CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
ZLITERTURE SURVEY RECKONER
S.No Literature Name of Publisher Data / URL Pages Discusses Likely to Browsed
. Category Literature; accessed on (Date) of (Topic of help / Read
(eg.: Author(s) / intere discussion) argument in thoroughl
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unpublished no.
document/ xxx-
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HIGLIGHT
AREAS OF
INTEREST
&
RELEVANC
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1. Research Shapes patterns https://www 11 Shapes and Read
paper and meaning in .researchgate pages patterns thoroughl
Indian temple .net/publication used in y
geometry- /328960511_Shapes Indian
By Tanisha _Patterns_and temples
dutta, _Meanings_in
V.S.Adane _Indian_Temple
_Architecture
2. Research Sacred geometry http://www. 14 Applicatio Read
paper mathematical Krishisanskriti pages n of thoroughl
and geometric .org/Publication geometry y
applications in .html in ancient
the ancient Indian
architecture of architectur
India. e
By Aryaman
Agarwal
3. Research Role of fractal https://www.ijert. 6 Reasons Read
paper geometry in org/research/role-of-fractal- pages behind use thoroughl
Indian Hindu geometry-in-indian-hindu- of fractal y
temple temple-architecture- geometry
architecture. IJERTV4IS050709.pdf in Hindu
By Dhrubajyoti temple
Sardar, architectur
S.Y.Kulkarni e.

4. Research Symbolism in https://www 9 Meaning Read

paper Hindu temple .ijsr.net/archive pages behind the thoroughl
architecture and /v3i12/U1VCMTQzMjI= use of y
fractal .pdf geometric
geometry- patterns in
‘Thought behind Hindu
form’ temple
By Tanisha architectur
Dutta, e
V.S.Adane

5. Book Sacred geomtry By Robert lawlor 67-70 Gnomonic Read

expansion thoroughl
and the y
creation of
spirals
6. Book Building science By Shweta vardia 104 Read
of Indian temple
architecture
7. Book Sacred geometry By Sudhir v. Patel 36-56 Not read
in chess and yet
design of hindu
temple
8. Article Sacred space By Ashish Nangia 5 Not read
pages yet
9. Book A STUDY ON SUJATAVANIGUNASAGA Not read
HINDU RAN yet
TEMPLE
PLANNING,
CONSTRUCTI
ON AND THE V
AASTU

10. Book Measurement PROFESSOR MICHAEL W. Not read

and Proportion MEISTER yet
in Hindu Temple
Architecture

11. Book the Hayaśīrṣa by Elisabeth Eva Raddock 5-10 Read

Pañcarātra 23-30
61

12. Book Temple Purushottama Bilimoria Not read

Architecture A properly
Brief Overview
and Its
Symbolism
2.1 Purpose of the Literature Review and selection criteria of the
literature.

The topic Sacred geometry in Architecture have a vast scope and requires deep study for the
proper understanding and since the time frame given to us is very limited and the topics that
we have to cover cannot be traced in the given period of time so the selection process have
to be very critical and deliberate which only focuses on the aim of the topic.
The collection of the data was mainly by the literature review and available research
documents on the internet having its own importance because literature review will further
help:

 To explore the vital aspects of sacred geometry in Architecture in which Indian temple
geometry is our scope of study and to understand the role of sacred geometry in
Indian temples.

 To understand and ensure the results for the research questions can be analyzed
carefully and a judgment could be made for the document by the thorough literature
study on existing structures that lie within the limit.

 To provide brief summary of all the facts, theories and results of the research that is
done in past in the same topic or relation to the topic and highlight the relevance of
the topic.

 As research paper’s uniqueness and originality is very important to generate reader’s

interest and curiosity, thus a review of existing literature would push the research a
step further encompassing which is still not discovered or documented.

 Considering the time boundaries and limited available resources it is best to discover
existing literature for a better understanding and ensuring the best conclusions.

 Literature reviews would also help to generate a better understanding of research

ethics and spirituality.
The document selection has to be done very efficiently to keep the authenticity of the
collected data and for a better conclusion and analyzing of the research. So to maintain the
authenticity of research paper the document selection was done from varying disciplines of
authors from professional practitioners to research students.

SACRED GEOMETRT IN ARCHITECTURE

2.2 Hinduism and Architecture.
Hinduism is one of the oldest and largest religion that is practiced to this date and it has
flourished for more than two thousand years in many parts of the world.

“Hinduism is not a sole religion, it is the collection of costumes of various religions which
are native and predominant in India, does not believe in any one philosophic concept or any
single God, and thus may be broadly described as a way of life.”( Building science of Indian temple
Architecture – Shweta Vardia)

2.2.1 Origin of Hinduism

Hinduism is the religion which is practiced by major part of the people in India. Hinduism has
no fixed scriptural canon but its doctrines are to be found in certain ancient works, notably
the Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad gita (Baker, 1969).
The oldest Vedic literature that was used for the history of Hinduism is the Rig-Veda, it
consists the hymns that were chiefly composed during the last centuries of the 2nd
millennium BCE. In Rig-Veda Sapta Sindhu was expressed as land of the Indo-Aryans (the land
of the seven rivers in northwestern South Asia, one of them being the Indus) (Wikipedia 2008).
The word Hindu is the name of the Indus River used by Persians for the people who reside
near the Indus River. Hinduism is the term that was extensively used by Mughal empires and
British officials for referring traditions in India by creating distinctions between the religious
cults of Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Hinduism evolved very gradually from the prehistoric religions of the sub-Indian region and
the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryan civilization. The evolution of Hinduism may be divided
into three periods: the ancient period (3000 BCE-500 CD), the medieval period (500 to 1500
CE) and the modern period (1500 to present).
2.2.2 Treatises
There are number of books and scriptures in Hinduism and they were mostly written in
Sanskrit language and divided in two categories as shruti (“that which is heard”) and smriti
(“that which is remembered”). These treatises basically consist of the vedas, the Dharmas
Shastras, the Purans, the Upanishads, the Shilp shastras, etc. The treatises which consist of
the basic rules of architecture and sculpture are called as the Shilpa shastra and Vastushastra
the mayamata and mansara are two treatises of south India on architecture and iconography.
Rules written in these treatises are strictly followed all over whenever there is construction
of the temple. The typical plan of the Hindu temple follow the sacred geometry derived from
mandala. The mandala here is the sacred form consisting of the intersection of the circle and
the square. ( Exoticindiaart 2007).

SACRED GEOMETRT IN ARCHITECTURE

2.2.3 Temple and relation to man and society.
Temple in Hinduism is not just building but the ideology behind the designing and
construction of Hindu temple is to link mankind with gods. Hindu temple is a space where we
feel more close to god then any place. Hindu temple is considered a space of enlightenment
where a person can feel divine and also the presence of god which will help man to discover
divine knowledge.
Different type of temples are constructed all over India depicts the character of the place
wherever they are constructed whether it is material or style of architecture. Hindu temple is
not only the place of worship but in some places also act as complex for schools, hospitals
and courts for the community. Music and dance also the part of daily rituals that is performed
in the temple.

Figure 1-The the major temple sites in India (Source: Hardy, 2007).

SACRED GEOMETRT IN ARCHITECTURE

REFERENCES:
1. The origin of Hinduism https://www.learnreligions.com/theories-about-the-origin-of-
hinduism-1770375
2. The history of Hinduism https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-prehistoric-
period-3rd-and-2nd-millennia-bce
3. Building science of Indian temple Architecture – Shweta Vardia

SACRED GEOMETRT IN ARCHITECTURE

2.3 Need of Hindu temple
Mārkaṇḍeya said: In Kṛta-yuga the temple was not made on this earth, O king, people could see

the gods before their eyes. 1

In Tretā and Dvāpara yugas, though the people saw gods before their very eyes, they made images

-Pratimās and worshipped them according to the ceremony. 2

In Tretā-yuga the images of gods were installed in houses. Then in Dvāpara the sages made

images in the forests. 3

O king, the siddhas always worshipped them. The sages were happy to install images (in the

temple). 4

In this Kali-yuga all people do this activity of installing images. In Kṛta-yuga, jñāna (knowledge

was) supreme and in Tretā Tapaḥ - penance was supreme. 5

In Dvāpara similarly the same (Tapaḥ) should be known as supreme, but in Kali-yuga the cities

are full of temples. 6 (Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa adhyāya 3.93.1-624) (Raddock)

The Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa passage quoted above, and many other quotes from different
books and treatises give us idea why we need temples and why there was not that much need
of temple before. It tells us that in earlier yugas people did not need temples because they
had access to god easily but in the this degraded time of kali yuga a space is needed for
connection between man and god and in the above quote it is also stated that in previous
yugas people were able to see god with their eyes and had contact with them but in this
degraded time of kali yuga image of the god is needed so that people can feel connected.
The ultimate goal of the Hinduism is moksha liberation from samsara and rebirth for which
man practice this religion and temple helps in this motive of the person and temples all
around the world have successfully served social, economic and political end as well with
religious.

REFERENCES:
1.Hayaśīrṣa Pañcarātra by Elisabeth Eva Raddock

SACRED GEOMETRT IN ARCHITECTURE

2.4 The Hindu temple
The Hindu temple commonly known as Mandir in Hindi language is derived from sanskrit word
Mandira, and known by different names in different parts of India as koil or kovil in Tamil,
devasthana in Kanada and devalaya, in Telugu etc. The Hindu temple can be isolated identity
or part of the complex. The main forms and styles of the Hindu temple were established
during 600-800 AD.
In earlier period Hindu temples were not only used for worship but also for many activities
like music and dance and also in earlier temple used to be in complexes in which school,
hospital and many other facilities used to be there.
The purpose of Hindu temple is to provide a link between god and man. “ It is the place for
the meeting and marriage of heaven and earth where the whole world is present in terms of
measure, and is accessible to man”. (Sacred geometry in chess and the design of the Hindu temple- by Sudhir V.Patel)
The architecture of temples varies across India, however while the basic elements of the
temple are the same, the form and scale varied.

2.4.1 Elements of Hindu Temple

Only after the later half of the 7th Century the Hindu temple of India began to take a definite
form which included different elements and the common elements of the Hindu temple which
is used as the Sanskrit words are as follows:-

Fig .2 the parts and features of a Hindu temple

(Source-Temple Architecture A Brief Overview and Its Symbolism)

SACRED GEOMETRT IN ARCHITECTURE

The sanctuary as whole is known as the Vimana that consists of two parts. The upper part of
the Vimana is called as the Sikhara and the lower portion inside the Vimana is called as the
Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber).
1. ‘Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the spire. It is the pyramidal or tapering portion of the
temple which represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. The shape
and the size of the tower vary from region to region.
2. ‘Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber. It is nucleus and the innermost chamber of
the temple where the image or idol of the deity is placed. The chamber is mostly square in
plan and is entered by a doorway on its eastern side. The visitors are not allowed inside the
garbhagriha in most of the temples, only the priests perform the rituals and worship.
3. ‘Pradakshina patha’ meaning the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation. It
consists of enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha. The devotees walk
around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple
god or goddess.
4. ‘Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the
devotees. It is used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the priests
performing the rituals. It is also known as ‘Natamandira’ meaning temple hall of dancing,
where in olden days ritual of music and dance was performed. In some of the earlier temples
the mandapa was an isolated and separate structure from the sanctuary.

Figure 3.1 &3.2 – The typical plan and the typical elevation of a Hindu temple illustrating various elements
(Source: www.art-and-archaeology.com)

SACRED GEOMETRT IN ARCHITECTURE

 5. ‘Antarala’ meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber. It unites the main
sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple.
6. ‘Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to
the mandapa.
Some other essential elements found in the Hindu temples are
7. ‘Gopurams’ meaning the monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the temple
complex, specially found in south India.
8. ‘Pitha’ , the plinth or the platform of the temple.
9. ‘Toranas’, the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in north Indian temple and
10. The Amalaka the fluted disc like stone placed at the apex of the sikhara.

2.4.2 Evolution of Architectural Styles

2.4.3 Nagara or the ‘Northern Style’
Dravidian or ‘Southern Style’
2.5 The Geometry of Hindu Temple
2.5.1 Cosmology and Hindu Temple
2.5.2 The Concept: Vastupurushamandala
2.5.3 The Layout of Hindu Temple
2.5.4 Plan
2.5.5 Shapes, patterns and meanings in Indian temple architecture.
By Tanisha Dutta, V.S.Adane
In this paper writer talks about how shapes and patterns used in Indian temples have
significance and meanings attach to them and attempts to link the symbolism and fractals in
the context of Hindu temple architecture. Later he also writes about the usage of fractal
geometry in Hindu temple and how the complexity of fractal geometry needed to convey the
deepest meanings in the Hindu temple. This paper later helps to understand the geometry used
in old ancient buildings helps for the new possibilities for contemporary architecture and writer
also mention about the technologies and software used to evaluate geometric patterns in the
temple and by giving examples of temples like laxman and Kandariya Mahadev Temple writer
clarifies the concept of the relation between geometry and symbolism.
Sacred geometry mathematical and geometric applications in the ancient architecture of
India.
By Aryaman Agarwal
The focus of this paper is to understand the applications of geometry in ancient Indian
architecture, the writer talks about the geometric pattern in Islamic architecture and meanings
of the geometric patterns used in Islamic architecture and later he supports his explanations
with examples like Taj Mahal, Humayun’s Tomb and red fort how their elevations and plans
have geometric patterns with meanings related to it.
Further he also mentions the geometric patterns in Hindu temples and explains the type of
geometrical patterns that is used in Hindu temple in elevations and plans of the building and
also mention the fractal geometric patterns and proving that there is an important role of
mathematics and geometry not only in the India’s ancient architectural characteristic look, but
also expressing significant symbolic aspects.
Role of fractal geometry in Indian Hindu temple architecture.
By Dhrubajyoti Sardar, S.Y.Kulkarni
In this paper writer focus on the usage of fractal geometric patterns use in Indian Hindu temple
in various forms of it that is the use of fractal geometric patterns in the evolution of the plan of
the temple and how the elevation of the temple includes different patterns which comes under
fractal geometry. Later he talks about the reasons behind the use of fractal geometry in Hindu
temple architecture and explains that concept of the fractal geometry is somewhat similar to
the Hindu philosophy of cosmos.

Symbolism in Hindu temple architecture and fractal geometry- ‘Thought behind form’
By Tanisha Dutta, V.S.Adane
This paper focuses on the analysis of temple architecture, fractal geometry, symbolism and
human perception of architectural expression and temples concept relation to cosmology.
 Explains about the beliefs of Hindus and how their beliefs have impact on their
architectural philosophy as well in many ways.
 Explains that Hindu temple is symbolic expression of Hindu philosophy about the
nature of cosmos.
 It also explains the geometric patterns used in Indian temples and meaning behind the
geometric patterns that is being used in the temple and also the application of geometry.
 Explains the Vastu shastra Mandala.
 Explains how the fractal geometric patterns concept is parallel to the concept of Hindu
philosophy.
SACRED GEOMETRY IN ARCHITECTURE