator’, commissioned a school for his

citizens to learn about this venture. The prince also sponsored expeditions which saw the Portuguese

landing on the coast of Africa where the Portuguese began to reap great wealth from the continent.

Spain became jealous of their neighbour on the Iberian Peninsula, portugal. Spain became

desperate to compete with the Portuguese and decided to fund Columbus’ voyage West in order to reach

Asia to spread the word of God, trade in goods, acquire gold and get glory in the name of Columbus and

Spain. Columbus failed to reach Asia but instead reached the Americas which they termed the “New

World”. Columbus claimed the lands in the name of Spain. However, the region was already inhabited

by several groups such as the Aztec and Maya in Central America, the Inca and Tupinamba in South

America and the Taino and Kalinago in the Caribbean island. The Europeans mistreated these native

people so they fought fiercely to have these invaders leave their land. However, the indigenes were

unsuccessful in their resistance, partly because of diseases. Diseases played the most pivotal role in the

fall of the Aztec and Inca civilizations as diseases caused manpower reduction, political destabilization,

social division, religious doubt and psychological trauma.

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Research Paper

The 15​th ​century was regarded as the ‘Age of Exploration’ wherein the Portuguese made contact

with the coast of Africa and the Spanish aimed to travel to India. The Spanish did not reach India but

instead ‘discovered’ the Americas in 1492. Several men joined later voyages to the region with the

dream of conquering lands and claiming its wealth. These Europeans found their wealth after they

massacred and exploited the natives of the region. Prior to European contact of 1492, the Aztec and Inca

civilizations occupied parts of Central and South America respectively ​(See Appendix 1 and 2)​. These

group were regarded as vast empires which developed complex political, social and economic structures

and emphasized the importance of religion ​(See Appendix 3)​. These great empires who together had

millions of citizens were conquered by the Spanish in less than two decades. According to Browne and

Carter (2013), the Aztecs’ conquest was led by Hernan Cortes between 1519 and 1522 while Francisco

Pizarro attacked the Inca in 1930. These swift conquests are attributed to many factors including the

technological superiority of the Spanish, their military leadership and diseases which swept through the

“New World”. Arguably, diseases played the most pivotal role in the fall of the Aztec and Inca

civilizations as diseases caused manpower reduction, political destabilization, social division, religious

doubt and psychological trauma.

The Aztecs and Inca suffered vast reduction in manpower following the arrival of European
1
conquistadors to the mainland of Central and South America. Newman (1976) wrote:

there was no sickness; they had no aching bones; they had then no smallpox; they then had no
burning chest; they then had no abdominal pain; they then had no consumption; they then had
no headache. At that time, the course of humanity was orderly. The foreigners made it otherwise
when they arrived here.
Viola and Margolis (1991) assert that the region was never a ‘disease free paradise’ however, the Native

Americans had no immunity to deadly diseases2 that the European brought such as influenza, smallpox,

1​​
Newman (1976) was cited in Viola and Margolis (p. 212)
2
​In this paper, deadly diseases are also referred to as maladies, bacteria, viruses, pathogens, plagues or epidemic.

3
measles, typhus, and cholera. The Indigenous people’s lack of immunity caused thousands of them to

die in each empire while the Europeans were unaffected. Therefore, the Aztec and Inca had a high

mortality rate which reached the ten thousands in the early years of battle; especially the skilled warriors

who were most exposed to the Europeans. Hence, the manpower needed by the empires for battle was

severely depleted by diseases; leaving them defenceless against the Spanish conquerors.

Additionally, diseases played an important role in destabilizing the political landscape of the

Aztec and Incan people. Crosby, et al (2003) articulate that Montezuma was reportedly captured and

killed by Cortes’ men. However, Montezuma’s successor, Cuitlahuac died soon after from smallpox.

The leadership vacuum within the Aztecs empire meant they were unable to adequately strategize and

execute their defence against the Spanish. Likewise, Incan leader Huayna Capac and most of his

potential successors died from smallpox after the Spanish arrived in the neighbouring Aztec empire.

This leadership vacuum resulted in two brothers; Huascar and Atahualpa, fighting against each other to

gain control over the empire. Consequently, the Inca faced political turmoil even before Pizarro landed.

In wake of the political destabilisation caused by diseases, the Aztec and Inca empires were unable to

unite as a people and strategize against their common enemy. Hence, diseases significantly aided the

Spanish in conquering the Aztec and Inca empires by destabilising the political landscape.

Diseases also acted as an agent of social division. The pathogens caused rifts in the Aztec

society. There was growing mistrust between members of the Aztec society as some citizens joined the

Spanish with the hope of being protected against the plague. However, social division as a result of

diseases was presumably worse for the Inca. The Incan royal family, governors and army generals died

from the plagues which swept the land3. The Inca previously had unchallenged leadership succession but

deaths led some citizens to assert that the gods were dissatisfied with the rulers who were appointed. As

a result, the Inca society was divided and a civil war ensued. Pizarro, in his journal wrote:

3
​Crosby, et al (p. 55) mentions several rulers who died to include Huayna Capac (Sapa Inca), Ninan Cuyoche (Inca
son and heir), Apu Hilaquito and Auqui Tupac (governors and the Inca’s uncle and brother), Mama Coca (Inca’s
sister) and other family members. Also, the army general Mihenca Mayta and most of his top men died from various
maladies.

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 Had the land not been divided between Huascar and Atahualpa, we would not have been able to
enter or win land [as we were vastly outnumbered]”4.
Pizarro claimed to have exploited this division by pitting the leaders against each other while his troops

infiltrated the empire and more reinforcement arrived. The society was therefore vulnerable to conquest

by the Spanish as diseases incited disunity among leaders and citizens alike.

Similarly, the epidemic which devastated the Aztec and Inca caused a swift wave of religious

doubt to the society. The Indigenous societies placed great emphasis on their religious practices and

beliefs. The Aztecs believed Huitzilopochtli was supreme and they would face great misfortune if he

were displeased with them. Also, the Inca people believed that their Sapa Inca was divinely chosen as he

descended from the Sun God. It is on that premise that the indigenes began to doubt their gods and

believe the Spaniards’ God was superior to theirs as they saw their comrades dying from plagues while

the Europeans seemed unaffected5. Subsequently, many of Indigenous people began to convert to

Christianity because they saw it futile to fight against such a strong power; not necessarily the

conquistadors but their God. This decision is another example of how the diseases severely affected the

Indigenous people and led to their conquest.

“​I and my companions suffer from a disease of the heart which can be cured only with gold.”
Crosby, et al (2003) cited this famous quote from Hernan Cortes as the European declaration that they

would stop at nothing to conquer the ‘New World’. Some historians argue that the Spanish successfully

did so because of their unmatched military might, strong leadership at various stages6 and advanced

technology. Indeed the indigenes’ sticks, stones, slings, spears, bows and arrows could not contest the

Spaniard’s swords, guns, cannons, horses, hounds and armoured soldiers (​See Appendix 4 and 5 )​.

4
​Pizarro’s words were cited in ​The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492.​
5
​Cleland and Lunenfeld (1992, p. 79) explained these arguments from W.H. McNeill in ​Plagues and People.
6
​The Spanish Conquistadors were led by different soldiers on each expedition. Christopher Columbus ‘discovered’
and claimed most of the ‘New World’ for Spain, Panfilo de Narvaez claimed Jamaica and Cuba, Juan Ponce de Leon
instituted Spanish rule Puerto Rico and tried to capture Florida; Pedro de Alvarado conquered the Maya, Hernan
Cortes defeated the Aztecs, The Pizarro Brothers and Diego Almagro gained control of Inca territories and many
others went in search of El Dorado. Notably, the conquistadors did not find El Dorado but stumbled on other sites
during their quest- Lope de Aguirre found and captured the Margarita Island near Venezuela while Francisco de
Orellana followed the Amazon River to the Atlantic Ocean.

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However, Browne and Carter (2013) state that the Inca alone had 3.5 million citizens when the Spanish

arrived. Also, the indigenes would have had prior knowledge of the local terrain. Therefore, the Aztecs

and Incas could have easily disbanded a few hundred Spanish soldiers as demonstrated in the events of

La Noche Triste.​ ​La Noche Triste, a​ s​ ​described by Worthington (2015) marked a major victory for the

indigenes as they killed many Spaniards and caused others to flee to the previously conquered islands.

However, this win was short-lived as disease struck soon after ​(See Appendix 6)​. Therefore, without the

intervention of the epidemic, the indigenes would have been able to build momentum in resisting the

Spanish. Disease crippled the indigenes and allowed the Spanish to regroup and counterattack. Hence,

maladies played the most significant role in the conquest of the Aztecs and Incas.

Finally, diseases caused the Aztec and Inca to suffer severe psychological trauma. It is

understandable that the sight of innumerable dead indigenes combined with the thought​ ​of being

abandoned by their gods took a toll on their minds. Browne And Carter (2013) say diseases caused the

indigenes to lose overall morale and will to resist. Additionally, Cleland and Lulenfeld (1992) explain

that the effect of psychological trauma were so severe that these once fierce people largely decided to

either stop fighting and turn toward large scale suicide and infanticide to avoid both the harshness of the

Spanish and the inevitability of contracting the diseases which took the lives of their family and friends.

However, others converted to Christianity and joined the conquistadors on their journey to conquest in

an attempt to seek the favour of the Spanish and their God. Therefore, diseases caused the conquistadors

to face very little resistance near the end of their conquest.

In conclusion, the Aztecs and Incas had formidable fighting forces that were crippled by disease

which depleted their manpower, destabilized politics, caused social division, incited religious doubt and

caused psychological trauma. Countless indigenes died, including key leaders; this caused them to be

unable to unite, strategize and fight. The sight of death among indigenes also caused lost morale and

religious conviction among citizens. Therefore, the conquest of the Aztec and Inca was swift and earned

the Spanish land and wealth within the region.

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 Bibliography

Browne, David V. C., and Henderson Carter. ​Atlantic Interactions: A Textbook for Caribbean History

Students.​ Ian Randle, 2013. Print.

Cleland, Joel S., and Marvin Lunenfeld. "1492: Discovery, Invasion, Encounter: Sources and

Interpretations." ​The History Teacher​ 25.3 (1992): 372. Print.

Crosby, Alfred W., John Robert. McNeill, and Otto Von. Mering. ​The Columbian Exchange: Biological

and Cultural Consequences of 1492​. Westport (Connecticut): Prager, 2003. Print.

Viola, Herman, and Carolyn Margolis. ​Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration​.

Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1991. Print.

Worthington, Daryl. “La Noche Triste.” ​New Historian​, FB &c Ltd, 29 June 2015,

www.newhistorian.com/la-noche-triste/4187/​.

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 Appendix

Appendix 1: ​Map of Aztec Empire

Source: ​https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_early_American_societies

Appendix 2: ​Map of Inca Empire (rotated left at 90​o​)

Source: ​http://faculty.montgomerycollege.edu/gyouth/FP_examples/student_examples/shruti_taneja/rotie.html

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 Appendix 3: ​Diagram Comparing the Social Composition of the Aztec and Inca Civilizations

Source: ​https://www.slideshare.net/gsill/aztec-inca-comparison

Appendix 4: ​Representations of the Aztec and Inca Weapons

Source: ​https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aztec_costumes_and_arms_page_99.png

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Appendix 5: ​Representations of the Conquistadors’ with Weapons on Horseback

Source:​https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_horse

Appendix 6: ​Summary of ​La Noche Triste

Although depictions of what happened and why vary, at some point during the Aztec festival of Tóxcatl, Alvaredo’s forces
attacked the Aztec revelers. The festival descended into a horrific massacre, with some estimates claiming that up to 10,000
Aztecs were killed.

Once news of the massacre had spread, Aztec warriors attacked the city and surrounded the Spanish soldiers. Alvaredo
managed to get word of the crisis to Cortes, whose forces quickly returned to Tenochtitlan.

Once inside, Cortes realised he had made a costly mistake. The Aztecs, substantially outnumbering the Spanish forces, swiftly
surrounded the city. What’s more, the Aztecs had lost all loyalty to Montezuma, leaving Cortes with no chance of calming the
angry revolt.

On the night of the 30th June, with water and food running low, Cortes gathered his troops and the loot stolen from the Aztec
city, and ordered a secret retreat. The plan almost worked but the escapees were discovered as they tried to cross the
Mixcoatechialtitlan canal. A brutal fight ensued, with hundreds of Spanish and Tlaxcalan drowning in the canal during the
panic.
Source: Extract from Worthington (2015)

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