CHAPTER FOUR

THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 The Structural Building Models

To do the analyses of the study, models of the eight (8) selected public high school
buildings were made. Columns, beams, slabs, stairs, restraints, joint constraints, area
edge constraints, diaphragm action, nonlinear hinges, and loads were included in
modeling the structures. Figure 4.1 shows the final structural model of Pagatpat NHS
Building 1 using SAP2000. The design specifications applied in the model were based
on the plans provided by the City Engineers’ Office. Material definitions and section
properties of the structural members are almost the same for all the eight (8) buildings
under the study with only slight to minor differences. The only major differences
among the selected buildings are the combination of number of stories and number of
floors and the general shapes of the structures.

Figure 4.1 Pagatpat NHS Building 1 Model using SAP2000 v20.

4.2 Structural Capacity of the Eight Selected Public High School Buildings

The structural behavior of the eight (8) selected public high school buildings due to
earthquake loads were determined using the Nonlinear Static Pushover Analysis
through SAP2000 v20. The buildings were subjected to increasing earthquake lateral
forces with each step monitoring the plastic nonlinear hinges in beams and columns.
Weak points in the building frames were then determined based on each step of
increasing the earthquake loads as nonlinear hinges change from one state to another.
The analysis generates pushover curves which represent the relationship between the

30
base shear and the monitored displacement of the buildings. Pushover curves were
then utilized to plot seismic fragility curves for each public high school building.

The failure mode observed in the buildings is failure due to bending in beams and
columns. Plastic hinges inserted in these structural members were used to monitor the
progressive failure of the structures. SAP2000 monitors the hinge states and uses a
color scheme to show the different damage states. The blue color refers to ‘Immediate
Occupancy’ (IO), light blue for ‘Life Safety’ (LS), green for ‘Collapse Prevention’
(CP) and yellow for ‘Collapse’ (C).

4.2.1 Agusan National High School Building

Shown in Figure 4.2 above are the pushover curves generated when increasing lateral
forces were applied on Agusan NHS building both in the transversal and longitudinal
directions. The longitudinal axis of the structure is stronger than its transversal axis
withstanding a structural capacity of 23,643.49 kN for base shear at 59.57 mm
displacement. Whereas, its transversal axis can only resist a base shear of up to
15,249.05 kN at 69.56 mm displacement.

31
 P USHO V ER C URV E ( TRA N SV ERSA L)
18000
16000
14000

BASE SHEAR (KN)

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
DISPLACEMENT (m)

P USHO V ER C URV E (LO N GITUDIN A L)

25000
20000
BASE SHEAR (KN)

15000
10000

5000
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
DISPLACEMENT (M)

Figure 4.2 Agusan NHS Building Pushover Curves.

Based on Figure 4.3, the critical structural member or the first to collapse when an
earthquake strikes in the transversal direction is the column near the stairs in the
center located where the structure’s shape bends. On the other hand, shown in Figure
4.4, when an earthquake strikes in the longitudinal direction, the critical structural
member is a column located in the exterior part of the ramp where mid-landing slabs
are located.

32
 Figure 4.3 Location of Critical Hinges of Agusan NHS Building (Transversal).

Figure 4.4 Location of Critical Hinges of Agusan NHS Building (Longitudinal).

4.2.2 Balulang National High School Building

Pushover curves were generated when increasing lateral forces were applied on
Balulang NHS building both in the transversal and longitudinal directions. The
transversal axis of the structure is stronger than its longitudinal axis withstanding a
structural capacity of 5,239.49 kN for base shear at 74.19 mm displacement. Whereas,
its longitudinal axis can only resist a base shear of up to 5,023.45 kN at 91.01 mm
displacement.

Based on the progressive plastic hinges states, the critical structural member or the
first to collapse when an earthquake strikes in the transversal direction is one of the
outermost columns located near the stairs on the right side of the structure when
facing front. The same can be said when an earthquake strikes in the longitudinal

33
direction where the critical structural member is a column near the stairs but on the
left side of the building when facing front.

4.2.3 Bugo National High School Building

Pushover curves were generated when increasing lateral forces were applied on Bugo
NHS building both in the transversal and longitudinal directions. The longitudinal
axis of the structure is stronger than its transversal axis withstanding a structural
capacity of 24,226.43 kN for base shear at 56.45 mm displacement. Whereas, its
transversal axis can only resist a base shear of up to 17,333.28 kN at 50.53 mm
displacement.

Based on the progressive plastic hinges states, the critical structural member or the
first to collapse when an earthquake strikes in the transversal direction is one of the
outermost columns located near the stairs on the right wing of the structure when
facing front. On the other hand, when an earthquake strikes in the longitudinal
direction, the critical structural member is a column located in the exterior part of the
ramp where mid-landing slabs are located.

4.2.4 Cagayan de Oro National High School Building

Pushover curves were generated when increasing lateral forces were applied on
Cagayan de Oro NHS building both in the transversal and longitudinal directions. The
longitudinal axis of the structure is stronger than its transversal axis withstanding a
structural capacity of 27,501.65 kN for base shear at 62.71 mm displacement.
Whereas, its transversal axis can only resist a base shear of up to 18,527.31 kN at
68.53 mm displacement.

Based on the progressive plastic hinges states, the critical structural member or the
first to collapse when an earthquake strikes in the transversal direction are all the
columns located near the stairs. The same is also true when an earthquake strikes in
the longitudinal direction.

4.2.5 Carmen National High School Building

Pushover curves were generated when increasing lateral forces were applied on
Carmen NHS building both in the transversal and longitudinal directions. The

34
longitudinal axis of the structure is stronger than its transversal axis withstanding a
structural capacity of 12,812.2 kN for base shear at 60.18 mm displacement. Whereas,
its transversal axis can only resist a base shear of up to 10,740.99 kN at 66.04 mm
displacement.

Based on the progressive plastic hinges states, the critical structural member or the
first to collapse when an earthquake strikes in the transversal direction is one of the
outermost columns located near the stairs on the left side of the structure when facing
front. On the other hand, when an earthquake strikes in the longitudinal direction, the
critical structural member is a column located in the exterior part of the ramp where
mid-landing slabs are located.

4.2.6 Lumbia National High School Building

Pushover curves were generated when increasing lateral forces were applied on
Lumbia NHS building both in the transversal and longitudinal directions. The
longitudinal axis of the structure is stronger than its transversal axis withstanding a
structural capacity of 10,579.08 kN for base shear at 53.51 mm displacement.
Whereas, its transversal axis can only resist a base shear of up to 7,074.9 kN at 55.12
mm displacement.

Based on the progressive plastic hinges states, the critical structural member or the
first to collapse when an earthquake strikes in the transversal direction is one of the
outermost columns located near the stairs on the right side of the structure when
facing front. On the other hand, when an earthquake strikes in the longitudinal
direction, the critical structural member is a column located in the exterior part of the
ramp where mid-landing slabs are located.

4.2.7 Pagatpat National High School Building 1

Pushover curves were generated when increasing lateral forces were applied on
Pagatpat NHS Building I both in the transversal and longitudinal directions. The
transversal axis of the structure is stronger than its longitudinal axis withstanding a
structural capacity of 5,396.40 kN for base shear at 53.53 mm displacement. Whereas,
its longitudinal axis can only resist before its yield point a base shear of up to
4,281.52 kN at 49.50 mm displacement.

35
Based on the progressive plastic hinges states, the critical structural member or the
first to collapse when an earthquake strikes in the transversal direction are the
outermost columns located near the stairs both on the right side and left side of the
structure. On the other hand, when an earthquake strikes in the longitudinal direction,
the critical structural member is a column near the stairs but on the right side of the
building when facing front.

4.2.8 Pagatpat National High School Building 2

Pushover curves were generated when increasing lateral forces were applied on
Pagatpat NHS Building II both in the transversal and longitudinal directions. The
transversal axis of the structure is stronger than its longitudinal axis withstanding a
structural capacity of 2,625.38 kN for base shear at 29.23 mm displacement. Whereas,
its longitudinal axis can only resist before it’s yield point a base shear of up to
2,376.79 kN at 63.31 mm displacement.

Based on the progressive plastic hinges states, the critical structural member or the
first to collapse when an earthquake strikes in the transversal direction are the
outermost columns located near the stairs. On the other hand, when an earthquake
strikes in the longitudinal direction, the critical structural member is a column near the
center of the structure and also near the stairs.

4.3 Fragility Curves of the Eight Selected Public High School Buildings

The seismic fragility curves of eight (8) selected public high school buildings are
generated from FRACAS. These curves present the probability of exceedance of the
eight (8) selected public high school buildings when subjected to the response spectra
of actual and normalized ground motions. Through Capacity Spectrum Method
(CSM), the intersection point of the spectral displacement (δp) of the response spectra
and the displacement from the pushover curve will determine the damage states of the
buildings under increasing PGA.

The scale is subdivided into seven damage states ranging from “No-damage” to
“Collapse”. Each damage state is described according to the parameter of maximum
inter-story drift response (ISDmax%) presented in Table 4.1.

36
 Table 4.1 ISDmax% Values of the Damage Scale (Source: Rossetto & Elnashai.
2003)
Extensiv
Damage Non Slight Light Moderate Partial
e Collapse
State e Damage Damage Damage Collapse
Damage
ISDMAX(%) 0.00 0.13 0.19 0.56 1.63 3.34 4.78

The graphical figures for each high school building presented in Figure 4.5 to Figure
4.12 show the probability of exceedance in four damage states over peak ground
acceleration. As the level of PGA increases, the fragility curves show a higher
damage probability for each damage state. From the Philippine Earthquake Model
(PEM), the earthquake ground motion with the highest probability of striking
Cagayan de Oro City is 0.3g to 0.4g (2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2). The 0.4g PGA also
coincides with the safety design standard for buildings against earthquake loads
provided by the National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015.

Common damage states experienced by the eight (8) selected public high school
buildings are “Slight Damage”, “Light Damage”, “Moderate Damage” and “Extensive
Damage”. Expected physical damage to be observed for “Slight Damage” are hair line
cracks in columns and beams of frames. For “Light Damage”, the physical damage
expected to be observed in the building structure include shear cracks in non-
structural walls. For “Moderate Damage”, it is expected that the building structure
will observe cracking in most beams and columns, some yielding in a limited number,
and limited concrete spalling. For the “Extensive Damage”, the building will observe
some spalling of concrete cover, buckling of reinforced rods and some elements will
reach ultimate strength.

37
4.3.1 Agusan National High School Building

Figure 4.5 Fragility Curve of Agusan National High School Building

Figure 4.5 shows the seismic fragility curve of Agusan National High School
building. Plotting the earthquake ground motion with the highest probability of
striking Cagayan de Oro City of 0.3g to 0.4g (2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2) on the figure
above, it can be observed that from 0.3g to 0.4g there is a 100% probability that the
building will experience a “Slight Damage”, 99% to 100% probability of having a
“Light Damage”, and 48% to 79% probability of having a “Moderate Damage”.

38
4.3.2 Balulang National High School Building

Figure 4.6 Fragility Curve of Balulang National High School Building

Figure 4.6 shows the seismic fragility curve of Balulang National High School
building. Plotting the earthquake ground motion with the highest probability of
striking Cagayan de Oro City of 0.3g to 0.4g (2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2) on the figure
above, it can be observed that from 0.3g to 0.4g there is a 100% probability that the
building will experience a “Slight Damage”, 99% to 100% probability of having a
“Light Damage”, 64% to 92% probability of having a “Moderate Damage”, and 8% to
43% probability of having an “Extensive Damage”.

39
4.3.3 Bugo National High School Building

Figure 4.7 Fragility Curve of Bugo National High School Building

Figure 4.7 shows the seismic fragility curve of Bugo National High School building.
Plotting the earthquake ground motion with the highest probability of striking
Cagayan de Oro City of 0.3g to 0.4g (2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2) on the figure above, it
can be observed that from 0.3g to 0.4g there is a 99$ to 100% probability that the
building will experience a “Slight Damage”, 99% to 100% probability of having a
“Light Damage”, and 43% to 74% probability of having a “Moderate Damage”.

40
4.3.4 Cagayan de Oro National High School Building

Figure 4.8 Fragility Curve of Cagayan de Oro National High School Building

Figure 4.8 shows the seismic fragility curve of Cagayan de Oro National High School
building. Plotting the earthquake ground motion with the highest probability of
striking Cagayan de Oro City of 0.3g to 0.4g (2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2) on the figure
above, it can be observed that from 0.3g to 0.4g there is a 100% probability that the
building will experience a “Slight Damage”, 99% to 100% probability of having a
“Light Damage”, and 48% to 79% probability of having a “Moderate Damage”.

41
4.3.5 Carmen National High School Building

Figure 4.9 Fragility Curve of Carmen National High School Building

Figure 4.9 shows the seismic fragility curve of Carmen National High School
building. Plotting the earthquake ground motion with the highest probability of
striking Cagayan de Oro City of 0.3g to 0.4g (2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2) on the figure
above, it can be observed that from 0.3g to 0.4g there is a 100% probability that the
building will experience a “Slight Damage” and “Light Damage”, and 50% to 81%
probability of having a “Moderate Damage”.

42
4.3.6 Lumbia National High School Building

Figure 4.10 Fragility Curve of Lumbia National High School Building

Figure 4.10 shows the seismic fragility curve of Lumbia National High School
building. Plotting the earthquake ground motion with the highest probability of
striking Cagayan de Oro City of 0.3g to 0.4g (2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2) on the figure
above, it can be observed that from 0.3g to 0.4g there is a 100% probability that the
building will experience a “Slight Damage” and “Light Damage”, and 49% to 78%
probability of having a “Moderate Damage”.

43
4.3.7 Pagatpat National High School Building 1

Figure 4.11 Fragility Curve of Pagatpat National High School Building 1

Figure 4.11 shows the seismic fragility curve of Pagatpat National High School’s
building 1. Plotting the earthquake ground motion with the highest probability of
striking Cagayan de Oro City of 0.3g to 0.4g (2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2) on the figure
above, it can be observed that from 0.3g to 0.4g there is a 100% probability that the
building will experience a “Slight Damage” and “Light Damage”, 78% to 94%
probability of having a “Moderate Damage”, and 1% to 19% probability of having an
“Extensive Damage”.

44
4.3.8 Pagatpat National High School Building 2

Figure 4.12 Fragility Curve of Pagatpat National High School Building 2

Figure 4.12 shows the seismic fragility curve of Pagatpat National High School’s
building 2. Plotting the earthquake ground motion with the highest probability of
striking Cagayan de Oro City of 0.3g to 0.4g (2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2) on the figure
above, it can be observed that from 0.3g to 0.4g there is a 100% probability that the
building will experience a “Slight Damage” and “Light Damage”, 86% to 98%
probability of having a “Moderate Damage”, and 15% to 33% probability of having
an “Extensive Damage”.

4.4 Comparison of the Selected Buildings’ Seismic Level of Performance

From the eight (8) selected public high school buildings assessed, the maximum
damage experienced by the schools was only up to “Extensive Damage”. Higher
damage states such as “Partial Collapse” and “Collapse” were not generated with
fragility curves. This is because there are no performance points at the higher damage
states. Hence, the statistics used for generating fragility curves of the higher damage
states are not applicable and no curve is generated. With this, it can be concluded that
the average earthquakes experienced in Cagayan de Oro City according to the

45
Philippine Earthquake Model, are not strong enough as to cause such damages to the
structures.

Table 4.2 Percentage Range for each Damage State with PGA from
2.942 to 3.923 m/s2
National High Slight Light Moderate Extensive
School Damage (%) Damage (%) Damage (%) Damage (%)
Agusan 100 99 – 100 48 – 79 0
Balulang 100 99 – 100 64 – 92 8 – 43
Bugo 99 – 100 99 – 100 43 – 74 0
Cagayan de Oro 100 99 – 100 48 – 79 0
Carmen 100 100 50 – 81 0
Lumbia 100 100 49 – 78 0
Pagatpat Building 1 100 100 78 – 94 1 – 19
Pagatpat Building 2 100 100 86 – 98 15 – 33

Among the eight (8) selected public high school buildings, only three school buildings
have the probability of experiencing an “Extensive Damage” in the PGA range of
2.942 m/s2 to 3.923 m/s2. Hence, it is expected that the building from Balulang
National High School and Pagatpat National High School’s building 1 and 2 will have
more severe damages during earthquakes. From the four damage states, the common
damage state where the eight (8) public high school buildings can be compared in its
seismic level of performance is the “Moderate Damage”. The school building with the
highest probability of experiencing “Moderate Damage” in the PGA of 3.923 m/s 2 is
Pagatpat National High School’s building 2 with 98%, followed by Pagatpat National
High School’s building 1 with 94%. Thirdly, Balulang National High School’s
building results to 92% of probability. In a decreasing probability of experiencing
“Moderate Damage”, Carmen National High School, Agusan National High School,
Cagayan de Oro National High School, Lumbia National High School, and Bugo
National High School follows in particular order with 81%, 79%, 79%, 78%, and
74%, respectively.

46
 Figure 4.13 Fragility Curves of “Moderate” Damage State

Table 4.3 Percentage of “Moderate Damage” with PGA 3.923 m/s2 in Descending
Order
National High School Moderate Damage (%)
Pagatpat NHS Building 2 98
Pagatpat NHS Building 1 94
Balulang NHS 92
Carmen NHS 81
Agusan NHS 79
Cagayan de Oro NHS 79
Lumbia NHS 78
Bugo NHS 74

Comparison among the eight (8) selected public high school buildings in “Slight
Damage”, “Light Damage” and “Extensive Damage” are also summarized in Figure
4.14, Figure 4.15, and Figure 4.16, respectively.

47
Figure 4.14 Fragility Curves of “Slight” Damage State

Figure 4.15 Fragility Curves of “Light” Damage State

48
 Figure 4.16 Fragility Curves of “Extensive” Damage State

4.5 Vulnerable Areas of the Structures

Based from the transversal and longitudinal pushover analysis done for each building,
the vulnerable areas are commonly found around the staircases and ramps. The
columns near the staircases and ramps of the buildings are identified as the critical
members of the buildings. Moreover, each high school building is limited with a
number of staircases and has at most one ramp that serve as their main passageway
for going up or going down the building. Hence, evacuations routes are limited to
these main staircases and ramps which are the critical areas of the building. Safest
evacuation routes for each classroom will be the nearest staircase or ramp as the
means of going up and going down are limited. Given this result from the pushover
analysis, it is recommended that these main staircases and ramp be subject to
retrofitting measures as these passageways serve as their main means of evacuating
the building in situations of seismic activity.

4.6 Research Synthesis

Objective 1: To create structural models based on the physical structural design

specifications

The selected eight (8) public high school buildings were modelled using SAP2000
based on the plans provided by the City Engineers ' Office with their own physical

49
structural designs. Modeling of the structures included columns, beams, slabs, ramps,
restraints joint constraints, area edge constraints, diaphragm motion, nonlinear hinges,
and loads. For all the eight (8) buildings under the structural analysis and 3D
modelling, the material definitions and section properties of the structural members
are about the same, with only subtle to minor differences. The only major differences
between the chosen buildings are the combination of number of stories and number of
floors, as well as the general structural shapes.

Objective 2: To determine the seismic capacity of the selected buildings

The structural capacity of the eight (8) selected public high school buildings due to
earthquake loads were determined using the Nonlinear Static Pushover Analysis. The
analysis generated pushover curves which represent the relationship between the base
shear and the monitored displacement of the buildings. The failure mode observed in
the buildings is failure due to bending in beams and columns. Plastic hinges inserted
in these structural members were used to monitor the progressive failure of the
structures. SAP2000 monitors the hinge states and uses a color scheme to show the
different damage states. The blue color refers to ‘Immediate Occupancy’ (IO), light
blue for ‘Life Safety’ (LS), green for ‘Collapse Prevention’ (CP) and yellow for
‘Collapse’ (C).

The pushover curves are generated due to the increasing lateral forces that was
applied on the eight (8) buildings both in their transversal and longitudinal directions.
The structural capacity is then determined on both axis of the building basing on how
much base shear the building can resist while considering the displacement. The eight
(8) selected public high school buildings have varied on their structural capacities
based on their longitudinal and transversal directions.

Based on the progressive plastic hinges states of the eight (8) public High school
buildings, it has been determined that the critical structural members or the first to
collapse when an earthquake strikes are the columns near the stairs especially the
exteriors columns and for buildings with ramps, the critical structural member are
columns located in the exterior part of the ramp where mid-landing slabs are located.

50
Objective 3: To produce the fragility curves of the buildings

Fragility curves were generated using the Fragility through Capacity Spectrum
Assessment (FRACAS) approach. The seismic performance of each selected high
school building was graphically represented through fragility curves. The fragility
curves are subdivided into seven damage states ranging from “No-damage” to
“Collapse”. However, common damage states experienced by the eight (8) selected
public high school buildings are “Slight Damage”, “Light Damage”, “Moderate
Damage” and “Extensive Damage” only. This reflects that higher damage states such
as “Partial Collapse” and “Collapse” are not to be observed duirng seismic activities
with PGA from 2.942 m/s2 to 3.923 m/s2. With this, it can be concluded that the
average earthquakes experienced in Cagayan de Oro City based on The Philippine
Earthquake Model, are not strong enough as to cause such damages to the structures.

Objective 4: To categorize the buildings in terms of its seismic level of performance

After the generation of fragility curves, the seismic level of performance of each
building can be compared despite the varying structural details. Among the eight (8)
selected public high school buildings, only three buildings have the probability of
experiencing “Extensive Damage” during expected seismic activities in Cagayan de
Oro with PGA from 2.942 m/s 2 to 3.923 m/s2. Meanwhile, all school buildings are
100% expected to experience “Slight Damage” during earthquakes with these PGA
values, and five of the school buildings are also 100% expected to experience “Light
Damage’ with the remaining three other schools having 99% to 100% probability of
experiencing “Light Damage”. Hence, the high school buildings are compared to each
other in the “Moderate Damage” state wherein all buildings experience a varying
probability value.

The school building with the highest probability of experiencing “Moderate Damage”
in the PGA of 2.942 is Pagatpat National High School’s building 1 with 86.5%. It is
followed by Pagatpat National High School’s building 2 with 78%, Balulang National
High School building with 63.5%, Carmen National High School building with 50%,
Lumbia National High School building with 49.5%, Cagayan de Oro National High
School building with 48.5%, Agusan National High School building with 47.5%, and
Bugo National High School building with 43.5%.

51
Objective 5: To determine the most vulnerable areas of the buildings

The vulnerable areas are commonly observed around the staircases and ramps, based
on the transversal and longitudinal pushover analysis done for each building. The
columns near the buildings' staircases and ramps are identified as the buildings'
critical members. In addition, each high school building is limited by a number of
staircases and has at most one ramp which serves as its main passageway for going up
or down the building. Evacuation routes are therefore limited to those key staircases
and ramps which are the building's critical areas. From this finding from the pushover
analysis, it is recommended that these main staircases and ramps be subject to
retrofitting measures as these passages act as their primary means of evacuating the
building in seismic activities.

52