Pest fish profiles
Oreochromis mossambicus - Mozambique tilapia
Overview
Detailed Synonyms
information
Classification
Appearance
Taxonomic description
Size
Natural & introduced distrubition
Diet
Reproduction
Ecological tolerances
Ecological impacts
Glossary
References
Contact details
Common names:
Mozambique tilapia. Also known as Mozambique mouthbrooder,
Kurper or mud bream (South Africa), Ikun mujair or Miracle fish
(Indonesia).
Appearance:
There are two forms of Mozambique tilapia present in northern
Queensland: the "pure form" found in the Townsville-Thuringowa
region and a hybrid form, found in the Cairns region, Atherton
Tablelands and the Burdekin River system. Both forms are deep-
bodied with almost symmetrical, tapered extensions to the rear
edge of the single dorsal and anal fins. These fin extensions are
longer in males than in females. The jaws of sexually mature males
of both forms are enlarged with the upper profile of the head often
concave.
Size:
The typical size range (TL) reported for adult male O.
mossambicus is 30 - 44cm from tropical/ subtropical regions where
conditions are within the species' normal tolerance ranges. Adult
females are smaller and, under similar conditions, range
approximately in size from 25-33 cm.
Under more extreme conditions at the limits of its range or in
stressful environments (eg. shallow drying pools, marginal
habitats), the species can mature at a small size (stunting), and the
maximum size range for males can be between 10-30cm TL.
Natural and introduced distribution:
It occurs in coastal regions eastern Africa between 33°S lat and
17°S lat. Including Botswana, Malawi, Lesotho, Mozambique,
Swaziland, Zimbabwe and South Africa.It has been introduced
into at least 90 countries including Australia, where it occurs in
two states: Western Australia and Queensland.
Habitat:
Inhabits slow flowing rivers and streams and still water habitats
such as lakes and lagoons and in both fresh and brackish waters. A
population has even established on a marine atol in the central
Pacific. A 'type' habitat of the species is the lower Zambezi River,
central Mozambique (eastern Africa, 18° 46'S) which is virtually on
the same latitude as Ingham (18° 43'S).
Diet:
Mozambique tilapia consumes a wide range of food items,
although it is predominantly a benthic feeder on plant material
including filamentous and unicellular algae, water weeds,
terrestrial plants and organic detritus. It will also consume
cyanobacteria, aquatic invertebrates such as insect larvae, small
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crustaceans, molluscs and will opportunistically feed on fish eggs
and small fish.
Reproduction:
O. mossambicus is a polygynous, sexually dimorphic, maternal
mouthbrooder. Mature males aggregate at the start of the breeding
season in shallow margins of waterbodies and establish courtship
arenas (leks). Each male digs a shallow circular pit which is
aggressively defended and used for display to attract a receptive
female. After fertilisation of eggs within the pit, the female collects
the eggs in her mouth and establishes a brooding territory
elsewhere Reproduction is regulated by temperature with
spawning thresholds for the species reported between 18° and
25°C. Spawning is aseasonal in higher, subtropical latitudes (4-6
months), about 9-10 months in the tropics and virtually continuous
in equatorial regions where temperatures remain year-round above
at least 24°C.
Brood size is related to female body size and can range between a
few hundred for stunted (early maturing) females to between 2000
and 4000 for large females > 25cm SL. The species is a multiple
spawner and can produce several broods during a season, the
frequency strongly influenced by temperature - spawning intervals
have been reported of between 30 and 40 days, resulting in about 5
broods in subtropical regions and about 8-10 broods in the tropics.
Because of the reproductive mode, survivorship of eggs and fry can
be very high, with rates (at least under laboratory conditions)
reported of between 50 and 95%, thus allowing for very rapid
population increase under favourable conditions.
Ecological tolerances:
Can survive high and low temperatures, high salinity, low oxygen
and high and low pH.
Ecological impacts:
The highly invasive O. mossambicus has been implicated in the
decline or disappearance of resident species from freshwater,
estuarine and marine habitats in several countries following its
introduction. It can have negative impacts on aquatic communities
through grazing or predation, interference competition
(overcrowding) for food and space, as a vector of disease-causing
pathogens, or by activities which lead to changes in the abiotic
environment (e.g., loss of water quality which may affect
survivorship of resident species).
 Detailed information

Synonyms Taxonomic description

Chromis mossambicus (Peters 1852) O. mossambicus (pure form)
Tilapia mossambica (Peters 1852) 1. Vertebrae 28-31, mode 30.
Sarothredon mossambica (Peters 1852) 2. Fin formula: D XV-XVII 26-29, A III 9-12, (mode 10);
Sarotherodon mossambica (Peters 1852) lower gill rakers 14-20 (mode 17,18)
Sarotherodon mossambicum (Peters 1852) 3. Pharyngeal teeth very fine in 3-5 series the dentigerous
Oreochromis mozambica (Peters 1852) area with narrow lobes, the blade in adults longer than
Tilapia mossambica mossambica (Peters 1852) dentigerous area
Tilapia mossambicus (Peters 1852) 4. Scales rows on the cheek. 30-32 in lateral line series
Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters 1852) (mode 31). 3.5 to 4.5 between origin of dorsal fin and
Oreochromis mossambica (Peters 1852) lateral line; 4-6 between pectoral and pelvic fins
Chromis niloticus mossambicus (Peters 1852) 5. Caudal fin not densely scaled; truncate with rounded
Cromis mossambicus (Peters 1852) corners
Tilapia dumerili (Steindachner 1864) 6. Genital papilla of male simple or with a shallow distal
Tilapia dumerilii (Steindachner 1864) notch
Chromis dumerilii (Steindachner 1864)
Chromis vorax (Pfeffer 1893) Size
Tilapia vorax (Pfeffer 1893) Maximum total length (TL max) recorded for a number of
Sarotherodon mossambicus natalensis (Weber 1897) populations of Mozambique tilapia
Chromis natalensis (Weber 1897) Location TL Source
Tilapia arnoldi (Gilchrist & Thompson 1917) max
(cm)
Classification Ross River weirs (1997/8), Townsville, 43.8 Webb, unpubl. data
Order Perciformes Qld, Australia
Suborder Labroidei Inyamiti pan, KwaZulu, South Africa 43.2 Bruton & Allanson
Family Cichlidae 1974
Tribe Tilapiini Ross River weirs (1992) Townsville, Qld, 41.3 Webb, unpubl. data
Genus Oreochromis Australia
Species mossambicus North Pine Dam, Brisbane, Qld, 41.2* Blühdorn et al. 1990
Australia
Appearance Egyptian culture ponds 38.0 Bruton & Allanson
"Pure form" (adult): Female and non-breeding male silvery grey to 1974
pale olive with 2-5 mid lateral blotches and some of a more dorsal Curralea Lake (1990), Townsville, Qld, 36.4 Milward & Webb
series may be absent in adults. Breeding male typically dark olive to Australia 1990
black with white to yellow lower parts of head (on the operculum,
Reservoir, Trinidad 35.6 Hickling 1961
cheek and throat) and red margins to dorsal and caudal fins. Depth
Kiribbanara Reservoir, Sri Lanka 35.5 De Silva 1985
of body 36-49.5% of Standard Length (SL).
Ross Dam, Townsville-Thuringowa, Qld, 34.5 Webb 2006
"Hybrid form" (adult): Adults tend Australia
to have a narrower body with Pimburettewa Reservoir, Sri Lanka 33.0 De Silva 1985
longer extensions to the dorsal and Tingalpa Dam, Brisbane, Qld, Australia 32.6* Blühdorn et al.1990
anal fins than the pure form. Also, Mahagama Reservoir, Sri Lanka 32.0 De Silva 1985
paired fins typically are red with a Cairns, Qld, Australia 31.9* Blühdorn et al. 1990
much wider band of red on the
Kaudulla Reservoir, Sri Lanka 28.0 De Silva 1985
caudal fin and a reddish orange
tinge to the general body colour. Breeding males with similar dark- Guthries Pond, Cairns, Qld, Australia 26.2* Blühdorn et al. 1990
olive to black colour and yellow on lower head and throat as the Lake Sibaya, KwaZulu, South Africa 26.0 Bruton & Allanson
pure form. Depth of body usually <45% of SL. 1974
Yodawewa Reservoir, Sri Lanka 25.0 De Silva 1985
Fry and juveniles of both forms are similar in York Dam, Jamaica 22.0 Hickling 1961
appearance. They are pale olive to si lvery Gascoyne River, WA, Australia 15.4* Blühdorn et al. 199
grey. Fry to about 60mm to 80mm SL have Buffalo Springs, Kenya 10.0 Whitehead 1962
vertical bars with or without mid-lateral
blotches, but no horizontal stripes. A clear * SL data converted to TL by formula given by Blühdorn et al.
ringed (black) tilapia spot is present on the 1990
rear part of the dorsal fin. In fish
approximately >80mm, the tilapia spot Natural & Introduced distribution
appears as the intensified lower end of a grey oblique bar which The species is now one of the most widely distributed fish species
eventually disappears in the adult. and has been introduced into at least 90 countries including
Australia, where it occurs in two states: Western Australia and
Queensland, and established in 80 of these (see fig 1). The species
was introduced primarily for aquaculture or to establish
commercial or recreational fisheries (especially in impoundments),
but was also introduced as a biocontrol agent (for mosquito larvae,
phytoplankton and aquatic weeds), as a

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 Distribution & Diet
World distribution:
Figure 1 Natural and introduced range of Mozambique tilapia
baitfish and as animal protein for domesticated farm stock. It was
introduced initially as an ornamental species into Indonesia and the
USA then provided the basis for aquaculture in these countries.
Australia is the only country where the species was introduced
exclusively for the aquarium trade (fig 2).
Figure 2 Tilapia in North Queensland
Diet
Maclean (1984) aptly described tilapias as ‘aquatic chickens’
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because of their ability to efficiently convert a wide range of food
material into protein. Bowen (1982) reviewed the literature on the
diets of 17 tilapiine species and found that O. mossambicus was
among the most catholic in its feeding behaviour. While feeding
predominantly on plant material, Bowen commented that
‘practically every aquatic animal, vegetable and mineral small
enough to pass through the esophagus has been found in the guts
of these fish’.
O. mossambicus has been reported from its native and introduced
range feeding on live aquatic and submerged terrestrial plants,
benthic algae, phytoplankton, periphyton (algae attached to
plants), zooplankton, and organic detritus (Hofstede & Botke 1950;
Pannikar & Tampi 1954; Man & Hodgkiss 1977; Bowen 1978, 79, 80a, 81;
Aravindan 1980; Dudgeon 1983; De Silva et al. 1984; De Silva 1985;
Dickman & Nanne 1987; Blühdorn et al. 1990; Milward and Webb 1990;
Webb 1994; Kim et al. 2002).
Several studies have found free bacteria and cyanobacteria
(Microcystis spp) to be a dominant or frequent component in the
diet of juvenile and adult Mozambique tilapia (and Nile tilapia)
(Maitipe and De Silva 1985; Beveridge et al. 1989; Jameson 1991; Mol and
van Der Lugt 1996; Komarakova and Tavera 2003).
Bowen (1976, 1982) suggested that the ability of tilapias, such as O.
mossambicus, to switch their mode of feeding (eg. from herbivory
to detritivory or between phytoplankitivory to zooplanktivory) is
related to incidental feeding. When deposit feeding, fish may ingest
a mixture of sedimented phytoplankton, detritus and small
invertebrates, eg., copepods, virtually indistinguishable to the diets
of suspension feeders. O. mossambicus also undergoes ontogenetic
change in feeding with a shift from macrophagy in fry and
fingerlings (e.g., bacteria, diatoms, microcrustacea, rotifers) to
predominantly macrophagy in adults (Vaas and Hofstede 1952; Le
Roux 1956; Bowen 1976; Bowen & Allanson 1982).
There have also been reports of O. mossambicus opportunistically
feeding on other small fish and eggs (Riedel 1965; Eyeson 1983; Webb
1994) and aquatic macroinvertebrates, such as dipteran larvae
(Legner and Medved 1973; Legner et al. 1980),
 Reproduction
molluscs (Makoni et al. 2005) and winged (terrestrial) formicids
(Bowen 1982). Cannibalism has also been reported in
oreochromids including O. mossambicus though mainly under
unnatural conditions such as aquaria and culture ponds (Neil 1966;
Macintosh & de Silva 1984; Panastico et al. 1988; Milward &
Webb 1990).
Reproduction
O. mossambicus has a polygynous mating system resembling that
of other lekking animals, where males aggregate to form courtship
l cavity of the female for protection.
Among cichlid fishes with this mating system sexual differences in
size (dimorphism), colour (dichromatism) and other reproductive
behaviours are prevalent (Fryer & Iles 1972; Trewevas 1983) and are
under hormonal control. Oliveira and Almada (1998a) proposed
that androgens (male sex hormones) not only play an important
role in the expression of male secondary sex characters, but also as
mediators of social status (dominance), i.e., the expression of
outcomes of male-male competition. Males therefore regulate their
morphological and behavioural characters according to their
resource-holding potential. This hormonal expression of traits has
an amplifier effect through positive feedback mechanisms, where
initial differences in resource-holding potential may result in
increasingly larger differences in status during the spawning
period.
At sexual maturation, males are much larger than females in several
morphological traits (body size, dorsal fin height, anal fin height,
mandible width and premaxilla length). Bruton and Boltt (1979)
described the first sign of breeding activity in Lake Sibaya, South
Africa, where males gathered offshore in schools at the surface and
began to adopt the black nuptial colouration. Schools then moved
inshore to the shallow littoral terraces of the lake where males
compete among themselves for acquisition and maintenance of
reproductive territories (Oliveira and Almada 1998b).Those males
higher in the social hierarchy, besides having higher androgen
levels and gonadosomatic indexes, are more effective at defending
territories, build larger display pits and court at a higher rate
(Turner 1986; Oliveira et al. 1996). Mating success is strongly
skewed toward dominant territorial males in established groups
(Oliveira and Almada 1998c).
Contests between male O. mossambicus are usually settled on the
basis of size and therefore likely related to strength and the
resource-holding potential of the individual (Turner and
Huntingford 1986; Turner 1994). Male aggression may take several
forms of increasing intensity (Table 1). Intruding fish, if smaller
than the resident, are usually chased out of a territory and typically
involves circling, lateral displays that escalate to physical contact
with lunging and ramming (Turner 1994). Boundary disputes
occur frequently between adjacent territory holders. These fights
involve frontal displays which rarely result in a clear outcome and
are probably used mainly to fix the position of the territorial
borders (Turner and Huntingford 1986).
Mate choice
According to Nelson (1995), because O. mossambicus females are
not herded by a dominant male and fertilisation is external, they
maintain a great deal of control over which males are
reproductively successful. Nelson found that females assessed both
spawning site and male characteristics: they preferred the larger of
interacting males, and males that produced larger-sized spawning
pits. Also, the larger and more dominant males more often held
territories in the more sheltered areas, which were favoured by all
males, and which seemed to lead to greater courtship success
(Turner 1986). This suggested that the position of the territory is
also important. Combined with a male's ability to maintain tenure
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arenas. These arenas consist of shallow circular pits excavated by
using the mouth as a bulldozer. Males defend these sites that are
used only for mating and brief oviposition, and are not used for
rearing offspring (Baerends & Baerends-van Roon 1950; Fryer & Iles
1972; Bruton & Boltt 1979). After fertilisation, the female
mouthbroods the eggs, larvae and fry at sites away from the arenas
(Fryer & Iles 1972). The fry are released at the swim-up stage when
the swim bladder develops and, for a period of time, if danger
threatens, they swim back into the bucca
(or perception of individual's high status by neighbours that reduce
likelihood of incursions), that features associated with the
spawning site such as weeds or rocks - and the form of the pit - may
be attractive by providing protection from egg-stealing intruders.
If the conspecific is a female showing the right colour-pattern and
behaviour (normal swimming without threat displays) the resident
male will lead the female to the spawning pit where courthship
displays may occur or directly to spawning. The female lays a batch
of eggs in the pit and immediately turns to pick them up. The male
swims over the same ground, emitting sperm, while the female
effects fertilisation in the mouth by snapping at the milt cloud
(Baerends and Baerends-van Roon 1950; Trewevas 1983).
The aggressive and reproductive behaviour of adult males was
analysed and was, initially, found to be strongly influenced by the
fishes' relative sizes. Towards the end of the study period, true size
became less important in affecting such behaviour than the initial
size, suggesting that there was a persistent effect of previous
interactions. The initial and final sizes of males were found to be
negatively correlated, suggesting that one cost of territorial
reproductive behaviour is reduced growth.
Factors Influencing Reproductive Behaviour:
Sound
Acoustic emissions in this species may play a role in advertising the
presence and spawning readiness of males and in synchronising
male-female gamete release (Amorim et al. 2003, Amorim &
Almada 2005). In the initial phase of establishing male hierarchies,
only territorial males produce sounds. These occur during male-
male agonistic interactions and pit-related activities such as
digging and hovering, and at all phases of courtship, especially
during the later stages, including spawning. Winners of male
contests make more courtship sounds than losers and the sounds
are of longer pulse duration and lower peak frequencies than those
made by losers (Amorim et al. 2003).
Lanzing (1974) found that sounds are produced by stridulation of
the pharyngeal teeth achieved by contraction of mandibular and
sonic musculature associated with the swim bladder. Dominant
males have much heavier jaw muscles than do subordinates as well
as higher androgen levels (Oliveira 1995 in Amorim & Almada
2005). The difference in sounds produced by dominant males may
be related to greater mass of jaw musculature, in turn related to
their higher levels of androgens, or to the transient effects of
elevated hormone levels on muscle contraction in the jaws of
dominant male winners compared to losers. These sounds
therefore may signal successful recent social experience of males,
and to increase mate attraction and influence mate choice (Amorim
et al. 2003; Amorim & Almada 2005).
 Reproduction & Ecological Tolerances
Temperature
The major regulating factor in gonadal development in tilapias, as
in other warmwater fishes, appears to be temperature. During the
colder months, spermatogenesis in males may be slowed down and
vitellogenesis in females completely inhibited, ie., the spawning
threshold appears more to be related to temperature effects on
gonad development in females than in males (Dadzie 1969; Moreau
1982; Jalabert and Zohar 1982). During cold periods in marginal
environments, vitellogenesis may be completely inhibited in female
tilapia, and all yolk-laden oocytes disappear from the ovaries. In
males, however, spermatogenesis, although greatly retarded, may
be continuous with all development stages present in the testis.
Subasinghe (1986) reported a lower thermal tolerance limit for
zygote development in laboratory populations of O. mossambicus
of between 17 and 20°C with less than 60% development at 20°C,
although the optimal temperature range (>90%) development
occurred between 24°C and 34.5°C. Gender difference in gonadal
maturation may be related to the species' lekk breeding system,
especially in aseasonal populations when mature males change to
breeding colours and aggregate in shallow margins to establish
courtship display territories prior to females reaching spawning
condition.
Also, as tilapias are multiple spawners, the number of spawnings is
dependent on temperature and therefore on latitude and altitude
(Philippart and Ruwet 1982). In higher latitudes and altitudes, the
spawning season is restricted to 3 to 5 months ie. between 2 to 5
spawning cycles (Hodgkiss & Man 1978; James & Bruton 1992),
while in tropical and equatorial areas spawning may be continuous,
or close to it, throughout the year (Philippart and Ruwet 1982).
Ecological studies on populations of Oreochromis spp distributed
over latitudes from about 33N to south of the equator show a
change from seasonal to aseasonal breeding with decreasing
latitude. The transition to seasonal breeding occurs approx.
between latitudes 8° and 18° north and south of the equator. The
breeding season is influenced by regional differences in climate,
being extended for as long as water temperature is favourable.
The temperature threshold for spawning has been identified for
several species of tilapia as occurring between 18° and 24°C
(Cridland 1962; Miranova 1978; Terkatin-Shimony et al. 1980;
Moreau 1982; Philippart and Ruwet 1982; Arthington and Milton
1986) and within a narrow band 1-2 degrees Celsius for individual
species. James & Bruton (1992) reported that the spawning season
(start of maturation) of O. mossambicus in Eastern Cape, South
Africa usually commenced when minimum water temperatures
exceeded 18C. In south eastern Queensland (approx. 27° S. lat.)
Arthington & Milton (1986) reported a temperature threshold for
spawning in O. mossambicus of 23°-24°C and a spawning season
over 5-6 months. In tropical northern Queensland (Townsville: 19°
S. lat.), Webb (1994) found a similar spawning threshold (23°C) for
O. mossambicus but the species was almost an aseasonal spawner
(9-10 months), with peak spawning over a period of about four to
five months. Based on average surface water temperature data,
Webb noted that a relatively small average increase in water
temperatures (<1.5°C), similar to those found for shallow waters
northward from Cairns (16.5° S lat.) could result in average surface
water temperatures in the Townsville region being above 23°C in
all months and probably allow continuous breeding.
Ecological tolerances
O. mossambicus is a remarkably hardy species and its success in
exploiting new and diverse habitats has been attributed, in part, to
its tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions.
Hybridisation of oreochromid tilapias has produced strains with
enhanced growth characteristics and environmental tolerances
including to low temperature, overcrowding stress and pathogens
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(Wohlfarth et al. 1983; Behrends et al. 1990; Cnaani et al. 2000; Cai
et al. 2004).
Temperature
O. mossambicus is a warmwater, stenothermal species: though
potential habitat it can occupy is restricted only by a limited
tolerance of low temperature (Hickling 1963). Lower lethal
temperatures between 8 and 15°C have been reported (Smit et al.
1981; Philippart & Ruwet 1982). The species has a thermal ‘zone of
tolerance' between 15° and 37°C, and a limited tolerance of
temperatures between 39 and 40°C, with lethal temperatures at 41-
42°C (Philippart & Ruwet 1982; Stauffer 1986).
Studies have shown that O. mossambicus and other tilapiine
cichlids can tolerate lower temperatures in saline than in fresh
water (Allanson et al. 1971; Chervinski and Lahar 1976) and occur
more frequently in estuaries than in fresh water towards the limit of
their range (Knaggs 1977; Whitfield and Blaber 1979). In eastern
Africa, the Pangola River (27° S lat.) is the southern limit of the
species in fresh water. However, the species has extended its range
by inhabiting estuaries and coastal lagoons as far south as Port
Elizabeth, Algoa Bay, in Cape Province, South Africa (33° 50' S
lat.) (Whitfield & Blaber 1979). The known southern limit of the
species in Queensland is around Brisbane (27° 26' S lat.) similar to
the species' limit in southern Africa. In comparison with its range
extension in southern Africa, in saline waters, O. mossambicus may
be able to survive in estuaries as far south as Sydney, NSW (33° 53'
S lat.).
While its ecological attributes are unknown, the northern
Queensland hybrid O. mossambicus has genes from O. niloticus
and O. aureus (Mather and Arthington 1991). O. niloticus hybrid
strains were developed to produce fish with superior growth
characteristics and appearance (colour) (Bentsen et al. 1998;
Garduno-Lugo et al. 2003), while O. aureus is used to produce
cold-tolerant strains of tilapia, including O. mossambicus hybrids
(Behrends and Smitherman 1984; Cnaani et al.2000).
Salinity
The species is euryhaline and can live in fresh or brackish water
(Watanabe et al. 1985 & 1989; Jamil et al. 2004; Kamal et al.2005)
and can survive in normal seawater (Lobel 1980) as well as
hypersaline conditions (Potts et al.1967; Popper & Lichatowich 1975;
Stickney 1986). Whitfield and Blaber (1979) reported the species
survives in St Lucia Lake, an open estuarine-lake system in south-
eastern Africa, where it can tolerate gradual changes ranging from
0 to 120 ppt (see also Potts et al. 1967; Assem & Hanke 1979). O.
mossambicus adults and juveniles can also survive direct transfer to
20 ppt (Hwang 1987), but not to 30ppt without an acclimation
period at 20ppt. Lin et al. (2001) found that O. mossambicus fry
could also survive direct transfer from 32ppt to fresh water.
Spawning of O. mossambicus has been reported in salinities
ranging from 0-49 ppt (see Stickney 1986) and Uchida and King
(1962) indicated that fry production was three times higher in slight
saline (brackish) waters of 10ppt than in fresh water. O.
mossambicus also shows enhanced growth in brackish water
conditions compared with high or very low salinities and in fresh
water (Uchida and King 1962; Canagaratnam 1966; Bashamohideen &
Parvatheswararao 1972) and may be physiologically related to O.
mossambicus also shows enhanced growth in brackish water
conditions compared with high or very low salinities and in fresh
water (Uchida and King 1962; Canagaratnam 1966; Bashamohideen &
 Ecological Tolerances & Ecological Impacts
Parvatheswararao 1972) and may be physiologically related to
osmoregulatory function at these salinities (Canagaratnam 1966).
A number of studies have also demonstrated that O. mossambicus
hybrids (as well as other tilapiine hybrids) exhibit enhanced salinity
tolerance, growth and reproductive performance across a range of
experimental salinities compared with parental stock (see Stickney
1986; Watanabe et al. 1985; Watanabe et al. 1989; Kamal et al.
2005).
pH
The species can also tolerate extremes of acidity and alkalinity, with
pH values ranging between 3.7 and 10.3 (Krishna Murthy et al. 1981;
Bhaskar and Govindappa 1985a, 1985b,19 86a & 1986b; van Ginneken et al.
1997; Leghari et al. 2004). Swingle (1961) reported for O.
mossambicus an alkaline lethal limit of pH 11 and Krishna Murthy
et al. (1984) and acidic lethal limit of pH 3.4.
Pollution
Studies have demonstrated that O. mossambicus has a remarkable
tolerance for organically polluted waters (e.g. Gaigher & Krause 1983;
Wrigley 1988; Kumta et al. 1998; Noorjahan et al. 2003); and those
contaminated by inorganic pollution (e.g. Huang Yuyao et al. 1989;
Panigrahi & Konar 1992; Subramanian & Manickavasakam 1993; Chen et
al. 2001; Nanda et al. 2002; Somanath 2003).
Nitrogen/ammonia
O. mossambicus can tolerate levels of nitrogen or ammonia that
can inhibit growth or be lethal to many Australian native fishes.
Sampath et al. (1991) reported 100% survival of O. mossambicus at
14 mg N/L while LC50 for 96hr exposure was 32 mg/ nL. The
species also tolerates ammonia stress up to 3 mg/NL without
significant reduction in food intake or growth. This contrasts with
hyper-tolerant species e.g. the snakehead, Channa striata, which
can survive in ammonia concentrations between 10.7 and 52 mg/l
(Murugesan & Parameswaran 1977; Sampath 1985) and the
majority of more sensitive species, such as salmonids which can
only tolerate low ammonia levels (0.5 mg/l) (Larmoyeux & Puiper
1973; Liao & Mayo 1974). Pearson et al. (2003) detected sublethal
effects for fingerling barramundi and snails (Physa sp.) at quite low
concentrations of NH3. Feeding of barramundi was suppressed for
several days following exposure to 0.08-0.19 mg N/L NH3. Snails
exhibited avoidance behaviour (emergence from water) when
exposed to 0.19 mg N/L NH3. Changes in colour and swimming
activity of fingerling barramundi were evident at 0.37-0.52 mg N/L
NH3. Lethal effects on fingerling barramundi and small size
classes of rainbowfish were observed at 0.56-0.75 mg N/L of NH3.
Medium and large size classes of rainbowfish exhibited sublethal
effects (increased swimming activity, aquatic surface respiration) at
0.57-0.75 mg N/L of NH3, but did not experience mortality until
exposed to 0.97-1.08 mg N/L of NH3.
Hypoxia (low dissolved Oxygen) and desiccation
O. mossambicus can tolerate low dissolved oxygen concentrations
of 0.1ppm for short periods (Maruyama 1958). Studies by
Rappaport et al. (1976) found that growth in tilapia was reduced
below 25% oxyegen saturation and mortality occurred when oxygen
remains below 20% saturation for more than 2 to 3 days. At low
oxygen concentrations, tilapia can use aquatic surface respiration
(i.e. irrigating the gills with the surface layer of water where oxygen
exchange with the atmosphere occurs) (Senguttuvan & Sivakumar
2002) if access is not restricted e.g., by floating vegetation (Stickney
et al. 1977). There have been reports of the species surviving in
small muddy pools for several days with little ill effect (Chervinski
1982). Bakthavathsalam (1988, 2003) found that O. mossambicus, is
a facultative air-breather and, depending on air temperature, can
survive complete air exposure for several hours. Donnelly (1978)
>6<
even reported long term survival of the species buried in a layer of
moist sand in a ‘dry' river bed!
Ecological impacts
Interference competition
Studies have demonstrated that overcrowding by exotic fishes,
including tilapias, can have debilitating effects on native species
(Cahoon 1953; Noble et al. 1975; Forester and Lawrence 1978;
Taylor et al. 1984). Significant decreases in the size of native fishes
caught and overall contribution to fish production in several lakes
and reservoirs in India and Sri Lanka were reported following the
introduction of O. mossambicus (Natarajan 1971; de Silva 1988;
Bhagat and Dwivedi 1988). In these studies, the species (or other
introduced tilapias) eventually dominated communities, in some
cases, up to 99% of the fish population. However, while declines
were attributed to the introductions, they were not investigated to
determine their cause.
Both male and female O. mossambicus are territorial and
aggressive during the spawning season. Morgan et al. (2004)
reported that large O. mossambicus males in the Gascoyne River,
Western Australia, excluded native species from large stretches of
the river. They suggested that such exclusion "must have a serious
deleterious effect on the native fishes" (p.521) especially in dry
conditions when rivers are reduced to disconnected, small pools,
although they did not quantify these effects. A study by Fuselier
(2001) demonstrated that O. mossambicus, following introduction
into lakes in Mexico, caused major declines in populations of
endemic pupfishes. The presence of O. mossambicus caused a
displacement of these fishes into marginal habitats resulting in
increased agonistic interactions among pupfish species, limiting
their access to food resources and therefore experiencing sub-
optimal conditions for survivorship. Fuselier warned that these
pupfish flock species may be threatened with extinction where
habitat displacement by O. mossambicus could result in a
breakdown of premating segregation mechanisms of sympatrics
followed by genetic introgression and loss of rare phenotypes.
Grazing and habitat impacts
Lahser (1967) reported that O. mossambicus killed aquatic
macrophytes while feeding on periphyton such as diatoms,
filamentous algae and cyanobacteria. Leaves, stems and roots were
scraped or rasped to shreds; the plants were killed and consumed
secondarily. Field observations by Lahser showed that O.
mossambicus eliminated several species of submerged and
emergent macrophytes, either by grazing or by uprooting plants.
Lahser also observed increased turbidity in shallower margins due
to the activity of male fish clearing areas for courtship display pits
that subsequently resulted in further loss of photosynthetic
production. Cooper and Harrison (1992) suggested that under
certain circumstances, for example, where there are very large
populations of fish present, pit excavations by adult male O.
mossambicus could also significantly change natural erosion
patterns, increasing bank instability and loss of marginal
vegetation, which in turn can locally influence the allochthonous
energy budget (nutrient inputs) of a waterbody and loss of
important habitat for native species.
 Ecological Impacts
Predation
There are few reports that document the extent of impacts of
predation by O. mossambicus on other fish populations. Fuselier
(2001) reported O. mossambicus feeding directly on fish eggs and
small endemic pupfish fish in a natural lake, contributing to
population declines. Aravindan (1980) also reported that O.
mossambicus, in open riverine waters, supplemented its diet with
fish eggs and small fry. Arthington and Blühdorn (1994) referred to
unpublished observations by Arthington and Milton that analysis
of fish diets from sub-tropical impoundments provided evidence
that O. mossambicus consumes small forage fish (rainbowfish and
gudgeons) and that consumption of such fish and aquatic
invertebrates may be higher in waterbodies with low primary
productivity.
An experimental study by Dickman and Nanne (1987) indicated
that tilapia hybrids (Oreochromis (Sarotherodon) mossambicus x
hornorum), similar to those that occur in the Cairns region,
northern Queensland, at high densities, negatively impacted on
water quality of culture ponds by predation on zooplankton.
Cyanobacterial blooms occurred due to loss of grazing pressure on
primary consumers (copepods), resulting in night-time oxygen
concentrations dropping close to zero percent saturation. It was
subsequently observed that, in the early morning, stressed fish
approached the surface to breathe, where dissolved oxygen
concentration in the water was highest. All fish in the ponds then
became vulnerable to predation by piscivorous birds.
Diana et al. (1996) found that another oreochromid, Oreochromis
niloticus, significantly reduced zooplankton in ‘eutrophic’ culture
ponds, although this inhibition did not cascade down to lower
levels (i.e. primary production). It was suggested that the main
effect (zooplankton reduction) was due largely to resource
limitation in small ponds rather than effects caused by fish. Studies
using other fish species in larger oligotrophic and mesotrophic
lakes found similar results (Scavia et al. 1986; McQueen et al. 1986;
Vanni 1987; Mazumder et al. 1988). A study by Starling et al. (2002)
found that large populations of two introduced tilapiine cichlids,
Tilapia rendalli and Oreochromis niloticus, significantly
contributed to cyanobacterial blooms in a Brazilian reservoir,
where cyanobacterial growth was due to enhanced phosphorus
loading in the water through fish excretion, rather than reduction
in zooplankton inhibition. The eutrophic conditions resulted in
hypoxia caused by cyanobacterial respiration that was followed by
massive fish kills in the reservoir. These studies demonstrate that
changes in trophic structure of local communities following
introductions of tilapiine cichlids, including Oreochromis
mossambicus, can be complex and not always predictable.
Competition for food
Few studies have examined whether changes in food resources
following introduction of tilapias have significantly impacted
directly on survivorship of native herbivorous, zooplankitovorous
or even piscivorous species, including different life stages (fry,
juveniles and adults). Fuselier (2001) noted that aggressive
displacement and decline of endemic lake pupfish by O.
mossambicus was partly due to prevention of access of pupfish to
normal food resources. Sreenivasan (1967) and Ranoemihardjo
(1981) reported that O. mossambicus inhibited growth of milkfish
in culture ponds due to competition for food, while Jhingran (1992)
reported that native Mugil spp. in Indian reservoirs were displaced
by O. mossambicus and carps through competition for food.
Displacement through competition for food of native fishes
following introduction of tilapias have been reported in Indonesian
(Hardjamulia and Wardogo 1991) and Mexican lakes (Juarez-
Palacios and Olmos-Tomassini 1991).
A number of studies, mainly of adult fishes, have shown dietary
overlap between O. mossambicus and other fish species occurring
>7<
in its introduced range (Blühdorn et al. 1990; Webb 1994 & 2007;
Mol and Van Der Lugt 1996; Morgan et al. 2004) although usually
with few species and with significant overlap. Guerrero (1999)
reported no overlap in diet between introduced tilapias (O.
mossambicus and O. niloticus) and endemic fishes in some
Philippine lakes and reservoirs. Piet and Guruge (1997) reported
dietary overlaps between introduced O. mossambicus and O.
niloticus and among these species and eight indigenous species in a
shallow Sri Lankan reservoir. However, they noted that temporal
resource partitioning occurred during feeding, while spatial
partitioning occurred during non-feeding to avoid interference
competition or predation. Blühdorn et al. (1990) reported resource
partitioning between O. mossambicus and a plotosid catfish
(Tandanus tandanus) and Spangled perch (Leiopotherapon
unicolor) in North Pine Dam, Queensland, even with changes in
water levels affecting food resources and their availability. Morgan
et al. (2004) suggested that there was little overlap in diet between
O. mossambicus and native fishes in the Pilbara region, Western
Australia, and that there was unlikely to be little competition for
food except with one native species (Craterocephalus cuneiceps)
that had a similar diet to O. mossambicus: primarily benthic
detritus/biofilm, but also aquatic insects. Webb (1994) found an
overlap in diet of O. mossambicus with Bony bream in the Ross
River weirs and Ross Dam, Townsville. Both species are essential
herbivores or benthic feeding detritivores.
Disease
Introduced fish species are known to be important vectors of
disease agents such as viruses, bacteria and fungi as well as
metazoan parasites (Langdon 1990). In Australia: Carp, Redfin
perch, Goldfish and salmonids have been responsible for the
introduction of several pathogens, some of which have adversely
impacted native fishes, or have been detected in quarantine
(Ashburner 1976, Langdon 1987, 1988, 1989). Disturbingly, Evans
and Lester (2001) found that fish parasites are continuing to enter
Australia. They reported 10 metazoan parasites, including non
host-specific species, on imported non-native fishes - even after a
period of quarantine. These parasites included specialist and
generalist parasites known to cause serious pathology, notably the
cestode, Bothriocephalus achielognathi and the nematode,
Camallanus cotti, already transmitted to native fishes as they are
non-specific for their intermediate hosts (copepods).
There are several reviews of diseases of tilapias, mainly those in
aquaculture (Paperna 1974 & 1980; Roberts and Sommerville 1982,
Paperna et al.1983; Michel 1989). The only known parasite infecting
native fishes attributable to the introduction of O. mossambicus is
the ciliate protist, Trichodina heterodentata (Dove 1999; Dove and
O'Donoghue 2005). Although the impact on native fishes has not
been documented, trichodinids are known to cause serious injury
and death, usually where fish are stressed or there are high host
densities, as in culture conditions (Lentinen et al. 1984; Barker et
al. 2002; Khan 1991). Webb (2003) reported the introduced cestode,
B. achielognathi, from O. mossambicus and the Guppy, Poecilia
reticulata, from a single location near Cairns. This parasite was
introduced into Australia on Carp (Dove et al.1997), but Guppies
and other poeciliids are also known as vectors (Font and Tate
1994; Font 1997a,b). This is the first report of B. acheilognathi
from O. mossambicus and its first
 Ecological Impacts, Glossary & References

reported occurrence in northern Queensland. This is of particular
interest as this parasite has been responsible for mass fish kills in
Australia (Dove 1999) and overseas in other parts of the introduced
range of cyprinids (e.g.Granath and Esch 1983; Font and Tate
1994; Heckmann 2000). Further research is needed to determine
the distribution of this parasite and the host-parasite relationship
with O. mossambicus (or T. mariae) (i.e., tilapiine hosts as vectors
of the parasite to native fishes in northern Queensland, or the
pathological effect of the parasite on tilapiine hosts). Rocke et al.
(2005) reported major die-offs of pelicans on the Salton Sea, USA,
due to botulism. These researchers suggested that pelicans were
infected after feeding on tilapia which were carriers of the botulism
pathogen, Clostridium botulinum .

Glossary
Allochthonous Organic matter originating from outside the community (eg. Oligotrophic A lake or waterbody which is poor in dissolved nutrients and
from terrestrial / riparian vegetation) usually rich in dissovled oxygen, and contain little aquatic plant
Anal (Fin) beneath the body, behind anal opening or animal life
Benthic Related to the bottom of waterbody Ontogenetic Pertaining to the origin or development of an organism from
Buccal Related to the cheeks or cavity of the mouth embryo to adult
Cannibalism Predation of an animal by a member of its own species Opercular Situated near or related to the gill cover
Caudal Towards the tail. Osmoregulator Control of the water and electrocyte balance in the body
Concave Hollowed out, curving inward like the inside of a spoon y
Dichromatism Sexual differences in colour Oviposition To lay eggs, by means of an ovipositor (a tubular structure)
Dimorphism Sexual differences in size Pharyngeal Related to or coming from the pharynx: the part of the neck and
Dorsal Situated near to or on the back throat situated immediately posterior to the mouth and nasal
Endemic Native to or confined to a certain region cavity
Euryhaline Fish that live in a wide range of salinities, opposite to Phenotypes The observable characteristics of an individual
stenohaline Piscvorous Fish-eating or fish-egg-eating
Fry Newly hatched or born fish Polygynous Multiple partner
Gonad The sex gland that make sex cells. These are ovaries in the Premaxilla A pair of small cranial bones at the very tip of the jaws of many
female and testes in the male. animals, usually bearing teeth, but not always.
Gonadosomati GSI = (testis weight / body weight)x100 Spermatogene Formation and development of spermatozoa (the mature sperm
c indexes sis cell) by meiosis and spermiogenesis
Herbivorous Plant eating Stenothermal It can tolerate a limited range of temperatures, opposite to
Hypoxia An inadequate supply of oxygen to the tissues. eurythermal
Introgression Movement of a new gene into a population Stridulation To produce a shrill grating, chirping or hissing sound by
Lateral Situated at or extending to the side rubbing body parts together.
Littoral A coastal region, shore, the zone between the limits of high and Stunting Fish whose growth is severely hampered by environmental
low tides, lake margins. Equates to approximately the euphotic factors such as overpopulation
zone: the depth range at the margins where photosynthesis can Sympatrics Sympatry is one of four theoretical models for the phenomenon
occur. of speciation.
Macrophagy Feeding on large particulate matter Transient Passing with time, transitory
Mandible The lower jaw Vitellogenesis Yolk deposition, or the process of nutrients being deposited in
Mesotrophic A lake or waterbody of moderate photosynthetic productivity oocytes: a female germ cell involved in reproduction
Oocytes A female germ cell involved in reproduction Zygote A fertilised egg before cell division begins

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Created by A. Webb and M. Maughan

© ACTFR, James Cook University, 2007
For further information please contact TropWATER@jcu.edu.au, tel: 07 4781 4262

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Other information sheets available:

Spotted tilapia – Tilapia mariae Guppy – Poecilia reticulates

Oscar – Astronotus ocellatus Swordtail – Xiphophorus helleri
Burton’s haplochromis – Haplochromis burtoni Platy – Xiphophorus maculates
Mosquitofish – Gambusia holbrooki Three-spotted gourami – Thrichogaster trichopterus

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