]trcebtj Qriheheb Gieui`

Qjc Ibh`c ^crhkahzithke Ipprkimj

 Tk`ugc Qwk

G`iace LkviekvhĂ

^uo`hsjca oy<

Mkgp`cgcetiry Qriheheb

Oc`briac, ]crohi

?>98

Dkr hedkrgithke< www.mkgp`cgcetirytriheheb.ect

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 LkviekvhĂ, G.
]trcebtj Qriheheb Gieui`. Qjc Ibh`c ^crhkahzithke Ipprkimj. Tk`ugc Qwk

H]OE< 82:-:4-8>>:>=-9-9
82:-:4-8>>:>=-=-3 (Tk`ugc Qwk)

Mkpyrhbjt © ?>98 G`iace Lkviekvh Ă

Mkvcr acshbe oy _hmirak Girhek

Mkvcr hgibc usca ueacr `hmcesc drkg ]juttcrstkmf.mkg

C-Okkf acshbe oy Bkrie ]gh`lieh Ă

 I`` rhbjts rcscrvca. Qjhs okkf kr iey pkrthke tjcrckd giy ekt oc rcprkaumca kr usca he
iey gieecr wjitskcvcr whtjkut tjc cxprcss wrhttce pcrghsshke kd tjc iutjkr cxmcpt
dkr tjc usc kd orhcd quktithkes he i okkf rcvhcw.

^uo`hsjca he Oc`briac, ]crohi

Dhrst C-Okkf Cahthke

Mkgp`cgcetiry Qriheheb
 Rcoshtc< www.mkgp`cgcetirytriheheb.ect
=
 Qio`c kd Mketcets
^rcdimc tk tjc Tk`ugc Qwk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
3i ^`ieeheb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Qriheheb aksc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Hetceshty,
Hetceshty, Tk`ug
Tk`ugcc iea Aceshty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9>
 Rhtjhe qui`hty siturithke-ahstrhouthke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
‐]ituritc iea ]cpiritc‗ jcurhsthm iea ‐mkgp`cx/piri``c` iea
uehahrcmthkei`‗ mketheuug.
mketheuug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
^jisc ^ktcethithke hs ou``sjht - out scqucemheb ghbjt ekt oc . . . . . .?>
Hgprkvcc - Cxtcea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .??
Hgprkv
Cxtceshvc - Hetceshvc iea tjc ohrtj kd `hecir pcrhkahzithke/prkbrcsshke .?=
Qjc ‐Ktjcr‗ mitcbkry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .?4
Cxtcrei` vs Hetcrei` iea suolcmthvc rithebs kd aksc . . . . . . . . . . .=>
Cxtcrei`-Kolcmthvc Aksc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =9
Hetcrei`-Kolcmthvc Aksc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =9
Cxtcrei`-]uolcmthvc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =9
Hetcrei`-]uolcmthvc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =9
Qriheheb aksc suggiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1>
Aksc -5 _cspkesc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1>
]hgp`c pjirgimk`kbhmi` gkac`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Aksc zkecs.
zkecs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1?
Spshac iea Akweshac c ﬎ cmts
cmts (rcspkescs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1=
. 1=
=D Gkac`< Dhtecss, Dithbuc iea Dimh`htithke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Mhrmu`ir gkac` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Cxtcrei`-Kolcmthvc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Cxtcrei`-]uolcmthvc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3>
. 3>
Hetcrei`-Kolcmthvc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3>
. 3>
Hetcrei`-]uolcmthvc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3>
1
 Jcrk‘s Lkurecy iea ^usj iea ^u`` mkemcpts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3=
^usj iea ^u`` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Qjrcc purpkscs kd gkehtkrheb triheheb aksc . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4>
Acmhshke gitrhx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4?
Mkem`ushkes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4=
3o ^`ieeheb (mketheuca) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
]ct iea _cp ]mjcgcs< Qjc Oishs• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
 Ieitkgy kd i sct iea rcp smjcgc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
 Rirg-up scts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
^rc-wkrf scts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4:
Gihe kr Rkrfhe
Rkrfheb
b scts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2>
 Idtcr scts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2>
Krbiehzithke kd cxcrmhscs he tjc wkrfkut• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
.21
1
O`kmfca
O`kmfca ipprki
ipprkimj
mj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
. 23
]upcr-scts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Juo iea ]pkfc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:?
Mkgoheithkes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:=
M`issh﬉mithke kd ]ct iea _cp smjcgcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :1
M`issh﬉mithke oisca ke Kolcmthvcs kr Yui`hthcs . . . . . . . . . . . . :1
M`issh﬉mithke oisca ke ^rcsmrhpthvcecss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:2
M`issh﬉mithke oisca ke Tk`ugc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .::
M`issh﬉mithke oisca ke Qkubjecss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .::
M`issh﬉mithke oisca ke Gctjkak`kby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :8
Acmkup`heb ^rkbrcsshvc Kvcr`kia drkg Iaiptithke . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8>
^rkbrcsshke vs Tirhithke•. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
 Tcrthmi` iea Jkrhzketi` p`ieeheb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Jkrhzketi` p`ieeheb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
 Tcrthmi` ^`ieeheb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9>>
^crm Arkp ipprkimj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9>?
_H_ Hem ipprkimj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9>1
Ah﬎ crcemc
crcemc octwcce ^crm Arkp iea _H_ Hem gctjkas . . . . . . 9>3
 Ialustheb dkr @kwcr Okay `hdts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9>4
 Ialustheb usheb heahvhaui`hzca @kia-Cxcrthke tio`c . . . . . . 9>4
 Tcrthmi` p`ieeheb gctjkas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9>:
3
 Mkestiet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
@hecir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
99?
_cvcrsc @hecir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99?
O`kmf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99?
O`kmf Tirhiet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99?
_cp Immugu`ithke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
99?
]ct Immugu`ithke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99=
Seau`itheb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99=
_cvcrsc Seau`itheb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99=
Tk`ugc-Hetceshty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9 9=
G`iace‘s Gctjkak`kbhmi` ]ystcg kd m`isshdyheb ]ct iea _cp smjcgcs . . . . 99=
^`itciu gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
]tcp gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99:
_cvcrsc ]tcp gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9?9
 Ismceaheb Rivc gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9?=
Acsmceaheb Rivc gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9?2
 Ismceaheb @iaacr gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9?8
Acsmceaheb @iaacr gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9=9
Qriahthkei` ^yrigha gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9==
_cvcrsc ^yrigha gctjka. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9=3
@hbjt-Jcivy gctjka. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9=2
M`ustcr gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9=
9=8
_cst-^iusc gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91=
M`ustcr Rivc gctjka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
]uggiry kd tjc sct iea rcp smjcgcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
914
Jkrhzk
Jkrhzketi
eti`` iea Tcr
Tcrthm
thmi`
i` p`i
p`ieeh
eeheb
eb mym
mym`cs
`cs (]p
(]prhe
rhets
ts iea ^ji
^jiscs
scs)•
)• . . . . . . . 91:
Ahvhsho`c iea Heahvhsho`c Mkgoheitkrhms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93>
 Ipp`yheb jkrhzketi` iea vcrthmi` p`ieeheb tk i triheheb s`kt . . . . . . . . . 93=
_koust vs Kpthgi` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94>
Oiroc`` ]tritcby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94?
Ghmrkaksheb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
Ake‘t Orcif tjc Mjihe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
Oiroc`` Mjihe iea _ieakghzithke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94:
Girfkv Mjihe iea ^rkoioh`hsthm ^rkbriggheb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92>
4
  Iaviemca uscs kd Girfkv Mjihes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
Gu`th-`cvc` Girfkv Mjihe iea ayeighm trieshthke gitrhx . . . 924
Mkem`ushke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
4 _cvhcw iea _ctrkspcmthvc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9:8
Ohis-Tirhiemc Qriack﬎ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9:9
Mkem`ushkes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98>
Aksc - _cspkesc gkac`s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98?
Mkem`ushke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?>=
_cvhcw iea _ctrkspcmthvc he ah﬎ crcet
crcet thgc drigcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?>1
_cvhcw iea _ctrkspcmthvc it tjc _cpcththke @cvc` . . . . . . . . . . . ?>2
_cvh
vhcw
cw iea _ctrkspc
pcmmthvc it tjc ]ct @cvc` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?>8
Hetcr`uac< Ke Heahvhaui`hzithke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?9
?9>
Oimf tk tjc ]ct @cvc` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?91
?91
Dithbuc ^crmcetibcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?94
Aih`y Iutk-
Iutk-_cbu`i
_cbu`itkry
tkry ^rkbr
^rkbrcsshvc
csshvc _cshst
_cshstiemc
iemc Cxcrmh
Cxcrmhsc
sc . . . . ??=
_cvhcw iea _ctrkspcmthvc it tjc Cxcrmhsc @cvc` . . . . . . . . . . . . ??8
_cvhcw iea _ctrkspcmthvc it tjc ]csshke/Aiy @cvc` . . . . . . . . . . ?=>
Aie ^di﬎ ‘s
‘s =-Aiy _k``kvcr prkbrig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?=3
_cvhcw iea _ctrkspcmthvc it tjc ]prhet @cvc` . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?=4
_cvhcw iea _ctrkspcmthvc it tjc ^jisc @cvc` . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?=2
^jisc tk ^jisc Tirhithke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?=3
Spaitheb tjc p`ieeheb 9_G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?=8
_ctcstheb 9_G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?=8
^`us scts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?1>
Ialustheb 9_G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?19
Ialustheb pcrmcetibcs he tjc ecxt pjisc . . . . . . . . ?1?
Akheb ektjheb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?11
Acmrcisheb 9_G dkr 9>-?>% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?11
Mjiebc he ^jisc Kolcmthvcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?13
_cvhcw iea _ctrkspcmthvc it tjc _c`cisc @cvc` . . . . . . . . . . . . ?3>
Mkem`ushke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?39
_cdcrcemcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?3?
 Iokut. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?4=

2
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

^rcdimc tk tjc Tk`ugc Qwk

 Rjce H stirtca wrhtheb tjc ]trcebtj Qriheheb Gieui`, H wietca ht tk oc i shgp`c
iea sjkrt okkf whtj jcurhsthms iea rcdcrcemc tio`cs. Is H ocbie tk wrhtc, H skke rci`hzca
tjit tjc rciacrs wh`` jivc jira thgc ueacrstieaheb jkw tk imtui``y ipp`y tjksc jcurhsthms
iea tio`cs, is wc`` is ueacrstiea tjc wjys ocjhea tjcg. Iaahthkei``y, wrhtheb hs ekt i
shgp`c imt kd augpheb gitcrhi` ke pipcr dkr gc, out ritjcr ie imt kd cxp`krithke iea
ahsmkvcry. Qjcrcdkrc, is H wrktc, ecw tjhebs cgcrbca iea H wietca tk p`iy  whtj tjcg,
ittimf tjcg drkg gu`thp`c pcrspcmthvcs tk scc jkw rkoust tjcy irc. He tjc cea, tjhs giac
tjc ]trcebtj Qriheheb Gieui` gumj `irbcr iea gumj s`kwcr tk wrhtc tjie H krhbhei``y
hetceaca.

Qjc rciskes wjy tjc ]trcebtj Qriheheb Gieui` c-okkf mkgcs he vk`ugcs irc
is dk``kws. Dhrst, H mie sp`ht ht he mjuefs, wjhmj, dkr tjksc wjk cgoirf ke iey wrhtheb
iavceturc, hs gumj gkrc gieibcio`c. ]cmkea, H wietca tjhs tk oc ivih`io`c tk tjc
rciacrs is skke is pkssho`c, sk tjit H mie mk``cmt tjc dccaoimf iea hgprkvc tjc tcxt dkr tjc
pktcethi` pipcroimf/jiraoimf cahthke. Qjhra, rciaheb 4>>-pibc c-okkf hs gumj jiracr
tjie rciaheb ?>>-skgctjheb c-okkf. Dkurtj, tjc prk﬉t. C-okkf vcrshke kd tjc ]trcebtj
Qriheheb Gieui` puo`hsjca he vk`ugcs hs ivih`io`c dkr drcc dkr tjc Mkgp`cgcetiry
Qriheheb gcgocrs, wjhmj gifcs ht ie iaahthkei` ocec﬉t kd tjc gcgocrsjhp. He i
eutsjc``, puo`hsjheb he vk`ugcs sccgca `hfc i bkka haci iea i sk`uthke. Ke`y thgc wh``
tc`` hd H wis rhbjt kr wrkeb.

He tjhs Tk`ugc Qwk, H ig mketheuheb whtj gkrc primthmi` ipp`hmithke mkgpirca

tk gkrc ‐pjh`kskpjhmi`‗ Tk`ugc Kec. Mjiptcr 3i ahsmusscs tkphms kd aksc iea rcspkesc,
 wjh`c Mjiptcr 3o mketheucs whtj gkrc primthmi` ipp`hmithke iea rcvhcws gu`thp`c sct
iea rcp smjcgcs. Mjiptcr 4 mkvcrs _cvhcw iea _ctrkspcmthvc c`cgcet kd tjc Ibh`c
^crhkahzithke.

 Is i`wiys, H ig `kkfheb dkrwira tk ykur mrhthqucs iea dccaoimf. ^`cisc ak ekt
jcshtitc tk mketimt gc hd yku jivc iey qucsthkes kr spkt iey fhea kd ou``sjht.

G`iace LkviekvhĂ
:
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

3i ^`ieeheb
Ocdkrc lugpheb hetk accp witcrs kd strcebtj p`ieeheb, ht hs hgpkrtiet tk mkvcr i
dcw ‐]gi`` Rkr`a‗ gkac`s kd tjc triheheb aksc iea triheheb rcspkesc tjit irc `urfheb
 ocjhea i`` kd kur p`ieeheb acmhshkes.

Qriheheb aksc
Qk gifc ht ahsthemthvc drkg tjc tcrg triheheb `kia, wjhmj H jivc usca tk rcdcr tk
tjc wchbjt ke tjc oiroc`` (scc Dhburc 1.9), H wh`` usc tjc tcrg triheheb aksc tk heahmitc
i mkestrumt tjit rcprcscet skgc typc kd strcss iea/kr sthgu`h tjit itj`ctc cxpcrhcemcs
 wjce triheheb dkr strcebtj (kr
strcebtj (kr triheheb he bcecri`). Qjit ocheb siha,
siha, ht hs rci``y jira tk
jivc i prcmhsc ac﬉ehthke kd i triheheb aksc iea tk quiethdy ht. Ht hs pirthmu`ir`y sjkrt
shbjtca tk rcprcscet triheheb aksc whtj i sheb`c gctrhm. Qjus, H wh`` rcprcscet p`uri`hst
vhcwpkhet oy usheb gu`thp`c ‐]gi`` Rkr`a‗ gkac`s is pktcethi` tkk`s.

Dhburc 3.9 mketihes jypktjcthmi` mkgpkecets kd tjc triheheb aksc mkestrumt (fccp
he ghea tjit tjhs hs i`sk i ‐]gi`` Rkr`a‗ rcprcscetithke).

8
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

&'($'#)(*

+",-.$
!)#(/)>-($9 ?
=1(-/1($9
   $ !$'#)(*
   # 3".4,$2 ?
   " :')9)/$8 "'1,
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=4$8)﬉8)(* ?
+1/)1>),)(*

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7,$1#-/$ ?
!)#4,$1#-/$
Dhburc 3.9. Qriheheb aksc mkgpkecets

Hetceshty, Tk`ugc iea Aceshty 

]hgp`y, Hetceshty  is i mkgpkecet kd triheheb aksc rcprcscets qui`hty, wjh`c
Tk`ugc rcprcscets quiethty. Is cxp`iheca he Mjiptcr 1, hetceshty rcprcscets i mkgp`cx
hetcrimthke kd (9) @kia, (?) Cxcrthke, iea (=) Hetcet. Dkr cxigp`c, `hdtheb 9>>fb
(jcrc 9>>fb mku`a oc mkeshacrca ‐hetceshty‗) dkr 3 rcps whtj gixhgi` hetcet vcrsus
suogixhgi` hetcet
suogixhgi`  hetcet wku`a rcprcscet qui`htithvc`y ah ﬎ crcet
crcet triheheb hetceshty iea tjus
qui`htithvc`y ah ﬎ crcet
crcet triheheb aksc. Qjc sigc
sigc mie oc siha dkr `hdtheb 9>>fb dkr = whtj
= rcps he rcscrvc, vcrsus 9 rcp he rcscrvc. Hetceshty hs usui``y rcprcscetca whtj tjc
ivcribc rc`ithvc hetceshty gctrhm (i_H) hetrkaumca he Mjiptcr
Mjiptc r 1. Ssheb rc`ithvc hetceshty
i``kws dkr mkgpirhske octwcce cxcrmhscs iea heahvhaui`s whtj
heahvhaui`s whtj ah
 ah﬎ crcet
crcet 9_G. Dkr hetri-
heahvhaui` gkehtkrheb kd hetceshty, kec mie usc ivcribc hetceshty ( iH ),
), wjhmj rcprcscets
iosk`utc `kia (he fh`kbrigs kr pkueas).

 Tk`ugc rcprcscets quiethty kr igkuet kd wkrf akec. Is cxp`iheca he Mjiptcr 1,

vk`ugc hs usui``y cxprcssca tjrkubj eugocr
tjrkubj eugocr kd `hdts (E@), tkeeibc, hgpu`sc iea HEK@
gctrhm (is wc`` is whtj ekvc` gctrhms sumj is cxcrthke `kia). He ie
ie haci`
 haci` wkr`a, vk`ugc
9>
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

 wku`a oc rcprcscetca whtj wkrf akec he Lku`cs, out gcethkeca gctrhms irc siths﬉mheb
prkxhcs.

Hetceshty iea vk`ugc mie oc mkgoheca oy usheb ‐zkeheb‗, kr prkvhaheb vk`ugc

gctrhms pcr hetceshty zkec. Dkr cxigp`c, E@ he 2>-:>%, :>-8>% iea 8>%+ 9_G zkecs.
Out, i wkrfkut mkeshstheb kd = x 9> N2>% wh`` jivc tjc sigc vk`ugc heahmcs (iea vk`ugc
ahstrhouthke) is wkrfkut mkeshstheb kd 9> x = N2>%, i`tjkubj wc fekw cxpcrhcethi``y
tjit tjcsc irc qui`htithvc`y ah ﬎ crcet.
crcet. Mjiptcr 1 hetrkaumca tjc ekvc` ‐cxcrthke `kia‗
(Z@) gctrhm wjhmj bhvcs eke-`hecir wchbjtheb kd tjc rcps acpceaheb ke tjchr prkxhghty
tk dih`urc (usheb _H_).

 Tk`ugc gctrhms tcea tk usc hetceshty mut-k ﬎  pkhet 

  pkhet  (c.b.,
  (c.b., ekt mkuetheb rcps oc`kw
mcrtihe %9_G) ,
%9_G) , wjhmj hs usui``y irkuea 3>% kd 9_G dkr brheaheb `hdts. Qjhs acpceas hd
kec uscs ayeighm c ﬎ krt
krt gctjka iea wiets tk fccp mkuetheb rcps ueacr 3>% 9_G. Ht hs
tjus hgpkrtiet tk m`irhdy wjit tjhs tjrcsjk`a hs. Dkr cxigp`c, hd skgckec siys tjit tjc
 wccf`y E@ dkr ocemj prcss wis 3> `hdts, ht hs eituri` tk isf ‐Rjit mkuets is i `hdt;‗ kr
he ktjcr wkras isfheb iokut tjc hetceshty mut-k ﬎  pkhet.
 pkhet. Qjc sigc hs truc dkr iey ktjcr
vk`ugc gctrhm.

 Rjit iokut ﬉ehsjheb 3x3 3x3 N:>% wkrfkut he 9> gheutcs vcrsus 93 kr ?> gheutcs;
Qjcsc wku`a jivc tjc sigc vk`ugc iea hetceshty, out tjcy wku`a jivc ah ﬎ crcetcrcet aceshty.
Gitjcgithmi``y kr pjyshmi``y cxprcssca, aceshty mie oc mkeshacrca i prkxy tk ivcribc
pkwcr , shemc ht hs wkrf akec (kr prkxy gctrhm tk wkrf akec) ahvhaca oy tjc thgc ht tifcs tk
mkgp`ctc tjc wkrf. Is gcethkeca he Mjiptcr 1, aceshty gctrhms irc ekt rci``y mkggke,
 out tjcy mku`a oc oc pirthmu`ir`y usca he tjc Gkebkksc ^crshstcemc gctjkas (c.b., gusmu`ir
ceauriemc, pkwcr ceauriemc). Qjc mkemcpt kd aceshty hs i`sk mru mhi` c`cgcet he Mjir`cs
]ti`cy‘s Csmi`itkry Aceshty Qriheheb (C]A) gctjka (]ti`cy, ?>>3).

 Rhtjhe qui`hty siturithke-ahstrhouthke

Ocshacs tjc iokvc usc, aceshty hs ie hetcrcstheb mkgpkecet kd i triheheb aksc,
pirthmu`ir`y ocmiusc ht acpceas ke tjc thgc drigc, iea tjus cxpieas hetk tjc mkemcpt kd
ahstrhouthke kd tjc triheheb aksc is wc`` is drcqucemy kd triheheb scsshkes (c.b., igkeb
igkeb jkw
 jkw
giey triheheb scsshkes i mcrtihe triheheb aksc hs ahstrhoutca). Dkr cxigp`c, he i bhvce
scsshke kec mie ahstrhoutc i`` pirthmu`ir `hdts kd kec cxcrmhsc hetk kec thgc o`kmf (c.b.,
3x3 N23% kd ]quits), kr mkgohec gu`thp`c cxcrmhscs he i supcrsct kr i mhrmuht disjhke.
He gktkr `cireheb iea sfh`` imquhshthke, tjhs hs tcrgca o`kmfca primthmc vcrsus rieakg
primthmc (Aivhas, Outtke & Oceectt, ?>>:6 _cesjiw, Aivhas & ]ivc`socrbj, ?>9?6 Mjkw ct i`.,
?>946 Dirrkw & _kocrtske, ?>92) . O`kmfca primthmc hevk`vcs sk`vheb kec pirthmu`ir tisf kr

99
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

pcrdkrgheb sheb`c pirthmu`ir sfh`` dkr o`kmfca pcrhka kd thgc. _ieakg primthmc rcdcrs tk
rieakg`y sk`vheb kr pcrdkrgheb gu`thp`c sfh``s iea tisfs. Ht jis occe sjkwe tjit drkg
sfh`` rctcethke pcrspcmthvc9, rieakg primthmc hs octtcr. Qjhs mku`a oc i uscdu` thp wjce
mkimjheb skgckec tjc oishm sfh``s kd `hdtheb (h.c., skgc typc kd supcrsct, quia-sct kr
cvce mhrmuht mku`a oc octtcr drkg gktkr `cireheb pcrspcmthvc).

 Imrkss gu`thp`c aiys, triheheb aksc ihgca it tjc bhvce qui`hty (kr gctjka) mie
 oc ahstrhoutca kr situritca (scc Dhburc 3.?). H `hfc tk rcdcr tk tjhs is ahstrhouthke-siturithke
mketheuug kr mkgp`cgcetiry pihr.

!"#$% '( )*+**

       / '( ,-. /$> 9+?=
     -
      # 13 '( *+**
     ;
       J
      5 42 *:
     .
      # 8"<"#"<> 6<0  
     N
      5 7 7 7 7 7 7 7   1#.$5<
1# 6<0  
      3 8"</$> !;-N/$> I-/<-N/$> !O;.N/$> M.5/$> 1$#;./$> 1;</$>   !"#"   $%$$

!"#$% '( )*+**

'( ,-. /$> 9+?=
13 '( 9+A9

42 C):
8"<"#"<> =+*?
=* =* =* =*
1#.$5< )D+?7

8"</$> !;-N/$> I-/<-N/$> !O;.N/$> M.5/$> 1$#;./$> 1;</$>   !"#"   $%&$

!"#$% '( )*+**

'( ,-. /$> 9+?=
13 '( 7+?A

42 = =B:
=9 =9 8"<"#"<> *+B9
9 9 1#.$5< AA+CB

8"</$> !;-N/$> I-/<-N/$> !O;.N/$> M.5/$> 1$#;./$> 1;</$>   !"#"   $%'(

!"#$% '( )*+**

'( ,-. /$> 9+?=
13 '( C+?7

42 =? =:
D* D*
8"<"#"<> *+9C
1#.$5< DA+)D

8"</$> !;-N/$> I-/<-N/$> !O;.N/$> M.5/$> 1$#;./$> 1;</$>   !"#"   $%)*

!"#$% '( )*+**

       / '( ,-. /$> 9+?=
     - 13 '( =9+=D
      #
     $ )*
     . 42 D79:
     ;
      # 8"<"#"<> *+AB
     $ 1#.$5< =9+=D
      1
8"</$> !;-N/$> I-/<-N/$> !O;.N/$> M.5/$> 1$#;./$> 1;</$>   !"#"   +%$$

Dhburc 3.?. ]ituritca-Ahstrhoutca

]ituritca-Ahstrhoutca mketheuug kd ahstrhoutheb triheheb aksc (usheb E@ gctrhm)
kd i sheb`c qui`hty 

9 _ctcethke iea pcrdkrgiemc eccas tk oc ah﬎ crcethitca.

crcethitca. Bkka pcrdkrgiemc it triheheb akcse‘t ecmcssirh`y
hgp`y bkka rctcethke, iea vhmc vcrsi. Qjit hs wjy skgcthgcs kec pcrdkrgs cxcrmhsc pcrdcmt`y he primthmc,
mkgcs oimf i dcw aiys `itcr iea ht `kkfs `hfc jc jis ecvcr akec ht ocdkrc (Aivhas, Outtke & Oceectt, ?>>:).

9?
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

^jisc ^ktcethithke
hs ou``sjht - out scqucemheb ghbjt ekt oc
Ekrgi` mketheuithke kd tjc ‐situritc iea scpiritc‗ rciskeheb hs tjc di``imy
kd dk``kwheb i pirthmu`ir scqucemc wjhmj hs ‐kpthgi`‗. Dhburc 3.3 acphmts mkggke
scqucemcs, usui``y rcdcrrca tk is pjisc pktcethithke (AcRccsc ct i`., ?>93i,o).

!"#$% '( !"#$% ') !"#$% '* !"#$% '+

!"#$%&'()*&+,- !"#$%&'()*&+,- !"#$%&'()*&+,- !"#$%&'()*&+,-

/> /9 /? /=

  :8#&,4%<   )#3%4#$
13#42$* />   6'2*&0,2+'   ;,N*0
:-#2&# ,8 7&0*85&+

  7&0*85&+ )#3%4#$
13#42$* /9 7&0*85&+ 72**- 72**- 7&0*85&+
18-"0#8<* 7&0*85&+

A,"C$* $*5 7%85$* $*5

13#42$* /? I#8-%85 OM%$$O A*2&+ D"42O
 D"42O  D"42O

Dhburc 3.3. ^jisc pktcethithke hs ou``sjht. Xku ak ekt ecca tk dk``kw prcactcrgheca
 scqucemc kd o`kmfs is ie hack`kby 

Qjc haci ocjhea pjisc pktcethithke hs tjit cimj o`kmf scts tjc stibc iea dimh`htitcs
tjc c﬎ cmts
cmts kd tjc o`kmf tk mkgc. H ak ibrcc tjit tjhs hs truc, out tjc rci` wkr`a triheheb
hs ekt i sheb`c scqucemc kd pjiscs, out scqucemc rcpcitca gu`thp`c thgcs kvcr tjc ycirs.
Qjus, girbhei` hgprkvcgcets wjce dk``kwheb i sheb`c ‐kpthgi`‗ scqucemc irc `kst kr
ecb`hbho`c wjce scqucemc hs rcpcitca gu`thp`c thgcs. Ht hs tjus stupha tk dkrmc dk``kwheb
i pirthmu`ir scqucemc lust dkr tjc sifc kd ‐pjisc pktcethithke‗ iea girbhei` bihes.
Ocshacs, wjy wku`a skgckec ak, siy jypcrtrkpjy pjiscs hd kec akcse‘t ecca tk ou`f
up; Qk pktcethitc tjc ecxt gixhgug strcebtj pjisc; Ht hs stupha.

H jia occe dk``kwheb mcrtihe strcebtj triheheb pjiscs is i ykueb ]&M mkimj he
skmmcr, out tjce H jia dcw itj`ctcs ghssheb dkr i wccf kr twk (chtjcr auc tk helury kr
auc tk eithkei` triheheb migp). Qjhs dumfca up gy scqucemc iea H jia i jira thgc
‐rchetrkaumheb‗ tjcg tk tjc brkup triheheb (dkr cxigp`c, tjcy ghssca gix strcebtj
pjisc, iea jia tk lugp tk pkwcr pjisc whtj tjc rcst kd tjc brkup).

Qjc ‐pjisc pktcethithke‗ prkpkecets wh`` ohtmj ke gc iea irbuc tjit tjcy jia
rcsu`ts dk``kwheb tjc pirthmu`ir scqucemc. Dhrst kd i``, H ig ekt ecbitheb kr
kr qucsthkeheb
 qucsthkeheb
tjchr rcsu`ts, out tjc rithkei`c ocjhea tjc pjisc pktcethithke. ]cmkea, tjc cxp`ieithke
kd tjc gcmjiehsg ocjhea ‐pjisc pktcethithke‗ mku`a oc shgp`cr. Jcrc hs i shgp`c bigc.

?>
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

 Issugc H jivc i ru`c he gy jcia tjit bcecritcs trhp`cts (scqucemc kd tjrcc eugocrs) 8.
Jcrc hs kec trhp`ct< = - 3 - 2. Xku ecca tk ﬉burc kut tjc ru`c tjit bcecritca tjc trhp`cts oy
bcecritheb sigp`cs, wjh`c H wh`` oc tc``heb yku hd tjcy mkgp`y whtj tjc ru`c (h.c., mkrrcmt
kr hemkrrcmt). Ocmiusc yku jivc scce = - 3 - 2 trhp`cts
trhp`cts,, yku issugc tjit tjc ru`c hs ‐E, E
+ ?, E + 1‗. Qjhs hs mi``ca prhkr  oc`hcd,
 oc`hcd, kr jypktjcshs. @ct‘s tcst tjit oc`hcd (Qio`c 3.=)
!"# %#&''&( )"**&+,-
./ >/ 9 ✝
?/ =/ 1 ✝
../ .>/ .9 ✝
3/ 4 / .. ✝
.1/ 2:/ 22 ✝
Qio`c 3.=. Xku
Xku try tk ﬉burc kut tjc ru`c oy bcecritheb trhp`cts

]hemc gy dccaoimf mkgp`hcs whtj yku jypktjcshs, yku ghbjt mkem`uac tjit tjc
jypktjcshs hs truc iea isf gc ‐Qjc ru`c gust oc E, E+?, E+1. Ig H mkrrcmt;‗. Iea H wh``
ieswcr< ‐Ek, yku irc ekt mkrrcmt!.‗

He tjhs shgp`c cxigp`c wc mie scc Fir` ^kppcr‘s haci kd  di`sh﬉mithke  iea ykur
su﬎ crheb
crheb drkg mke﬉rgithke ohis. _itjcr tjie tryheb tk ﬉ea cxigp`cs tjit  di`shdy ykur
jypktjcshs, yku mketheuca `kkfheb dkr cxigp`cs tjit mke﬉rgs ykur jypktjcshs. Qjhs hs
ekt jkw smhcemc wkrfs iea tjhs hs acgirmithke octwcce smhcemc vcrsus pscuaksmhcemc<
smhcemc hs i`wiys `kkfheb tk di`shdy hts tjckrhcs iea jypktjcshs. Ek gittcr jkw giey
mkrrcmt trhp`cts yku bcecritca, yku irc ecvcr
ecvc r mcrtihe tjit ykur jypktjcshs hs mkrrcmt, out
kec sheb`c hemkrrcmt cxigp`c hs cekubj tk di`shdy ykur jypktjcshs. Qjhs hs wjy H stitca
he Mjiptcr ? tjit Ecbithvc fekw`cabc hs gkrc rkoust  tjie
 tjie ^kshthvc fekw`cabc. Fekwheb
 wjit akcse‘t wkrf hs gumj gkrc rkoust, tjie fekwheb wjit ghbjt ghbjt wkrf.

]k wjit wis tjc ru`c; Qjc ru`c wis ‐I`` ah ﬎ crcet

crcet pkshthvc eugocrs!‗. Qjus,
i`` tjksc m`ihgheb tjit rcsu`ts irc octtcr ocmiusc tjcy dk``kwca i pirthmu`ir scqucemc
irc su﬎ crheb
crheb drkg tjc mke﬉rgithke ohis. I`sk, tjc Kmmig‘s _izkr  mie
  mie oc ipp`hca jcrc,
 wjhmj stitcs tjit tjc shgp`cst
shgp`cst   cxp`ieithke hs tjc gkst prkoio`c kec. He tjc misc kd
pjisc pktcethithke, cxp`ieithke hs tjit virhioh`hty  hs tjc prkoio`c miusc ritjcr tjie
skgc kpthgi` scqucemheb haceth﬉ca oy tjc _usshie smhcethst tjit wis fcpt he scmrc my
aurheb tjc Mk`a Rir.

H ak tjhef tjit mcrtihe scqucemcs ghbjt oc gkrc suhtio`c, i`tjkubj ekt auc tk
pjisc pktcethithke. Qjc pirthmu`ir scqucemc ghbjt oc dk``kwca ocmiusc kec wiets tk (9)
ghehghzc tjc Akweshac, iea (?) bihe upshac whtj `cist strcss kr mkgp`cxhty . Dkr cxigp`c,

8 Qjhs hs usui``y mi``ca AB^ kr Aiti Bcecritheb ^rkmcss he tjc stithsthmi` iei`yshs. Kec kd tjc bki`s kd
stithsthms hs tk ‚rc-mrcitc‘ AB^ drkg tjc sigp`c iea csthgitc uemcrtihety irkuea csthgitcs.

?9
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

triheheb, pirthmu`ir`y wjce triheheb ekvhmc itj`ctcs, wc tcea tk stirt whtj siy =x9>
N4>% iea prkmcca tk =x3 N23%, ocmiusc wc oc`hcvc ht hs ‐prkbrcsshke‗ (he tjhs misc
he hetceshty kd `kia) 9?. Out =x9> mie oc gkrc acgieaheb ke tjc m`hcet kr tjc itj`ctc auc
tk jhbjcr cxcrthke `kia (Z@) iea jhbjcr vk`ugc, wjhmj mie gifc skgckec o`kkay skrc
iea rcpkrt jhbjcr `cvc`s kd ahsmkgdkrt . Qjhs mie miusc ykur ivcribc skmmcr gkg ecvcr
tk sjkw he triheheb ieygkrc. Iea ippircet`y yku wietca tk ghehghzc tjc akweshac
 oy dk``kwheb i prkbrcsshvc
pr kbrcsshvc prkbrig
p rkbrig (issugheb tjc %9_G
% 9_G hs i gctrhm
gc trhm tjit eccas tk oc
‐prkbrcssca‗). Okkg - oustca! Ht hs tjus rcmkggceaca dkr ocbheecrs tk usc Oi``hsthm
@kia-Cxcrthke tio`c (scc Mjiptcr 1), wjhmj mie prkgktc qui`hty rcps iea ghehghzc
dithbuc iea skrcecss iea ahsmkgdkrt.

Cxtcrei` vs Hetcrei` iea

suolcmthvc rithebs kd aksc
Kpceheb up tjc p`cisurc-ahsp`cisurc mie kd wkrgs eccas
e ccas iaahthkei` c`iokrithke.
He tjckry, triheheb aksc mie oc rcprcscetca whtj cxtcrei`  iea hetcrei`  mkgpkecets.
Qjhebs irc ocmkgheb i oht o`urry jcrc, ocmiusc hetcrei` aksc mie imtui``y oc mkeshacrca
imutc psymjkpjyshk`kbhmi` rcspkesc kmmurrheb aurheb tjc cxcmuthke kd tjc cxcrmhsc
(h.c., cxtcrei` aksc). Qjhs ibihe rcgheas us tjit wc irc aci`heb whtj tjc ‐]gi`` Rkr`a‗
gkac`s. Out ieywiy, `ct‘s issugc cxtcrei` iea hetcrei` irc oktj mkgpkecets kd i
triheheb aksc.

 Iaahthkei` mkgpkecets kd tjc triheheb aksc mie oc kolcmthvc  iea suolcmthvc

(Dhburc 3.4). ^`cisc ektc tjit ‐kolcmthvc‗ mkgpkecet i`sk jivc i ouemj kd ‐suolcmthvc‗
issugpthkes.

&'($)*+,

   $ -*($)*+,
   #
   "
   !  .$

 .$
Dhburc 3.4. Cxtcrei` iea hetcrei` mkgpkecets kd triheheb aksc

9? Is yku wh`` skke rcia he tjhs mjiptcr, ‐prkbrcsshke‗ gcies gifheb tjhebs ‐jiracr‗ iea tjhs tceas tk
hevk`vc kec kr gkrc triheheb aksc virhio`cs. He tjhs pirthmu`ir cxigp`c, gifheb tjhebs jiracr hs issugca
tk oc %9_G. Out tjit akcse‘t ecca tk oc tjc misc...

=>
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

Kolcmthvc-suolcmthvc iea cxtcrei`-hetcrei` aksc mkgpkecets mie dkrg quiariets.

Dhburc 3.2 mketihes cxigp`c gctrhms dkr cimj quiariet.
!"#$%&'( *&#$%&'(

5;N &I 2O* ,.>3/*># M9# >A4'

!"# %&''()*#
%&''()*# +,-./>*# (9+# +!?"#
3&'C.32('3*# D"B (33.,./(
3&'C.32('3*# (33.,./(

+,-$. /$ ="# 1*/&342:# 1*/&342: "&>>#
(,,&'4( ('C &2O*6 ,*2(D&/42*
,*2(D&/42*>>
8&<*6# 0&63*7
&6 O&6,&'*>7

J&,*&'* */>*H># /4A* 3&(3OH># 9+9# 5@

5@  6(
 6(
 )# 5 
5 &62
&62
>9,-$. /$
 L* F.C),*'2 &I 2O* C&>* 6(
6(
 # G4>3&,I&62 6(
6(

Dhburc 3.2. Qriheheb aksc quiariet

Cxtcrei`-Kolcmthvc
Cxtcrei`-Kolcmthvc Aksc

Qjhs quiariet rcprcscets gctrhms i`rciay cxp`iheca he tjhs iea prcvhkus mjiptcr.

Hetcrei`-Kolcmthvc
Hetcrei`-Kolcmthvc Aksc

Qjhs quiariet mkeshsts kd gctrhms tjit rcprcscet hetcrei` aksc (kr imutc rcspkesc)
he tjc okay. Qjhs mku`a hevk`vc ykur mkggke `io mkit gcisurcgcets, `hfc CGB, o`kka
`imtitc (o@I) iea sk dkrtj. Qjhs rcprcscets jkw tjc okay rcspkeas aurheb tjc cxcmuthke
kd tjc cxcrmhsc (h.c. cxtcrei`-kolcmthvc gctrhms).
Cxtcrei`-]uolcmthvc

Qjhs quiariet mkeshsts

mkeshsts   kd skgckec c`sc‘s
c`sc‘s   suolcmthvc rithebs kd tjc triheheb
aksc. Dkr cxigp`c i mkimj kr ykur triheheb pirtecr. Mkimj mie koscrvc tjc vc`kmhty
kd tjc oiroc`` iea gifc hedcrcemcs iokut jkw tkubj wis i bhvce sct kr sk dkrtj. Qjhs
aksc csthgithke hs usui``y ekt gumj ahsmussca he tjc `io mkits lkurei`s, out ht hs vcry
hgpkrtiet he tjc rci` wkr`a.
Hetcrei`-]uolcmthvc
 Rc`mkgc tk tjc `io mkit sjht sjkw (]ghrgiu`, ?>9?6 Ji`pcrhe & Ivhv, ?>986
 Lkviekvhm & Ji`pcrhe, ?>98). ]crhkus`y.
]crhkus`y. Qjhs jis occe i skurmc kd mkedushke iea usc`css
rcscirmj pipcrs dkr ycirs. Iea tjhebs irc dir drkg skrtca kut. H wh`` ekt wistc gumj
pipcr jcrc oy rcvhcwheb i`` tjc gcss. H subbcst yku mjcmf tjc rcmcet uepuo`hsjca pipcr
(Ji`pcrhe & Ivhv, ?>98) dkr i brcit iea mkemhsc kvcrvhcw. H wh`` ritjcr prkvhac skgc
kd gy rithkei`c iea pktcethi` sk`uthkes (i`tjkubj oy ek gcies H mkeshacr tjhs i ﬉ehtc
gkac`).

=9
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

3o ^`ieeheb (mketheuca)
^rcvhkus mjiptcr hetrkaumca tjckrcthmi` mkemcpts ocjhea p`ieeheb, usheb tjc
aksc-rcspkesc ‐]gi`` Rkr`as‗ iea gu`thp`c mkgp`cgcetiry ispcmts kd p`ieeheb,
mu`gheitheb whtj tjc mkemcpts kd pu`` tjc ﬏kkr iea pusj tjc mch`heb. He tjhs mjiptcr,
tjcsc wh`` oc put hetk gkrc mkemrctc iea pribgithm dkrg dkr strcebtj triheheb.

Qjc ouh`aheb o`kmf kd tjhs mjiptcr wh`` oc sct iea rcp smjcgcs
smjcgcs, tjit tkbctjcr whtj
cxcrmhsc (kr gcie) rcprcscet i prcsmrhpthke ueht  (Dhburc
 (Dhburc 3.?4), kr tjc sgi``cst p`ieeheb
ueht (h.c., strcebtj triheheb itkg).

!"#$%&'# )#* +,- .#/ )%>#9#

?$#'%$&/ , =,&*
?$#'%$&/

Dhburc 3.?4. ^rcsmrhpthke ueht mkeshsts kd cxcrmhscs iea sct iea rcp smjcgcs

]ct iea _cp ]mjcgcs< Qjc Oishs

Mjiptcr = mkvcrca cxcrmhscs iea tjchr m`issh﬉mithke. Qjhs mjiptcr wh`` ac`vc
gkrc hetk sct iea rcp smjcgcs iea mkgoheitkrhms usca he p`ieeheb (c.b., vcrthmi` iea
jkrhzketi` p`ieeheb is wc`` is ahvhsho`c iea heahvhsho`c stritcbhcs iea ktjcr ekvc`
p`ieeheb stritcbhcs tjit wh`` oc ahsmussca sjkrt`y). Ocdkrc wc cvce stirt whtj gkrc
iaviemca tkphms, `ct‘s mkvcr tjc ieitkgy kd i sct iea rcp smjcgc.

41
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

 Ieitkgy kd i sct iea rcp smjcgc

Dhburc 3.?4 mketihes ieitkgy kd i sct iea rcp smjcgc. Qjhs hs kd mkursc i
shgp`h﬉mithke (‐]gi`` Rkr`a‗), out quhtc drcqucet iea uscdu` gkac`. Cvcry sct iea rcp
smjcgc mkeshsts kd gu`thp`c mkgpkecets (h.c., scts), out wjit yku ﬉ea he gkst hd ekt
i`` strcebtj triheheb gitcrhi` irc tjc gihe scts. Qjhs hs uedkrtueitc, shemc sct iea rcp
smjcgc hs gumj gkrc mkgp`cx iea rhmjcr mkestrumt.

!"#$%&' )*+,

% 1"934 >"2
-#*%!.#/ )*+, % :8*#%!"#$%&'

>"9? )*+,

% -3<, )*+,
% 6./*# )*+,
% 0"7/%:  )*+,
 )*+,
=*# )*+, % >4. 5*',
% 14?"$97 ; .#+
.#+
% N,.$*+#97
I
Dhburc 3.?2. Ieitkgy kd i sct iea rcp smjcgc

 Rirg-up scts

]hgh`ir`y tk tjc ahsmusshke ke imthvc rcmkvcry gcies iea gctjkas he tjc prcvhkus
mjiptcr, H ipprkimj wirg-ups ah ﬎ crcet`y.
crcet`y. _itjcr tjie
tjie `kkfheb it wirg-up is gcies
tk rcimj wkrfheb tcgpcriturc kd tjc okay iea prhgheb tjc ecrvkus systcg ke`y, kec
mie `kkf it wirg-ups is i ﬎ kraiemc
kraiemc tk primthmc iea acvc`kp pirthmu`ir qui`hty it tjc
murrcet stitc kd tjc krbiehsg kr itj`ctc. H fekw tjhs hs i gkutjdu`, out ht shgp`y gcies
iaarcssheb wjit mie oc iaarcssca wjh`c itj`ctc hs wirgheb up. Aurheb tjc wirg-up

43
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

Gihe kr Rkrfheb scts

Qjcsc irc orcia-iea-outtcr kd tjc sct iea rcp smjcgc. Is sumj, tjcy irc
mkeshacrca he brcitcr acptj he tjhs mjiptcr iea H wke‘t ac`vc gumj he tjcg jcrc. Dkr
tjc sifc kd mkgp`ctcecss, Dhburc 3.?: mkeshsts kd mkggke prcsmrhpthke dkrgits wjce
ht mkgcs tk sct iea rcp smjcgcs, pirthmu`ir`y gihe scts.

&! # !
E' # :
E! # =
(=,1 ,/?9

CD72/ 4/?9 A> &!( =,1H

CIJ4// 4/?9 A> E'( =,1H
CK3/ 4/? A> E!( =,1H

! # $ %&'( )*+,-,
./>9 ,/?9 (=,1 ,/?9 -3 ,/9/42/

CD72/ 9/>9 NB 97# 4/?9 A> &'( =,1 )7>J + 4/?9 73

4/9/42/H

:8! # $8& %<'8&'( )*+86,-, :'0= 73 =!5

I7O/
./>9 ;N3/ ,/?9 ;N3/ (=,1 ;N3/ ,-, ;N3/ I/O?N
MN39>4A73>

CIJ4// >N ﬉2/ 9/>9 NB 97# >N /7LJ> 4/?9 A> <'8&'( =,1 )7>J + >N 6 4/?9 73 4/9/42/F @N3/ G973L :'#= >/O?N
)7>J73 =! O73G>/9H

Dhburc 3.?:. Mkggke cxigp`cs kd tjc prcsmrhpthke dkrgit kd tjc sct iea rcp smjcgcs

 Idtcr scts

 Idtcr scts rcprcscet iaahthkei` kppkrtuehty iea i﬎ kraiemc

kraiemc he tjc wkrfkut iea
tjcrc irc ah﬎ crcet
crcet hgp`cgcetithkes jcrc. @ct‘s mkvcr tjc gkst mkggke<

^`us scts.  ^`us scts hevk`vc ﬉ehsjheb gihe scts whtj i sct tk dih`urc (kr tk i
pirthmu`ir mch`heb, c.b., 9> rcps gix). Jcrc hs ie cxigp`c<
2>
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

M`issh﬉mithke kd ]ct iea _cp smjcgcs

Qjcrc irc eugcrkus mrhtcrhi tk m`isshdy sct iea rcp smjcgc. Dhburc 3.== mketihes
tjc gkst mkggke mrhtcrhi tk m`isshdy sct iea rcp smjcgcs.

!"# %&' (")

!*+","-

./>"* 9"-?=1%34   2:"-*:4) 9"&"-- 8<31," 6<10+&"-- 7"#+<'<3<05

7"#+<'<3<0 5

Dhburc 3.==. M`issh﬉mithke mrhtcrhi dkr ]ct iea _cp ]mjcgcs

M`issh﬉mithke oisca ke Kolcmthvcs

kr Yui`hthcs
 Is cxp`iheca he Mjiptcr ?, wc tcea tk jivc shgp`hsthm gkac`s kd wjhmj `kiaheb
pirigctcrs tirbct pirthmu`ir qui`hthcs (scc Dhburc ?.1). Sedkrtueitc`y,
Se dkrtueitc`y, is acphmtca he tjc
Dhburc ?.3 he Mjiptcr ?, tjhebs irc ekt tjit shgp`c, iea ah ﬎ crcet
crcet gctjkas mie imjhcvc
tjc sigc kolcmthvc, wjh`c sheb`c gctjka mie jht ah ﬎ crcet
crcet triheheb qui`hthcs. Qjc miusi`
ectwkrf hs quhtc mkgp`cx, out ht akcse‘t gcie wc mie‘t jivc skgc buhaheb jcurhsthms.
Qjc Ibh`c ^crhkahzithke uth`hzcs ie htcrithvc ipprkimj wjhmj mkeshsts kd< drcqucet
rcvhcws iea cgocaaca tcstheb, GT^s iea cxpcrhgcetheb, is wc`` is gifheb surc tjit
i`` tjc gilkr ‚oumfcts‘ irc tirbctca. He sjkrt, kec ecvcr puts i`` cbbs he kec oisfct, out
ritjcr cxpcrhgcets whtj gu`thp`c kpthkes tk scc wjhmj kec wkrfs it iey pirthmu`ir thgc.

@io mkits tcea tk divkr shgp`hsthm prkxy gctrhm is i sthgu`us, wjhmj `itcr he﬏ucemcs
tjc wjk`c prkbrig acshbe (h.c., tk kpthghzc dkr tjit pirthmu`ir gctrhm, c.b., tjc kpthgi`
E@ he i scsshke, he i wccf, tjc kpthgi` drcqucemy, hetceshty zkecs iea sk dkrtj). Rjit hs
i sthgu`us dkr jypcrtrkpjy; Kr tk put ht gkrc m`cir`y, wjit ‐]gi`` Rkr`a‗ aksc gctrhms
(scc Aksc -5 _cspkesc he tjc prcvhkus
p rcvhkus mjiptcr) irc prkxy tk jypcrtrkpjy sthgu`h; Rjit
irc dkr gixhgi` strcebtj acvc`kpgcet; H ig ekt bkheb tk bk hetk rcscirmj ocjhea tjhs,
 out H jhbj`y rcmkggcea o`kb pksts oy @y`c GmAkei`a ke tjcsc tkphms (GmAkei`a,
(GmAkei`a, ?>>2,
?>>:, ?>>8i,o,m, ?>91i,o, ?>93i,o, ?>94, ?>98i,o).

Ocshacs `hstceheb tk `io mkits, kec i`sk (kr prkoio`y gkrc sk) eccas tk `hstce tk
orks  iea mkimjcs wjk jivc occe thefcrheb  he tjc ﬉c`a whtj tjchr sfhe he tjc bigc tk

:1
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

mjiptcr). Qio`cs 3.8 iea 3.9> mketihes Lkc Fcee‘s Qhcr ]ystcg (Fcee, ?>>=) buhac`hecs
dkr ah﬎ crcet
crcet hetceshty mym`cs (wjhmj mie oc mkeshacrca gctjkak`kby).

!"#$%&"' )*+,$ -#./%/%& >.%&$ 9,*?=/+ 1/ /%& 9,*?=/+ 1//%& <==$#61:0$# 7:5* <==$#61:0$# 7:5*
>$=3 =$# !$"4 2:,8?$4 >$=3 =$# !$" 2:,8?$
!"#"$%&
;NI O ;MACI ; DB DN JN
'(#)* (#*#+

,-$"#+-. ;NI O ;MACI CO; JN DL O DC ;N O FN

/#)>$%#9" MNI O MMACI HO; LH B O DN HN O ;N

?"="&(13"#-%& MNI O MMACI HO; LH ; O DN LN O HB

,-$"#+-. BNI O BMAC LOH LN JO; DL O JN

4"-%2(&*9 BNI O BMACI ),83"$# LN ),83"$# DC O JN

,-$"#+-. FNI O FCI ),83"$# DN ),83"$# DN O DC

/:1&(8*=" CCI O ;CI JO; DB O JN JO; DB O JN

,-$"#+-.< MNI O MCI JO; DL O LH JO; DL O LH

4%:*3>3 DOL DOJ

  FN@I   DNOK=# J O DL
,-$"#+-. :# G8,  >$= G.E :# G8,  >$= G.E

Qio`c 3.8. Lkc Fcee‘s oishm h etceshty mym`cs dkr dkueaithke cxcrmhscs (gihe cxcrmhscs).
_cprkaumca whtj pcrghsshke oy Lkc Fcee.

]trcebtj mym`c drkg Qio`c 3.8 mie oc mkeshacrca tirbct qui`hty, i`tjkubj Lkc
Fcee i`sk prkvhacs ah﬎ crcet
crcet gctjkak`kbhmi` sct iea rcp smjcgcs (scc ‐]tio`c =‗,
‐Acsmceaheb‗, ‐Iaviemca‗, ‐^rkbrcsshvc‗, ‐M`ustcrs‗, ‐^rh`cphe‗ he Qio`c 3.9>) tjit
irc uth`hzca dkr i bhvce strcebtj mym`c (qui`hty).

!"#"$%& ()#*+,+)#+#- .,$"#-,/ >#*9$%#?" .,$"#-,/ 1%3+494 .,$"#-,/ 1",%2)&+? .,$"#-,/ >3=&):+8" .,$"#-,/
!"#$%& ( )&*+&,-.,/ >-9#,+&- ?=1/=&**.9& 3%4*"&=* ?=.%&2.,
:8< 6 07 :857< 6 0; N;58< 6 I :O58< 6 ( N;58< 6 M0A0A0A0C O8< 6 (
:8< 6 07 :;58< 6 0; N;58< 6 I O;58< 6 ( N;58< 6 M0A0A0A0C O8< 6 (
:8< 6 07 :757< 6 0; N;58< 6 I OO58< 6 ( N;58< 6 M0A0A0A0C O8< 6 (
8O58< 6 0; N;58< 6 I N;58< 6 8 N;58< 6 M0A0A0A0C O8< 6 (
8857< 6 0; N;58< 6 I N;58< 6 8 N;58< 6 M0A0A0A0C O8< 6 (
8;58< 6 0; N;58< 6 I N;58< 6 8 N;58< 6 M0A0A0A0C O8< 6 (
O8< 6 (
O8< 6 (

Qio`c 3.9>. Lkc Fcee‘s sigp`c sct iea rcp smjcgcs dkr pirthmu`ir hetceshty mym`c.
_cprkaumca whtj pcrghsshke oy Lkc Fcee.

 Lkc Fcee i`sk rc`hcs jcivh`y ke tjc ^rh`cphe Qio`c (scc Qio`c 1.=3) tjit bhvcs
vk`ugc rcmkggceaithkes dkr K`ygphm `hdtheb, wjhmj mie oc i`sk uscdu` dkr i`` oi``hsthm
gkvcgcets iea wjce kec wiets tk dkmus ke qui`hty cxcmuthke kd tjc brheaheb `hdts iea
`hghtheb ueecmcssiry dithbuc (whtjkut tjc ekvc` diemy vc`kmhty arkp gctrhms). ^`cisc
ektc tjit ^rh`cphe Qio`c hs quhtc shgh`ir
s hgh`ir tk Oi``hsthm @kia-Cxcrthke tio`c (scc Qio`c 1.=2),
 out i`sk k﬎ crs
crs wkrfkut vk`ugc rcmkggceaithke buhac`hecs.

Qio`c 3.99 mketihes Gitt Lkraie‘s (Mieiahie ]pkrt Hesthtutc he Mi`biry) cxmc``cet
m`issh﬉mithke kd strcebtj triheheb gctjkas. ^`cisc ektc tjc ahsthemthke octwcce
‐]trcebtj Gctjka‗ (h.c., gctjka) iea ‐Qirbct ]trcebtj Ioh`hty‗ (h.c., qui`hty).

:4
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

!"#$ %&
(&)$*+)&

   &
   )
   * >#-/# ,-*.-&))/*+
   9

Dhburc 3.=2. Tirhithke

Tirhithke iea ^rkbrcs
^rkbrcsshke
shke irc jira`y ahsthebuhsjio`c out ecmcssiry
mkgpkecets kd tjc aksc mkestrumt.

 Tcrthmi` iea Jkrhzketi` p`ieeheb

@ct‘s issugc yku jivc twk aiys i wccf (okttkg-up ipprkimj) tk trihe tjc ocemj
prcss (kr uppcr okay jkrhzketi` pusjheb gkvcgcet)< Gkeaiy iea Qjursaiy. Dkr tjc
sifc kd cxigp`c, `ct‘s issugc tjit tjc Gkeaiy wkrfkut hs ocemj prcss =x9> N4>%
(Qio`c 3.91).

!"#$%& '()*$%& +)$#)*$%& ',(-*$%& .-/$%& >%9(-$%& >(#$%&

!"#$% '(")) *!"#$% '("))*

+))? 1
3412 :82< 666

*!"#$% '("))* *!"#$% '("))*

+))? 0
666 666

*!"#$% '("))* *!"#$% '("))*

+))? 3
666 666

*!"#$% '("))* *!"#$% '("))*

+))? 7
666 666

Qio`c 3.91. Qwk aiys i wccf tk trihe tjc ocemj prcss. Qjc qucsthke hs jkw tk p`ie;

Qjc qucsthke hs jkw tk viry tjhs wkrfkut ke Qjursaiy, iea jkw tk prkbrcss oktj

kd tjcg imrkss wccfs; Is i`rciay cxp`iheca, tjhs prkbrcss vs. virhithke hs vcry trhmfy,

83
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

sk ht hs octtcr tk rcdcr tk tjhs prko`cg is jkrhzketi` iea vcrthmi` p`ieeheb (Qio`c 3.93).

Jkrhzketi` p`ieeheb hs gkrc `cieheb tkwiras virhithke, wjh`c vcrthmi` p`ieeheb hs
`cieheb gkrc tkwiras prkbrcsshke. Qjhs akcse‘t ecca tk oc tjc misc i`` tjc thgc, out
i bcecri` ru`c (iea ghbjt oc cishcr tk brisp tjc mkemcpt kd jkrhzketi` iea vcrthmi`
p`ieeheb) tjit mie oc, iea usui``y hs, orkfce.

!"#$%& '()*$%& +)$#)*$%& ',(-*$%& .-/$%& >%9(-$%& >(#$%&

!"#$% '(")) *!"#$% '("))*

+))? 1
3412 :82<
+,(-.,#/>9
666
'9>##-#?
=13>(-> ,#14

*!"#$% '("))* *!"#$% '("))*

+))? 0
666 666
    9    ?
   >    #
   $    -
           #
+))? 3    (    #
*!"#$% '("))* *!"#$% '("))*
   "666    >
    9 666
   3   '

*!"#$% '("))* *!"#$% '("))*

+))? 7
666 666

Qio`c 3.93. Jkrhzketi` iea vcrthmi` p`ieeheb

Jkrhzketi` p`ieeheb
Jkrhzketi` p`ieeheb, usui``y rcprcscets viryheb i wkrfkut tjit hs whtjhe tjc
sigc prkbrcsshke stibc (i`tjkubj, is wh`` oc scce he i dcw piribripjs, akcse‘t ecca tk oc
tjc misc). Aie Oifcr (Oifcr, ?>>2) prkvhaca ie cxigp`c tio`c kd virhithkes tjit mku`a
 oc uth`hzca wjce twk shgh`ir wkrfkuts irc pcrdkrgca he kec wccf (Qio`c 3.94)

!"#$%& %( )*+,* - .*/ > "9*?=1" .*/ 3 "9*?=1"

>4 2*?
2*?"
" "9"
"9"+:
+:,8"
,8"8<
8< 8*?
8*?"
" 606
606<< ,-:
,-:+"*
+"*8"
8" ,- -7?
-7?5"+
5"+ %( +"=
+"=88 ;"-:$
;"-:$ N+"
N+"88
88 I9>
I9>O
O MAO
MAOC
C DBI
DBI606
606 ;"-:$
;"-:$ N+"
N+"88
88 I9>
I9>J
J MHI
MHIC
C DBI
DBI606
606

34 2*?
2*?"
" "9"
"9"+:
+:,8"
,8"8<
8< 8*?
8*?"
" 606
606<< &":
&":+"
+"*8"
*8" ,- -7?
-7?5"+
5"+ %( 8"#
8"#88 ;"-:$
;"-:$ N+"
N+"88
88 L9>
L9>O
O MAO
MAOC
C DBI
DBI606
606 ;"-:$
;"-:$ N+"
N+"88
88 39>
39>O
O MA
MAOC
OC DB
DBI60
I606
6

I4 2*?" "9"+:,8"8< 8"#8< *-& +"=" -8< +"&7:" #$" 1,,-F 8=""& ;"-:
;"-:$
$ N+"88 I9>O MAOC DBI6
DBI606
06 3O@> ;"-:$
;"-:$ N+"88 I9>O MHOC DB>O
DB>O606
606 L3@>
*-& 1%*&4
L4 2*?" "9"+:,8"8 *-& %#$"+ )*+,*51"8< &":+"*8" +"8# ="+,%&8 ;"-:$
;"-:$ N+"88
N+"88 I9>O MAOC DBI6
DBI606
06 6GI?,-
6GI?,- ;"-:$
;"-:$ N+"88
N+"88 I9>O MHOC DB>O
DB>O606
606 6G>?,
6G>?,-
-
*-& +"8,8#*-:"
J4 2*?
2*?"
" "9"
"9"+:
+:,8"
,8"88 *-& %#$
%#$"+
"+ )*+
)*+,*5
,*51"8
1"8<< &":
&":+"*
+"*8"
8" +"8
+"8,8#
,8#*-:
*-:"4
"4 ;"-:$
;"-:$ N+"
N+"88
88 I9>
I9>O
O MAO
MAOC
C DBI
DBI606
606 ;"-:$
;"-:$ N+"
N+"88
88 I9>
I9>O
O MHO
MHOC
C DB>
DB>O60
O606
6

H4 2*?" "9"+:,8"8 *-& %#$"+ )*+,*51"8< &":+"*8" +"=" -844

-8 ;"-:
;"-:$
$ N+
N+"8
"888 I9
I9>O
>O MA
MAOC
OC DB
DBI6
I606
06 ;"-:
;"-:$
$ N+
N+"8
"888 I9
I9H
H MA
MAOC
OC DB
DBA6
A606
06

A4 ., "+"-#
"+"-# 8#+"-F#$ "9"+:,8"8< 57# 8*?" (%+ *11 %#$"+ )*+,*51"8 ;"-:
;"-:$
$ N+
N+"8
"888 I9
I9>O
>O MA
MAOC
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^4 N"+(%+? * 8#+"-F#$ *-& =%D"+ )"+8,%- %( *1,F-"& "9"+:,8"8 %- ;"
;"-:
-:$
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I9J
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$ Y$
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+%D
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&, "+"-#
"+"-# &*/84
_4 N"+(%+? $"*),"+ *-& 1,F$#"+ )"+8,%-8 %( *1,F-"& =%D"+ N%D"+ ]1"*- I9J MAOC N%D"+ 2-*#:$ I9J MAOC
"9"+:,8"8 %- &, "+"-#
"+"-# &*/84

Qio`c 3.94. Dcw cxigp`cs kd i`tcrheb triheheb wkrfkut whtjhe i wccf.

_cprkaumca whtj pcrghsshke oy Aie Oifcr (Oifcr, ?>>2)

84
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

mketihes cxigp`c kd vcrthmi` p`ieeheb oy Aie Oifcr (Oifcr, ?>>2) (i`tjkubj jc mi``s hs
‐ah﬎ crcet
crcet virhiets kr pittcres kd strcebtj triheheb pcrhkahzithke‗).

!""# $ % & ' ( ) * + , $- $$

$$ $%
$%

!"#$%& %()&*+ & .$

.$ & > )&
)& 9 & .$
.$ % > ))
)) 9 & .$
.$ $ > ),
), 9 & .$
.$ - > *%
*% 9 & .,
., > *(
*( 9 & .+
.+ > *+
*+ 9 & .*
.* > +$
+$ 9 & .)
.) > +'
+' 9 & .(
.( > +*
+* 9 & .'
.' > ,-
,- 9 & .&
.& > ,&
,& 9 & .%
.% > ,)
,) 9

,%-./ >($9 %()&*+ ()$&)?( .* -) ' .$

.$ - > )-
)- 9 ' .$
.$ - > )'
)' 9 ' .$
.$ - > )+
)+ 9 ' .$
.$ - > *-
*- 9 ' .(
.( > *+
*+ 9 ' .(
.( > +$
+$ 9 ' .(
.( > +&
+& 9 ' .(
.( > +(
+( 9 & .&
.& > ++
++ 9 & .&
.& > ,-
,- 9 & .&
.& > ,%
,% 9 & .&
.& > ,'
,' 9

,%-./ >($9 )-)%()&*+

' .$
.$ - > )'
)' 9 ' .$
.$ - > )+
)+ 9 ' .$
.$ - > *-
*- 9 ' .$
.$ - > ))
)) 9 ' .(
.( > +-
+- 9 ' .(
.( > +&
+& 9 ' .(
.( > +(
+( 9 ' .(
.( > *(
*( 9 & .&
.& > ,-
,- & .&
.& > ,%
,% 9 & .&
.& > ,'
,' 9 & .&
.& > +-
+- 9
()$&)?(.* -)

=)1"%* )3 ' .$
.$ - > )'
)' 9 ' .$
.$ - > )+
)+ 9 ' .)
.) > *)
*) 9 ' .)
.) > +-
+- 9 ' .+
.+ > *%
*% 9 ' .+
.+ > *)
*) 9 ' .'
.' > +'
+' 9 ' .'
.' > ++
++ 9 & .)
.) > +%
+% 9 & .)
.) > +(
+( 9 & .&
.& > ,%
,% 9 & .&
.& > ,'
,' 9

4*2&:%(/& ' .$
.$ - > )'
)' 9 ' .+
.+ > *-
*- 9 ' .)
.) > *)
*) 9 ' .'
.' > +%
+% 9 ' .,
., > *-
*- 9 ' .*
.* > *)
*) 9 ' .(
.( > +%
+% 9 ' .&
.& > ++
++ 9 & .+
.+ > *+
*+ 9 & .)
.) > +'
+' 9 & .'
.' > ,-
,- 9 & .&
.& > ,'
,' 9

8.."<"%* -)60)$&)?(.* -) ).& >+-9 ).' >+-9 ).( >+-9 ).) >+-9 (.( >+(9 '.' >,-9 &.& >,(9 %.% >$--9 ? ? ? ?

Qio`c
Qio`c 3.?=. Aie Oifcr‘s ahddcrcet virhiets kr pittcres kd strcebtj triheheb pcrhkahzithke.
Gkah﬉ca whtj pcrghsshke oy Aie Oifcr (Oifcr, ?>>2)

Kvcr tjc ycirs, Aie Oifcr `cieca gkrc tkwiras ‐wivc‗ ipprkimj tk vcrthmi`
p`ieeheb (Oifcr, ?>9=). Qio`c 3.?1 mketihes Aie‘s gkst mkggke wivc sct iea rcp
smjcgcs.

 Tcrthmi` p`ieeheb prctty gumj rcvk`vcs irkuea gifheb tjhebs jiracr kr tkubjcr
imrkss thgc. Jivheb siha tjit, tjhs hs akec oy ialustheb mcrtihe aksc pirigctcrs kr
p`ieeheb mkgpkecets (scc Qio`c 3.9? dkr gkrc cxigp`cs). Qjc pkhet hs tjit oktj
jkrhzketi` iea vcrthmi` p`ieeheb mie uth`hzc ah ﬎ crcet
crcet sct iea rcp smjcgc m`issh﬉mithke
mrhtcrhi (scc Dhburc 3.==) , ah ﬎ crcet
crcet aksc mkgpkecets (c.b. situritca - ahstrhoutca,
mkgp`cx - uehahrcmthkei`), is wc`` is ah ﬎ crcet
crcet cxcrmhscs. Tcrthmi` p`ieeheb iea jkrhzketi`
p`ieeheb rcprcscet ‐okttkg-up‗ ipp`hmithkes (is wc`` is ‐dkrug dkr imthke‗) kd ‐tkp-
akwe‗ prhemhp`cs mkvcrca sk dir.

 I`tjkubj tjcrc irc eugcrkus ipprkimjcs tk vcrthmi` p`ieeheb, he tjhs gieui` H‘vc
usca tjc twk prkbrcsshke ipprkimjcs, wjcrc chtjcr %9_G hs wjit hs ocheb prkbrcssca
imrkss wccfs, kr prkxhghty tk dih`urc (_H_). Qjhs hs ‐]gi`` Rkr`a‗ gkac`, iea H ig gkrc
tjie iwirc kd ht, sk p`cisc oc drcc tk gkahdy ht tk suht ykur eccas, kr usc skgctjheb c`sc
i`tkbctjcr.

Ssheb @kia-Cxcrthke Qio`c (Qio`c 1.=), iea Oi``hsthm @kia-Cxcrthke Qio`c (Qio`c
1.=2), twk ipprkimjcs tjit H eigca ^crm Arkp iea _H_ Hem irc hgp`cgcetca is gctjkas
dkr vcrthmi` p`ieeheb.

9>9
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

!""# % !""# & !""# ' !""# ( !""# ) !""# * !""# + !""# ,
!"#$ & !! # $! *&-) . %& +/ . %/ ++-) . , )) . %) *&-) . %& +/ . %/ ++-) . ,
;/8?+9+083/ ?#?+<,>?> .=7N0+ I0O !! # $! *&-) . %& +/ . %/ ++-) . , )) . %) *&-) . %& +/ . %/ ++-) . ,
:?5?: .93:?9?>
!! # $! *&-) . %& +/ . %/ ++-) . ,> )) . %) *&-) . %& +/ . %/ ++-) . ,>

!"#$ ' %& # $' *+-) . %/ +) . , ,&-) . * */ . %& *+-) . %/ +) . , ,&-) . *

;/8?+9+083/ ?#?+<,>?> .=7N0+ %& # $' *+-) . %/ +) . , ,&-) . * */ . %& *+-) . %/ +) . , ,&-) . *
M=9?+-?7,.9? :?5?: .93:?9?>
%& # $' *+-) . %/ +) . ,> ,&-) . *> */ . %& *+-) . %/ +) . ,> ,&-) . *>

!"#$ ( %! # $& +&-) . , ,/ . * ,) . ) %! # $& +&-) . , ,/ . * ,) . )

A?<0=7.+/ A9+?=193 ?#?+<,>?> %! # $& +&-) . , ,/ . * ,) . ) %! # $& +&-) . , ,/ . * ,) . )
M=9?+-?7,.9?> 4 C75.=<?7
.93:?9?>
%! # $& +&-) . , ,/ . *> ,) . )> %! # $& +&-) . , ,/ . *> ,) . )>

!"#$ ) (& # ) +/ . , +& . * +* . ) (& # ) +/ . , +& . * +* . )

*+,-.+/ >9+?=193 ?#?+<,>?> (& # ) +) . * ,/ . ) ,( . ' (& # ) +) . * ,/ . ) ,( . '
M=9?+-?7,.9?> 4 C75.=<?7
(& # ) ,/ . ) ,, . '> 9& . &> (& # ) ,/ . ) ,, . '> 9& . &>

!"#$ * (& # ) +/ . ) +& . ' +* . & (& # ) +/ . ) +* . ' ,/ . &

*+,-.+/ >9+?=193 ?#?+<,>?> (& # ) +) . ) ,/ . ' ,( . & (& # ) +) . ) ,( . ' ,, . &
M=9?+-?7,.9?> 4 C75.=<?76 D>,=1
B.=7N<3.,=> J0+ HL O??F>
(& # ) ,/ . ) ,, . '> 9& . &> (& # ) ,/ . ) 9/ . '> 9( . &>

!"#$ + (& # ! +/ . ( +& .' +* . & (& # ! +/ . ( +* .' ,/ . &

*+,-.+/ >9+?=193 4 2:/-8,< (& # ! +) . ( ,/ . ' ,( . & (& # ! +) . ( ,( . ' ,, . &
?#?+<,>?>6 -0+? .75.=<?7
.93:?9?>
(& # ! ,/ . ( ,, . '> 9& . &> (& # ! ,/ . ( 9/ . '> 9( . &>

?"="1"34"2 :8#"1 <- &/%'- 60" 7 

7 "4
"4 "3"55 ;= N0" !8
!8 "IOM4A" =;1 C3ID"85;3 618B3B3J2 &/ H"815 ;= 
"34"
"34" ;3 N0" C3ID"85;3 L8B3N"3834"
 ;= DN1"3JN0 8
8 F;@"1
 F;@"1 B3 F1;="55B;38A GN0A"N"5-
GN0A"N"5-

Qio`c 3.?1. Aie Oifcr‘s ahddcrcet virhiets kd wivc sct iea rcp smjcgcs.. Gkah﬉ca whtj pcrghsshke oy
Aie Oifcr (Oifcr, ?>9=)

^crm Arkp ipprkimj

^crm Arkp stiea dkr pcrmcet (%9_G) arkp. Qio`c 3.?3 mketihes twk tio`cs, tkp iea
 okttkg. Qkp tio`c hs usca tk mi`mu`itc pcrmcet arkp
arkp wjce bkheb tjrkubj dkur prkbrcsshke
stibcs (wjcrc tjc ^rkbrcsshke #1 hs tjc tkubjcst iea ^rkbrcsshke #9 hs cishcst). Qjcrc
irc dcw jcurhsthms hgp`cgcetca jcrc. Qjc ﬉rst jcurhsthm hs tjit pcrmcet arkp hemrciscs
drkg `kw rcps (-?.3% dkr 9 rcp he i sct) tk jhbj rcps (-3% dkr 9? rcps
rcp s he i sct). Qjc scmkea
jcurhsthm hs tjit cxtceshvc sct iea rcp smjcgcs (h.c., tjksc whtj gkrc tjit 3 wkrfheb
scts) ecca jhbjcr pcrmcet arkp tjie gkrc hetceshvc sct iea rcp smjcgcs ?4.

Kemc tjc tkp tio`c hs mi`mu`itca, tjc cstio`hsjca pcrmcetibc arkps irc ipp`hca
tk @kia-Cxcrthke tio`c, wjhmj rcsu`ts he tjc okttkg rcdcrcemc tio`c ke Qio`c 3.?3.
Qjc okttkg tio`c hs tjce uth`hzca tk vcrthmi``y p`ie (h.c., prkbrcss) virhkus sct iea rcp
smjcgcs tjrkubj tjrcc tk dkur prkbrcsshke stcps.

?4 Qjhs mie oc gkrc kd ie irt tjie smhcemc tjkubj. Ht hs up tk yku tk acmhac wjit hs cxtceshvc iea wjit hs
hetceshvc bhvce ykur mketcxt. Rjce he akuot, `cie ke tjc `kwcr pcrmcetibc.

9>?
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

()-.)"$$/-> 9? ()-.)"$$/-> 9= ()-.)"$$/-> 91 ()-.)"$$/-> 9&

!"#$ %&!' ! "#
"# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ( )*
)* +,
+, - . /#
/# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ! "#
"# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ( )*
)* +,
+, - . /#
/# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ! "#
"# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ( )*
)* +,
+, - . /#
/# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ! "#
"# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ( )*
)* +,
+, - . /#
/# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ (")* ,"*
> >99? 9=9? 13= 4? 14= 9? 13=4? 14=9? 12=4? 14= 9? 12=4? 1>9=9? 12=4? 1>9= 9? 1>3= 4? 13=49?
3 :8? 9=9? 13= 2? 14= 4? 13=2? 14=4? 1<=3? 14= 4? 1<=3? 1>9=:? 1<=3? 1>9= :? 1>6= 0? 13=26?
6 :>? 9=9? 16= 9? 14= :? 16=9? 14=:? 1<=:? 14= :? 1<=:? 1>>=<? 1<=:? 1>>= <? 1>8= <? 13=:4?
8 <<? 9=9? 16= 3? 10= 8? 16=3? 10=8? 1:=4? 10= 8? 1:=4? 1>3=2? 1:=4? 1>3= 2? 1>4= :? 16=><?
4 <0? 9=9? 16= 8? 10= <? 16=8? 10=<? 1>9=3? 10= <? 1>9=3? 1>6=0? 1>9=3? 1>6= 0? 1>2= 9? 16=8>?
0 <6? 9=9? 16= 0? 12= 6? 16=0? 12=6? 1>9=:? 12= 6? 1>9=:? 1>8=4? 1>9=:? 1>8= 4? 1><= 3? 16=08?
2 <>? 9=9? 16= :? 12= 2? 16=:? 12=2? 1>>=0? 12= 2? 1>>=0? 1>4=4? 1>>=0? 1>4= 4? 1>:= 6? 16=<0?
< 2:? 9=9? 18= >? 1<= 3? 18=>? 1<=3? 1>3=6? 1<= 3? 1>3=6? 1>0=8? 1>3=6? 1>0= 8? 139= 4? 18=9:?
: 22? 9=9? 18= 6? 1<= 0? 18=6? 1<=0? 1>6=9? 1<= 0? 1>6=9? 1>2=6? 1>6=9? 1>2= 6? 13>= 0? 18=63?
>9 24? 9=9? 18= 4? 1:= >? 18=4? 1:=>? 1>6=0? 1:= >? 1>6=0? 1><=3? 1>6=0? 1><= 3? 133= 2? 18=44?
>> 26? 9=9? 18= <? 1:= 4? 18=<? 1:=4? 1>8=6? 1:= 4? 1>8=6? 1>:=>? 1>8=6? 1>:= >? 136= :? 18=22?
>3 2>? 9=9? 14= 9? 1>9= 9? 14=9? 1>9=9? 1>4=9? 1>9= 9? 1>4=9? 139=9? 1>4=9? 139= 9? 134= 9? 14=99?

()-.)"$$/-> 9? ()-.)"$$/-> 9= ()-.)"$$/-> 91 ()-.)"$$/-> 9&

!"#$ %&!' ! "#
"# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ( )*
)* +,
+, - . /#
/# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ! "#
"# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ( )*
)* +,
+, - . /#
/# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ! "#
"# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ( )*
)* +,
+, - . /#
/# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ! "#
"# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$ ( )*
)* +,
+, - . /#
/# $"
$" %&
%& '$
'$
> >99? >99? :<? :4? :<? :4? :6? :4? :6? :9? :6? :9? <<?
3 :8? :8? :>? <:? :>? <:? <0? <:? <0? <6? <0? <6? <9?
6 :>? :>? <<? <4? <<? <4? <3? <4? <3? 2:? <3? 2:? 20?
8 <<? <<? <4? <3? <4? <3? 2<? <3? 2<? 24? 2<? 24? 23?
4 <0? <0? <6? 2:? <6? 2:? 20? 2:? 20? 23? 20? 23? 0:?
0 <6? <6? 2:? 20? 2:? 20? 23? 20? 23? 0<? 23? 0<? 04?
2 <>? <>? 22? 26? 22? 26? 0:? 26? 0:? 00? 0:? 00? 03?
< 2:? 2:? 24? 2>? 24? 2>? 02? 2>? 02? 06? 02? 06? 4:?
: 22? 22? 26? 0<? 26? 0<? 08? 0<? 08? 09? 08? 09? 44?
>9 24? 24? 29? 00? 29? 00? 0>? 00? 0>? 42? 0>? 42? 43?
>> 26? 26? 0<? 06? 0<? 06? 4:? 06? 4:? 48? 4:? 48? 8:?
>3 2>? 2>? 00? 0>? 00? 0>? 40? 0>? 40? 4>? 40? 4>? 80?

Qio`c 3.?3. ^crm Arkp ipprkimj

ipprkimj dkr p`ieeheb brheaheb sct iea rcp smjcgcs

Jcrc hs ie cxigp`c kd =x9> iea =x= smjcgcs, usheb hetceshvc iea cxtceshvc
virhiets mi`mu`itca uth`hzheb ^crm Arkp ipprkimj (Qio`c 3.?4).

M.5A.$88/5>
!"#$%$ %&' )*+, -&./&>9 ?* ?= ?1 ?3
!"!# 42) :>9$>8/<$ 6*) 66) 40) 42)
$"!# 42) 75.%&; 24) 6*) 66) 40)
%"!# 42) N'9$>8/<$ 2=) 24) 6*) 66)
!"$ I*) :>9$>8/<$ O=) O2) OO) I*)
$"$ I*) 75.%&; 4I) O=) O2) OO)
%"$ I*) N'9$>8/<$ 46) 4I) O=) O2)
Qio`c 3.?4. Cxigp`c vcrthmi` p`ieeheb (prkbrcsshkes) dkr =x9> iea =x= smjcgc usheb ^crm Arkp gctjka

^crm Arkp hs i`sk ipp`hca ke tjc Oi``hsthm @kia-Cxcrthke tio`c (Qio`c 3.?2) wjhmj hs
usca dkr p`ieeheb oi``hsthm `hdts kr jhbj-qui`hty scts (whtjkut tkk gumj arkp he vc`kmhty
iea qui`hty kd rcps) is wc`` is dkr ocbheecrs kr he-sciske itj`ctcs (tk ivkha skrcecss).

9>=
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

!"#$ & !"#$ ' !"#$ ( !"#$ )

!"# %&' (") !*+"," -.(/ (")> -.(/ (")> -.(/ (")> -.(/ (")>

9?- .= 1.- .= 13- .= 11- .=

*+,"#,- 9?- .= 1.- .= 13- .= 11- .=
9?- .= 1.- .= 13- .= 11- .=
9?- .= 1.- .= 13- .= 11- .=

41- .= 4?- .= 32- .= 39- .=

!"#$ 31- .= 3?- .= 92- .= 99- .=
91- .= 9?- .= 12- .= 19- .=
11- .= 1?- .= :2- .= :9- .=

11- .= 1?- .= :2- .= :9- .=

.#/#>9# !"#$ 91- .= 9?- .= 12- .= 19- .=
31- .= 3?- .= 92- .= 99- .=
41- .= 4?- .= 32- .= 39- .=

097#53152 ;,/# 9?- .= 1.- .= 13- .= 11- .=

14- 8 19- 8 18- 8 :.- 8
18- 1 :=- 1 :4- 1 :9- 1

N#97#53152 ;,/# 18- 1 :=- 1 :4- 1 :9- 1

14- 8 19- 8 18- 8 :.- 8
9?- .= 1.- .= 13- .= 11- .=

12- 2 19- 2 18- 2 :=- 2

097#53152 4,33#> 12- 4 19- 4 18- 4 :=- 4
12- 9 19- 9 18- 9 :=- 9
12- .= 19- .= 18- .= :=- .=

12- .= 19- .= 18- .= :=- .=

N#97#53152 4,33#> 12- 9 19- 9 18- 9 :=- 9
12- 4 19- 4 18- 4 :=- 4
12- 2 19- 2 18- 2 :=- 2
9?- .= 1.- .= 13- .= 11- .=
14- 8 19- 8 18- 8 :.- 8
I>,31 O5,+ *?>,=13 18- 1 :=- 1 :4- 1 :9- 1
14- 8 19- 8 18- 8 :.- 8
9?- .= 1.- .= 13- .= 11- .=
18- 1 :=- 1 :4- 1 :9- 1
14- 8 19- 8 18- 8 :.- 8
.#/#>9# *?>,=13 9?- .= 1.- .= 13- .= 11- .=
14- 8 19- 8 18- 8 :.- 8
18- 1 :=- 1 :4- 1 :9- 1
12- .= 19- .= 18- .= :=- .=
92- 9 99- 9 98- 9 1=- 9
412:"8<#,/? 12- .= 19- .= 18- .= :=- .=
92- 9 99- 9 98- 9 1=- 9
12- .= 19- .= 18- .= :=- .=

11- 8 <9640 1?- 8 <9640 :2- 8 <9640 :9- 8 <9640

6+-9"#> 11- 8 <9640 1?- 8 <9640 :2- 8 <9640 :9- 8 <9640
11- 8 <9640 1?- 8 <9640 :2- 8 <9640 :9- 8 <9640
11- 8 <9640 1?- 8 <9640 :2- 8 <9640 :9- 8 <9640

6+-9"#> ;,/# 11- 8 <9640 1?- 8 <9640 :2- 8 <9640 :9- 8 <9640
1?- : <3640 :.- : <3640 :3- : <3640 ::- : <3640
:.- 1 <1620 :3- 1 <1620 :1- 1 <1620 :?- 1 <1620

 Qio`c 3.=3. G`iace‘s Gctjkak`kbhmi` ]ystcg kd m`isshdyheb ]ct iea _cp smjcgcs.

993
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

_cpcththkes pcrdkrgca whtj tjc M`ustcr #9 gctjka wh`` rcsu`t he `css vc`kmhty arkp
tjie triahthkei` sct (imutc c ﬎ cmts),
cmts), out ht hs qucsthkeio`c hd tjcsc wh`` rcsu`t he hgprkvca
mjrkehm c﬎ cmts
cmts (tjc shgh`ir Hs/Kubj bip lugp hs akec whtj tjc mketrist supcr scts). ]hemc
tjcsc irc akec whtj gkrc qui`hty iea vc`kmhty, gkrc rcps mie oc pcrdkrgca, chtjcr is
sheb`cs (M`ustcr #?) kr akuo`cs kr trhp`cs (M`ustcr #=). Qjc eugocr kd rcpcththkes he
tjhs typc kd m`ustcr hs irkuea 9.3 - ? thgcs tjie tjc rcpcththkes he tjc triahthkei` sct
(c.b., triahthkei` sct mi``s dkr 3 rcps N:3%, tjce tjc M`ustcr gctjka ghbjt hevk`vc
pcrdkrgheb 2 tk 9> rcps he i sct). Out hd yku mkgpirc M`ustcr #9 tk M`ustcr #= gctjka
tk triahthkei` sct (Qio`c 3.39), yku wh`` ekthmc tjit (9) ht tifcs `kebcr tk pcrdkrg m`ustcr
scts iea (?) kec pcrdkrgs gkrc vk`ugc (E@) (he #? iea #= M`ustcr gctjka). Mkgpirheb
imutc iea mjrkehm c ﬎ cmts
cmts kd M`ustcr gctjka tk triahthkei` gctjka hs tjus ekt  dihr ?:, iea
tjc c﬎ cmts
cmts ghbjt oc rc`itca tk i tjhra virhio`c (he tjhs misc gkrc tkti` rcst thgc, kr gkrc
rcps) ritjcr tjie tjc gctjka htsc`d.

Dkr tjhs rciske, `io mkits cetcrca eugcrkus gceti` gisturoithkes tk try mrcitheb
cqui` p`iyheb ﬉c`a tk i``kw gkrc mctcrhs pirhous (Iebrhst & ^hsmjfc, ?>93) mkgpirhske
 octwcce M`ustcrs iea triahthkei` scts. Kec sumj ipprkimj hshs tk pcrdkrg rcst rcahstrhouthke
m`ustcrs (M`ustcr #1, #3 iea #4 he Qio`c 3.39), wjcrc wc gifc surc tjit tjc tkti` rcst
thgc hs sigc (is wc`` is tjc rcps) is he tjc triahthkei` scts. Qjhs hs quhtc shgh`ir tk tjc
Qhgc iea _cp mkestrihet gctjka drkg Mjiptcr 1 (M`ustcr #2).

 I`tjkubj H ig tjc ﬉rst tk ibrcc tjit wc mieekt m`ihg tjit kec gctjka hs octtcr
tjie tjc ktjcr hd tjc ueacr`yheb gcmjiehsgs kr virhio`cs irc ekt cqui` iea tjus
mkgpirhske hs ekt  dihr , H ig i`sk tjc ﬉rst tk iaght tjit ht akcse‘t gittcr he tjc rci` `hdc
iea tjit cqui` p`iyheb ﬉c`a  hs `io mkits‘ (iea ]LRs) wct arcig. Rc pcrdkrg M`ustcrs
 ocmiusc tjcy irc ah ﬎ crcet  -
 ﬎ crcet  - ocmiusc wc mie ak gkrc qui`hty vk`ugc, ocmiusc wc primthmc
rimfheb iea rc-rimfheb, iea sk dkrtj. Irc tjc c ﬎ cmts
cmts hejcrcet`y auc tk m`ustcr gctjka,
kr auc gkrc qui`hty vk`ugc kr wjit jivc yku; Is i pribgithst H ake‘t rci``y mirc. Ht
hs up tk us, tjc primththkecrs tk mkeshacr ipprkprhitc thgc tk hgp`cgcet M`ustcrs is i
virhithke wjce eccaca.

Jivheb siha tjit, he tjhs gieui` H wh`` ipprkimj m`ustcrs is i wiy tk pcrdkrg gkrc
qui`hty rcps. Qio`c 3.3? mketihes ‐]gi`` Rkr`a‗ gkac` wjce mkevcrtheb triahthkei`
rcps tk M`ustcrs. Xku irc i`wiys drcc tk uth`hzc iey ktjcr gctjka kd mkursc.

?: He stithsthms wc wiet tk mrcitc mctcrhs pirhous (`it.) mkgpirhske kr ‐ktjcr tjhebs cqui`‗ (Iebrhst &
^hsmjfc, ?>93), wjhmj hs ekt tjc misc hd wc shgp`y mkgpirc triahthkei` scts whtj m`ustcrs.

91>
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

iokvc 3> scsshke scqucemc, wjhmj mie oc mkeshacrca `keb rue, tjcrc irc 94 @kwcr iea 92
Sppcr scsshkes.

Girfkv Mjihe iea ^rkoioh`hsthm

^rkbriggheb
Hgibhec wc jivc i triheheb prkbrig tjit iajcrcs tk tjc dk``kwheb scqucemc kd
 wkrfkuts<

Sppcr Okay I

@kwcr Okay I

Sppcr Okay O

@kwcr Okay O

Qjhs scqucemc hs ﬉xca - idtcr Sppcr Okay I, i`wiys dk``kw @kwcr Okay I, idtcr
 wjhmj i`wiys dk``kw Sppcr Okay O, idtcr wjhmj i`wiys dk``kw @kwcr Okay O, idtcr wjhmj
dk``kws Sppcr Okay I iea sk dkrtj. Qjhs scqucemc mie oc rcprcscetca whtj i trieshthke
gitrhx (Qio`c 3.23).

2#:1 -#334'=
!""#
!""#$$ &'()
&'() * +',#
+',#$$ &'()
'() * !""#
!""#$$ &'()
&'() & +',#
+',#$$ &'()
&'() & -./
   1    =
!""#$ &'() * > 9 > > 9
   =    '
   #    4 +',#$ &'() * > > 9 > 9
   $    3
   $    3
   .    # !""#$ &'() & > > > 9 9
   ?    -
+',#$ &'() & 9 > > > 9

Qio`c 3.23. Qrieshthke gitrhx. _kws heahmitc murrcet scsshke, iea mk`uges ecxt scsshke. Eugocr heshac
Qio`c
tjc gitrhx heahmitc prkoioh`hty kd tjc ecxt scsshke (> cqui`s ek prkoioh`hty, iea 9 cqui`s mcrtihety).
_kws ecca tk sug tk 9.

 Iektjcr wiy tk vhsui`hzc trieshthke gitrhx hs tk usc ectwkrf ahibrig (Cpsfigp

ct i`., ?>9?6 ]mjghttgiee ct i`., ?>9=6 Cpsfigp, Okrsokkg & Drhca, ?>94) (i`sk scc
ahsmusshke ke ectwkrf gkac`s he Mjiptcr ?) (Dhburc 3.1:).

Qjc scqucemc he tjhs cxigp`c hs ﬉xca kr mcrtihe. Hd tjc murrcet scsshke hs @kwcr
Okay I, tjc ecxt scsshke wh`` i`wiys oc Sppcr Okay O. Qjhs heahmitca oy tjc prkoioh`hty
kd trieshthke cqui` tk kec he tjc Qio`c 3.23. ^rkoioh`hty kd trieshthke kd zcrk cqui`s tk
‐ecvcr‗, wjh`c prkoioh`hty kd kec cqui` ‐i`wiys‗. Qjus tjc prkoioh`hty hs tjc mketheuug
 octwcce ecvcr iea i`wiys. Dkr cxigp`c, hd tjc trieshthke prkoioh`hty drkg @kwcr Okay
 I tk Sppcr Okay O hs >.3, ht gcies tjit kut kd 9>> shtuithkes he tjc `keb rue, 3> wh``
rcsu`t he tjit trieshthke. He tjc trieshthke gitrhx, rkws eccas tk sug tk kec.
92>
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

S∟

∟ ∟

S∟

Dhburc 3.1:. Thsui` rcprcscetithke kd tjc trieshthke gitrhx usheb ectwkrf.

_itjcr tjie jivheb ‐i`wiys‗ kr mcrtihe scqucemc, tjc scqucemc mie oc prkoioh`hsthm.
Qjit hs cximt`y wjit wc jivc akec whtj tjc Oiroc`` Mjihe cxigp`c iokvc, wjcrc @kwcr
iea Sppcr jivc 3><3> mjiemc, is `keb is tjcrc irc ek ghssca scsshkes. Qjit smceirhk mie
 oc rcprcscetca whtj tjc dk``kwheb trieshthke gitrhx (Qio`c 3.24) iea ectwkrf ahibrig
(Dhburc 3.18). Qjc tjhmfecss iea airfecss kd cabcs he tjc ectwkrf (irrkws mkeecmtheb
twk ekacs, kr he tjhs misc, scsshkes) heahmitc trieshthke prkoioh`hty.

<$6( >$##"':
!"##$% &'()* +,,$- .'/$- >9?
   (    :
!"##$% = 1 = = 1
   :    '
   $    " &'()* = = =34 =34 1
   -    #
   -    #
   9    $ +,,$- = = =34 =34 1
   2    >
.'/$- = = =34 =34 1

Qio`c 3.24. Qrieshthke

Qrieshthke gitrhx dkr tjc Oiroc`` Mjihe cxigp`c.

929
]Q_CEBQJ Q_IHEHEB GIESI@ Tk`ugc Qwk

!"#$%$#&'($)'  $+ ,-.'  /.>&'( 9(' ?= 

 -. .%.-1 $+ 3- '3 +$4$('- $"#$%$#&'(
3."

!"#$%$#&'($)'   +&-    2:'3 $3

3'8.+ 3 -.',: :$+ <60!<7!5!;N 3."   '%
3:. 
Dhburc 4.=>. Octtcr ac﬉ehthke kd heahvhaui`hzithke.

Oimf tk tjc ]ct @cvc`

Ocshacs heahvhaui`hzithke oy uth`hzheb rc`ithvc prcsmrhpthke he tryheb tk gitmj
itj`ctc‘s murrcet ioh`hty (stio`c `cvc` kd iaiptithke iea murrcet stitc), _cvhcw iea
_ctrkspcmthvc i`sk aci`s he gifheb surc tjit wjit hs imtui``y prcsmrhoca hs ocheb rci`hzca.
Dkr cxigp`c, hd i jira wkrfkut hs p`ieeca, kec wiets tk gifc surc jira wkrfkut hs
imtui``y akec. Qjhs akcse‘t gcie dk``kwheb i prkbrig tk tjc `cttcr, out imfekw`cabheb
prkbrig mkestrihets iea ohis, wjh`c prkvhaheb dkr skgc virhiemc tk tifc hetk immkuet
crrkrs he tjc prcsmrhpthke iea murrcet ioh`hty kd tjc itj`ctcs.

Dkr cxigp`c, hd prkbrig mi``s dkr :>% 9_G, kec wiy tk gifc surc tjit imtui``y
:>% hs usca hs tk chtjcr usc prcahmtca kr csthgitca 9_G (akec whtj @T prk﬉`c kr usheb
_H_ cquithke), TOQ prcsmrhpthke oy usheb vc`kmhty isskmhitca whtj :>% 9_G drkg tjc
heahvhaui` @T prk﬉`c (c.b., :>% 9_G hs irkuea >.2 g/s 1:), kr aih`y e_G 18. Qjce tjc
triheheb pcrmcetibcs mie oc oisca k ﬎  tjit
 tjit murrcet pcrdkrgiemc ritjcr tjie prc-pjisc
9_Gs3>.

1: _cscirmj sccgs tk pkhet tk tjc dimt tjit @T prk﬉`c akec usheb %9_G iea vc`kmhty sccgs tk oc gkrc
stio`c tjie 9_G (Lkviekvhm & D`ieibie, ?>91). Dkr cxigp`c, hd 9_G mjiebcs, vc`kmhty it pirthmu`ir % wh``
tcea tk stiy gkrc kr `css stio`c,
stio `c, it `cist aurheb tjc murrcet pjisc. Rjit akcs tjhs gcie
gci e primthmi``y; Ht gcies
tjit prcsmrhoheb usheb vc`kmhty tifcs hetk immkuet murrcet ioh`hty (murrcet stitc p`us tjc ritc kd i aiptithke).
Gkrc rcscirmj hs eccaca tk gifc tjhs m`ihg gkrc vi`ha, out i`sk tk cxp`krc mjrkehm mjiebcs he iosk`utc iea
rc`ithvc @T prk﬉`c imrkss thgc.
18 He gy cxpcrhcemc skgc itj`ctcs giehdcst jhbjcr virhioh`hty kd tjc murrcet stitc (murrcet ioh`hty) iea
acgiea `kkscr prcsmrhpthke, kr i wiy tk csthgitc aih`y gix.
3> Iektjcr sk`uthke hs usheb gkrc `kksc prcsmrhpthke usheb rcp kr `kia zkecs

?91
 LKTIEKTHHĄ
G@IACE LKTIEKT

 Iokut

G`iace LkviekvhĂ  hs i ]crohie ]trcebtj iea Mkeahthkeheb Mkimj iea ]pkrt

]mhcethst. G`iace wis hevk`vca he tjc pjyshmi` prcpirithke kd prkdcsshkei`, igitcur
iea rcmrcithkei` itj`ctcs kd virhkus ibcs he spkrts, sumj is oisfctoi``, skmmcr,
vk``cyoi``, girthi` irts, tceehs iea Iustri`hie ru`cs dkktoi``. He ?>9>, G`iace stirtca
tjc Mkgp`cgcetiry Qriheheb wcoshtc iea he ?>92, acvc`kpca tjc smjcau`heb iea
gkehtkrheb ipp`hmithke, Itj`ctc]_. Jc hs murrcet`y pursuheb jhs ^jA it tjc Dimu`ty kd
]pkrts iea ^jyshmi` Caumithke he Oc`briac, ]crohi.

Qwhttcr< Npjyshmi`[prcp

Hestibrig< Npjyshmi`[prcp

Dimcokkf< www.dimcokkf.mkg/mkgp`cgcetirytriheheb/

 Rcoshtc< www.mkgp`cgcetirytriheheb.ect

Cgih`< mkimj.g`iace.lkviekvhmNbgih`.mkg

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