English: Oral Communication PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department

SESSION 2: DEFINITION, PROCESS experience

OF COMMUNICATION, AND There is feedback but it is not simultaneous.

COMMUNICATION MODELS
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION MODELS

Communication is any process in which

I. Communication Models (from Oral
people, through the use of symbols, verbally
Communication in Context by
and/or nonverbally, consciously or not
Flores)
consciously, intentionally or unintentionally,
a. Aristotle’s Model of Communication
generate meanings (information, ideas, feeling,
The first and earliest model is that of
and perception) within and across various
Aristotle (5 BC), who was a teacher of
contexts, cultures, channels, and media. (Hybels
rhetoric and even put up an academy to
& Weaver, 2014)
produce good speakers. The following is
Types of Communication Models

What are communication models?

(Message) (Listener)
Communication models are the metaphorical, SPEAKER
SPEECH AUDIENCE
simplified, and systematic representations of the
communication process.
a representation of his model:

1. Linear Model
Although Aristotle focused on the Speaker and
Communication is considered a one-way
the Message, the most important part in his
process where sender is the only one who
model is the Setting where the Learner is
sends message no feedback from receiver the
situated. It is the setting that dictates the
message signal is encoded and transmitted
Message. The three settings in Aristotle’s time
through channel in presence of noise the sender
were legal, deliberative, and ceremonial. The
is more prominent
Legal Setting meant the courts where ordinary
people defended themselves (there were no
2. Transactional Model
lawyers then). The Deliberative Setting meant
Highlights the exchange of messages between
the political assemblies, the highest of which
sender and receiver, where each take turns to
was the Roman Senate. The Ceremonial Setting
send or receive messages both “sender” and
meant the celebrations held when they won a
“receiver” are known as “communicators”
war, when they lost a leader or had a new one,
Feedback is taken as a new message it
and when they welcomed a visiting leader from
recognizes that communication affects all parties
another kingdom or country. Such occasions
involved. So communication is
called for speeches of welcome, poems of
fluid/simultaneous.
tribute or of eulogies, and poems of lament.

3. Interactive (a.k.a. Convergence) Model

b. Shannon-Weaver Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each
other. The sender channels a message to the
receiver and the receiver then becomes the
sender and channels a message to the original
sender. Used for new communications (e.g.,
Internet) communication takes place between
humans or machines in both verbal and non-
verbal way. It highlights the concept of field of

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The second model is that of Claude Shannon
and Warren Weaver (1948), which gave us the
concept of “noise.” This is often called the
Telephone Model because it is based on the
experience of having the messaged interfered
with by “noise” from the telephone switchboard
back in the 1940s.
In this model, Shannon and Weaver assert that
the Message sent by the Source (Speaker) is
not necessarily the Message received by the
Destination (Listener). This is due to the
intervention of “noise” or anything that hampers
the communication. Even today, with our
advanced cellphone technology, there are still
barriers to clear transmission and reception of
calls. Dropped calls, calls that echo, faint
signals—all interfere with the communication of
the message.
c. Schramm’s Model of Communication
The third model is that of Wilbur
Schramm, who is considered the “Father
of Mass Communication.” He came up with
five models, but the Schramm Model
(1955) we are concerned with is the
concept that explains why communication
breakdown occurs. Schramm asserts that
communication can take place if and only if
there is an overlap between the Field of
Experience of the Speaker and the Field of
Experience of the Listener.
What is the Field of Experience? It is
everything that makes a person unique—
everything he or she has ever learned,
watched, seen, heard, read, and studied. In
other words, it is everything a person has
PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department
ever experienced or not experienced, done
or not done. In fact, this is practically
everything that has happened in his/her life.
It is this Field of Experience that is used to
interpret the Message and create a
Response. It is also this Field of
Experience of the Listener that needs to
overlap with the Speaker’s Field of
Experience, which can only happen when
the two fields have commonalities. For
example, the teacher must deliver his/her
lecture in either English or Filipino because
that is the language that students know and
use. If the teacher suddenly started using
Chinese in the lecture, the students will not
understand a single thing!
d. White’s Model
Expressing
Symbolizing Transmitting
Thinking
Receiving
Monitoring Decoding
Feedback
The fourth model is that of Eugene White
(1960), who tells us that communication is
circular and continuous, without a beginning or
end. This is why he made a cyclical model. He
also points out that although we can assume
that communication begins with thinking,
communication can actually be observed from
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any point in the circle.
Eugene White contributed the concept of
Feedback to the field of communication.
Feedback is the perception by the Speaker
about the Response of the Listener. The
Speaker can only receive Feedback if the
Speaker is monitoring the Listener. The Speaker
will know what the Listener’s Response is only if
he/she is paying attention.
SESSION 3: TYPES, ELEMENTS, AND
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
SKILLS
I. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Speaker
• Also known as the sender, he/she
chooses his/her purpose, crafts the
message accordingly, and decides
how to deliver it.
• Source of information
Receiver
• Also known as the listener or
audience, they are the ones who
receive the message.
• It is said that even if the Speaker is
great and the message is beautiful,
if there is no Listener or the Listener
is not paying attention, then
communication fails.
• They are the ones who respond and
give feedback
Message
• The message is made up of the
ideas and feeling that sender-
receivers want to share. This is what
needs to be delivered or imparted to
somebody else
• The message to be sent is based on
WHY the speaker wants to say it,
WHAT the speaker wants to say,
and HOW the Speaker wants to say
it.
• All our communication messages
are made up of two kinds of
symbols: verbal and nonverbal.
• Ideas and feelings can be
communicated only if they are
represented by symbols. A symbol
is something that stands for
something else (e.g., roses express
love).
Channel
PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department
• The means by which the Message is
sent. The five senses are the
channels we usually use.
• The channel is the route traveled by
a message.
• We are familiar with the channels of
radio, television, CDs, newspapers,
and magazines in the mass media.
• Other channels communicate
nonverbal messages. For example,
when a person goes to apply for a
job, she uses several nonverbal
signals to send out a positive
message: a firm handshake (touch),
appropriate clothing (sight), and
respectful voice (sound). The
senses are the channels through
which the speaker is sending a
message.
Response
• The only way the Speaker knows
the message has been received.
• Whether the Listener responds or
not is important to the
communication process.
• It carries the Feedback
• Examples: smile, nod their heads,
and clap their hands.
Feedback
• The result of monitoring by the
Speaker of the Listener’s Response.
• You tell me a joke and I smile, the
smile is a response which carries
the feedback that the joke is funny
and effective. You make a comment
about the weather, and I make
another one. That’s feedback.
• Feedback is vital to communication
because it lets the participants see
whether ideas and feelings have
been shared in the way they were
intended.
Setting
• The setting is the environment in
which the communication occurs.
• It has two components: the physical
location and psychological setting.
• Formal settings lend themselves to
formal presentations. An auditorium,
for example, is good for giving
speeches and presentations, but not
very good for conversation.
• If people want to converse on a
more intimate basis, they will be
better off in a smaller, more
comfortable room where they can sit
facing each other.
Noise
 Noise is interference that keeps a
message from being understood or
accurately interpreted. Noise occurs
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English: Oral Communication PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department

between the sender-receivers, and it • The use of colors based on the

comes in three forms: external, meaning of each color.
internal, and semantic. Chronemics
• The language of time
• The use of time as basis on daily
1. External noise comes from the environment
routines
and keeps the message from being heard or • “Body Clock”
understood. Your heart-to-heart talk with your Proxemics
roommate can be interrupted by a group of • The language of space
people yelling in the hall, a helicopter passing • The use of space to show
overhead, or a lawn mower outside the window. importance, power, or position
External noise does not always come from • Ex. The CEO has the biggest office
sound. You could be standing and talking to in the building.
someone in the hot sun and become so Haptics
• The language of touch
uncomfortable that you can’t concentrate. • The use of touch to express what
Conversation might also falter at a picnic when cannot be said.
you discover you are sitting on an anthill and
ants are crawling all over your blanket. Gestures
• The most often used type of Non-
2. Internal noise occurs in the minds of the verbal communication.
sender-receivers when their thoughts or feelings • Examples:
are focused on something other than the  Emphasizing – “YES!” (fist
communication at hand. A student doesn’t hear pounding the table)
the lecture because he is thinking about lunch; a  Regulating – “shhhh” (forefinger
in front of the lips)
wife can’t pay attention to her husband because  Illustrating – “this large” (hands
she is upset by a problem at the office. Internal set apart)
noise may also stem from beliefs or prejudices.  Emblems – clenched fist
upraised
3. Semantic noise is caused by people’s Facial Expression
emotional reactions to words. Many people tune • The configuration of eyes,
out a speaker who uses profanity because the eyebrows, lips, cheeks, nose and
words are offensive to them. Others have forehead to show how the person
negative reactions to people who make ethnic or feels.
• Assists the Listener in
sexist remarks. understanding the message better.
Posture and Appearance
II. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION • The way how one carries and
dresses oneself.
Communication • How one stands or sits in
 Verbal Communicative Situations tells the
 Oral/Spoken people around how one sees
 Written oneself as a Speaker, one’s attitude
toward the Message, and how one
 Non-verbal looks at the Listener.
Types of Non-verbal communication III. Effective Communication Skills
Paralanguage The 7 Principles of Effective
• The “how” of saying something. It is Communications Explained by Bill McGowan
NOT about what is said. 1. The Headline Principle: Start Strong
• Ex. Saying “I love you” with an 2. The Scorsese Principle: Think Visually
angry tone is a contradictory 3. The Pasta Sauce Principle: Boil Things
message. Down to Their Essence
Symbols 4. The Conviction Principle: Believe What
• The use of things to convey a You Say
message or feeling. 5. The No-Tailgating Principle: Think Before
• Ex. Giving flowers symbolizes love, You Speak
appreciation, belongingness, etc. 6. The Curiosity Principle: Pay Attention!
Colors 7. The Draper Principle: Steer the
Conversation

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English: Oral Communication
SESSION 4: INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
Forms of Oral Communication
1. Intrapersonal communication is self-
talk or a conversation you hold with
yourself under certain circumstances –
for example, when you need to make an
important decision or learn something
about yourself. You may wonder
whether intrapersonal communication is
just another way of describing the
thinking process. In a way, that would
be correct.
Intrapersonal communication is a form
of thinking that goes on inside us which
relies on language to express itself. It is
similar to the Shakespearean “soliloquy”
where the character in question
engages in self-talk to reflect on events
that have transpired. Intrapersonal
communication often increases self-
awareness and mindfulness, and hones
critical thinking skills.
2. Interpersonal communication is
communication between several people.
This form of communication may range
from the impersonal to the very
personal. Impersonal communication is
when you talk with a person you do not
really care about – there is often
coldness or indifference in your attitude
when you engage in this kind of
communication.
Then, there is social communication
where you engage in niceties with
people you meet in a social context. The
most personal type of communication
occurs when you talk with people who
are close to you, for example, your best
friend, family members and colleagues.
Such relationships are interdependent,
meaning that the actions of one party
very often directly affect the other party.
Interpersonal communication can take
place face to face as well as through
electronic channels like video-
conferencing, chat rooms, e-mail and
Twitter.
PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department
3. Small group communication takes
place in a group, usually comprising five
to 10 people. This form of
communication serves relationship
needs (like companionship, family
bonding and affection or support) as
well as task-based needs, for example,
deciding on disciplinary action or
resolving conflict in the workplace.
In academic institutions, students often
form small groups that meet regularly for
study discussions or to work
collaboratively on projects. At the
workplace, small groups may meet to
discuss issues related to work, or for
problem-solving or team-building
purposes. Learning to communicate
effectively in teams contributes to
success and advancement in many
careers. Small group communication
allows you to interact with others, be it at
home, in school, at the workplace or in
public. You learn to exchange ideas,
solve problems and share experiences.
4. Public communication also known as
public speaking, involves
communication between a speaker and
an audience. This audience may range
from just a few people to thousands or
even millions of people. The aim of the
speaker is usually to inform or to
persuade the audience to act, buy, or
think in a certain way. A teacher may
address an assembly of students on
codes of behavior or school rules. A
politician may make speeches on how
he will be dealing with certain issues in
order to win their votes. An executive
may give a business presentation to get
more sales. It is important to understand
some of the basic principles of effective
public speaking so that you are able to
influence, persuade as well as entertain
your audience when you communicate
with them.
5. Mass communication is
communication that is sent out from a
source to many receivers all over the
world. It takes place through media like
films, radio, videos and television.
Modern avenues of mass
communication like the Internet and
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English: Oral Communication
blogs can be very powerful indeed as
information is disseminated instantly.
6. Corporate communication is
communication that takes place among
members of an organization, within that
organization. Interacting in teams,
conferencing with co-workers, talking
with a supervisor or manager, giving
employees explanations and directions,
interviewing and making presentations
are some examples of corporate
communication. Effective corporate
communication skills enhance corporate
image and impact positively on morale,
commitment, and productivity in
corporations.
7. Intercultural communication is
communication between people of
diverse cultures and ethnicity. The world
is increasingly becoming a global village
and every country has people of various
ethnicities. Thus, it is important to note
differences in the communication
practices of different cultures if
intercultural harmony and understanding
is to be maintained. For example, in
many Asian countries, students will
seldom contradict or disagree with a
teacher in the classroom as this shows
disrespect. In Western academic
institutions, however, it is the norm for
students to think for themselves and
engage their teachers in debate and
discussion. It is important to make
efforts to recognize and respect the
communication practices of people from
different cultures and nationalities.
Culture is the totality of learned, shared
symbols, language, values, and norms
that distinguish one group of people
from another.
Culture is learned. We acquire our
culture by learning the traditions, values,
and language of the people who raised
us.
Culture influences nonverbal
communication
1. Emblems.
“Come here” gesture in USA means
goodbye in China, Italy, and Colombia.
PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department
1. Affect displays
In Uruguay, a man will hold his fists
together and turn them in opposite
directions, as if wringing out a wet cloth
to express anger.
2. Personal distance
People from Arab countries generally
converse with each other at closer
distances than do people in the United
States.
3. Eye contact
In many Western cultures, direct eye
contact signifies that someone is
sincere, trustworthy, and authoritative.
Some Asian, Latin American, and
Middle Eastern cultures emphasize the
lack of eye contact as a sign of
deference or respect for authority.
4. Greeting behavior
People in Western countries typically
greet social acquaintances with a
handshake.
In Mediterranean countries, usually kiss
each other on both cheeks.
In Asian countries, people greet others
by bowing, with longest and lowest
bows reserved for the most respected
individuals.
5. Time orientation
People from US, Canada, Finland,
Great Britain, and Germany are
monochromic (they see time as
tangible commodity, expect events
begin on time and dislike having their
time wasted).
People from France, Brazil, Mexico, and
Saudi Arabia are polychronic (they see
time as flexible and diffused and don’t
necessarily expect punctuality).
6. Touch
People in high-contact cultures which
include France, Mexico, and Greece
touch each other significantly more often
than do people in low-contact cultures
such as Japan, Sweden, and Finland.
United States is classified as medium-
contact culture.
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English: Oral Communication PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department

In western cultures, cosmetic use is

7. Vocalics significantly more common for women
English speakers used “umm” and “er” than for men.
fillers Also women and men usually wear
Chinese speakers often say “zhege different styles of clothing and jewelry
zhege zhege” (this this this) as filler and adopt different hairstyles and those
words. conventions further accentuate the
differences in their appearance.
Sex influences nonverbal
communication SESSION 6 & 7: FUNCTIONS OF
1. Emotional expressiveness COMMUNICATION
Women are more expressive than men
1. Control. Communication controls member
with respect to variety of emotional
behavior in several ways.
states like joy, sadness, and depression.
a) Employees are required to follow authority
Men are more aggressive than women
hierarchies and formal guidelines.
of anger.
b) Informal communication also controls
2. Eye contact
behavior.
Women engage more in eye contact
(1) When work groups tease, or harass a
than men like in US and Japan.
member who produces too much, they are
In fact, female pairs use higher amounts
informally communicating with, and controlling,
of gaze than male pairs when speaking,
the member’s behavior.
listening, or during silence.
Research indicates that male-female
I. REGULATION/ CONTROL
pairs are similar to female-female pairs
as a function of communication means being
in terms of eye contact
able to use language, gestures, and emotions to
3. Personal space
manage individual or group activities such as a
Women are approached more closely,
parent telling a child not to misbehave or a
give way more readily to others, stand
policeman directing pedestrians not to jaywalk
and sit closer to each other, and tolerate
but cross on the pedestrian lane.
more violations of their personal space
REGULATION/CONTROL is observable if we
than men.
focus on the Verbal and Non Verbal cues
In opposite-sex interactions, men are
caused by the Speaker to achieve his/her
also more likely to violate women’s
purpose.
personal space than women are to
violate men’s.
a. Verbal Cues are the specific words chosen
4. Vocalics
and used. The Speaker and the Listener, when
On average, men’s voices have a lower
using verbal cues, should be respectful of each
pitch than women’s because men have
other’s culture as well as of their age, gender,
larger voice box and longer vocal cords.
social status, and religion. The words are usually
5. Touch
directives, orders, requests, etc., meant to
Among adults, men are more likely to
regulate and control other people’s behavior. In
touch women than women are to touch
certain cases involving women or in situations in
men, unless the touch is occurring as
Philippines society involving a superior and a
part of a greeting like handshake.
subordinate, an order is oftentimes worded as a
In same-sex pairs, women touch each
request.
other more than men.
b. Non Verbal Cues include hand gestures,
6. Appearance

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English: Oral Communication PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department

bodily action (including posture), vocal tone

(paralanguage), and eye contact. The Speaker
and the Listener, when exhibiting nonverbal
cues, should be respectful of each other’s
culture as well as their age, gender, social
status, and religion. The tone and the bodily
action that accompany words authoritative and
firm. Eye contact is direct. In our culture, these
cues may be softened for children and elderly.
The final function that communication performs
is related to its role in facilitating decision-
making.
a) It provides the needed information.
b) It provides the information that one
needs to make decision by transmitting
the data to identify and evaluate the
alternative choices.
V. MOTIVATION

II. SOCIAL INTERACTION Communication fosters motivation by clarifying

for employees what is to be done, how well they
The Social Interaction Function of are doing, and what can be done to improve
performance.
Communication is the most obvious, the most a) The formation of specific goals, feedback on
often used, and the most popular. Like progress toward the goals, and reinforcement of
Regulation/ Control, Social Interaction occurs desired behavior all stimulate motivation and
when verbal and nonverbal cues are require communication.
appropriately applied. b) It answers the question, what is the
reason/purpose/motive of the communication?
a. Verbal Cues are the specific words chosen
and used. The speaker and the Listener, when
using verbal cues, should be respectful of each
other’s culture as well as of their age, gender,
social status, and religion. The words usually
used are mostly informal in terms and casually
delivered, although Philippine society dictates
certain decorum when talking to elders or figures
of authority.
b. Nonverbal Cues include hand gestures, bodily
action (including posture), vocal tone
(paralanguage), and eye contact. The speaker
and the listener, when exhibiting nonverbal
cues, should be respectful of each other’s
culture as well as of their age, gender, social
status, and religion. The tone is friendly, even
teasing, and the bodily action is relaxed.

III. EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION

For many employees, their work group is a

primary source for social interaction.
a) Communication within the group is a
fundamental mechanism by which members
show their frustrations and feelings of
satisfaction.
b) Communication provides an avenue for
expression of emotions and fulfillment of social
needs.

IV. INFORMATION