Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2-1
4.2 Common Signal Sets
This carries more bits per pulse (more bps/Hz), but we’ll see a big penalty
in required SNR.
• Signal format:
Am = ( 2m − 1 − M ) Δ, m = 1,…, M
Odd integers from − M + 1 to M − 1 (e.g., -5, -3, -1, +1, +3, +5)
= Am2 = Δ 2 ( 2m − 1 − M ) , so
2 2
• Energy of signal m is Em = s m
Es E
and energy per bit is Eb = = s
log 2 ( M ) k
3 Es 12 Es
Δ= and d min = 2Δ =
M 2 −1 M 2 −1
2( M − 1) ⎛ 6log 2 ( M ) ⎞ ⎛ 6log 2 ( M ) ⎞
= Q⎜ γ b ⎟ < 2Q ⎜ γb ⎟
M ⎜ 2
− ⎟ ⎜ 2
− ⎟
⎝ M 1 ⎠ ⎝ M 1 ⎠
4.2-4
• Error performance degrades rapidly as we pack more bits onto the symbol.
If we add just one bit, we double the number of levels…
o For a fixed spacing (i.e., fixed SER), the required energy per symbol
Es and hence the required SNR per symbol γ s = Es N 0 quadruple;
i.e., they go up by 6 dB. Energy per bit Eb doesn’t quite quadruple,
since there’s one more bit.
2
o For a fixed Es , the spacing is cut in half, reducing d min by 6 dB – the
new SER is very roughly the fourth root of the original SER!
1 .10
3
1 .10
4
1 .10
5
1 .10
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
1 .10
3
1 .10
5
1 .10
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Is γ b a more meaningful
SNR per BIT, gamma_b (dB)
M=2 quantity than γ s ? Is BER
M=4
M=8 more meaningful than SER?
4.2-6
• The bit error rate depends on the mapping of bits to constellation points:
⎛ 2Δ i − j − Δ ⎞ ⎛ 2Δ i − j + Δ ⎞
P(i, j ) = Q ⎜ ⎟ − Q⎜ ⎟
⎜ N 2 ⎟ ⎜ N 2 ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
⎛ 6log 2 ( M ) ⎞ ⎛ 6log 2 ( M ) ⎞
= Q ⎜ ( 2 i − j − 1) γ b ⎟ − Q ⎜ ( 2 i − j + 1) γb ⎟
⎝ M 2
− 1 ⎠ ⎝ M 2
− 1 ⎠
4.2-7
o But for BER values low enough to be useful, errors involving adjacent
bins dominate. Why?
Q⎜
⎜ N 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠
Less than the probability of any error raised to the 8th power. So
ignore all but adjacent bins.
the most likely symbol errors (to the nearest neighbours) produce just
one bit error, and
1 1
Pb ≈ Ps or BER ≈ SER (Gray code)
k k
4.2-8
o and for natural labeling ( M = 4 )
2 2⋅3
So BER Pb = Q while SER Ps = Q = 1.5 Q (see p. 4.2-3). The
k 4
ratio is different for other M.
M points total
Usually square, M each direction
Carries k = log 2 ( M ) bits in total
and log 2 ( )
M = 12 log 2 ( M ) = k 2
each direction
Usually the axes are cos, sin (i.e., real and imaginary), so they occupy the
same bandwidth. Compared with PAM, we double the bps/Hz and merely
double the SER – with no increase in BER! Very widely used.
4.2-9
• In more detail, the transmitted signal is
( )
sm1 ,m2 (t ) = Am1 + jAm2 f (t )
( )
with f (t ) unit energy and Ami = 2mi − 1 − M Δ for a square, M-point
constellation.
( )
2
o For sm1 ,m2 , it’s Em1 ,m2 = s m1 ,m2 = Δ 2 Am21 + Am2 2
Δ2 M M ⎛
(
∑ ∑ ⎜ 2m1 − 1 − M ) ( ) ⎞
2 2
Es = + 2m2 − 1 − M ⎟
M m1 =1 m2 =1 ⎝ ⎠
Δ2 ⎛ M ⎞ 2Δ 2
= ⎜2 M ( M − 1) ⎟ = ( M − 1)
M⎝ 3 ⎠ 3
and
⎛ 3log 2 ( M ) ⎞ ⎛ 3log 2 ( M ) ⎞
= 4Q ⎜ γ b ⎟ − 4Q 2 ⎜ γb ⎟
⎝ M − 1 ⎠ ⎝ M − 1 ⎠
⎛ 3log 2 ( M ) ⎞
≤ 4Q ⎜ γb ⎟
⎝ M − 1 ⎠
Tight at useful error rates , large M. Four chances to cross a boundary.
Pes = 3Q − 2Q 2 Pes = 2Q − Q 2
⎛ 3log 2 ( M ) ⎞ ⎛ 3log 2 ( M ) ⎞
≤ 3Q ⎜ γb ⎟ ≤ 2Q ⎜ γb ⎟
⎝ M −1 ⎠ ⎝ M −1 ⎠
4.2-12
o Averaging over all points, we obtain the exact SER, which we can
upper bound for a simple approximation:
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 3log 2 ( M ) ⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 3log 2 ( M ) ⎞
Pes = 4 ⎜1 − ⎟Q ⎜ γb −
⎟ ⎜4 1 − + ⎟Q ⎜ γb ⎟
⎝ M ⎠ ⎝ M − 1 ⎠ ⎝ M M ⎠ ⎝ M − 1 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 3log 2 ( M ) ⎞ ⎛ 3log 2 ( M ) ⎞
≤ 4 ⎜1 − ⎟ Q ⎜ γ ⎟ ≤ 4Q ⎜ γb ⎟
− −
b
⎝ M ⎠ ⎝ M 1 ⎠ ⎝ M 1 ⎠
• We can carry more bits per pulse by increasing the number of points. No
increase in bandwidth – nice – but very expensive in SNR, like PAM.
o Add two bits (one per dimension) and M quadruples – twice as many
points in each direction. Need to add 6 dB to the energy per symbol.
4.2-13
1 .10
3
1 .10
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
• What about the bit error probability? QAM BER calculation is like that of
PAM.
o For an incorrect output i, j → i′, j ′ , we need the number of bits in
error, from the labeling, and we average them with the probability of
the event. We can calculate P [i, j → i′, j ′] exactly – look at the
sketch:
4.2-14
o As in PAM, the adjacent points (on the 4 sides of a cell, not the
corners) dominate. Gray code gives one bit error in each such symbol
error, so
1
Peb ≈ Pes (Gray code)
k
but if Gray coded independently on real, imag axes, then (since noise
components are also independent), it decomposes to two uncoupled
PAM systems:
(
Hence PbQAM ( γ b , M ) = PbPAM γ b , M )
has Pb = Q ( )
2 γ b , just like binary antipodal.
4.2-16
4.2.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
2π
Send sm (t ) = Es e jφm f (t ) where φm = m, m = 0,…, M − 1
M
Shown with Gray-coded bit mapping. Note 2-PSK is binary antipodal, like
2-PAM, and 4-PSK is just a rotated version of 4-QAM.
• Why use it? Because of the equal amplitudes. Less power variability than
PAM or QAM, so it simplifies amplifier and mixer design. In fact, with a
rectangular pulse f (t ) , the envelope is constant (except at symbol
transition times), so may work with power-efficient Class C amps.
4.2-17
• Energy and distance:
o All signals have energy Es (energy per symbol) and energy per bit is
Es E
Eb = = s
log 2 ( M ) k
Approximately:
2π
d min ≈ Es Δφ = Es
M
Exactly:
( ) ( )
2 2
d min = 2 Es −2 Es cos(Δφ)
= 2 Es (1 − cos ( 2π M ) )
o SER is the same for all symbols. Unlike PAM, QAM, no closed form
(counting Q( ) as a closed form).
⎛ tan ⎛⎜ π ⎞⎟( Es + n1 ) ⎞
∞ ⎜ ⎝M ⎠ ⎟
Pes = 1 − ∫ pn1 (n1 ) ⎜ ∫
⎜⎜ − tan ⎛ π ⎞ E + n
pn 2 (n2 ) dn2 ⎟ dn1
⎟⎟
⎜ ⎟( s 1 )
− Es
⎝ ⎝M ⎠ ⎠
πM
Pes = 1 − Pcs = 1 − ∫ pθ (θ) d θ
−π M
pθ (θ) =
1 −γ s
2π
e ⎡1 + 4πγ cos(θ)e γ s cos2 ( θ) 1 − Q
⎢⎣ s ( ( 2 γ s cos(θ) ⎤⎥
⎦ ))
Here, a single numerical integration gives the SER.
0.01
1.5
prob of symbol error
1 .10
3
probability
b l
1
1 .10
4
b f
1 .10
5
0.5
1 .10
6
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
2 0 2
SNR per bit, gamma_b (dB)
phase theta M=2
gamma_s = 1 (0 dB) M =4
gamma_s = 2 (3 dB) M=8
gamma_s = 4 (6 dB) M = 16
gamma_s = 10 (10 dB)
4.2-20
o Or resort to the union bound, to simplify calculations. Symbol s0 sent.
Events:
E1 (\\\): on the wrong side of decision
boundary with s1
EM −1 (///): on the wrong side of
decision boundary with s M −1
Note: E1 does not imply that the decision is s1 !! It can also include
s 2 , s3 , s 4 decisions for 8-PSK. Similarly, EM −1 ( E7 for 8-PSK) can also
include s 4 , s5 , s 6 . Then
Pes = P [ E1 ∪ EM −1 ]
= P [ E1 ] + P [ EM −1 ] − P [ E1 ∩ EM −1 ]
comparison with P [ E1 ] for useable error rates (low enough noise), drop
the term and get the union bound (upper bound on SER):
⎛ d min 2 ⎞
Pes < 2 P [ E1 ] = 2 Q ⎜ ⎟
⎜ N 2⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠
⎛ Es sin ( π M ) ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎞
= 2Q ⎜ ⎟ = 2 Q ⎜ sin ⎜ ⎟ 2 γ s ⎟ = 2 Q ⎜ sin ⎜ M ⎟ 2log 2 ( M ) γ b ⎟
⎜ N0 2 ⎟ ⎝ ⎝M ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
⎝ ⎠