Practical of management information system.

1. MIS & It’s function.

Management Information System (MIS) is a set of computer-based systems and procedures
designed to improve the managerial decision-making process that involves collection,
organization and storage of information for analysis and control.

The term ‘System’ is evolved from the ancient Greek word ‘Systema’ means an orderly
integration of interdependent components in order to perform a certain task.
Information is a refined form of data. In isolation, data (e.g., Ram, 32, etc.) does not bear any
useful meaning. But after processing of data we can get some meaningful information like “Ram
is 32years old”. Processed data is called information.

Management is the decision-making curriculum by using information system. As a whole, MIS

may be seen as “supply of right information, in right time, at right level”. MIS gives information
support to the management of any organisation with the help of commercial computer
applications.
MIS only deals with the formal decisions that can be codified in the form of systems and
procedures. Informal decisions like innovative or emotional or personal decisions are beyond the
scope of MIS so far.

MIS can be defined as a system that:

(a) Provides information to support managerial functions like planning, organising,
directing,controlling.
(b) Collects information in a systematic and a routine manner which is in accordance with a well
defined set of rules.
(c) Includes files, hardware, software and operations research models of processing, storing,
retrieving and transmitting information to the users.

• Functional Subsystems
The important functional subsystems are the following:
1. Production Subsystem

Production information system supports the production function which includes all activities
concerned with the planning and control of the processes that produce goods or service. In the
production subsystem, there are transaction processing, operation control, managerial control
andstrategic planning. The typical information required at the transaction processing level is
production order. The production order is generally based on the sales orders required by the
company.
At the same time operational control level requires detailed reports comparing actual
performance with the production schedule and identifies the weak areas. However, management
control requires a summary report which compares the overall performance to actual
performance.
Strategic planning is concerned with simplifying, automating, integrating many of the activities
needed to produce goods.

2. Marketing Subsystem

Marketing is another important function of an organisation. The success of an organization

depends on the efficiency of marketing. The marketing function of an organisation is concerned
with the planning, promotion and sale of existing products in existing markets and the
development of new products and new markets to satisfy existing and potential customers. Thus
marketing performs a vital function in the operation of the business enterprise.
MIS helps to analyse demand for different products in different regions. It is mainly concerned
with the marketing right product to target customers. Marketing information system provides
information for planning, control and transaction processing in the marketing function. Strategic
and operational information system assists marketing managers in product planning, pricing
decisions,advertising and sales promotion strategies. MIS provides information that helps
management to decide the number of sales executives to assign specific products in specific
geographical areas.
The basic transaction is to be processed at transaction processing level is customer’s orders and
prepares invoice and bills. The operational control activity includes the day-to-day scheduling of
sales
and promotional activities. Managerial control level is concerned with comparison of overall
performance with the marketing plan. They require information relating to customers,
competitors, etc. Consideration of new markets and new product marketing strategies are the
issues dealt at the strategic planning level.

3. Human Resource Subsystem

The HRM function is concerned with the recruitment, placement, compensation and
development
of employees in an organisation. It mainly helps in record keeping and employee evaluation.
Every
organisation must maintain correct record of its employees.
Produce pay cheques and pay reports, maintain personal records and analyse the use of personnel
in business operation are the important activities done at the transaction processing level.
Management control level conducts budget analysis, turnover analysis, etc., and showing the
variances resulting from planned and actual performance. Strategic planning of personnel
involved with the planning of alternative strategies for recruiting, training and compensating
employees. In this regard, they have to collect different types of information from external
sources.

4. Finance and Accounting Subsystem

Financial subsystem undertakes the function of arranging adequate finance to the business at
minimum cost. This function includes granting credit to customers, cash management and
financial
arrangement. Accounting information system records and reports the flow of funds through the
organisation on a historical basis and prepares important financial statements like profit and loss
account and balance sheet.
Transaction processing system engaged in the legal and historical record keeping and produces
financial statements. They undertake activities like order processing, inventory control, payroll
and general ledger systems. Management control level focuses on planning and control of
business operations and they compare the actual cost of financial resources with the targeted
cost. The strategic planning level for accounting and finance involves in the long-term strategies
connected with financial
and accounting matters.

5. Logistics Subsystem
The logistic subsystem includes activities like purchasing, receiving, inventory control and
distribution. The transactions to be processed are purchase requisitions, manufacturing orders,
receiving reports and shipping orders. The operational control function makes use of information
contained in reports like out of stock items, over stocked items, inventory turnover reports, etc.
Managerial control level compares the planned and actual inventory levels, cost of purchased
items,
stock outs, etc. Analysis of new distribution strategies, adoption of new policy towards the sellers
are
some of the common tasks dealt at the strategic planning level.

6. Information Processing Subsystem

It is the responsibility of the information processing subsystem to provide the necessary

information processing services and resources. Typical transactions for information processing
are
requests for processing, changes in data and programme. Managerial control over information
processing requires data on planned and actual performance. Acquisition of hardware and
software
and automation of information processing, etc., are some of the strategic decision to be taken at
the top level management.

Q.2) study various levels of MIS

Understanding the various levels of an organization is essential to understand the information
required by the users who operate at their respective levels.
The following diagram illustrates the various levels of a typical organization.

Operational management level

The operational level is concerned with performing day to day business transactions of the
organization.
Examples of users at this level of management include cashiers at a point of sale, bank tellers,
nurses in a hospital, customer care staff, etc.
Users at this level use make structured decisions. This means that they have defined rules that
guides them while making decisions.
For example, if a store sells items on credit and they have a credit policy that has some set limit
on the borrowing. All the sales person needs to decide whether to give credit to a customer or not
is based on the current credit information from the system.
Tactical Management Level
This organization level is dominated by middle-level managers, heads of departments,
supervisors, etc. The users at this level usually oversee the activities of the users at the
operational management level.
Tactical users make semi-structured decisions. The decisions are partly based on set guidelines
and judgmental calls. As an example, a tactical manager can check the credit limit and payments
history of a customer and decide to make an exception to raise the credit limit for a particular
customer. The decision is partly structured in the sense that the tactical manager has to use
existing information to identify a payments history that benefits the organization and an allowed
increase percentage.
Strategic Management Level
This is the most senior level in an organization. The users at this level make unstructured
decisions. Senior level managers are concerned with the long-term planning of the organization.
They use information from tactical managers and external data to guide them when making
unstructured decisions.

Transaction Processing System (TPS)

Transaction processing systems are used to record day to day business transactions of the
organization. They are used by users at the operational management level. The main objective of
a transaction processing system is to answer routine questions such as;
• How printers were sold today?
• How much inventory do we have at hand?
• What is the outstanding due for John Doe?
By recording the day to day business transactions, TPS system provides answers to the above
questions in a timely manner.
• The decisions made by operational managers are routine and highly structured.
• The information produced from the transaction processing system is very detailed.
For example, banks that give out loans require that the company that a person works for should
have a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the bank. If a person whose employer has a
MoU with the bank applies for a loan, all that the operational staff has to do is verify the
submitted documents. If they meet the requirements, then the loan application documents are
processed. If they do not meet the requirements, then the client is advised to see tactical
management staff to see the possibility of signing a MoU.
Examples of transaction processing systems include;
• Point of Sale Systems – records daily sales
• Payroll systems – processing employees salary, loans management, etc.
• Stock Control systems – keeping track of inventory levels
• Airline booking systems – flights booking management

Management Information System (MIS)

Management Information Systems (MIS) are used by tactical managers to monitor the
organization's current performance status. The output from a transaction processing system is
used as input to a management information system.
The MIS system analyzes the input with routine algorithms i.e. aggregate, compare and
summarizes the results to produced reports that tactical managers use to monitor, control and
predict future performance.
For example, input from a point of sale system can be used to analyze trends of products that are
performing well and those that are not performing well. This information can be used to make
future inventory orders i.e. increasing orders for well-performing products and reduce the orders
of products that are not performing well.
Examples of management information systems include;
• Sales management systems – they get input from the point of sale system
 • Budgeting systems – gives an overview of how much money is spent within the
organization for the short and long terms.
• Human resource management system – overall welfare of the employees, staff
turnover, etc.
Tactical managers are responsible for the semi-structured decision. MIS systems provide the
information needed to make the structured decision and based on the experience of the tactical
managers, they make judgment calls i.e. predict how much of goods or inventory should be
ordered for the second quarter based on the sales of the first quarter.

Decision Support System (DSS)

Decision support systems are used by senior management to make non-routine decisions.
Decision support systems use input from internal systems (transaction processing systems and
management information systems) and external systems.
The main objective of decision support systems is to provide solutions to problems that are
unique and change frequently. Decision support systems answer questions such as;
• What would be the impact of employees' performance if we double the production lot at
the factory?
• What would happen to our sales if a new competitor entered the market?
Decision support systems use sophisticated mathematical models, and statistical techniques
(probability, predictive modeling, etc.) to provide solutions, and they are very interactive.
Examples of decision support systems include;
• Financial planning systems – it enables managers to evaluate alternative ways of
achieving goals. The objective is to find the optimal way of achieving the goal. For
example, the net profit for a business is calculated using the formula Total Sales less
(Cost of Goods + Expenses). A financial planning system will enable senior executives to
ask what if questions and adjust the values for total sales, the cost of goods, etc. to see the
effect of the decision and on the net profit and find the most optimal way.
• Bank loan management systems – it is used to verify the credit of the loan applicant and
predict the likelihood of the loan being recovered.

Q.3) study classification of MIS

Management Information System (MIS)

MIS is an information system, which processes data and converts it into information.  A
management information system uses TPS for its data inputs. The information generated by the
information system may be used for control of operations, strategic and long-range planning.
Short-range planning, management control, and other managerial problem solving. It
encompasses processing in support of a wide range of organizational functions & management
processes. MIS is capable of providing analysis, planning & decision making support. The
functional areas of a business may be marketing, production, human resource, finance and
accounting.
1. TPS (Transaction Processing System):
TPS processes transaction and produces reports. It represents the automation of the fundamental,
routine processing used to support business operations.  It does not provide any information to
the user to his/her decision-making. TPS uses data and produces data as shown in the following
diagram.

Previously, TPS was known as Management Information System. Prior to computers, data
processing was performed manually or with simple machines. The domain of TPS is at the
lowest level of the management hierarchy of an organization.
A transaction process system (TPS) is an information processing system for business transactions
involving the collection, modification and retrieval of all transaction data. Characteristics of a
TPS include performance, reliability and consistency.
TPS is also known as transaction processing or real-time processing.
A transaction process system and transaction processing are often contrasted with a batch process
system and batch processing, where many requests are all executed at one time. The former
requires the interaction of a user, whereas batch processing does not require user involvement. In
batch processing the results of each transaction are not immediately available. Additionally, there
is a delay while the many requests are being organized, stored and eventually executed. In
transaction processing there is no delay and the results of each transaction are immediately
available. During the delay time for batch processing, errors can occur. Although errors can
occur in transaction processing, they are infrequent and tolerated, but do not warrant shutting
down the entire system.
To achieve performance, reliability and consistency, data must be readily accessible in a data
warehouse, backup procedures must be in place and the recovery process must be in place to deal
with system failure, human failure, computer viruses, software applications or natural disasters.

2. PCS (Process control systems):

Process control systems (PCS), sometimes called industrial control systems (ICS), function as
pieces of equipment along the production line during manufacturing that test the process in a
variety of ways, and return data for monitoring and troubleshooting. Many types of process
control systems exist, including supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA),
programmable logic controllers (PLC), or distributed control systems (DCS), and they work to
gather and transmit data obtained during the manufacturing process.
The PCS can be a relatively simple item with a sensor, often called a primary transducer, that
receives an input, along with a controller that processes the input, and a receiver that processes
an output.
More complicated PCS devices are robotic and perform many tasks. The PCS devices can
communicate their data to a company’s enterprise resource planning (ERP) computer application
through middleware software called a manufacturing execution system (MES).
Sensors
A great number of measurements can be taken on production lines. An equipment's sensor can
pick up many measurements including pressure, flow rate, density, acidity, velocity, speed, stress,
temperature, and weight.
Also, sensors can detect if an operation has occurred, such as the fill of a bottle, whether the
correct pressure has been achieved, or if a certain temperature has been reached.
Many sensors exist on production lines, falling under some different areas, such as pressure
sensors, flow meters, force sensors, and temperature sensors.
Checking Pressure
A pressure sensor can be triggered mechanically as an item passes the sensor. In its basic form, a
pressure sensor shows the reading on a dial attached to the sensor, but it can also electronically
transmit the reading to the MES application. Other types of sensors include:
• Piston pressure sensor: The pressure from the item on the production line can push on the
piston, which compresses a spring. The movement of the spring indicates the pressure.
• Diaphragm: The diaphragm is affected by small amounts of pressure, and these get
indicated on a dial.
• Bourdon tube: This hollow tube straightens under the application of pressure. It can be
used for measuring pressure differences.
Flow Meters
A flow meter instrument measures the linear, nonlinear, mass, or volumetric flow rate of a liquid
or a gas.
When selecting a flow meter for the production line, you need to know information about the
fluid involved, the rate of movement, and how to record the flow. Flow meter types include the
following:
• Positive displacement: These flow meters use a mechanical effect to measure flow. The
speed of the rotation of the meter indicates the flow of the liquid.
• Differential: The differential flow meter identifies the flow and converts it to a
differential pressure that can be measured.
• Inferential: The inferential flow meter measures the flow based on the effect of the flow.
This could be a simple rotor arm that is moved by the flow. The faster the rotor moves,
the faster the flow.
Testing Force
A force sensor measures forces and torque exerted. These sensors usually contain strain gauges
and can communicate information required for force measurements. Force sensors can be
mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical strain gauges.
• Mechanical: These function similarly to the operation of a normal scale, where a spring
moves under the application of force. The deflection of a spring is directly proportional to
the applied force, so the movement is shown on a scale.
• Hydraulic: Often referred to as hydraulic load cells. The cell contains liquid, which
becomes pressurized when a force is applied. The sensor takes the measurement by
displaying the pressure on a dial.
 • Strain gauge: This metal cylinder is compressed under application of a force. The
contraction in the cylinder can be measured, as the force causes increased resistance
measured by an applied electrical current.
Detecting Temperature
A temperature sensor converts the temperature into another quantity such as mechanical
movement for a dial or an electric voltage.
• Thermocouple: Thomas Seebeck discovered that when any conductor gets subjected to a
thermal gradient, it generates a voltage. Thermocouples are usually wires insulated from
each other with plastic or glass fiber materials.
• Liquid expansion: These sensors work as thermometers that can be filled with mercury or
an evaporating fluid used in refrigerators. Temperature changes produce expansion or
evaporation of the liquid, so the sensor becomes pressurized. The change is shown on a
simple pressure gauge.
• Bimetallic: When two metals are rigidly joined together as a two-layer strip and heated,
the difference in the expansion rate between the two metals causes the strip to bend. For
sensors on the production line, the strip is twisted into a long thin coil inside a tube. One
end is fixed at the bottom of the tube and the other turns and moves a pointer on a dial.
3. Business Intelligence System (BIS): Operations use a BIS to make business decisions based
on the collection, integration, and analysis of the collected data and information. This system is
similar to EIS, but both lower level managers and executives use it. 
Business information systems are sets of inter-related procedures using IT infrastructure in a
business enterprise to generate and disseminate desired information.

Such systems are designed to support decision making by the people associated with the
enterprise in the process of attainment of its objectives.

The business information system gets data and other resources of IT infrastructure as input from
the environment and process them to satisfy the information needs of different entities associated
with the business enterprise.

There are systems of control over the use of IT resources and the feedback system offers useful
clues for increasing the benefits of information systems to business. The business information
systems are sub-systems of business system and by themselves serve the function of feedback
and control in business system.

Features of Business Information System:

Characteristics & features of business information system are:
1. The business information systems are subject to the dynamics of business environment and
need to be flexible enough to absorb the inevitable changes in the information needs of business.
They have to be efficient to satisfy the demanding and ‘hard task masters,’ the business
managers. Thus, there is need to balance the conflicting objectives in the process of designing
business information systems.

2. Business information systems need to be proactive. They should anticipate changes in

information needs of users and accordingly adapt themselves to suit their needs. This has become
important because of the fact that the managers get involved in the routine activities to the extent
that the decision making becomes a matter of imitating what competitors are doing or planning
to do, rather than making an informed choice.

3. The purpose of business information system is to cater to the information needs for decision
making in business.

4. The business information systems have to be designed keeping in view the availability of
financial and human resources to the business enterprise.

5. The cost effectiveness is a matter of prime concern in the development and maintenance of
business information systems. Economic justification for investment in IT infrastructure for
business information systems is a pre condition for its existence and sustenance.

Key Components of Business Information System:

Information systems can be described by four of their key components which are:

1. Decisions

2. Transactions and processing

3. Information and its flow

4. Individuals or functions involved.

It is difficult to observe the decision process through we can see and review the results of a
decision. Transactions are usually more visible, though many current systems use computer
programs, which are not easy to understand, to process transactions. In principle, an observer can
see information and its flows. Individuals can be observed too, but it is not always easy to figure
out the information processing functions they perform.

Q 4. Simon’s Model of Decision-Making.

The three main steps of decision making process according to Herbert A. Simon. The steps
are: 1. Intelligence Activity 2. Design Activity 3. Choice Activity.
Decision Making Process Step # 1. Intelligence Activity:
The initial step in the intelligence phase is often referred to as problem finding or problem
recognition.
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This step involves searching the environment for condition requiring a decision. The search
process has different characteristics depending on whether it can be structured and whether it is
continuous or adhoc.

These differences are summarized in three types of search:

1. Unstructured search

2. Structured achoc search

3. Structured continuous search.

1. Unstructured search:
In many cases the search or intelligence algorithms cannot be specified. The decision support

system must allow the user to approach the task heuristically through trial and error rather than

by reestablished, fixed logical steps. Support for unstructured search is primarily based on

flexible access to the data base.

The user needs to be able to perform such functions as retrieval, presentation scanning, analysis
and comparison on data in order to discover new relations and new conclusions that have not
previously been defined.

Interactive systems enhance the performance of unstructured search by allowing the user to
change parameters of the problem and quickly see their effect. In some cases, system support
may include analysis information systems and representational models in other cases system
support may be a file drawer system with fast access to the data base.

2. Structured adhoc search:

Many problems and opportunities do not occur frequently enough to be handled by regular
search. However, the search process can be structured. For example, plant location may be a
problem for an expanding company, but it may not occur with sufficient frequency to justify a
data base and regular scanning for plant location sites.

Instead the intelligence process is structured, but it is applied only when other indicators suggest
the need for it. System support for structured Analysis information systems and representational
models may be used.

3. Structured continuous search:

Some problem areas, such as inventory balances and product prices relative to competitors, are
relatively structured and can be examined regularly. Periodic reporting systems providing
condition data support this type of search. Decision support systems permit the scope, number
and frequency of information outputs to be extended with scanning of all known indicators of
potential problems or opportunities.

Output can be produced on a periodic basis or whenever a problem or opportunity is detected.

Data analysis systems and suggestion systems can support this type of search. A second step in
this phase is called problem formulation or problem structuring, which occurs as more
information is sought to define the problem more clearly.

This early stage of decision making has the potential for affecting the direction of all succeeding
phases. During this step, the decision maker forms a mental model of the problem.

The mental model reflects the manager’s understanding of the problem structure. Problem
structure refers to the variables occurring in the problem and how they interact. The qualitative
representation of the problem thus formed strongly affects the domain of possible solutions.
Research has shown that computer graphics are useful in assisting in the problem useful in
depicting and communicating the user’s perception of a problem’s structure.

Decision Making Process Step # 2. Design Activity:

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Following the intelligence phase which results in problem or opportunity recognition, the design
phase involves inventing, developing and analysing possible courses of action. Support for the
design phase should provide for iterative procedures in considering alternatives.

The following iterative steps are typical:

1. Support in understanding the problem:
A correct model of the situation needs to be applied or created, and the assumptions of the model
tested.

2. Support for generating solutions:

The generation of possible courses of action is aided by;

a. The model itself. The manipulation of the model frequently provides insight leading to
generation of solution ideas.

b. The Data base retrieval system. The retrieval capabilities yield data useful in generating
solution ideas.

In many cases, the design model will provide a suggested solution. For example, an inventory
reorder model may suggest a solution to the problem of how much to order. This quantity is a
suggestion that can be modified, but it represents a feasible solution (and perhaps an optimal
solution based on the factors in the model).

Often the decision support system will lead the user in a rational search strategy for solutions.
For example, the solution search procedure might begin with a set of questions relating to
common solutions. These questions might be followed by a series of questions which assist the
decision maker to consider all alternatives.
The advantage of structured approaches is that they assist in systematically exploring the normal
decision space; the disadvantage is the tendency to suppress search outside the normal decision
space.

3. Support for testing feasibility of solutions.

A solution is tested for feasibility by analysing it in terms of the environments it affects- problem
area, entire organisation, competitors and society. The analysis may be performed judgmentally
against broad measures of their environment. Another approach is to analyze the proposed
solutions using models of the different environment. These models will generally involve
computer programs and a data base. The model base in a comprehensive MIS will have a number
of such models that can be used in testing solutions.

Decision Making Process Step # 3. Choice Activity:

The main tasks in the choice phase are to evaluate possible alternatives and to select the best one
software support for the intelligence and design phases assists in providing alternatives. The
choice phase requires the application of a choice procedure and the implementation of the chosen
alternative.

A decision support system, by definition, does not make a choice. However, optimization models
and suggestion models can be used to rank the alternatives and otherwise apply decision choice
procedures to support the choice of the decision maker.

For example, a decision to acquire a machine from among several alternatives may be structured
by one or more criteria such as, rate of return, years of payback, minimum cash outlay, Executive
preference, Employee preference, minimum risk, etc. These criteria can be applied by use of
decision software. The choice is then made by a decision maker and communicated to person
who can implement the result.

Although the decision-making process is here characterized as sequential, it is less clearly so in

practice. The activities of intelligence, design and choice are interlocked and repetitive, and they
take place within a dynamic decision making environment. A DSS should support all aspects of
this process.
6) MYSQL
Databse management:
Database Management, allows a person to organize, store and
retrieve data from a computer. Database Management can also describe,
the data storage, operations and security practices of a Database
Administrator (DBA), throughout the life cycle of the data. Managing a
database involves designing, implementing and supporting stored data,
to maximize its value.
Data types :
MySQL uses many different data types broken into three categories −
• Numeric
• Date and Time
• String Types.
Let us now discuss them in detail.
Numeric Data Types
MySQL uses all the standard ANSI SQL numeric data types, so if
you're coming to MySQL from a different database system, these
definitions will look familiar to you.
The following list shows the common numeric data types and their
descriptions −
• INT − A normal-sized integer that can be signed or unsigned. If
signed, the allowable range is from -2147483648 to 2147483647.
If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to 4294967295. You
can specify a width of up to 11 digits.
• TINYINT − A very small integer that can be signed or unsigned.
If signed, the allowable range is from -128 to 127. If unsigned, the
allowable range is from 0 to 255. You can specify a width of up to
4 digits.
• SMALLINT − A small integer that can be signed or unsigned. If
signed, the allowable range is from -32768 to 32767. If unsigned,
the allowable range is from 0 to 65535. You can specify a width of
up to 5 digits.
• MEDIUMINT − A medium-sized integer that can be signed or
 unsigned. If signed, the allowable range is from -8388608 to
8388607. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to 16777215.
You can specify a width of up to 9 digits.
• BIGINT − A large integer that can be signed or unsigned. If
signed, the allowable range is from -9223372036854775808 to
9223372036854775807. If unsigned, the allowable range is from
0 to 18446744073709551615. You can specify a width of up to 20
digits.
• FLOAT(M,D) − A floating-point number that cannot be unsigned.
You can define the display length (M) and the number of decimals
(D). This is not required and will default to 10,2, where 2 is the
number of decimals and 10 is the total number of digits (including
decimals). Decimal precision can go to 24 places for a FLOAT.
• DOUBLE(M,D) − A double precision floating-point number that
cannot be unsigned. You can define the display length (M) and the
number of decimals (D). This is not required and will default to
16,4, where 4 is the number of decimals. Decimal precision can
go to 53 places for a DOUBLE. REAL is a synonym for
DOUBLE.
• DECIMAL(M,D) − An unpacked floating-point number that
cannot be unsigned. In the unpacked decimals, each decimal
corresponds to one byte. Defining the display length (M) and the
number of decimals (D) is required. NUMERIC is a synonym for
DECIMAL.
Date and Time Types
The MySQL date and time datatypes are as follows −
• DATE − A date in YYYY-MM-DD format, between 1000-01-01
and 9999-12-31. For example, December 30th, 1973 would be
stored as 1973-12-30.
• DATETIME − A date and time combination in YYYY-MM-DD
HH:MM:SS format, between 1000-01-01 00:00:00 and 9999-12-
31th23:59:59. For example, 3:30 in the afternoon on December
30 , 1973 would be stored as 1973-12-30 15:30:00.
• TIMESTAMP − A timestamp between midnight, January 1st,
1970 and sometime in 2037. This looks like the previous
DATETIME format, only without the hyphens between numbers;
3:30 in the afternoon on December 30th, 1973 would be stored as
19731230153000 ( YYYYMMDDHHMMSS ).
• TIME − Stores the time in a HH:MM:SS format.
• YEAR(M) − Stores a year in a 2-digit or a 4-digit format. If the
length is specified as 2 (for example YEAR(2)), YEAR can be
between 1970 to 2069 (70 to 69). If the length is specified as 4,
 then YEAR can be 1901 to 2155. The default length is 4.
String Types
Although the numeric and date types are fun, most data you'll store will
be in a string format. This list describes the common string datatypes in
MySQL.
• CHAR(M) − A fixed-length string between 1 and 255 characters
in length (for example CHAR(5)), right-padded with spaces to the
specified length when stored. Defining a length is not required,
but the default is 1. AR(25). You must define a length when
creating a VARCHAR field.
• VARCHAR(M) − A variable-length string between 1 and 255
characters in length. For example, VARCH
• BLOB or TEXT − A field with a maximum length of 65535
characters. BLOBs are "Binary Large Objects" and are used to
store large amounts of binary data, such as images or other types
of files. Fields defined as TEXT also hold large amounts of data.
The difference between the two is that the sorts and comparisons
on the stored data are case sensitive on BLOBs and are not case
sensitive in TEXT fields. You do not specify a length with BLOB
or TEXT.
• TINYBLOB or TINYTEXT − A BLOB or TEXT column with a
maximum length of 255 characters. You do not specify a length
with TINYBLOB or TINYTEXT.
• MEDIUMBLOB or MEDIUMTEXT − A BLOB or TEXT
column with a maximum length of 16777215 characters. You do
not specify a length with MEDIUMBLOB or MEDIUMTEXT.
• LONGBLOB or LONGTEXT − A BLOB or TEXT column with
a maximum length of 4294967295 characters. You do not specify
a length with LONGBLOB or LONGTEXT.
• ENUM − An enumeration, which is a fancy term for list. When
defining an ENUM, you are creating a list of items from which the
value must be selected (or it can be NULL). For example, if you
wanted your field to contain "A" or "B" or "C", you would define
your ENUM as ENUM ('A', 'B', 'C') and only those values (or
NULL) could ever populate that field.
Creating and using database
Once you know how to enter SQL statements, you are ready to access a
database.
Suppose that you have several pets in your home (your menagerie) and
you would like to keep track of various types of information about them.
You can do so by creating tables to hold your data and loading them with
the desired information. Then you can answer different sorts of
questions about your animals by retrieving data from the tables. This
section shows you how to perform the following operations:
• Create a database
• Create a table
• Load data into the table
• Retrieve data from the table in various ways
• Use multiple tables
The menagerie database is simple (deliberately), but it is not difficult to
think of real-world situations in which a similar type of database might
be used. For example, a database like this could be used by a farmer to
keep track of livestock, or by a veterinarian to keep track of patient
records. A menagerie distribution containing some of the queries and
sample data used in the following sections can be obtained from the
MySQL website. It is available in both compressed tar file and Zip
formats at https://dev.mysql.com/doc/.
Use the SHOW statement to find out what databases currently exist on
the server:
mysql>SHOWDATABASES;
+----------+
| Database |
+----------+
| mysql |
| test |
| tmp |
+----------+
The mysql database describes user access privileges. The test database
often is available as a workspace for users to try things out.
The list of databases displayed by the statement may be different on your
machine; SHOW DATABASES does not show databases that you have
no privileges for if you do not have the SHOW DATABASES privilege.
See Section 13.7.7.14, “SHOW DATABASES Syntax”.
If the test database exists, try to access it:
mysql>USE test
Databasechanged
USE, like QUIT, does not require a semicolon. (You can terminate such
statements with a semicolon if you like; it does no harm.)
The USE statement is special in another way, too: it must be given on a
single line.
You can use the test database (if you have access to it) for the examples
that follow, but anything you create in that database can be removed by
anyone else with access to it. For this reason, you should probably ask
your MySQL administrator for permission to use a database of your
own. Suppose that you want to call yours menagerie. The administrator
needs to execute a statement like this:
mysql>GRANTALLON
menagerie.*TO'your_mysql_name'@'your_client_host';
where your_mysql_name is the MySQL user name assigned to you
and your_client_host is the host from which you connect to the server.
DATA WAREHOUSE:-
A Data Warehousing (DW) is process for collecting and managing data from varied
sources to provide meaningful business insights. A Data warehouse is typically
used to connect and analyze business data from heterogeneous sources. The data
warehouse is the core of the BI system which is built for data analysis and
reporting.
It is a blend of technologies and components which aids the strategic use of data. It
is electronic storage of a large amount of information by a business which is
designed for query and analysis instead of transaction processing. It is a process of
transforming data into information and making it available to users in a timely
manner to make a difference.
The decision support database (Data Warehouse) is maintained separately from the
organization's operational database. However, the data warehouse is not a product
but an environment. It is an architectural construct of an information system which
provides users with current and historical decision support information which is
difficult to access or present in the traditional operational data store.
You many know that a 3NF-designed database for an inventory system many have
tables related to each other. For example, a report on current inventory information
can include more than 12 joined conditions. This can quickly slow down the
response time of the query and report. A data warehouse provides a new design
which can help to reduce the response time and helps to enhance the performance
of queries for reports and analytics.

Data warehouse system is also known by the following name:

Decision Support System (DSS)

Executive Information System
Management Information System
Business Intelligence Solution
Analytic Application
Data Warehouse

How Datawarehouse works?

A Data Warehouse works as a central repository where information arrives from
one or more data sources. Data flows into a data warehouse from the transactional
system and other relational databases.
Data may be:
• Structured
• Semi-structured
• Unstructured data
The data is processed, transformed, and ingested so that users can access the
processed data in the Data Warehouse through Business Intelligence tools, SQL
clients, and spreadsheets. A data warehouse merges information coming from
different sources into one comprehensive database.
By merging all of this information in one place, an organization can analyze its
customers more holistically. This helps to ensure that it has considered all the
information available. Data warehousing makes data mining possible. Data mining
is looking for patterns in the data that may lead to higher sales and profits.
Types of Data Warehouse
Three main types of Data Warehouses are:
1. Enterprise Data Warehouse:
Enterprise Data Warehouse is a centralized warehouse. It provides decision support
service across the enterprise. It offers a unified approach for organizing and
representing data. It also provide the ability to classify data according to the
subject and give access according to those divisions.

2. Operational Data Store:

Operational Data Store, which is also called ODS, are nothing but data store
required when neither Data warehouse nor OLTP systems support organizations
reporting needs. In ODS, Data warehouse is refreshed in real time. Hence, it is
widely preferred for routine activities like storing records of the Employees.

3. Data Mart:
A data mart is a subset of the data warehouse. It specially designed for a particular
line of business, such as sales, finance, sales or finance. In an independent data
mart, data can collect directly from sources.
General stages of Data Warehouse
Earlier, organizations started relatively simple use of data warehousing. However,
over time, more sophisticated use of data warehousing begun.
The following are general stages of use of the data warehouse:
Offline Operational Database:
In this stage, data is just copied from an operational system to another server. In
this way, loading, processing, and reporting of the copied data do not impact the
operational system's performance.

Offline Data Warehouse:

Data in the Datawarehouse is regularly updated from the Operational Database.
The data in Datawarehouse is mapped and transformed to meet the Datawarehouse
objectives.

Real time Data Warehouse:

In this stage, Data warehouses are updated whenever any transaction takes place in
operational database. For example, Airline or railway booking system.

Integrated Data Warehouse:

In this stage, Data Warehouses are updated continuously when the operational
system performs a transaction. The Datawarehouse then generates transactions
which are passed back to the operational system.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DATA MANAGEMENT & DATA

WAREHOUSE:-
Data warehouses and databases are both relational data systems, but were built to
serve different purposes. A data warehouse is built to store large quantities of
historical data and enable fast, complex queries across all the data, typically using
Online Analytical Processing (OLAP). A database was built to store current
transactions and enable fast access to specific transactions for ongoing business
processes, known as Online Transaction Processing (OLTP).
Optimization
A database is optimized to maximize the speed and efficiency with which data is
updated (added, modified, or deleted) and enable faster analysis and data access.
Databases use Online Transactional Processing (OLTP) to delete, insert, replace,
and update large numbers of short online transactions. Other features include fast
query processing, multi-access data integrity, and a number of processed
transactions per second. Databases performing OLTP transactions contain and
maintain current, and detailed data from a single source. However, due to the
number of table joins, performing analytical queries is difficult and requires an
experienced database administrator or developer familiar with the application, to
write queries that result in any meaningful analysis.
Response times from databases need to be extremely quick for efficient transaction
processing. The most important aspect of a database is that the write operation is
recorded in the system. A business that sells products online wouldn’t be in
business very long if its database didn’t make a record of every purchase.
Data warehouses use Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) that is optimized to
handle a low number of complex queries on aggregated large historical data sets.
Tables are denormalized and transformed to yield summarized data,
multidimensional views, and faster query response times. Additionally, query
response times are used to measure an OLAP system’s effectiveness. As a function
of business intelligence, OLAP allows managers and analysts to select, extract,
view, and analyze corporate data to identify and obtain insights on corporate trends
as well as identify potential issues.

Data Structure
Most databases use a normalized data structure. Data normalization means
reorganizing data so that it contains no redundant data, and all related data items
are stored together, with related data separated into multiple tables. Normalizing
data ensures the database takes up minimal disk space while response times are
maximized.

The more normalized your data is, the more complex the queries needed to read the
data because a single query combines data from many tables. This puts a huge
strain on computing resources.
The data in a data warehouse does not need to be organized for quick transactions.
Therefore, data warehouses normally use a denormalized data structure. A
denormalized data structure uses fewer tables because it groups data and doesn’t
exclude data redundancies. Denormalization offers better performance when
reading data for analytical purposes.

Data Timeline
A database processes day-to-day transactions within an organization. Therefore,
databases typically don’t contain historical data—current data is all that matters in
a normalized relational database.
Data warehouses are used for analytical purposes and business reporting. Data
warehouses typically store historical data by integrating copies of transaction data
from disparate sources. Data warehouses can also use real-time data feeds for
reports that use the most current, integrated information.
Analysis
While databases are normally used for transactional purposes, analytical queries
can still be performed on the data. The problem is that the complexity of the data’s
normalized organization makes analytical queries difficult to carry out. A skilled
developer or analyst will be required to create such analytical queries. The depth of
analysis is limited to static one-time reports because databases just give a snapshot
overview of data at a specific time.
The structure of data warehouses makes analytical queries much simpler to
perform. No advanced knowledge of database applications is required. Analytics in
data warehouses is dynamic, meaning it takes into account data that changes over
time.
Concurrent Users
An OLTP database supports thousands of concurrent users. Many users must be
able to interact with the database simultaneously without it affecting the system’s
performance.
Data warehouses support a limited number of concurrent users compared to
operational systems. The data warehouse is separated from front-end applications
and it relies on complex queries, thus necessitating a limit on how many people can
use the system simultaneously.

Q.6. CASE STUDY ON ENTITY RELATIONSHIP SCHEMA.

In a University , there are several departments and each department has a head of
department who belongs to Faculty. Department have a name , phone extension ,
specific mailing address and Students that belong to the department. Students can
belong to only one Department at a time and Department can have more than one
or no Student
Students and faculty have names and unique identification numbers , with address ,
age , gender and other information. Student studies different Courses offered by
University . Faculty teaches these Courses . In each semester one student can take
more than one course and Faculty can teach more than one courses . Faculty
members can teach in multiple Departments. Each course can be taught by many
faculty members or no one
Faculty members are also working on multiple research projects. These projects are
funded by government and university. One project can have more than one faculty
member and one faculty member can work on more than one project
Huff , Looks like a long task . Lets apply our four steps on this requirement. Think
of them and study this requirement again.

Identify Entity and Members ;

Long ago , we told you how to identify entities . Remember? No? No worries .
You can find it ERD Terminologies . Start identifying nouns in above statement
and make them bold characters.
In a University , there are several departments and each department has a head of
department who belongs to Faculty. Department have a name , phone extension ,
specific mailing address and Students that belong to the department. Students can
belong to only one Department at a time and Department can have more than one
or no Student
Students and faculty have names and unique identification numbers , with address ,
age , gender and other information. Student studies different Courses offered by
University . Faculty teaches these Courses . In each semester one student can take
more than one course and Faculty can teach more than one courses . Faculty
members can teach in multiple Departments. Each course can be taught by many
faculty members or no one
Faculty members are also working on multiple research projects. These projects are
funded by government and university. One project can have more than one faculty
member and one faculty member can work on more than one project

Decide Relationships , Cardinality and Modality

No idea how to do it? Go ERD Terminologies ERD Terminologies. Simply
identify verbs and identify them . Let’s make them bold Italic characters,
In a University , there are several departments and each department has a head
of department who belongs to Faculty. Department have a name , phone
extension , specific mailing address and Students that belong to the department.
Students can belong to only one Department at a time and Department can have
more than one or no Student.
Students and faculty have names and unique identification numbers , with address
, age , gender and other information. Student studies different Courses offered by
University . Faculty teaches these Courses . In each semester one student can take
more than one course and Faculty can teach more than one courses . Faculty
members can teach in multiple Departments. Each course can be taught by many
faculty members or no one
Faculty members are also working on multiple research projects. These projects
are funded by government and university. One project can have more than one
faculty member and one faculty member can work on more than one project

Draw Entities & Attribute Separately :

You may wonder about the members , as they can sometimes are missing , so we
add the missing attributes that are not in the requirement by the knowledge of the
industry we are designing the DBMS for . A primary key is a must attribute for
every entity .

Student have Name , age , gender , address , phone Number , Roll Number ,
Semester , Course_ID and Student_ID. Faculty have Name , age , gender ,
address , phone Number , Semester , Course_ID, Grade , Salary , Faculty_ID and
designation. Course have Name , Code , Student_ID , Faculty_ID , Department_ID
and Course_ID. Department have Name , Student_ID , Faculty_ID and
Department_ID. Research Project – Project_ID, Faculty_ID , Name , Duration.

See Below the diagram

Complete ERD
Create Relationships Between Entities.
We know the relationships from above steps and also what will be the cardinality
and modality. Using Crow’s Foot Notation . We have combined them .

If we have to read this diagram , this is how it will go . Reading symbols at the
other end
Student-Department ; One Student Belongs to One and Only one Department
Department-Student : Department can have more than one student and no Student.
( *Business Logic ) .
Student-Course : Student must have one course and can have more than one.
Course-Student : One course can be offered to many students or no students at all
Course-Faculty : One course can be taught by many faculty member or no one (*
Business Logic )

Faculty-Course : One faculty member will teach one course or more than one
courses
Can you do the same for Research Project and Faculty? Comment below . If you
can.
*Business Logic : While you design an ERD . Never ever do anything with
common sense and stick strictly with the logic , common sense says if department
doesn’t have a student, how can it exist? But the user requirement says it can,
Hence it will. Always stick with the user requirements
Concluding this long article , we have finally connected all the dots ( previous
articles ) and develop this article in which we designed a ERD. Next step is to
normalise this ERD and resolve relationships .