Control 4 DR - Ghanem

‫ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻌﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ‬

‫ﺃ‪.‬ﻡ‪.‬ﺩ‪ .‬ﻏﺎﻧﻢ ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻝ‬
‫‪Save from: http://www.uotechnology.edu.iq/dep-chem-eng/index.htm‬‬

Introduction to process control
Temp.
indicator
Hot water
Water
Heater
Steam
Cold water
Figure (1) Open loop system
Figure (2) Manual Control system
Figure (3) Automatic Control system (Closed Loop)
Process Control /Lec. 1 1

Fourth Class
Control System Objectives
o Economic Incentive
o Safety
o Equipment Protection
o Reduce variability
o Increase efficiency
o Ensure the stability of a process
o Elimination of routine
Definitions:
System: it is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain

objective.
Plant: it is the machine of which a particular quantity or condition is to be controlled.
Process: is defined as the changing or refining of raw materials that pass through or
remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry state to create end products.
Control: in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process.
Precise control of level, pH, oxygen, foam, nutrient, temperature, pressure and flow is
important in many process applications.
Sensor: a measuring instrument, the most common measurements are of flow (F),
temperature (T), pressure (P), level (L), pH and composition (A, for analyzer).The
sensor will detect the value of the measured variable as a function of time.
Set point: The value at which the controlled parameter is to be maintained.
Controller: A device which receives a measurement of the process variable,

compares with a set point representing the desired control point, and adjusts its output
to minimize the error between the measurement and the set point.
Error Signal: The signal resulting from the difference between the set point
reference signal and the process variable feedback signal in a controller.
Feedback Control: A type of control whereby the controller receives a feedback

signal representing the condition of the controlled process variable, compares it to the
set point, and adjusts the controller output accordingly.
Steady-State: The condition when all process properties are constant with time,
transient responses having died out.
Transmitter: A device that converts a process measurement (pressure, flow, level,

temperature, etc.) into an electrical or pneumatic signal suitable for use by an
indicating or control system.
Fourth Class
Controlled variable: process output which is to be maintained at a desired value by
adjustment of a process input.
Manipulated variable: process input which is adjusted to maintain the controlled

output at set point.
Disturbance: a process input (other than the manipulated parameter) which affects
the controlled parameter.
Process Time Constant(  ): Amount of time counted from the moment the variable
starts to respond that it takes the process variable to reach 63.2% of its total change.
Block diagram: it is relationship between the input and the output of the system.It is
easier to visualize the control system in terms of a block diagram.
X(s) Y(s) Transfer function

Input G(s) Output
Block diagram
Transfer Function: it is the ratio of the Laplace transform of output ( response

function) to the Laplace transform of the input ( driving force) under assumption that
all initial conditions are zero unless that given another value.
e.g. the transfer function of the above block diagram is G (s) = Y(s)/X(s)
Closed-loop control system: it is a feedback control system which the output signals
has a direct effect upon the control action.
Heater
(Heating)
Temperature
Final control element
Transmitter
(Thermocouple)
Advantage: more accurate than the open-loop control system.

Disadvantages: (1) Complex and expensive
(2) The stability is the major problem in closed-loop control system

Fourth Class
Open-loop control system: it is a control system in which the output has no effect
upon the control action. (The output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison
with the input).
(Timer) Motor
Advantages:
(1) Simple construction and ease of maintenance.
(2) Less expensive than closed-loop control system.
(3) There is no stability problem.
Disadvantages:
(1) Disturbance and change in calibration cause errors; and output may be
different from what is desired.
(2) To maintain the required quality in the output, recalibration is necessary
from time to time
Note: any control system which operates on a time basis is open-loop control system,
e.g. washing machine, traffic light …etc.

Fourth Class
Part 1 Laplace Transforms
Revision of Laplace Transforms
1. The Laplace transforms

1.1 The definition of the laplace Transforms
The laplace transform of a dunction f(t) is defined to the f(s) according to the
equation:

F ( s )  L[ f (t )]   f (t )e  st dt
0
Example:Find the Laplace Transform f (t )  1

s r
 st
r e
Solution: F ( s )  L[1]  lim  1.e  st dt  lim 
1

r  0 r  s s
s 0
Example:Find the Laplace Transform f (t )  e at

s 

dt   e
( s  a ) t 1
Solution: F ( s )  L[e ]   e
at ( s  a )t

0 s  a s 0 s  a
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of sin(wt ) & g (t )  cos(wt )

Solution: Again, from Example 3 and Theorem above
 e iwt  e  iwt  1  1 1  w
L[sin( wt )]  L      
 2i  s  iw s  iw  s  w
2 2
 2i
s
Similarly, L[cos(wt )] 
s  w2
2
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of

f (t )  cosh(wt ) & g (t )  sinh(wt )
Solution: From Example 2 and Theorem above,
 e wt  e  wt  1 1 1 1 s
L[cosh( wt )]  L    2 sw 2 sw  2
 2  s  b2
w
Similarly, L[sinh(wt )] 
s  w2
2

FourthClass
1.2 Shifting Theroem
L[ f (t )e  at ]  F ( s  a )
.
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  e at cos(bt )

s sa
Solution: Since L[cos bt ]  , then L[ e at
cos bt ] 
s2  b2 (s  a) 2  b 2
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  te 2t
1
Solution: L[te 2t ] 
( s  2) 2
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  sin(3t ).e 5t
3
Solution: L[sin(3t ).e 5t ] 
( s  5) 2  9
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  cos( 2t ).e t
( s  1)
Solution: L[cos(2t ).e t ] 
( s  1) 2  4
1.3 Laplace Transform of the Derivative

df (t )
L[ ]  sf ( s )  f (0)
dt
d 2 f (t )
L[ 2
]  s 2 f ( s )  f (0)  f (0)
dt
d3 f (t )
L[ 3
]  s 3 f ( s )  s 2 f ( 0 )  sf ( 0 )  f ' ' ( 0 )
dt
d n f (t )
L[ n
(t )]  s n f ( s )  s n1 f (0)  s n 2 f (0)  ...  f ( n1) (0)
dt .

FourthClass
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of the function x(t ) which satisfy the
following differential equation and initial condition:-
d 3x d 2x dx dx (0) d 2 x(0)
 4 2  5  2x  2 x ( 0)   0
dt 3 dt dt dt dt 2
Solution: By taken the laplace transform for both sides of the equation
2
[ s 3 x( s )  s 2 x(0)  sx(0)  x" (0)]  4[ s 2 x( s )  sx(0)  x(0)]  5[ sx( s )  x(0)]  2 x( s ) 
s
2
s 3 x( s )  4 s 2 x( s )  5sx( s )  2 x( s ) 
s
2
x( s )[ s 3  4 s 2  5s  2] 
s
2
x( s) 
s ( s  4 s 2  5 s  2)
3
1.4 Laplace Transform of the integrs

t
F (s)
L  f (t )dt 
0
s
Example: Find x(s ) for the following equation
t
dx
L  L[  x (t )dt  t ] x ( 0)  3 .
dt 0
Solution:
x( s) 1
sx( s )  x(0)   2
s s
x( s) 1
sx( s )  3   2
s s
s 3 x ( s )  sx ( s )  3s 2  1
s 3 (1  s ) x ( s )  3s 2  1
3s 2  1 2
x( s )  s  1  ( s  1 )( s  1 )
s ( s 2  1)

FourthClass
Example: Find the Laplace transform of
0 t0
1

f (t )  0 t  h
h
0 th
0 h Time
As inabovefigure,it is clear that f(t) may be represented by the difference of two

functions.
f ( t )  u( t )  u( t  h )
1
h
Whereu(t - h) is the unit-step function translated h units to the right. We may nowuse
the linearity of the transform and the previous theorem to write immediately
1 1  e hs
f(s)
h s
This result is of considerable value in establishing the transform of the unit-impulse
function.
Solved problems
1.Use Definition to determine the Laplace transform of the given function
2
(a) L{t 2 } 
s3
  N
t 1 1
(b) L{te }   e te dt   te
3t  st 3t (3 s ) t
dt  lim (
N  3  s
 )e (3 s )t 
0 0
(3  s ) 2 0
( s  3) 2
s
e 1 1
(c) L{ f (t )}  2
  2
s s s
3  1  e3( s  2) e 3 s
(d) L{ f (t )}  0 e e dt  3 st 2 t  st
e dt  
s2 s
2. Use Table of Laplace Transform to determine

1 5 12
(a) L{5  e2t  6t 2 }    3
s2 s s
2 3 6
(b) L{t 2  3t  2et sin 3t}  3  2 
s s ( s  1) 2  9
s2 2
(c) L{e 2t cos 3t  t 2 e2t }  
( s  2)  3 ( s  2)3
2

FourthClass
A Short List of Important Laplace Tranforms
f (t ), t  0 F(s) Domain F(s)
1 1 1 s0
s
2 t 1 s0
s2
3 tn n! s0
n  0 integer
s n1
4 eat 1 sa
sa
5 cosh bt s sb
s 2  b2
6 sinh bt b sb
s  b2
2
7 cos bt s
s  b2
2 s0
8 sin bt b s0
s  b2
2
9 e at cos bt sa sa

( s  a )2  b 2
10 e at sin bt b sa
( s  a) 2  b 2

FourthClass
1.5 Inverse of Laplace Transform
Inversion by partial fraction
The inverse of the laplace could be obtained from tables for simple functions but for
more complicated function partial fraction is needed
L1 f ( s )  f (t )
1- Partial fraction
Example:
A o 1
 
( s  a)( s  b) ( s  a) ( s  b)
A   o ( s  b)   1 ( s  a )
o  ?
1  ?
Example:
A o 1 2
  
( s  a )( s  b) 2 ( s  a ) ( s  b) ( s  b) 2
Example:
A o  s  2
  12
( s  w )( s  a ) ( s  a ) ( s  w 2 )
2 2
Example: Solve the IVP y   y  t , y (0)  1, y (0)  1.

Solution:
1
Step 1:Take Laplace Transform: ( s 2Y ( s)  s  1)  Y ( s)  (subsidiary equation)
s2
1
s 1
s2  s  s 1  A  B  C  D
3 2
Step 2:Solve for Y (s )  Y ( s ) 
s2 1 s 2 ( s  1)( s  1) s 2 s s  1 s  1
s3  s2  1 s3  s2  1 3
Then: A   1 , C 2  ,
( s  1 )( s  1 ) s 0 s ( s  1 ) s 1 2
s3  s 2  1 1
D   and lastly, to find B, substitute s  2, we get
s 2 ( s  1) s  1
2
13 1 B 3 1
     and obtain B  0.
12 4 2 2 6

FourthClass
3

1
1
Step 3: Solve for y (t ) : Y ( s )    2
 2
s2 s 1 s 1
y (t )  L1[Y ( s )]  t  32 e t  12 e t
Example:
d 3x
1 d 2 x dx
Find L [ 3  2 2   2 x  4  e 2t ]
dt dt dt
where
x( 0 )  1 , x' ( 0 )  0 , x' ' ( 0 )  1
Solution:
[ s 3 x( s )  s 2 x( 0 )  sx' ( 0 )  x' ' ( 0 )]  2 [ s 2 x( s )  sx( 0 )  x' ( 0 )]  [ sx( s )  x( 0 )]  2 x( s )
4 1
 
s (s  2)
4 1
[ s 3 x ( s )  2 s 2 x( s )  sx ( s )  2 x ( s )]  s 2  1  2 s  1  
s ( s  2)
4 1
[ s 3  2 s 2  s  2] x ( s )    s 2  2s  2
s ( s  2)
1 4( s  2)  s  ( s 2  2 s  2)( s )( s  2)
x( s)  3 
( s  2 s 2  s  2) s ( s  2)
s 4  6s 2  9s  8
x( s ) 
s( s  2 )( s  1 )( s  2 )( s  1 )
 1 2 3 4
x( s )  o    
s ( s  2 ) ( s  1) ( s  2 ) ( s  1)
s 4  6 s 2  9 s  8   o ( s  2 )( s  1 )( s  2 )( s  1 )  1 s( s  1 )( s  2 )( s  1 )
  2 s( s  2 )( s  2 )( s  1 )   3 s( s  2 )( s  1 )( s  1 )   4 s( s  2 )( s  1 )( s  2 )
assume s=0
 8   o ( 2 )( 1 )( 2 )( 1 )
8
o   2
4
assume s = 2  1  1 / 12
assume s = -1   2  11 / 3
assume s = -2   3  17 / 12
assume s = 1   4  2 / 3

FourthClass
 2 1 / 12 11 / 3 17 / 12 2 / 3
x( s )     
s s  2 s 1 s  2 s 1
1 2t 11 t 17 2t 2 t
x ( t )  2  e  e  e  e
12 3 12 3
1.6 Final Value Theorm

lim f ( t )  lim sf ( s )
t  s 0
1.7 Initial Value Theorm

t 0 s
Example:
Find the final value of the function x(t) for which the laplace inverse is:-
1
x( s ) 
s( s  3s 2  3s  1 )
3
s 1
lim x( t )  lim sx( s )  lim
t  s0 s 0 s( s 3  3s 2  3s  1 )
1
 lim 1
s 0 ( s 3  3s 2  3 s  1 )
1.8 Special Functions

1- Step function
0 t0 A
f (t ) 
A t0
.
A 0 Time
f(s)
s
If A=1 the change is called unit step change

0 t0
f (t ) 
1 t0
1
f(s)
s

FourthClass
Step function with Time Delay
0 ta
f (t )  
A ta A
A
f ( s )  e as
s 0 a Time
2. Pulse function
0 t0

f (t )   A 0 t  a A
0 ta

0 a Time
A A
f ( s )   e  as
s s
A
 (1  e as )
s
if A=1unit Pulse
3. Impulse function A Area=1
Unit Impulse Time
0 t0
 A
f ( t )   A 0  t  t
F(t) δt
0 t  t

f ( s )  area  A  t Time
4. Ramp function
0 t0
f (t )  f(t)
 At t0 Slope=A
A f(t)
f(s) 2
s Time

FourthClass
Ramp function with time delay
0 ta
f (t )  f(t)
 At t  a Slope=A
A f(t)
f ( s )  2 e as
s a Time
A _______T_______
5. Sine function
0 ta
f (t ) 
 A sin wt ta
A
f(s) -A
s 2  2
  2f
1
T
f
1.9 Disturbance function (complex function)
Slope=2
01 4 5 6 7 8
-2
2t 0  t 1
2 1 t  4

 2t 4t 5

f ( t )  0 5t 6
 2t 6t 7

2t 7t 8
0 t 8

f ( t )  2t  2( t  1 )  2( t  4 )  2( t  5 )  2( t  6 )  2  2( t  7 )  2( t  8 )
2 2 2 2 2 4 2
f ( s )  2  2 e  s  2 e 4 s  2 e 5 s  2 e 6 s  2 e 7 s  2 e 8 s
s s s s s s s

FourthClass
Example:
0 1 3 4 5
T
f ( t )  t  ( t  1 )  2( t  3 )  2( t  4 )  ( t  5 )
1 1 2 2 1
f ( s )  2  2 e  s  2 e 3 s  2 e 4 s  2 e 5 s
s s s s s
Example:
F(t)
Slope=b Slope=-b
0 a 2a
f ( t )  bt  2b( t  a )  b( t  2a )
b 2b b
f ( s )  2  2 e as  2 e 2 as
s s s
Example:
0.5
0 0.5 1.5 2 3 3.5
-.5
f ( t )  0.5  1( t  0.5 )  0.5( t  1.5 )  0.5( t  2 )  1( t  3 )  0.5( t  3.5 )
0.5 1 0.5 s 0.5 1.5 s 0.5 2 s 1 3s 0.5 3.5 s
f(s)  e  e  e  e  e
s s s s s s
FourthClass
Solved problems
1. Determine the inverse Laplace transform
 3  3 1  1  3 2 5t /2
(a) L1  3
 L  3
 t e
 (2s  5)  8  ( s  5 / 2)  16
s 1
(b) L1  2  1 47t 5 47t
  e  t / 4 cos( ) e t / 4 sin( )
 2s  s  3  2 4 2 47 4
2. Determine the partial fraction expansion
8s 2  5s  9 1 2 11
(a)   
( s  1)( s  3s  2) s  1 s  1 s  2
2
5s  36 1 s 3
(b)  2 2 2 3 2
( s  2)( s  9)
2
s2 s 9 s 9
3s 2  5s  3 3s 2  5s  3 3 2 1 1
(c)  3  3 2 
s s
4 3
s (s  1) s s s (s  1)
s 1 1 1 1 1 1
(d)   
( s  1)( s  1) 2 ( s  1) 4 ( s  1) 4 ( s  1)
2 2
1
2. Determine L {F ( s)}
(a)
s  11 1 1
F ( s)  3 2
( s  1)( s  3) s 1 s3
 L1[ F ( s )]  3et  2e3t
(b)
7 s 3  2 s 2  3s  6 3 1 6
F (s)   3  
s ( s  2)
3
s s s2
3
 L1[ F ( s )]   t 2  1  6e2t
2

FourthClass
Part IILinear Open-Loop Systems
Response of first order systems
2. Dynamic behavior of first order system
Before studying the control system it is necessary to become familior with the
response os some of simple basic systems (i.e study the dynamic behaviour of the
first and second order systems).
2.1 The transfer function:

The dynamic behaviour of the system is described by transfer function(T.F)
‫ݐ ݂݋ ݉ݎ݋݂ݏ݊ܽݎݐ݈݁ܿܽ݌ܽܮ‬ℎ݁‫)݁ܿ݊݋݌ݏ݁ݎ(ݐݑ݌ݐݑ݋‬
ܶ. ‫= ܨ‬
‫ݐ ݂݋ ݉ݎ݋݂ݏ݊ܽݎݐ݈݁ܿܽ݌ܽܮ‬ℎ݁݅݊‫)ܾ݁ܿ݊ܽݑݐݏ݅݀ ݊݋݅ݐܿ݊ݑ݂ ݃݊݅ܿݎ݋݂(ݐݑ݌‬
X(s) Y(s) Transfer

Input functionG (s) Output
Forcing function Responce
Block diagram
‫)ݏ(ݕ‬
ܶ. ‫= )ݏ(ܩ = ܨ‬
‫)ݏ(ݔ‬
This definition is applied to linear systems
2.2Development of T.F for first order system:

Mercury Thermometer:
It is a measuring device use to measure the temperature of a stream.
Consider a mercury in glass thermometer to be
located in a flowing stream of fluid for which the
temperature x varies with time.
The opject is to calculate the time variation of the
thermometer reading y for a particular change of x
The following assumptions will be used in this analysis:-
1. All the resistance to heat transfer resides in the film surrounding the bulb
(i.e.,the resistance offered by the glass and mercury is neglected).
2. All the thermal capacity is in the mercury. Furthermore, at any instant
themercury assumes a uniform temperature throughout.
3. The glass wall containing the mercury does not expand or contract during
thetransient response.

FourthClass
It is assumed that the thermometer is initially at steady state. This meansthat,
before time zero, there is no change in temperature with time. At time zerothe
thermometer will be subjected to some change in the surrounding temperaturex(t).(i.e
at t<0 x(t)= y(t) =constant there is no change in temperature with time).
At t=0 there is a change in the surounding temperature x(t)
Unsteady state energy balance:
ௗ௬(௧)
݉ ܿ‫݌‬ = ℎ ‫ ݔ( ܣ‬− ‫ )ݕ‬− 0 = ℎܽ‫ ݔ‬− ℎܽ‫ݕ‬ ……………… (1)
ௗ௧
1st order differential equation
Where
A: area of the bulb
Cp: Heat capacity of mercury
m: Mass of mercury in the bulb
t: time
h: film heat trnfer coefficient
h depend on the flowrate and properties of the surounding fluid and the dimension
of the bulb.
The dynamic behavious must be defined by a deviatopn variables.

ௗ௬
At steady state (s.s.) t<0 x(t)=constant=xs y(t)=constant=ys =0
ௗ௧
x(t)=constant=xs
ௗ௬ೞ
݉ ܿ‫݌‬ = ℎ ‫ݔ( ܣ‬௦ − ‫ݕ‬௦‫ = )ݏ‬ℎ ‫ݔܣ‬௦ − ℎ ‫ݕܣ‬௦ ……………… (2)
ௗ௧
Substract eq. (2) from eq. (1)
݀(‫ ݕ‬− ‫ݕ‬௦)
݉ ܿ‫݌‬ = ℎ ‫ ݔ( ܣ‬− ‫ݔ‬௦) − ℎ ‫ ݕ( ܣ‬− ‫ݕ‬௦‫)ݏ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
‫ ݕ‬− ‫ݕ‬௦ = ܻ ݈ܽ‫ ݔ ݋ݏ‬− ‫ݔ‬௦ = ܺ
at t=0 Y(0)=0 and X(0)=0
ܻ݀
݉ ܿ‫݌‬ = ℎ‫ܺܣ‬−ℎ‫ܻܣ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
݉ ܿ‫ܻ݀ ݌‬
= ܺ− ܻ
ℎ ‫ݐ݀ ܣ‬
௠ ௖௣
Let =time constant and has time units
௛஺
ܻ݀
߬ + ܻ = ܺ taken laplace for the equation
݀‫ݐ‬
߬[‫ )ݏ(ܻݏ‬− ܻ(0)] + ܻ(‫)ݏ(ܺ = )ݏ‬
FourthClass
(߬‫ݏ‬+ 1)ܻ(‫)ݏ(ܺ = )ݏ‬
ܻ(‫)ݏ‬ 1
= ‫= )ݏ(ܩ‬ … … … … … … (2.2)
ܺ(‫)ݏ‬ ߬‫ݏ‬+ 1
ܻ(‫)ݏ‬ ‫ܮ‬. ܶ ‫ݐ ݂݋‬ℎ݁݀݁‫ݐ ݊݅ ݊݋݅ݐܽ݅ݒ‬ℎ݁‫݃݊݅݀ܽ݁ݎݎ݁ݐ݁ ݉݋ ݉ݎ‬
ܶ. ‫= ܨ‬ = ‫= )ݏ(ܩ‬
ܺ(‫)ݏ‬ ‫ܮ‬. ܶ. ‫ݐ ݂݋‬ℎ݁݀݁‫݁ݎݑݐܽݎ݁݌ ݉݁ܶ ݃݊݅݀݊ݑ݋ݎݑݏ ݊݅ ݊݋݅ݐܽ݅ݒ‬
Any system has a T.F of the form of equation (2.2) it is called first order system
which is a first order differntial equation (Linear).
1.3 Properties of transfer functions

A T.F relates two variables in a physical process. One of these is (Forcing or Input
variable) and the other is the effect (Reponce or Output).
ܻ(‫)ݏ‬
ܶ. ‫= ܨ‬ = ‫)ݏ(ܩ‬
ܺ(‫)ݏ‬
If we select a particular input variation x(t) for which the L.T is x(s) then the reponce.
ܻ(‫)ݏ(ܩ = )ݏ‬. ܺ(‫ … … … … … … )ݏ‬. (2.3)
‫ିܮ‬ଵܻ(‫ିܮ = )ݐ(ܻ = )ݏ‬ଵ‫)ݏ(ܩ‬. ܺ(‫)ݏ‬

If G(s) is 1st order of a thermometer
1
ܻ(‫)ݏ(ܩ = )ݏ‬. ܺ(‫= )ݏ‬ . ܺ(‫)ݏ‬ … … … … … … … . . (2.4)
߬‫ݏ‬+ 1
x(s) G(s) y(s)
1.4 Transient response for different changes

1
ܻ(‫= )ݏ‬ . ܺ(‫)ݏ‬
߬‫ݏ‬+ 1
Y(t)=? For different types of x(t)
1-Step Change
A ----------
A
X ( s)  x(t)
s
1 A o  t
Y ( s)  .   1
s  1 s s s  1
A   o ( s  1 )  1 s
S=0 o  A
1
s   1 /  A   o (   /   1 )  1 then  o   A

FourthClass
A A A A 1 /  A A A ----------Ultimat value
Y (s)       y(t)
s s  1 s s  1 1 /  s   1/
t  t 
Y (t )  A  Ae  A(1  e ) …………….. (2.5)
t
Several features of this response, worth remembering, are

 The value of y(t) reaches 63.2 % of its ultimate value when the time elapsed is
equal to one time constant ߬.
 When the time elapsed is 2߬, 3 ߬, and 4 ߬, the percent response is 86.5%, 95%,
and 98%, respectively.
Where the ultimate value is find steady state value
U .V  lim y( t )  lim sy( s ) …..(2.6)
t  s 0
Example (5.1): A thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is at a steady state
temperature of 90 Fo. At time t = 0, the thermometer is placed in a temperature bath
maintained at 100°F. Determine the time needed for the thermometer to read 98 Fo.
Solution:
At s.s.xs=ys=90 Fo
A
Step Change X ( s )  s
A=100-90=10
10
X( s )
s
1 A 1 10 10 10 A B
Y( s )      
s  1 s 0.1s  1 s s( 0.1s  1 ) 0.1s( s  10 ) 0.1s s  10
A( s  10 )  B( 0.1s )  10
10
s  0  A  1
10
s  10  B  10
1 10 10 10
Y( s )    
0.1s s  10 s s  10
By taken lablace inverse for the equation
Y ( t )  10  10e 10t  10( 1  e 10t )
Substitute Y(t)=y(t)-ys =98-90
Y(t)=8
8  10( 1  e 10t )
0.8  1  e 10t
ln( e 10t )  ln( 0.2 )
 10t  ln( 0.2 )
t   ln( 0.2 )  0.1
t=0.161 min
FourthClass
2-Impulse Input
X( s )  A
x(t)
1 A
Y( s )   A
s  1 s  1
Area
A
Y( s ) 
s 1 
A t 
Y ( t )  y( t )  y s  e
 y(t)
A
Y (t )  e  t   y s
 t
2-Sinsoidal input
x( t )  x s  A sin wt t0
x( t )  x s  A sin wt
X ( t )  x( t )  x s  A sin wt
……………….(2.9)
Aw
X( s ) 
s  w2
2
Aw 1 1
Y( s )  2   Aw[ 2 ]
s  w ( s  1 )
2
( s  w )( s  1 )
2
This equation can be solved for y(t) by means of a partial fraction expansion as
described in previous lectures.
1  s  1 2
Y ( s )  Aw[ 2 ]  Aw[ o2  ]
( s  w )( s  1 )
2
( s  w ) ( s  1 )
2
(  o s  1 )( s  1 )   2 ( s 2  w 2 )  1
 o s 2   o s  1s  1   2 s 2   2 w 2  1
s0 1   2 w 2  1 (1)
s1  o  1   0   o   1  (2)
s2  o    2  0   2   o  (3)
By substitution eq.(2) in eq.(3)
 2   1 2 (4)
By substitution eq.(4) in eq.(1)
1  1 2 w 2  1

FourthClass
1
1 
1  2 w2
2
2 
1   2 w2

0 
1  2 w2
 1 2
s
Y ( s )  Aw[ 1   2 2
w 1   2 w2  1   2 w2 ]
( s 2  w2 ) ( s  1 )
1  s  1 2
Y ( s )  Aw [  ]
1   2 w 2 ( s 2  w 2 ) ( s  1 )
Aw  s 1 w 2 
Y( s )  [   ]
1   2 w 2 ( s 2  w 2 ) ( s 2  w 2 ) w ( s  1 ) 
Aw  s 1 w 
Y( s )  [ 2   ]
1   w ( s  w ) w ( s  w ) ( s  1/  )
2 2 2 2 2
Aw 1
Y( t )  [  cos wt  sin wt  e t  ]
1  w
2 2
w
Using the definition
p cos   q sin   r sin(    )
p
r p2  q2 tan  
q
p
  tan 1
q
1
q p  
w
  tan 1 (  w )
1  w2  2
r  ( )    
1 2 1
 
2 2
w w2 w
1
  cos wt  sin wt  r sin( wt   )
w
Aw t  1  w22
Y( t )  [ e  sin( wt   )]
1   2 w2 w

FourthClass
Aw t  A
Y( t )  e  sin( wt   )]
1   2 w2 1 w 
2 2
where
  tan 1(  w )
As t   then e t   0 , the first term on the right side of main equation
vanishes and leavesonly the ultimate periodic solution, which is sometimes called the
steady-statesolution
A
Y( t )  sin( wt   )]
1  w2 2 …..(2.10)
A X(t) _______T_______
-A
By comparing Eq. (2.9) for the input forcing function with Eq. (2.10) forthe ultimate
periodic response, we see that
1. The output is a sine wave with a frequency w equal to that of the input signal.
1
2. The ratio of output amplitude to input amplitude is  1.
1 w 2 2
3. The output lags behind the input by an angle  . It is clear that lag occurs,for the
sign of  is always negative.
0 phase lag
0 phase load
Example 5.2. A mercury thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is placedin a
temperature bath at 100°F and allowed to come to equilibrium with the bath. Attime
t= 0, the temperature of the bath begins to vary sinusoidally about its
averagetemperature of l00oF with an amplitude of 2°F If the frequency of oscillation
is 10/ߨ cycles/min, plot the ultimate response of the thermometer reading as a
function oftime. What is the phase lag?
In terms of the symbols used in this chapter

FourthClass
  0.1
t0 xs  y s  100
t0 x( t )  100  2 sin( wt )
10
f 

Solution
10
w  2f  2   10 rad / min

1 10
T  min/ cycle
f 
X ( t )  x( t )  x s  100  2 sin 20t  100
X ( t )  2 sin 20t
2  20
X( s )  2
s  20 2
Ultimate responce t   then e t   0
A
Y( t )  sin( wt   )]
1 w 2 2
  tan (  w )  tan 1( 20  0.1 )  tan 1 ( 2 )

1
  63.5o
Ultimate responseat the above angle
2
Y( t )  sin( 20t  63.5 )]
1  ( 0.1  20 )2
2
Y( t )  sin( 20t  63.5 )]
5
Y ( t )  0.896 sin( 20t  63.5 )] Ultimate response
In general, the lag in units of time

is given by:-
 1
phase lag 
360 f
63.5 cycle  min
phase lag 
360 10 cycle
 0.0555 min
ଵ଴ ௖௬௖௟௘ ଵ଴
A frequency of means that a complete cycle occurs in ( )ିଵ ݉ ݅݊. since cycle
గ ௠ ௜௡ గ
o o
is equivalent to 360 and lag is 63.5

FourthClass
How to calculate the time constant (࣎) for 1st order system
1) Mathematical method
Using the definitions
m cp
 Thermometer
hA
  AR Liquid level tan k
V
 Mixing tan k
q
2) Exponential method(Step change in the input variable)
A
0.63 A
τ t
Y ( t )  A( 1  e t  )
as t   Y (  )  A( 1  e  )  A
as t   Y (  )  A( 1  e 1 )  A( 1  0.3678 )  0.67 A
Time constant (߬)is the time required for the response to reach 63% of the its utimate
value.
3. Third method
Y ( t )  A( 1  e t  ) A
dy A
  Ae t  ( 1  )  e t 
dt 
Y(t)slope
dy A A
lim  e 0 
t 0 dt  
A t
Slope of the tangent at t=0 is 
A
Therfore  
slope
Y ( t )  A( 1  e t  )
Y ( t )  A  Ae t 
Ae t   A  Y ( t )
A  Y( t )
e t  
A

FourthClass
A  Y( t )
 t   ln
A
A  Y( t )
Let B 
A
1
ln B  t

let
y  ln B
xt
1
slope  

lnB
Y(t) A  Y( t ) ln B t
B slope  
1
A 
1
slope  

1

slope

FourthClass
Physical Examples of first Order System
1.Liquid Level Tank
Consider the system shown in Figure which consists of:

1. A tank of uniform cross-sectionalarea A.
2. Valveattached to the output flow which resistance constant=R.
qo : The output volumetric flowrate (volume / time) through the resistance, is related
to the head h by the linear relationship.
qo  h Linear Valve
h
qo  ……………..(1)
R
Where:
R is related as a linear resistance
if qo  h n ( n  1 ) Non linear valve
q(t) is a time varying volumetric flowrate with constant density ρ.
Find the T.F. that relates the head to the input flowrateq(t).
We can analyze this system by writing a transient mass balance around thetank:
Mass flow in - mass flow out = rate of accumulation of mass in the tank
dv
q  q o   ( v  Ah )
dt
dh
q  qo  A
dt
h dh
q   A ………………………(2)
R dt
At staedy state
h dh
q s  s  A s  0 ………………………(3)
R dt
Substracting Eq(3) from Eq. (2)
h  hs d ( h  hs )
( q  qs )  A
R dt
dH H
A  Q
dt R
dH
AR  H  RQ Taken laplace for both sides of equation
dt
( s  1 )H ( s )  RQ( s ) where   AR

Fourth Class
H( s ) R

Q( s ) ( s  1 ) Firstorder system equation………………………(4)
R
H( s )  Q( s ) ………………………(5)
( s  1 )
Comparing the T.F. of the tank with thr T.F. of the thermometer we see that eq. (5)
contain the factor (R) which is relate H(t) to Q(t) at s.s. as s  0 t 
K
For this reason, a factor K in the transfer function is called the steady state gain
s  1
To show that
1
Take Q( s ) 
s
R 1
Therefore H ( s )  .
s  1 s
Final value theorm

R 1 R
lim H ( t )  lim sH ( s )  lim s .  lim  R s.s gain
t  s 0 s 0 s  1 s s 0 s  1
This show that the ultimate change in H(t) for a unit change in Q(t) is R
Qo ( s )
?
Q( s )
h
qo 
R
h
qos  s
R
H
Qo 
R
H( s )
Qo ( s )   H ( s )  RQo ( s )
R
Qo ( s )  R R

Q( s ) s  1
Qo ( s ) 1

Q( s ) s  1

Fourth Class
Example 6.1 A tank having a time constant of 1 min and a resistance of 1/9 ft/cfmis
operating at steady state with an inlet flow of 10 ft3 /min (or cfm). At time t =0, the
flow is suddenly increased to 100 ft3/min for 0.1 min by adding an additional 9 ft3 of
water to the tank uniformly over a period of 0.1 min. (See Fig. 6-2a for this input
disturbance) . Plot the response in tank level and compare with the impulse response.
Solution:
H( s ) R

Q( s ) s  1
H( s ) 1 1
 
Q( s ) 9 s  1
The input may be expressed as the difference in step
function as was done in example
If a  0.05    Im pulse
If a  0.05    Pulse
a  0.1 min  6 sec
0.05 *   0.05  60  3 sec
6 sec  3 sec  Pulse
Pulse Function
Q( t )  A[ u( t )  u( t  0.1 )]
A = 100 - 10 = 90
90
Q( s )  ( 1  e 0.1s )
s
1 1 90
H( s )    ( 1  e 0.1s )
9 s 1 s
1 1
H ( s )  10(  e as )
s( s  1 ) s( s  1 )
H ( t )  10( 1  e  t ) for t <0.1
H ( t )  10(( 1  e  t )  ( 1  e ( t 0.1 ) )) for t>0.1
Simplifying the expression for H(t) for t>0.1 gives
H ( t )  10( e 0.1  e  t  e  t )
H ( t )  10 (1.1052 e  t  e  t )
H ( t )  1.052 e  t t>0.1

Fourth Class
If the input function is assumed impulse function
If t<3 sec
Q (t )  Im pulse
Area  A  (100  10)  (0.1  0)  9
Q( s )  Area  9 ft
H( s ) R

Q( s ) s  1
R
H( s )   Area
s  1
1
H( s )  9  9
s  1
1
H( s ) 
s  1
1
H ( t )  e t / 

For τ=1 H ( t )  e t
2.Mixing Tank
Consider the mixing process shown in Fig. 5-4 in

which a stream of solution containingdissolved salt
flows at a constant volumetric flow rate q into a tank
of constant holdupvolume V. The concentration of the
salt in the enteringstream x (mass of salt/volume)
varies with time. It isdesired to determine the transfer
function relating theoutlet concentration y to the inlet
concentration x.
If we assume the density of the solution to beconstant, the flow rate in must equal the
flowrateout, since the holdup volume is fixed.
F: Volumetric flowrate
x, y : Input and output salt concentrations (mass or mole/vol)
Unsteady state material balance
dVy dy
Fx  Fy  V
dt dt
Steady state

Fourth Class
dy s
Fx s  Fy s  V 0
dt
Subtracting the above both equations and introducing the deviation variables
d ( y  ys )
F ( x  xs )  F ( y  y s )  V
dt
X  x  xs
Y  y  ys
dY
V  FY  FX
dt
V dY
Y  X
F dt
dY
 Y  X
dt
( s  1 )Y ( s )  X ( s )
Y( s ) 1
 1st order system ,where  
V
X ( s ) ( s  1 ) F
Example:Find the T.F for the system shown in figure

h dh F1F2
F1  F2   A
R dt
h dh
F1s  F2 s  s  A s
R dt
H dH h
Q1  Q2  A qo
R dt
dH ࢎ
AR  H  Q1 R  Q2 R ࢗ࢕ =
dt ࡾ
( s  1 )H ( s )  Q1 ( s )R  Q2 ( s )R
R R
H( s )  Q1( s )  Q2 ( s )
( s  1 ) ( s  1 )
R R
When F1 constant  Q1 ( s )  0  H ( s )  Q2 ( s )
( s  1 ) ( s  1 )
R R
When F2 constant  Q2 ( s )  0  H ( s )  Q1 ( s )
( s  1 ) ( s  1 )

Fourth Class
3.Stirred Tank Heating System
Energy balance equation.

dT
VC  wC( Ti  T )  Q
dt
Assumption : constant liquid holdup and
constant inflow(w is constant), a linear
model result.
If the process is at steady-state, dT dt  0
0  wC ( Tis  Ts )  Qs
Figure Continuous stirred-tank heater.
Subtract equations
d (T  Ts )
VC  wC[(Ti  Tis )  (T  Ts )]  (Q  Qs )
dt
Define some important new variables(Deviation variables).
T '  T  Ts ,Ti '  Ti  Tis ,Q'  Q  Qs
By substituting deviation variables for variables, the transfer functions are not related
o initial conditions.
dT '
VC  wC( T 'i T ' )  Q'
dt
Let k  1 wC ,  V w
Apply Laplace Transform.
sT ' ( s )  ( T 'i ( s )  T ' ( s ))  kQ' ( s )
( s  1 )T ' ( s )  T 'i ( s )  kQ' ( s )

1 k
T' ( s )  T 'i ( s )  Q' ( s )
s  1 s  1
T' ( s ) k
If Ti ' ( s )  0 G1( s )  
Q' ( s ) s  1
T' ( s ) 1
If Q' ( s )  0 G2 ( s )  
T 'i ( s ) s  1
Homework
1) Solve 6.1, 6.3, 6.5, 6.8
2) Drive an equation represent the response of a level H(t) in liquid level tank
system for the follwing inpput fuctions.
a) Step change Q(t)=10 at time>0
b) Ramp change Q(t)=0.5t at time>0

Fourth Class
Response of 1st order systems in series
Many physical systems can be represented by several first-order processes connected

in series as shown in figure:-
Figure 7-1Two-tank liquid-level system: (a) Non-interacting; (b) interacting.
h1
In fig (7-1 a) variation of h2 does not effect on q1then q1 
R1
h1  h2
In fig (7-1 b) variation of h2 does effect on q1then q1 
R1
1-Non Interacting System
Material balance on tank 1 gives

h dh
qi  1  A1 1
R1 dt
h1s dh
At s.s. qis   A1 1s  0
R1 dt
By substracting both equations
h h d ( h1  h1s )
( qi  qis )  1 1s  A1
R1 dt
H1 dH1
[ Qi   A1 ]  R1
R1 dt
dH1
R1Qi  H 1  R1 A1
dt

Fourth Class
H1( s ) R1
 where 1  A1 R1
Qi ( s ) 1s  1
Material balance on tank 2 gives
h1 h2 dh
  A2 2
R1 R2 dt
h1s h2 s dh
At s.s.   A2 2 s  0
R1 R2 dt
h1  h1s h2  h2 s d ( h2  h2 s )
  A2
R1 R2 dt
H1 H 2 dH 2
  A2  R2
R1 R2 dt
dH 2 R
A2 R2  H 2  2 H1
dt R1
R2
 2 sH 2 ( s )  H 2 ( s )  H1 ( s )  2  R2 H 2
R1
R2
(  2 s  1 )H 2 ( s )  H1( s )
R1
R2 R1
H 2( s )  H1( s ) By substituting the lapace transform of H1(s)
( 2 s  1 )
R2 R1 R
H 2( s )   Qi ( s ) 1
( 2 s  1 ) 1s  1
R2
H 2( s )  Qi ( s )
( 1 s  1 )(  2 s  1 )
H2( s ) R2

Qi ( s ) ( 1 s  1 )(  2 s  1 ) Non-interacting system
In the case of three non-interacting tanks in sereies the transfer function of the system
will be as below:-
H 3( s ) R3

Qi ( s ) ( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 )(  3 s  1 )

Fourth Class
Example 7.1.
Two non-interacting tanks are connected in series as shown in Fig. 7-1 a. The time
constants are τ2 =1 and τ1 =0.5; R 2=1. Sketch the response of the level in tank 2 if a
unit-step change is made in the inlet flow rate to tank 1.
Solution:
The transfer function for this system is found directly from Equation above thus
R2
H 2( s )  Qi ( s )
( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 )
1
Substituting Qi ( s )  Unit step change in Qi
s
R2 1
H2( s ) 
( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 ) s
o 1 2
  
s ( 1s  1 ) (  2 s  1 )
R2   o ( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 )  1s(  2 s  1 )   2 s( 1 s  1 )
let s  0   o  R2
1 1 1  1  
let s    1 (  )(  2 (  )  1 )  R2  1( 22  )  R2  1 ( 2 2 1 )  R2
1 1 1 1 1 1
12
 1  R2 ( )
 2  1
1 1 1  1  
let s     2 (  )( 1 (  )  1 )  R2   2 ( 12  )  R2   2 ( 1 2 2 )  R2
2 2 2 2 2 2
 22
  2  R2 ( )
1   2
R2 12 1  22 1
H 2( s )   R2 ( )  R2 ( )
s  2  1 ( 1s  1 ) 1   2 (  2 s  1 )
1   1   1
H 2 ( s )  R2 [  ( 1 2 ) 1 ( 1 2 ) 2 ]
s  2  1  2 ( 1 s  1 ) 1   2 1 (  2 s  1 )
1  1 1  1 1
H 2 ( s )  R2 [  ( 1 2 ) ( 1 2 ) ]
s 1   2  2 ( s  1 / 1 ) 1   2 1 ( s  1 /  2 )
1 2 1 1
H 2 ( t )  R2 ( 1  ( )( e t / 1  e t / 2 )
1   2  2 1
1  0.5 1 t / 0.5 1 t / 1
H2( t ) 1  ( )( e  e )
0.5  1 1 0.5

Fourth Class
0.5
H2( t ) 1  ( )( e 2t  2e t )
 0.5
H 2 ( t )  1  e 2 t  2e  t )
R1
H 1( s )  .Qi ( s ) H2 (t)
1 s  1
H1(t)
R1 1
H 1( s )  .
1s  1 s
H 1 ( t )  R1( 1  e t / 1 )
Let R1=1
H 1( t )  1( 1  e  t / 0.5 )
H 1( t )  1  e 2t
Example:
Obtain the transfer function of the following system (no reaction):
Where:
F = volumetric flow rate, Fi = F1 Fi , Ci
C = conc. of solute in stream.
FiiCii
V = liquid volume in tank.
F1, C1
Solution: V1 c1
Mass balance on concentration; i.e.
In – out = accumulation F2, C2
dC V2, C2
Tank 1: Fi Ci - F1 C1 = V1 1
dt (non-interacting system)
dc1
1  C1  Ci where τ1 = V1/F1
dt
Laplace transform → τ1 s C1(s) + C1(s) = Ci(s)
C1( s ) 1
 1
Ci ( s ) 1s  1 …. (1) Ci(s)
 1s  1
C1(s)
dC 2
Tank 2: F1 C1 + Fii C ii - F2 C 2 = V2
dt
V2 dC 2 F F
 C 2  1 C1 + ii C ii
F2 dt F2 F2
dC2
2  C 2  K1C1  K 2 Cii
dt

Fourth Class
V2 F1 Fii
2  , K1  , K2 
F2 F2 F2
Laplace transform → τ2s C2(s) + C2(s) = K1 C1(s) + K2 Cii(s)
K1 K2
C2 ( s )  C1 ( s )  C ii ( s )
2 s  1 2 s  1
Substitute C1(s) from Eq. (1)
K1 K2
C2 ( s )  Ci ( s )  Cii ( s )
( 1s  1 )( 2 s  1 ) 2 s  1
2. Interacting System
Material balance on 1sttank

dh
qi  q1  A1 1
dt
h h dh
qi  1 2  A1 1
R1 dt
Steady state
h  h2 s dh
qis  1s  A1 1s  0
R1 dt
h h h  h2 s d ( h1  h1s )
( qi  qis )  1 1s  2  A1
R1 R1 dt
H 2 H1 dH
[ Qi    A1 1 ]  R1
R1 R1 dt
dH1
Qi R1  H 2  H1  A1 R1
dt
dH1
1  H1  Qi R1  H 2
dt
( 1s  1 )H 1( s )  R1Qi ( s )  H 2 ( s )
R1 1
H 1( s )  Qi ( s )  H2( s ) …………..(1)
( 1 s  1 ) ( 1 s  1 )
Material balance on second tank
h1  h2 h2 dh
  A2 2
R1 R2 dt

Fourth Class
h1s  h2 s h2 s dh
  A2 2 s  0
R1 R2 dt
H1 H 2 H 2 dH 2
[    A2 ]  R2
R1 R1 R2 dt
dH 2 R
A2 R2  H 2  2 ( H1  H 2 )
dt R1
R2
(  2 s  1 )H 2 ( s )  ( H 1 ( s )  H 2 ( s )) …………..(2)
R1
Substituting for H1(s)from eq(1) in eq(2)
R R1 1
(  2 s  1 )H 2 ( s )  2 [ Qi ( s )  H 2 ( s )  H 2 ( s )]
R1 ( 1 s  1 ) ( 1 s  1 )
R2 Qi ( s ) R2 H 2 ( s ) R2
[(  2 s  1 )H 2 ( s )    H 2 ( s )]  ( 1 s  1 )
( 1 s  1 ) R1 ( 1 s  1 ) R1
R2 (  s  1 )R2
(  2 s  1 )( 1 s  1 )H 2 ( s )  R2 Qi ( s )  H 2( s )  1 H 2 ( s )]
R1 R1
1 R2 s
( 1 2 s 2  1s   2 s  1 )H 2 ( s )  H 2 ( s )  R2Qi ( s )
R1
1 R2 A1 R1 R2
Let   A1 R2  12
R1 R1
( 1 2 s 2  ( 1   2  12 )s  1 )H 2 ( s )  R2 Qi ( s )
R2
H 2( s )  .Qi ( s ) Interacting system
1 2 s  ( 1   2  12 )s  1
2
R2
H 2( s )  .Qi ( s ) Non- Interacting system
1 2 s 2  ( 1   2 )s  1
The difference between the transfer function for the non-interacting system, and that
for the interacting system, is the presence of the cross-productterm A1R2 in the
coefficient of s. 12  A1 R2
To understand the effect of interaction on the transient response of a system,
considera two-tank system for which the time constants are equal (τ1=τ2=τ).

Fourth Class
Example:
τ1 = τ2 = τ12=τ
Q2(t)=? Output flow rate
1
Qi ( s ) 
s
Non-interacting system
H 2( s ) R2
 1 =  2
Qi ( s ) 1 2 s 2  ( 1   2 )s  1
H2( s ) R H (s)
 2 2 2 but Q2 ( s )  2
Qi ( s )  s  2s  1 R2
Q2 ( s ) 1 1 1 2
 2 2  ( )
Qi ( s )  s  2s  1 ( s  1 )( s  1 ) s  1
1
If Qi ( s ) 
s
1 1  1 
Q2 ( s )  .  o   2
( s  1 ) s
2
s ( s  1 ) 2
s  1
By multiplying both sides by s( s  1)2 and expanding, we get
 o ( s  1 )2  1s   2 s( s  1 )  1
 o (  2 s 2  2s  1 )  1s   2 ( s 2  s )  1
s 2 (  o  2   2  )  s( 2 o  1   2 )   o  1
s0  o  1
s2   o  2   2   0   2   2   0   2  
s1  2 o    1   2  0  2    1    0   1   
1  
Q2 ( s )   
s ( s  1 ) 2
s  1
1  
Q2 ( s )   
s ( s  1 ) 2
s  1
1 1 1 1
Q2 ( s )   
s  ( s  1 /  )2 s  1 / 
t
Q2 ( t )  1  e t /   e t /  for non-interacting


Fourth Class
Interacting system
If the tanks are interacting, the overall transfer function, according to Equation of
interacting system (assuming further that A1=A2)
1 1
Q2 ( s )  2 2 .
 s  3s  1 s
By application of the quadratic formula, the denominator of this transfer function
canbe written as
1 1
Q2 ( s ) 
s ( 0.38s  1 )( 2.62s  1 )
 1 2
Q2 ( s )  o  
s 0.38s  1 2.62s  1
let s  0   o  1
1 1
let s    1  0.38  0.0664
0.38 2.62( 
1
)1
0.38
1 1
let s    1  2.62  3.664
2.62 0.38( 
1
) 1
2.62
1 0.0664 3.0664
Q2 ( s )   
s 0.38s  1 2.62s  1
1 0.0664 / 0.38 3.0664 / 2.62
Q2 ( s )   
s s  1 / 0.38 s  1 / 2.62
1 0.17 1.17
Q2 ( s )   
s s  1 / 0.38 s  1 / 2.62
Q2 ( t )  1  0.17e  t / 0.38   1.17e  t / 2.26 
Figure7–7Effect of interaction on step response of twotank system.

Fourth Class
Homework
1. The two-tank liquid-level system shown in Figure H-1 is operating at steady state
when a step change is made in the flow rate to tank 1. The transient response takes
1.0 min for the change in level of the second tank to reach 50 percent of the total
change.
If the ratio of the cross-sectional areas of the tanks is A1/A2 = 2, calculate the ratio
R1/R2. Calculate the time constant for each tank. How long does it take for the change
in level of the first tank to reach 90 percent of the total change? Note: 1 = 2
Q0
h1
R1 Q1
A1
h2
R2 Q2
A2
Figure H-1
2. The two tanks shown in Fig. H-2are connected in an interacting fashion. The
system is initially at steady state with q = 10 cfm. The following data apply to the
tanks: A1 = 1 ft2, A2 = 1.25 ft2, R1 = 1 ft/cfm, and R2 = 0.8 ft/cfm.
(a) If the flow changes from 10 to 11 cfm according to a step change, determine
H2(s),i.e., the Laplace transform of H2 where is the deviation in h2.
(b) Determine H2(1), H2(4), and H2(∞).
Q
h1 h2
R1 R2 Q2
A1 A2
Figure H-2

Fourth Class
Non-linear systems
To solve non-linear systems there are two methods:-
1-Linearization method
Making the non-linear function as linear using Taylar series and give approximate
results.
2-Non-linear solution
It is difficult and give exact solution
Linearization Technique
y  2t 
 Linear(all terms to power =1)
yt  x 
y  t2 

y2 t  Non-Linear (power ≠1)
y  ln x 

To make the non-linear function linear one use Tayler series.
d f(x) 1 d2 f(x)
f ( x )  f ( xo )  ( x  xo )  2
( x  xo ) 2  ...............
dx x  xo 2! dx x xo
Neglacting the non linear terms because their value are very small.
Then
d f(x)
f ( x )  f ( xo )  ( x  xo ) …….(1)
dx x  xo

Fourth Class
Example:The flow of water through a valve or other construction usually follow a
square-root law.
h qi
If qo  Linear valve
R
qo  c h Non-linear valve
c is a constant
d ( V ) dh h
qi   q o    A qo
dt dt
dh ࢗ࢕ = ࢉ√ࢎ
qi  ch1 / 2  A ……..(1)
dt
qo may be expanded around the s.s. valuehsusing linearization method
 1 1  dh
qi  c  hs1 / 2  1/ 2
( h  h s )  A …….. (2)
 2 h s  dt
  dh
qis  c hs1 / 2  A s  0 …….. (3)at s.s h=hs
dt
1 1  d ( h  hs )
( qi  qis )  c  1 / 2 ( h  hs )  A
 2 hs  dt
c 1  dH
Qi   1 / 2 H   A
 2 hs  dt
c 1
assume 
2 hs R
H dH
 Qi  A
R dt
dH
RA  H  RQi
dt
By taking laplace transform
( s  1 )H ( s )  RQi ( s )
H( s ) R
 ………….. 1 st
order system
Qi ( s ) s  1
2 hs
Where R    AR
c
1-Transfer function is similar to linear.
2- R depends on the s.s. condition (at steady state the flow entering the tank equals to
the flow leaving the tank,thenqo=qos).

Fourth Class
Example : Mixing tank with chemical reaction
2A  B  C
F, ci
Re action Rate  r   kc 2
C( s ) F, c
G( s )  ?
Ci ( s )
V
ci,c : Composition of component (A) 2A  B  C
V: Constant=L
F: Constant=L/min
In-out-rate of reaction= accumulation
dc
Fci  Fc  Vkc 2  V Un-steady state
dt
c 2  c s2  2c s ( c  c s )
dc
Fci  Fc  Vk [ c s2  2c s ( c  c s )]  V
dt
dc s
Fcis  Fc s  Vkc s2  V  0 Steady statec=cs
dt
d ( c  cs )
F ( ci  cis )  F ( c  c s )  Vk [ 2c s ( c  c s )]  V
dt
dC
V  ( F  2Vkc s )C  FC i  ( F  2Vkc s )
dt
dC
  C  RC i
dt
C( s ) R

Ci ( s ) s  1 1st order system
Where C  c  c s , Ci  ci  cis
V F
 , R
F  2Vkc s F  2Vkc s

Fourth Class
Linearization of nth order nonlinear differential equation
th
Consider the n order nonlinear differential equation f ( x1 , x2 ..., xn )  u( t )
Expanding the nonlinear function in a Taylor series about an operating point that
xio , i 1,2...,n satisfies the original differential equation and retaining only the linear
terms yields
df ( x1 , x2 ,...xn )
f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )  f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) x  x0  ( x1  x1o )
i i dx1 x  x0
i i
df ( x1 , x2 ,...xn ) df ( x1 , x2 ,...xn )
 ( x2  x2o )   ( xn  xno )
dx2 x  x0
dxn x  x0
i i i i
Example:
Mixing tank F, ci
C( s )
G( s )  ? F, c
F( s )
c : Variable (kg/L)
F: Variable (L/min)
Ci: Constant
V: Constant
dc
Fci  
Fc V
non linear term dt
f f
f ( x , y )  f ( xs , ys )  x  xs ( x  x s )  x  xs ( y  ys )
x y  ys y y  ys
 Fc  Fs c s  c s ( F  Fs )  Fs ( c  cs )
dc
Fci  [ Fs cs  cs ( F  Fs )  Fs ( c  cs )]  V Un s.s
dt
dcs
Fs ci  Fs cs  V  0 s.s
dt
d ( c  cs )
ci ( F  Fs )  cs ( F  Fs )  Fs ( c  cs )  V
dt
dY
ci X  cs X  FsY  V
dt
Y  c  cs
where
X  F  Fs
Fourth Class
dY
[V  FsY  ( ci  c s ) X ]  Fs
dt
V dY ( c  cs )
Y  i X
Fs dt Fs
dY
  Y  RX
dt
Where
V ( ci  c s )
 , R
Fs Fs
Y( s ) R
 1
st
order system
X ( s ) s  1
The Time Delay

The most commonly used model to describe the dynamics of chemical process is
First-Order Plus Model Delay Model. By proper choice τd , this model can be
represent the dynamics of many industrial processes.
 Time delay or dead time between inputs and outputs are very common
industrial procsses, engineering systems, economical, and biological systems.
 Transportation and measurement lags, analysis times, computation and

communication lags.
Any delay in measuring, in controller action, in actuator operation, in computer
computation, and the like, is called transportation delay or dead time, and it always
reduces the stability of a system and limits the achievable time of the system.
The Transportation Lag

The transportation lag is the delay between the time an input signal is applied to a
system and the time the system reacts to that input signal. Transportation lags are
common in industrial applications. They are often called “dead time”.

Fourth Class
Dead-Time Approximations:-
qi(t) qo(t)
Dead
Time
qi(t) = Input to dead-time element.

qo(t) = Output from dead-time element.
The simplest dead-time approximation can be obtained qraphically or by physical
representation.
qo ( t )  qi ( t   d )
Qo ( s )  Qi ( s )e   d s
Qo ( s )   d s
e
Qi ( s )
The accuracy of this approxiamtion depends on the dead time being sufficicently
small relative to the rate of the change of the slope of qi(t). If qi(t) were a ramp
(constant slope), the approximation would be perfect for any value of τd. When the
slope of qi(t) varies rapidly, only smal τd’s will give a good approximation.
If the variation in x(t) were some arbitrary function, as shown in figurebelow, the
response y(t) at the end of the pipe would be identical with x(t) but again delayed by t
Figure Response of transportation lag to various inputs.

Fourth Class
Example:Thermal system
If measured at T1 this can be modelled as:

T1( s ) K

V ( s ) s  1
Due to thedelay time the temperature T2represented by:
T2 ( s ) K e   d s

V( s ) s  1
Example:Mixing tank with time delay.

F, ci
F, c1F, c2
F, V : Constants
V L
c1
Time delay
C2 ( s )   d s
e
C1( s )
Volume of tube AL AL L
d    
Volumetric flow rate q uA u
C1( s ) R

Ci ( s ) s  1
C2 ( s ) C2 ( s ) C1( s )
  
Ci ( s ) C1( s ) Ci ( s )
C2 ( s ) R  d s L

 C ( s ) s  1
e  d 
i u

Fourth Class
Second order system
A linear second order system under dynamic condition is given by the differential
equation:-
1 d 2Y 2 dY
  Y  kX
2n dt 2 n dt
1

n
d 2Y dY
  2
2
 2  Y  kX
dt dt
Where:-
k : Steady state gain
Y : Response value
X : Input disturbing variable
ωn: Natural frequency of oscillation of the system.
Y( 0 )  Y ( 0 )  0
ψ : Damping factor (damping coefficient)
By taking laplace for the above second order differential equation
2 s 2Y ( s )  2sY ( s )  Y ( s )  kX ( s )
( 2 s 2  2s  1 )Y ( s )  kX ( s )
Y( s ) k
G( s )   2 2
X ( s )  s  2s  1 T.F. of second ordersystem
If x is sudden force, such as,step change, inputs Y will oscillate depending on the
value of damping coefficient ψ .
ψ <1 Response will oscillate (Under damped)
ψ>1 Response will oscillate (Over damped)
ψ=1 Response critical oscillation (critical damped)

Fourth Class
Response of second order system
1) Step response
A k A k 2 A
X( s )   Y( s )  2 2    ……(1)
s  s  2s  1 s s 2  2 s  1 s
 2
The quadratic term in this equation may be factored into two linear termsthat contain
the roots
2 2 2 4 4 2 4 2 1
  ( )  2  2 2
s1, 2 
      2     2
2  2  2
  2 1
  =Two real roots
 
 2 1  2 1
s1   and s2   ……(2)
   
Eq. (1) can now be re-written as

kA  2
Y( s ) 
s( s  s1 )( s  s2 )
ψ>1 Overdamped Two distinct real roots

ψ=1 Critically Damped Two equal real roots
0<ψ<1 Underdamped Two complex roots
k A   s  2
Y( s )    0  2 21
 s  2s  1 s
2 2
s  s  2s  1
 o ( 2 s 2  2s  1 )  1s 2   2 s  kA
s0 0  kA
s1 2 0   2  0   2  2kA
s2  0 2  1  0  1  kA2
1 2 s  2
Y ( s )  kA[  2 2 ]
s  s  2s  1

Fourth Class
 
s2 s2
Y ( s )  kA [
1
  ]  kA [
1
  ]
s  1   2 2
s  2 1 2
(s  2 s  2 ) 2  2
2
(s  2 s  2 ) 2  2
2
       

s2
1
Y ( s )  kA [   ]
s  2 1 2
(s ) 
 2
1) For ψ<1 ==> under damped system

  
s2 s 
1
Y ( s )  kA [   1
]  kA [    ]
s  1  2
2 s  1  2
2
( s  )2  ( ) ( s  )2  ( )
   
 
s
 kA [ 
1    ]
s  1  2
2
 1  22
( s  )2  ( ) ( s  )2  ( )
   
   1 2
s  
1   1 2 
 kA [   ]
s  2 1  2 2
 2 1  2 2
(s ) ( ) (s ) ( )
   
(   /  )t 1  2  (   /  )t 1  2
Y ( t )  kA[ 1  e cos t e sin t]
 1  2 
1  2
w


Y ( t )  kA[ 1  e(   /  )t (cos wt  sin wt ]
1  2
 1
r p2  q2  1  ( )2 
1  2 1  2
1 p 1 1  2
  tan  tan 1  tan 1
q  
1  2
Y ( t )  kA[ 1  e(  /  )t ( r sin( wt   ))]

Fourth Class
ψ
࢟
࢑࡭
2) For ψ>1 Overdamped system

  
s2 s 
1
Y ( s )  kA[   ]  kA[
1
   ]
s  2 1  2
s  2 2  1
(s )  2 (s )  2
   
 
s
 kA[ 
1    ]
s   1 2
2
  1 2
2
( s  )2  ( ) ( s  )2  ( )
   
   2  1
s  
1   2  1 
 kA[   ]
s  2  1 2  2 2  1 2
( s  )2  ( ) ( s  ) ( )
   

sinh wt ] where w    1
2
Y ( t )  kA[ 1  e  (  /  )t (cosh wt 
2 1 
࢟
࢑࡭

Fourth Class
Terms Used to Describe an Underdamped System
Second order system response for a step change
1.05 b
0.95 b
tp
Figure (8-3) Terms used to describe an underdamped second-order response.
1. Overshoot (OS)
Overshoot is a measure of how much the response exceeds the ultimatevalue (new
஺
steady-state value)following a step change and is expressed as the ratio in the Fig.
஻
(8-3).
 
OS  exp
1  2 )
OS %  100  OS
2. Decay ratio (DR)

The decay ratio is defined as the ratio of the sizes of successive peaksand is given by
஼
in Fig. (8-3).where c is the height of thesecond peak
஺
 2
DR  exp  ( OS )2
1  2
3. Rise time(tr)
This is the time required for the response to first reach its ultimate valueand is labeled
in Fig. (8-3).
1  2
  tan 1

tr 
w

Fourth Class
4. Response time
This is the time required for the response to come within ±5percent of its ultimate
value and remain there. The response time is indicated inFig. (8-3).
5. Period of oscillation (T)

The radian frequency (radians/time) is thecoefficient of t in the sine term; thus,
2
T
1  2
6. Natural period of oscillation
If the damping is eliminated (ψ=0), thesystem oscillates continuously without
attenuation in amplitude. Underthese “natural” or undamped condition, the radian
1
frequency is . This frequency is referred to as the natural frequency wn.

1
wn 

The corresponding natural cyclical frequency fnand period Tnare related by
theexpression:-
1 1
fn   Thus, τ has the significance of the undamped period.
Tn 2
7- Time to First Peak(tp ) :

Is the time required for the output to reach its first maximum value.
 
tp  
w 1  2
߰
Figure(8-4) Characteristics of a step response of underdamped second-order system.

Fourth Class
1-Over shoot
wt      n
n
t max or min n=1, 2, 3 ……
w
If n=0,2,4, 6, …………….  min

If n=1, 3, 5, 7, …………….  max
1st max when n=1
n 
t 
w w
 
1 
y( t )  kA[ 1  e w sin ( w   )]
1  2 w
 
1 1  2
ymax  kA[ 1  e (  sin  )]
1  2
For Underdampded system
1  2
cos    , sin   1   2
, tan  

 
1 1  2
 ymax  kA[ 1  e ( 1   2 )]
1  2
 
1  2
ymax  kA[ 1  e ]
 
1  2
kA[ 1  e ]  kA
Overshoot  ]
kA
 
Overshoot  exp
1  2 )
A max B
Overshoot  
B B
 t
1
Y ( t )  kA[ 1  e  (sinh ( wt   )]
1  2

Fourth Class
where
1  2 1 1  2
w ,   tan
 
dy
Overshoot could be optained by getting 0
dt
Y ( t )  kA[1  e(  /  )t ( r sin( wt   ))]
 t  t
dY ( t ) 1 
00 [e  cos ( wt   )w  sin ( wt   )e  ( )]
dt 1  2 
 t
1  2 
0 e  [ cos ( wt   )  sin ( wt   )]
 
1  2 
cos ( wt   )  sin ( wt   )]
 
sin ( wt   ) 1  2

cos ( wt   ) 
1 2
tan( wt   ) 

1  2
( wt   )  tan 1

2-Decay Ratio
C
Decay ratio 
A
C
Decay ratio  (The ratio of amount above the ultimate value of two sucessive
A
peaks).
n 3
t for n=3 then t 
w w
 
1 2
First peak at n=1 y max  kA[ 1  e ]
3
1 2
Second peak at n=3 y max  kA[ 1  e ]

Fourth Class
3 3
2
1 2 1 2
kA[1  e ]  kA e 1 2
Decay Ratio  
 
e
1 2 1 2
kA[1  e ]  kA e
 2
Decay Ratio  exp
1  2
3. Rise time (tr)

It is the time required for the response to first tauch the ultimate line.
 t
1
y( t )  kA[ 1  e  sin ( tw   )]
1  2
At tr y(t)=kA
 t
1
kA  kA[ 1  e  sin ( t r w   )]
1  2
0  sin ( t r w   )]
sin 1( 0 )  
tr 
w
1 1  2
n  tan
n   
tr   
w w
1 1  2
  tan

tr  for n=1
w
4-Period of oscillation (T)
1  2
w  Radian frequency 

1
w  2f also T 
f
1 2
f 
2
2
T 
1  2

Fourth Class
5. Natural period of oscillation (Tn).
The system free of any damping forψ=0
1  2 1
w, radian of frequency   wn  for   0
 
1 1
wn  2 f n  2f n  fn 
 2
2 2
wn  
wn 1  2
f
Tn  2 for ψ=0   1   2
fn
6-Response time(ts)
The time required for the response to reach (±5%) of its ultimate value and remain
there.
7- Time to First Peak(tp )

Is the time required for the output to reach its first maximum value.
n
t
w
First peak is reached when n=1
n  
tp   
w w 1  2
2- Impulse Response
If impulse δ(t) is applied to second order system then transfer response can be written
as.
k
Y( s )  2 2 X( s )
 s  2s  1
X ( s )  Area  A
k
Y( s )  .A
 s  2s  1
2 2
kA /  2 kA /  2
Y( s )  
2 1 2 1  
s 
2
s  2 s2  s  2  ( )2  ( )2
     

Fourth Class
kA / 2 kA / 2
 
2  2 1  2
s  ( )  2  ( ) ( s   )2  1  
2
s 
2
     2
i) ψ>1
kA  2 1
kA /  2 kA /  2 2  2  1 
Y( s )   
 2 1  2    
2
   
2
(s )   2
1  2
1
 2 ( s  )2    ( s  )2   
       
   
 t
kA
Y( t )  e  sinh wt
  1
2
2 1
w

ii)ψ<1
kA  1  2
kA /  2 kA /  2  1  2
2

Y( s )   
 2 1  2 2 2
(s )   2  1   2 
  2  1   2 

  2 (s )  (s ) 
       
   
 t
kA
Y( t )  e  sin wt
 1  2
1  2
w

iii)ψ=1
kA /  2 kA /  2 kA /  2
Y( s )   
 2 1  2 1 2 1  12 ( s  1 )2
(s )  (s )  2
 2   
kA
Y ( t )  2 te t / 


Fourth Class
Homework
1) For each of the second-order systems that follow, find ψ, τ, Tp, Tr ,OSand %OS.
16
a) Y( s )  2
s  3s  16
Sol
0.04
b) Y( s )  2
s  0.02s  0.04
2) The transfer function for a thermometer in a CSTR reactor is given by.
T (s) 16
Sol thermometer 
TRe actor ( s ) ( 3s  1 )( 10s  1 )
Estimate the following.
a) find ψ, τ
b) The rise time.
c) The peak time.
d) The 2% settling time.
e) The percentage overshoot.
3) A second-order system is described by the differential equation:
d 2Y ( t ) dY ( t )
2
5  25Y ( t )  25 u( t )
dt dt
a) Write down the transfer function Y(s)/U(s) of the system, where U(s) and Y(s) are
the Laplace transforms of u(t) and y(t), respectively.
b) Obtain the damping ratio ψ and the natural frequency Wn of the system.
c) Calculate the rise time and percent overshoot of the system.
d) Evaluate y(t) for a unit-step input u(t).

Fourth Class
The Control System
The control system

A liquid stream at a temperatureTi,enters an insulated, well-stirred tank at a constant
flow rate w (mass/time). It is desired to maintain (or control) the temperature in the
tank at TRby meansof the controller. If the indicated (measured) tank temperature
Tmdiffers from the desiredtemperature TR,the controller senses the difference or
error,E = TR- Tm
Figure(9-1) Control system for a stirred-tankheater.
There are two types of the control system:-

1) Negative feedback control system
Negative feedback ensures that the difference between TRand Tm is used to
adjust the control element so that tendency is to reduce the error.
E=TR-Tm
2) Positve feedback control system
If the signal to the compartos were obtained by adding TRand Tm we would
have a positive feedback systems which is inherently unstable. To see that this
is true, again assume that be system is at steady state and that T=TR=Ti.
If Ti were to increase, T and Tm would increas which would cause the signal
from the compartor to increase, with the result that the heat to the system
would increse.
At s.s. T=TR=Tin
E=TR+Tm

Fourth Class
Servo Problem versus Requlator Problem
 Servo Problem
There is no change in load Ti, and that we are interested in changing the bath
temperature (change in the desired value (set point) with no disturbance load).
 Requlating problem
The desired value TR is to remain fixed and the purpose of the control system is
to maintain the controlled variable TR in spite of change in load if there is a change in
the input variable (disturbance load).
Control system elements

Control system elements are:-
1) Process
2) Measuring element
3) Controller
4) Final Control Element
GL(s)
Ti(s)
Load
Comparator
EP Q T R or Y R Final control T or Y
Controller Process
element
Set point
GC GV GP
Tmor Ym
Measuring
device
Gm
Closed Loop Feedback control

Fourth Class
Development of block Diagram
Process
The procedure for developing the transfer function remain the same.
An unsteady-state energy balance around the heating tank gives.
dT
W Cp (Ti  To )  q  W Cp (T  To )   Cp V
dt
Where To is the reference temperature
dT
At steady state, dt 0
dT
W Cp( Tis  To )  q s  W Cp( Ts  To )   Cp V 0
dt
d ( T  Ts )
W Cp(( Ti  Tis )  ( T  Ts ))  q  q s   Cp V
dt
Note that the refernece temperature To cancels in the subtraction. If we introduce
thedeviation variables.
Ti  Ti  Tis
T  T  Ts
Q  q  qs
dT
W Cp( Ti  T )  Q   Cp V
dt
Taking the laplace transform gives
W Cp (Ti ( s )  T ( s ))  Q ( s )   Cp VsT  W Cp
V Q( s)
sT  T ( s )   Ti ( s )
W WCp
The last expression can be written as
1 Q ( s ) Ti ( s )
T (s)  
( s  1) WCp s  1
Where
V

W
T (s) or Y (s )  controlled var iable
Q (s ) or m (s)  manipulate d var iable
Ti (s ) or d (s )  disturbanc e var iable
If there is a change in Q(t) only then Ti ( t )  0 and the transfer function relating
Ti to Q is
T (s) 1 1

Q ( s ) (s  1) WCp
Fourth Class
If there is a change in Ti (s) only thenQ(t)=0and the transfer function relating T to Ti
is
T(s) 1

Ti ( s ) ( s  1 )
Gd
d( s ) 1
Ti ( s ) s  1
+
Gp
m( s ) 1 / WCp + Y( s )
Qi ( s ) s  1 T(s)
Block Diagram for process

Y ( s)  G p  m( s)  Gd  d ( s)
Measuring Element
The T.F. of the temperature-measuring element is a first order system
Tm ( s ) km
  Tm ( s )  Gm T ( s )
T ( s ) m s  1
km
Gm 
m s  1
Where T and Tm are deviation variables defined as
T  T  Ts
Tm  Tm  Tm s
 Output
K m  steady state gain 
 input
τm=time lag (time constant)=(1-9) sec
Km T(s)
Gm  Tm (s )
m s  1
Figure Block diagram of measuring element

Fourth Class
Controller and final control element
The relationship for proportional controller is
P(s)
 Gc ( s ) E (s ) Kc Q(s)
G (s)
Q( s)  KC E ( s )
Where
P  P  Ps
E  TR  Tm
G(s) for propertional controller Gc ( s )  K C

TR  Tm  T at steady state
Controller
Tsp(or TR)+ E P(s)
Gc
-
Tm

Fourth Class
Controllers and Final Control Element
Final control Elements:
Control valve, Heater, Variec, Motor, pump, damper, louver, …. etc.
Control valve
Control valve that can control the rate of flow of a fluid in proportion to the
amplitude of a pressure (electrical) signal from the controller. From experiments
conducted on pneumatic valves, the relationship between flow and valve-top pressure
for a linear valve can often be represented by a first-order transfer function:
Air supply Air supply
Control valve (Air to close) Control valve (Air to open)
Figure Pneumatic control valve (air-to-close).

(air to close) (air to open)
open close close open
   
P  (3  15) psig P  (3  15) psig
   
max flow flow max
flow rate rate flow
rate  0 0 rate
Transfer Functionof Control Valve

m( s ) Q ( s ) KV
Gv( s )   
p ( s ) P ( s ) v s  1
 Output  Q 2  Q1 
Kv=steady state gain   
 Input  P2  P1 S.S
v  Time lag
v  10 sec (Good)
Where:
Fourth Class
Kv: steady-state gain i.e., the constant of proportionality between steady-state flow
rate and valve-top pressure.
τv: time constant of the valve and is very small compared with the time
constants of other components of the control system.A typical pneumatic valve has a
time constant of the order of 1 sec. Many industrial processes behave as first-order
systems or as a series of first-order systems having time constants that may range
from a minute to an hour.So the lag of the valve is negligible and the T. F. of the
valve sometimes is approximated by:
Q(s)
 KV
P(s)
The time constant of lag valve depends on the size of valve, air supply characteristics,
whether a valve positioner is used, etc.
Control Action
It is the manner, in which the automatic controller compares the actual value of the
process output with the actual desired value, determines the deviations and produce a
control signal which will reduce the deviation to zero or to small value.
Classification of industrial automatic controller:
They are classified according to their control action as:
1) On-off controller
2) Proportional controller (P)
3) Integral controller (I)
4) Proportional plus Integral controller (PI)
5) Proportional plus Derivative controller (PD)
6) Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative controller (PID)
The automatic controller may be classified according to the kind of power
employed in the operation, such as pneumatic controller, hydraulic controller or
electronic controller.
Self operated controller: In thiscontroller the measuring element (sensor) and the
actuator in one unit.It is widely used for the water and gas pressure control.
d=Ti(s) ܴ
‫ܩ‬ௗ =
߬‫ݏ‬+ 1
Comparator
E
TR P ‫ݒܭ‬ m
ܴ y(s)
GC=Kc ‫ܩ‬௩ = ‫ܩ‬௉ =
߬௩‫ݏ‬+ 1 ߬‫ݏ‬+ 1
Set point Q T(s)
Or ysp Final control
Controller Process
element
Tm(s) ‫݉ܭ‬ T(s)

‫ܩ‬௠ =
߬௠ ‫ݏ‬+ 1
Figure Closed loop block diagram of first order system

Fourth Class
Types of Feedback Controllers
1) Proportional controller (P):
For a controller with a proportional control action, the relationship between the
output of the controller, p(t), and the actuating error signal (input to controller) is
P (t )  K C  E (t )
p(t )  p s  K C  E (t ) set point P(s)
p ( t )  K C  E ( t )  ps KC
P( s )
GC  KC  (T .F )
E ( s)
P( s )  KC  E ( s ) Output signal
p
KC  ( ) s.s
E
Proportional Band (Band Width)
Is defined as the error (expressed as a percentage of the range of measured variable)
required to make the valve from fully close to fully open.
1
P.B   100 %
KC
On-Off Control
On-Off control is a special case of proportional control.
If the gain KCis made very high, the valve will move from one extreme position to the
other if the set point is slightly changed.So the valve is either fully open or fully
closed (The valve acts like a switch).
The P.B. of the on-off controller reaches a zero because the gain is very high
P.B  0
2) Propertional-Integral controller (PI):

This mode of control is described by the relationship
t
1
 I 0
p (t )  ps  K C [ E (t )  E (t ) dt ]
KC : Steady state gain

 I : Integral time constant
t
K P(s)
( p (t )  ps )  P (t )  K C E (t )  C  E (t ) dt KC (1
1
)
I 0 I s
Taking L.T
P( s ) 1 Output signal
 K C (1  )  Gc ( s )
E ( s) Is

Fourth Class
A
Prob(10-1):PI controller with step change in error E (s) 
s
1 A
P(s)  K C (1  )
 Is s E(t) p(t)
KC.A
K A A KC A τi
 P (t )  K C A  C t
I 0 ps
0 0
Y=c+mX t t
t E(t) P(t) Response of a PI controller (lineaer)
3) Proportional-derivative control (PD):

dE (t )
p(t) = K C [ E(t) +  D ]  ps
dt
dE (t )
(p(t) - p s ) = P(t)  K C E(t) + K C D
dt
P(s) set point P(s)
= K C + K C  Ds KC(1+τDs)
E(s)
P(s)
= K C (1 +  Ds)  G c
E(s)
KC: gain
τD :Derivative time (rate time)
A
For Ramp Error E(t) = At (Ramp) E(s) =
s2
P(t) = K C At  K C AD
4) Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller

t
KC dE (t )
 E (t ) dt  d
set point P(s)
p (t )  K C [ E (t )  ]  ps K C (1 
1
  D s)
I 0 dt Is
P( s ) 1
 K C (1    s)
E ( s) Is D
P(t) P(s)
P

Fourth Class
Motivation for Addition of Integral and Derivative Control Modes
The value of the controlled variable is seen to rise at time zero owing to the
disturbance. With no control, this variable continues to rise to a new steady-state
value.
 With control, after some time the control system begins to take action to try to
maintain the controlled variable close to the value that existed before the
disturbance occurred.
 With proportional action only, the control system is able to arrest the rise of the
controlled variable and ultimately bring it to rest at a new steady-state value.
The difference between this new steady-state value and the original value (the
set point, in this case) is called offset.
 The addition of integral action eliminates the offset; the controlled variable
ultimately returns to the original value. This advantage of integral action is
balanced by the disadvantage of a more oscillatory behavior.
 The addition of derivative action to the PI action gives a definite improvement
in the response. The rise of the controlled variable is arrested more quickly,
and it is returned rapidly to the original value with little or no oscillation.
Figure: Response of a typical control system showing the effects

of various modes of control

Fourth Class
Ex: A unit-step change in error is introduced into a PID controller. If Kc = 10, τI = 1,
and τD = 0.5, plot the response of the controller, m(t).
Solution:
The equation of PID controller is
P (s ) 1
 K C (1    Ds) m(t)
E (s )  Is
1
E (s)  slop = 10
s
10 1
P (s)  (1   0.5s) 5
s s
10 10
P (s )    5 10
s s2
m(t) = 10 + 10t + 5 (t)
0 t→
Ex: Consider the 1st order T. F. of the process with control valve
Valve process
P(s) KV KP Y(s)
V s  1  s 1
If we assume no interaction;
The T. F. from P(s) to Y(s) is
Y (s) KV K p
 For a unit step input in P
P ( s ) ( v s  1)( s  1)
1 KV K p
Y(s) =
s ( v s  1)( s  1)
   1 t /  v 1 t /   
y(t) = KvKp 1  v  e  e 
 v    v 
Y ( s) KK
If τ>>τvthe T. F. is  v p
P( s ) ( s  1)
For a unit step input in p
y(t) = KvKp (1 – e-t/τ)

Fourth Class
Ex: Consider the two tank reactor control system shown in figure below. The
volumetric flow rate ( F = 100 ft3/min) contains reactant A ( co = 0.1 lbmol/ft3) which
decomposes with 1st order reaction A → B by rate (-rA = kc) where k is rate constant,
a function of temperature. k1 = 1/6 min-1&k2 = 2/3 min-1 where T2> T1. The purpose
of the control system is to maintain c2 constant by adding pure A to tank 1 through
valve. The sample from tank 2 is withdrawn at a rate of 0.1 ft3/min. Another data are:
Mw of A = 100 lb/lbmol, ρA = 0.8 lbmol/ft3, m = 1 lbmol/min, V1 = V2 = 300 ft3.
Control valve: flow of A through the valve varies 0 – 2 ft3/min as the valve top
pressure varies 3 – 15 psig.
Neglect τv.
Measuring element: the measuring element converts concentration of Ato pneumatic
signal. The output of the measuring element varies from 3-15 psig as the
concentration of Avaries from 0.01 to 0.05 lb mole/ft3. Neglect lag (τm = 0). The
controller is proportional type.
Figure : Control of a stirred-tank chemical reactor.
Solution:
1. The process transfer function
Component M.B on A in tank 1:
dc m
V 1  Fco  m  ( F  )c  Vk1c1 …. (1)
dt A 1
m m
<< F F+ ≈F (assumption)
A A
Equation (1) becomes
dc
V 1  ( F  Vk 1 )c1  Fc o  m …. (2)
dt

Fourth Class
At s.s
dc1s
Fcos  m s  ( F  k1V )c1s  V  0 …. (3)
dt
By subtracting equation (3) from equation (2)
dC
V 1  ( F  Vk 1 )C1  FC o  M
dt
Where:
C o  c o  c os
C1  c1  c1s
M  m  ms
V dC1 F M
 C1  Co 
( F  Vk 1 ) dt ( F  Vk 1 ) ( F  Vk 1 )
V
1 
( F  Vk1 )
F
R 1
( F  Vk1 )
1
R2 
( F  Vk 1 )
dC
1 1  C1  R 1C o  R 2 M …. (4)
dt
By taking laplace transform for equation (4)
(1s  1)C1 (s)  R 1C o (s)  R 2 M(s)
R1 R2
C1 (s)  C o (s)  M (s) Transfer function of firsttank
(1s  1) (1s  1)
C o (s)  disturbance
M (s)  manipulate d var iable
Co(s)
R 1
 1s  1
M(s) R2 C1(s)
 2s  1

Fourth Class
V 300
1   2
( F  Vk 1 ) (100  1  300)
6
F 100 2
R 1  
( F  Vk 1 ) (100  1  300) 3
6
1 1 1
R2   
( F  Vk 1 ) 1
(100   300) 150
6
Component A M.B on tank 2:
dc
Fc1  Fc2  Vk 2c2  V 2
dt
dc
Fc1s  Fc2 s  Vk 2 c2 s  V 2  0
dt
dC2
V  ( F  Vk 2 )C2  FC1
dt
V dC 2 F
 C2  C1
( F  Vk 2 ) dt ( F  Vk 2 )
dC 2 F
2  C2  C1
dt ( F  Vk 2 )
( 2 s  1)C2 ( s )  R3C1
R3
C2 ( s )  C1 ( s ) Transfer function of second tank
( 2 s  1)
R3  2/3 1 / 150 
C 2 (s )  C ( s )  M ( s )
( 2 s  1)  2s  1 2s  1 
o
F 100 1
R3   
F  Vk 2 100  300  2 3
3
V 300
2   1
( F  Vk 2 ) 100  300  2
3
1/ 3 2/3 1 / 3 1 / 150
C 2 (s )   C o (s )   M (s )
(s  1) 2s  1 (s  1) ( 2s  1)
Ms=1 lbmol/min
Fc os  m s  ( F  kV )c1s  0 at s.s
100  0.1  1 lbmol  (100  50 )c1s  0
11
c 1s   0.0733 lb mole / ft 3
150
Fourth Class
Fc1s  Fc 2 s  Vk 2 c 2 s  0
11
100   300  c 2 s  0
150
11  100 11
c 2s    0.024 lb mol / ft 3
300  150 450
Co(s)
2/9
(2s  1)(s  1)
M(s) 1 / 450 C2(s)

(2s  1)(s  1)
2-The measuring element

For each element the transfer function (T.F) must be known and the s.s conditions
must be known too.
Km
Gm  m  0
( m s  1)
  output  20  4
K m      100 lb mol / ft 3
  input  s.s 0.05  0.01
b

c 2
bs  ? c2 s  0.024
bs  0 4  bs
 100  linear
0.024  0.01 0.05  0.024
bs  4  100  0.026  1.4 in
3- Controller proportion
p
GC  KC  Must be given or calculated
E
bs=1.4 ps=10.5 psig
4- Control valve
v  0
Flow 2  0 1 cfm
kv   
 Pr essure 15  3 6 psi
Since ms/ ρA= 1.25 cfm, the normal operating pressure on the valve is

Fourth Class
1.25
ps  3  (15  3)
2
 p s  10.5 psig
M (s ) 1 ft 3 / min lbmol lbmol / min
 KV  A   0 .8 3
 0.133
P( s ) 6 psi ft psi
5-Transportation lag
A portion of the liquid leaving tank 2 is continuously withdrawn through a sample
line,containing a concentration measuring element, at a rate of 0.1 cfm. The
measuring elementmust be remotely located from the process, because rigid ambient
conditions mustbe maintained for accurate concentration measurements. The sample
line has a lengthof 50 ft, and the cross-sectional area of the line is 0.001 ft2 .
The sample line can be represented by a transportation lag with parameter
1 Volume 5 ft  0.001 ft 2
td     0.5 min
u Volumetric Flowrate 0.1 ft 3 / min
Block diagram Co(s) 2/9

( 2s  1)(s  1)
+
C2sp(s) E(s) M(s) C2(s)
Km
+ P(s) 2 1 / 450
KC
- 15 (2s  1)(s  1) +
controller Control
valve
C2m(s)
100 e0.5s

Fourth Class
Ex: a pneumatic PI controller has an output pressure of 10 psi when the set point and
pen point are togather. The set point is suddenly displaced by 1.0 in (i.e a step change
in error is introduced) and the follwing data are obtained.
Time (s) 0- 0+ 20 60 80
Psi 10 8 7 5 3.5
Determine the actual gain (psi/inch displacement) and the integral time
E
1.0 in
10 psi
Kc
8psi
Kc
I
For PI control
K
p (t )  K c  c  Edt  p s
I
For E=1
K
p (t )  K c  c t  p s
I
From the above figure
Kc  2
Kc 75 2
 
 I 60  20 40
 I  20 K c  20  (2)  40 sec
Ex: (A) a unit-step change in error is introduced into a pid controller, if Kc=10 , τI=1
and τD=0.5 plot the response of the controller P(t).
(B) if the error changed with a ratio of 0.5 in/min plot the response of p(t).
Solution:
(A) For a PID control
K dE
p (t )  K ct  c  Edt  K c D  ps
I dt
For a unit step change in error E(t)=1
At t=0 p (0)  K c  p s
Kc
t>0 p (t )  K c  t  ps
I
P  p  ps  10  10t

Fourth Class
Kc
1 10 I
E P
0 0
0 0
dE
(B) E=0.5 t  0.5 and  dEdt   0.5dt
dt
 p (t )  10  0.5 t  10 0.5 tdt  10  0.5  0.5  ps
p (t )  p s  5 t  2.5 t 2  2.5
P( t )  p( t )  p s  2.5  5 t  2.5 t 2 t P(t)
0 2.5
1 10
E 0.5 P(t) 2 22.5
3 40
0 2.5 4 62.5
5 90
0 t 0 t

Fourth Class
Dynamic Behaviour of Feedback Controlled Process
Overall transfer function of a closed- loop control system:
d(s) Gd
Comparator
ysp E(s) C(s) m(s) y(s)
GC Gf Gp
Controller Final control Process

element
ym(s) y (s)
Gm
Process balance
y ( s )  G p m ( s )  Gd d ( s ) Measuring Device
Measuring device
y m ( s )  Gm y ( s )
Controller system
E ( s )  ysp ( s )  ym ( s ) Comparator
C ( s)  Gc E ( s) Controller
Final control element
m( s )  G f C ( s )
Algebra manipulation of the above equations and arrange then

y ( s )  G p m( s )  Gd d ( s )
y ( s)  G p G f C ( s)  Gd d ( s)
y ( s)  G p G f Gc E ( s)  Gd d ( s)
y ( s)  G p G f Gc ( ysp ( s)  ym ( s))  Gd d ( s)
y ( s)  G p G f Gc ( ysp ( s )  Gm y ( s))  Gd d ( s)
y ( s)  G p G f Gc ysp ( s )  G p G f GcGm y ( s )  Gd d ( s)
(1  Gc G f G pGm ) y ( s)  Gc G f G p ysp ( s)  Gd d ( s)
Gc G f G p Gd
y( s)  y SP ( s )  d (s)
1  Gc G f G p Gm 1  Gc G f G p Gm
Let G = GC Gf GP
G Gd
 y ( s)  y SP ( s )  d ( s)
1  G Gm 1  G Gm
G Gd
 GSP  Gload
1  G Gm 1  GGm
Fourth Class
Types of control proplems:
(1) Servo systems:
The distubance does not change (i.e. d (s) = 0 ) while the set point undergoes change.
The feedback controller act in such away as to keep y close to the changing y sp . The
T.F. of closed loop system of this type is:
G p G f Gc
y ( s)  ySP ( s )
1  Gc G f G p Gm
(2) Regulated systems:
In these systems the set point (desired value) is constant ( ysp (s) = 0 ) and the change
occurring in the load. The T.F. of closed loop control system of this type is:
Gd
y (s)  d (s)
1  Gc G f G p Gm
y ( s )  Gload d ( s )
The feedback controller tries to eliminate the impact of the load change d to keep y at
the desired setpoint.
Effect of controllers on the response of a controlled process:

(1) Effect of Propertional Control
The general T.F of the closed loop controller is:
Gc G f G p Gd
y ( s)  ySP ( s )  d ( s) (*)
1  Gc G f G p Gm 1  Gc G f G p Gm
Consider Gm  1 , G f  1
Also for propertional controller GC  K C
And eqn. (*) becomes
Kc G p Gd
y ( s)  ySP ( s )  d (s) (**)
1  Kc Gp 1  Kc Gp
For a first order systems
dy
 p  y  K pm  Kd d
dt
Which gives
Kp Kd
y ( s)  m (s)  d ( s)
 ps  1  ps  1
Thus for the uncontrolled system we have time constant= τp
Static gains: Kp for manipolation and Kd for load
Kp Kd
put G p  and Gd 
 ps  1  ps  1
Fourth Class
Then by substitution in eqn. (**) and take the closed loop reponse as
Kp Kd
Kc
 ps  1  ps  1
y( s )  ySP ( s )  d( s )
Kp Kp
1  Kc 1  Kc
 ps  1  ps  1
K P KC Kd 1  K p KC
y (s)  [ ySP ( s )  d ( s )] 
 p s  1  K p KC  p s  1  K p KC 1  K p KC
K P KC Kd
1  K p KC 1  K p KC
y ( s)  ySP ( s )  d ( s)
 ps 1  K p KC  ps 1  K p KC
 
1  K p KC 1  K p KC 1  K p KC 1  K p KC
Rearrange the last eqn.
KP Kd
y ( s)  y SP ( s )  d ( s)
 ps 1  ps 1
Where
P
p  Closed loop time constant
1  K p KC
K p KC
Kp  Closed loop ststic gain
1  K p KC
Kd
Kd  Closed loop ststic gain
1  K p KC
The close-loop response has the follwing charactrstics:-
1- It remains first order with respect to load and setpoint change
2- The time constant has been reduced ( p   P ) which mean that the closed-loop
response has become faster than the open loop response, to change in set point
or load.
3- The static gain have been decreased.
Disadvantage of Propertional control

Consider a servo problem with a unit step in the set point
1
ysp  d (s)  0
s
Kp 1
y 
 ps  1 s
t /  p
y( t )  K p ( 1  e )
 y(  )  K p

Fourth Class
The ultimate response of t   never reaches the desired new setpoint. There is
always a discrepancy called offset which is equal to:
Offset = New set point - Ultimate value

K p KC
=1  K p  1 
1  K p KC
1
 offset 
1  K p KC
Offset decreases as KC becomes larger an thoretically offset  0 when K C  
ଵ
ysp(t) ‫=ݐ݁ݏ݂݂݋‬
ଵା௄ು ௄ ಴
1
y(t)
0
2- Effect of Integral Control
Consider a servo problem, d ( s )  0
Gc G f G p
y ( s)  y SP ( s ) (*)
1  Gc G f G p G m
Consider Gm  G f  1
kp
For the 1st order process G p 
 ps  1
For a simple integral control
1
Gc  K c
Is
Sub in eqn. (*)
KP K
 C
 ps  1  I s K P KC
y( s )  ySP ( s )  ySP ( s )
1
KP

KC (  p s  1 )(  I s )  K K
P C
 ps  1  I s
K P KC
K P KC
y( s )  ySP ( s )
 p I s 2
Is K P KC
 
K P KC K P KC K P KC
1
y ( s)  2 2 y SP ( s ) (**)
 s  2s  1
Fourth Class
Where
 I p 1 I
 
K p Kc 2  p K p Kc
Eqn. (**) indicates an important effect of the integral control action:-
1- It increases the order of the dynamic for the closed-loop reponse.
Thus for a first-order uncontrolled process, the response of the closed-loop
becomes second order.
2- Increase K C decreases  more oscillatory
3- To examine the effect of integral on s.s error
1
y ( s)  2 2 y SP ( s )
 s  2s  1
1
If y SP ( s) 
s
The ultimate value= AK=1*1=1
offset= New setpoint-ultimate value
=1-1=0
It indicate that the integral control eliminates any offset
3- Effect of Derivative Control Action

For derivative control
Gc  K c  D s
KP
K  s
 ps  1 c D K P K c D s
y( s )  ySP ( s )  ySP ( s )
1
KP
K  s  p s  1  K P K c  D s
 ps  1 c D
K P K c D s
y (s)  y SP ( s ) (*)
( p  K p K c  D ) s  1
Eqn. (*) indicates that:-
1- The derivative control does not change the order of the reponse.
2- The effective time constant of the closed-loop response (  p  K p K C  D   p )
This means that the response of the controlled process is slower than that of the
original first-order process and as K c increase the response become slower.

Fourth Class
Effect of Composite Control Action
1- Effect of PI control
Combination of propertional and integral control modes lead to the follwing effects
on the response of closed-loop system.
1- The order of the response inceases ( effect of I mode).
2- The offset is eliminated (effect of I mode).
3- As Kc increses, the response becomes fater ( effect of P and I modes) and more
oscillatory to set point changes [ovesrshoot and decay ratio increase (effet of I
mode)].
Large value of Kc create a very sensitive response and may lead to instability.
4- As I decreases, for constant Kc, the reponse become faster but more oscillatory
with higher overshoot and decay ratio (effect of I mode).
2- Effect of PID control

To increase the speed of the closed loop response, increase the value of the controller
gain Kc. But increasing enough Kc in order to have acceptable speed, the response
become more oscillatory and may lead to unstability.
The introduction of the derivative mode brings a stability effect to the system. Thus
to achive
1- Acceptable response speed by selecting an appropriate value for the gain Kc.
2- While maintaining moderate overshoot and decay ratios.

Fourth Class
Ex: Regular loop with the following elements
3
GP(s) = (process)
10 s  1
1
Gd(s) = (Load)
10 s  1
Gm(s) = 1 (measuring device) if not given take 1
GC(s) = 2 (controller)
Gf (s) = 1.5 (valve)
Gd(s)
θd(s)
Determine the system response for a unit step in load 1
10 s  1
θSP(s) θo(s)
2 1.5 3
Set point
10 s  1
GC(s) Gf (s) GP(s)
1
Solution:
o ( s) Gd ( s ) Gm(s)
Regulator loop: 
 d ( s ) 1  Gm ( s )G ( s )
3 9
G(s) = GC(s) Gf (s) GP(s) = 2×1.5× =
10 s  1 10 s  1
1
o ( s )
 10 s  1
1
=
d ( s ) 1  9 10 s  10
10 s  1
1
θd(s) = 1/10
s
1
 o (s) = 10 θo(t) off-set
s ( s  1)
 o (t)  0.1(1 - e-t )
At t = 0 , o (t) = 0
At t =  ,  o () = 0.1
Or
1
1
 o ( ) = lim s o ( s )  lim s 10 
s 0 s  0 s ( s  1) 10
Offset= New s.s value-Ultimate value= 0 - 0.1= -0.1

Fourth Class
Ex: the set point of the control system shown in the figure is gives a step change of a
0.1 unit. Determine
1- The maximum value of C.
2- The offset.
3- The period of oscillation.
5 C
R K c  1 .6
( s  1)( 2 s  1)
C ( s) GcG p

R ( s ) 1  GcG p
5
1 .6 
C ( s) ( s  1)(2 s  1) 8
  2
R ( s ) 1  1 .6  5 2 s  3s  1  8
( s  1)(2 s  1)
8
C( s ) 8 9 0.8889
 2  
R( s ) 2 s  3 s  9 2 s 2  1 s  1 0.222 s 2  0.333 s  1
9 3
  0.222    0.471
2
2  0.3333    0.3538 (Underdamped)

Ultimate Value=A*K=0.1*0.8889=0.08889
   3.1418  0.3538
Overshoot  exp( )  exp( )  0.3047
1  2 1  (0.3538) 2
1) The maximum value =Ultimate value*(1+Overshoot)
= 0.08889*(1.3047)=0.1160
To find the time required to reach maximum value apply K, A , Cmax , ψ and τ
in the equation.

Y ( t )  kA[ 1  e(  /  )t (cos wt  sin wt ]
1  2
1  2
w

2) The offset=New set point- Ultimate value
=0.1-0.088889=0.01111
2 2  0.471
3) Period of oscillation =   3.1640
1  2
1  (0.3538) 2
Ex: Consider the figure below, a unit step change in load enters at either location 1 or
location 2.
What is the offset when the load enters at location 1 and when it enters at location 2
Fourth Class
U1 G1 U2 G2
Gc
2 1
R Kc  5 C
(2 s  1) (2s  1)
a-when the load enters in location 1

1
U 1( s )  , U2( s )  0
s
G1G2
C ( s)  U1 ( s )
1  GcG1G2
2 1

C( s )  2s  1 2s  1 U 1( s )  2
2
U 1( s )
1
2

1
5 4 s  4 s  1  10
2s  1 2s  1
2 2 / 11
 2 U 1( s )  U 1( s )
4 s  4 s  11 4 2 4
s  s1
11 11
2
K   0.1818
11
4
  0.6030
11
4 4 1
2       0.3015
11 11 2
Ultimate value=A.K=1*0.1818=0.1818
Offset=0 - 0.1818= -0.1818
b-when the load enters in location 2

G2
C ( s)  U 2 (s)
1  GcG1G2
1
2s  1 2s  1
C (s)  U 2 ( s)  2 U 2 ( s)
1
2

1
5 4 s  4 s  1  10
2 s  1 2s  1
2s  1 2s  1
 2 U 2 (s) 
4 s  4 s  11 4 2 4
s  s  11
11 11
2s  1 1
C ()  lim   0.091
s 0 4 2 4
s  s  11 11
11 11
Offset= 0 - 0.0.091= -0.091

Fourth Class
Ex: For the figure
U
1 1 C
R K c (1    D s)
Is  1s  1
For D   I  1 and I  2
a- Calculate ψ when Kc=0.5 and Kc=2
b- Determine the effect for a unit-step change in load if Kc=2
C ( s) GcG p

R ( s ) 1  GcG p
1 1 1 1
K c (1    D s) K c (1   s )
C ( s) Is  1s  1 s 2s  1
 
R ( s ) 1  K (1  1   s ) 1 1
1  K c (1   s )
1
Is  1s  1 2s  1
c D
s
s  1  s2 1
Kc ( )
s 2 s  1 Kc (s  1  s 2 ) Kc (s  1  s2 )
  2 
s  1  s2 1 2s  s  K c ( s  1  s 2 ) ( 2  K c ) s 2  (1  K c ) s  K c
1  Kc ( )
s 2s  1
(s  1  s )
2

(2  K c ) 2 (1  K c )
s  s 1
Kc Kc
a-1) Kc=0.5
2  Kc 2  0.5
   2.2361
Kc 0.5
(1  K c ) 1  0.5 3 3
2    3     0.6708
Kc 0.5 2 2  2.2361
a-2) Kc=2
22
  1.4142
2
(1  K c ) 1  2 1.5 1.5
2    1.5      0.5303
Kc 2 2 2  1.41421
Gp
B) C ( s )   U ( s)
1  G pGc
1 1
 1s  1 2s  1
C ( s)  U ( s)  U ( s)
1 1 1 1
1  K c (1    D s) 1  K c (1   s )
Is  1s  1 s 2s  1
s s 1
 2 U ( s )  
2s  s  K c ( s  1  s 2 ) 2s 2  s  2( s  1  s 2 ) s
Fourth Class
1

4s  3s  1
2
 2
3
2  3     0.75
4
1
C ()  lim s 2 0
s  0 4 s  3s  1
Offset=0-0=0
Ex A PD controller is used in a control system having a first order process as shown.

For Servo problem
a-find expression for ψ and τ for the closed loop response.
b-if τ1=1 , τm=10 sec . Find Kc so that ψ=0.7 for two cases (1) τD=0 ,(2) τD=3 sec.
c- Calculate the offset in both cases. U Gp
Gc
1
R Kc (1   D s) C
( 1s  1)
1
( m s  1)
Gm
For the closed loop T.F.
GcG p Gp
C R( s)  U (s)
1  GcG pGm 1  GcG pGm
1
K c (1   D s ) 
 1s  1
C R( s)
1 1
1  K c (1   D s )  
 1s  1  m s  1
K c (1   D s )
C R(s)
1
 1s  1  K c (1   D s ) 
 ms  1
K c (1   D s )
C R( s)
 1 m s  ( 1   m ) s  1  K c  K c D s
2
 ms  1
K c (1   D s )( m s  1)
C R(s)
 1 m s 2  ( 1   m  K c D ) s  (1  K c )
K c ( 1   D s )(  m s  1 )
( 1  Kc )
C  R( s )
 1 m s 2
(  1   m  K c D )
 s1
(1  Kc ) ( 1  Kc )
 1 m

1  Kc

Fourth Class
1   m  K c D
2 
1  Kc
    K c D 1  K c
 1 m
2(1  K c )  1 m
    K c D
  1 m
2 (1  K c ) 1 m
 1   m  K c D
b)  for ψ=0.7
2 (1  K c )  1 m
1) τD=0
60  10  0 35
 0 .7  
2 (1  K c ) 60  10 600  600 K c
600  600 K c  50
600  600 K c  2500
K c  3.166
2) τD=3 sec
60  10  3K c 70  3K c
 0 .7  
2 (1  K c ) 600 2 (1  K c ) 600
70  3K c  34.292 (1  K c )
2.04(1  0.042 K c )  (1  K c )
4.1616  0.355 K c  0.0075 K c2  (1  K c )
0.0075 K c2  0.0645 K c  3.1616  0
 K c  80.73 or K c  5.266
(c) The offset

t  s0
1
R
s
K c (1   D s )( m s  1)
(1  K c ) 1 Kc 3.166
Ultimate value= lim s     0.76
s 0  1 m s ( 1   m  K c D )
2
s 1  K c 4.166
 s 1
(1  K c ) (1  K c )
Offset= 1- 0.76= 0.24

Fourth Class
Overall transfer function of a closed- loop control system
The transfer function of a block diagram is defined as the output divided by its input
when represented in the Laplace domain with zero initial conditions. The transfer
function G(s) of the block diagram shown in Fig. (1).
Y (s)
 G (s)
X (s)
Here the path of the signals X(s) and Y(s) is a forward path.
X(s) G(s) Y(s)
Fig. (1) Transfer function of a block diagram
Consider the block diagram of cascaded elements shown in Fig. (2a). Form the
definition of a transfer function we have:
X 2 (s)
 G 1 (s )
X1 (s)
X 3 (s)
 G 2 (s)
X 2 (s)
Y(s)
 G 3 (s)
X 3 (s )
And substitution yields
Y(s)  G 3 (s)X 3 (s)  G 3 (s)[G 2 (s)X 2 (s)]  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)X1 (s)
Which can be written as
Y(s)
 G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)  G (s)
X1 (s)
X1(s) X2(s) X3(s) Y(s) X1(s) Y(s)

G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G(s)
(a) (b)
Fig. (2) Cascaded elements
The overall transfer function then is simply the product of individual transfer
functions.
For applications where it is required to generate a signal which is the sum of two
signals we define a summer or summing junction as shown in Fig. (3a). If the
difference is required, then we define a subtractor as shown in Fig. (3b). Subtractors

Fourth Class
are often called error detecting devices since the output signal is the difference
between two signals of which one is usually a reference signal.
X1(s) + +
X1(s)+X2(s) X1(s) X1(s)-X2(s)
+ -
X2(s) X2(s)
(a) (b)
Summer Subtractor (Error detecting device)
Fig. (3) Addition or subtraction of signals
The combination of block diagrams in parallel is shown in Fig. (4a). Form the
definition of the transfer function we have
Y1 (s)  G1 (s)X(s)
Y2 (s)  G 2 (s)X(s)
Y3 (s)  G 3 (s)X(s)
And the summer adds these signals,
Y(s)  Y1 (s)  Y2 (s)  Y3 (s)
or
Y (s)  [G1 (s)  G 2 (s)  G 3 (s)]X(s)
The overall transfer function shown in Fig.(4b) is
Y (s)
 G (s )
X (s)
where
G (s)  G1 (s)  G 2 (s)  G 3 (s)
Y 1(s)
G 1(s)
X(s) Y 2(s) +
G 2(s) Y(s) X(s) G(s) Y(s)
+ +
Y 3(s)
G 3(s)
(b)
(a)
Fig. (4) Parallel combination of elements
In summary, we observe that for cascaded elements the overall transfer function is
equal to the product of the transfer function of each element, whereas the overall
transfer function for parallel elements is equal to the sum of the individual transfer
function.
Fourth Class
Ex:Derive the overall transfer function for the control system shown in Fig. (5).
H1(s)
B1(s)
+ E1(s) C1(s) - E2(s) C2(s) C(s)
R(s) G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
- +
B2(s) H2(s)
Fig.(5) Block diagram of a system with two feedback paths

Solution
E1 (s)  R (s)  B2 (s)
E 2 (s)  C1 (s)  B1 (s)
C1 (s)  G1 (s)E1 (s)
C2 (s)  G 2 (s)E 2 (s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)C 2 (s)
B1 (s)  H1 (s)C(s)
B2 (s)  H 2 (s)C 2 (s)
Substituting of the sub-transfer functions
C(s)  G 3 (s)C 2 (s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)E 2 (s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[C1 (s)  B1 (s)]
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)E1 (s)  H1 (s)C(s)]
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)(R (s)  B2 (s))  H1 (s)C(s)]
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)R (s)  G1 (s)H 2 (s)C 2 (s)  H1 (s)C(s)]
C(s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)R (s)  G1 (s)H 2 (s)  H1 (s)C(s)]
G 3 (s)
C(s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)R (s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)H 2 (s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)H1 (s)C(s)
G 3 (s)
[1  G 2 (s)G1 (s)H 2 (s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)H1 (s)]C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)R (s)
Finally, the overall transfer function
C(s) G1 (s)G 2 (s)G 3 (s)

R (s) 1  G1 (s)G 2 (s)H 2 (s)  G 2 (s)G 3 (s)H1 (s)

Fourth Class
Ex: A single-loop control system is shown in figure below.Determine closed-loop
Y (s)
transfer function
R (s) R(s) +
2( s  1)( s  3) Y(s)
G(s)=
- s ( s  2)( s  4)
Solution
Y (s) G
Transfer function 
R (s) 1  GH
2(s  1)(s  3) 2(s  1)(s  3)
Y(s) s(s  2)(s  4) s(s  3)(s  4)
 
R (s) 1  2(s  1)(s  3) *1 s(s  2)(s  4)  2(s  1)(s  3)
s(s  2)(s  4) s(s  2)(s  4)
2(s  1)(s  3) 2s 2  6s  2s  6

s(s  2)(s  4)  2(s  1)(s  3) s3  4s 2  2s 2  8s  2s 2  6s  2s  6
Y(s) 2s 2  8s  6
 
R (s) s 3  8s 2  16s  6
Block Diagram Reduction
When the block diagram representation gets complicated, it is advisable to reduce the
diagram to a simpler and more manageable form prior to obtaining the overall
transfer function. We shall consider only a few rules for block diagram reduction. We
have already two rules, viz. Cascading and parallel connection.
Consider the problem of moving the starting point of a signal shown in Fig. (6a) from
behind to the front of G(s). since B(s)=R(s) and R(s)=C(s)/G(s), then B(s)=C(s)/G(s).
therefore if the takeoff point is in front of G(s), then the signal must go through a
transfer function 1/G(s) to yield B(s) as shown in Fig. (7b).
R(s) G(s) C(s) R(s) G(s) C(s)
B(s) Starting point of B(s) B(s) 1/G(s)
(a) (b)
Fig.6 Moving the starting point of a signal

Consider the problem of moving the summing point of Fig. (7a). Since
E(s)  [M (s)  C(s)]G (s)  M(s)G (s)  C(s)G (s)
E(s)  M1 (s)  C1 (s)
where
M1 (s)  M(s)G (s); C1 (s)  C(s)G (s)
Fourth Class
The generation of the signals M1(s) and C1(s) and adding them to yield E(s) is shown
in Fig. (7b). A table of the most common reduction rules is given in Table 1.
M(s) + E(s) M(s) M1(s)

G(s) G(s) E(s)
+
+ +
C1(s) G(s) C(s)
C(s)
(a) (b)
Fig.(7) Moving a summing junction
Table 1 Some rules for block diagram reduction

Rule Original system Reduced system
Cascaded R(s) R(s) C(s)
G1(s) G2(s) C(s) G1(s)G2(s)
elements
R(s) + C(s)
G1(s)
Addition or + R(s) C(s)
G1(s)+G2(s)
subtraction
G2(s)
R(s) C(s)
G(s)
R(s) C(s)
G(s)
Moving a
starting point 1
B(s) G (s)
B(s)
R(s) + C(s) R(s) + C(s)

G(s) G(s)
Moving a - -
summing point
B(s) B(s) G(s)
R(s) + C(s)
Closed loop G(s) R(s) G(s) C(s)
-
system 1  H ( s )G ( s )
H(s)

Fourth Class
Consider the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. (8a). The final transfer
function is shown in Fig. (9d).
First reduction
G3(s)
R(s) + +
G1(s) G2(s) C(s)
+ G4(s)
- +
-
H1(s)
H2(s)
(a) Next reduction
R(s) + C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)+G3(s) G4(s)
- +
-
H 1 (s)
G 4 (s)
H2(s)
(b)
R(s) + [G 2 ( s )  G 3 ( s)]G 4 ( s ) C(s)

G1(s) G5 ( s ) 
1  H 1 ( s )[G 2 ( s )  G 3 ( s )]
-
H2(s)
(c)
R(s) G1(s)G5 (s) C(s)

1  G1(s)G5 (s) H2 (s)
(d)
Fig.8 Obtaining transfer function by block diagram reduction
Ex: Obtain the transfer function C/R of the block diagram shown in Figure below.

Fourth Class
Ex: Obtain the transfer function C/R of the block diagram shown in Figure below.
G4(s)
R(s) +
+ + +
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) C(s)
- +
H1(s)
H2(s)
R(s)
+ +
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) + G4(s) C(s)
- +
H1(s)
H2(s)
R(s)
+ G1(s) x G2(s)
G3(s) + G4(s) C(s)
1- H1(s)x(G1(s) x G2(s))
-
H2(s)
G1 (s).G 2 (s)G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 

C(s) 1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s)

R (s)  G (s).G 2 (s).G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 
1  H 2 (s)  1 
 1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s) 
G1 (s).G 2 (s)G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 
1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s)

1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s) G (s).G 2 (s)G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 
 H(s) 1
1  H1 (s)  G1 (s)  G 2 (s) 1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s)
C(s)

G1 (s)  G 2 (s)   G1 (s)  G 4 (s) 
R (s) 1  H1 (s)  G 1 (s)  G 2 (s)   H 2 (s)  G1 (s)  G 2 (s)   G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 

Fourth Class
Stability Analysis
A stable system is one where the controlled variable will always settle near the set
point. An unstable system is one where, under some conditions, the controlled
variable drifts away from the set point or breaks into oscillations that get larger and
larger until the system saturates on each side.
Stable system unstable system
Methods of Stability Test

1-Determination the roots of equation
U
R G2 C
G1
H
G1G 2 G2
C R (s)  U (s )
1  G1G 2 H 1  G1G 2 H
1  G1G 2 H  0 (Characterstic Equation)
(s  r1 )(s  r2 )(s  r3 ).........  0 Im
s-p
s
p 
Re
A linear control system is unstable if any roots of its characterstic equation are to the
right of imaginary axis.
If this Eqn has some roots with positive real parts, then the system is unstable, or
some roots equal to zero, the system is marginally stable (oscillatory), therefore it is
unstable.
Then for stability the roots of characteristic Eqn must have negative
real parts.

Fourth Class
Ex:if
0.5s  1
G1  10 PI control
s
1
G2  Stirred tank
2s  1
H 1 Mesuring element without lag
1  G  1  G1G 2 H  0
10(0.5s  1)
1 0
s(2s  1)
s(2s  1)  5s  10  0
2s 2  6s  10  0
s 2  3s  5  0
3 9  20
s 
2 2
3 11 3 11
 s1  j and s 2  j
2 2 2 2
3
Since the real part in s1 and s2 in -ve (  )The system is stable
2
2-Routh’s Method
a-Write the characterstic eqn. on the form of a polynomial shape:
a os n + a1s n -1 + a 2s n - 2 + …..a n = 0 (*)
Where ao is positive
It is necessary that ao, a1, a2,…. an-1, an be positive. If any coeff. is negative, the
system is unstable.
If all of the coeff. are positive, the system may be stable or unstable. Then apply the
next step.
b. Routh array:
Arrange the coeff. of eqn. (*) into the first two rows of the Routh array shown
below.
Row
1 a o a2 a4 a6
2 a 1 a3 a5 a7
3 A1 A2 A3
4 B 1 B2 B3
n+1 C1 C2 C3

Fourth Class
a1a 2  a o a 3 a1a 4  a o a 5 a1a 6  a o a 7
A1  , A2  , A3 
a1 a1 a1
A1a 3  a1A 2 A a a A
B1  , B2  1 5 1 3
A1 A1
B1A 2  A1B2 B A  A1B3
C1  , C2  1 3
B1 B1
Examine the elements of the first column of the array ao, a1, A1, B1,C1……….W1
a) If any of these elements is negative, we have at least one root on the right of
the imaginary axis and the system is unstable.
b) The number of sign changes in the elemnts of the first column is equal to the
number of root to the right of the imaginary axis.
The system is stable if all the elements in the first column of the array are
positive
Ex:Given the characteristic eqn.

s4 + 3s3 +5s2 + 4s +2= 0
Solution:
Row 3  5  4  11 11
A1  
1 1 5 2 3 3
2 3 4 0 3 2  0
A2  2
3 11 3 2 0 3
4 2.36 0 11 3  4  6
B1   2.36
5 2 11 3
2.36  2
C1  2
2.36
The system is stable
Ex: Apply the Routh’s stability criterion to the equation:

s4 + 2s3 +3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0
Solution:
s4 1350
s3 240
s2150
s-60
s050
The system is unstable.

Fourth Class
Ex:A system has a characteristic equation s 3  9s 2  26s  24  0. Using the Routh
criterion, show that the system is stable.
Solution
q(s) = s 3  9s 2  26s  24
Using the Routh-Hurwitz criterion,
s3 1 26
s2 9 24
s 1 26 0
s 0 24 0
No sign change in 1st column then the system is stable.
Ex:Consider the feedback controlsystem with the characteristic eqn.

K
s 3 + 2s 2  (2  K c )s  c  0
I
Solution:
The corresponding Routh array can now be formed
Row
1 1 2  Kc 0
2 2 Kc 0
I
3 2( 2  K c )  K c  I 0 0
2
4 Kc  I 0 0
The elemnets of the first-column are positive except the third, which can be positive
or negative depending on Kc and τI.
So state the stability
Put 2( 2  K c )  K c  I  0  2( 2  K c )  K c
2 I
If Kc and τI satisfy the condition, then the system is atable
Critical stability
Put the third element=0
i.e 2( 2  K c )  K c
I
For τI=0.1
2( 2  K c )  10 K c 4  8K c
K c  0 .5

Fourth Class
1) if K c  0.5 , the system is stable (all of the elements in the 1st column is +ve)
2) if K c  0.5 , the third element of the 1st column is negative. We have two sign
change in the elements of the first column.
we have two roots to the right of imaginary axis.
Ex:
U
R 1
Kc C
( 1s  1)( 2 s  1)
1
( 3s  1)
1 1
If 1 = 1,  2 = ,  3 =
2 3
Determine Kc for a stable system
Solution:
The char. Eqn.
1
1  Kc 0
1 1
(s  1)( s  1)( s  1)
2 3
1 1
(s  1)( s  1)( s  1)  K c  0
2 3
1 3 1
( s 2  s  1)( s  1)  K c  0
2 2 3
3 2 2
s s s s 3s
     1  Kc  0
6 2 3 2 2
1 3 2 11
s  s  s  1  Kc  0
6 6
Row
1 1/6 11/6
2 1 1+Kc
3 10  K c 0
6
4 1+Kc
Since Kc>0
The system will be stable
If 10-Kc>0
K c  10
Fourth Class
Therfore Kc must within the range 0<Kc< 10
Ex: U
R 3
K c (1  ) 2
s
C
1
0.2s 2  0.4s  1
Study the stability for Kc=2
Solution:
3 1
1  K c (1  )  2  0
s 0.2s 2  0.4s  1
s3 2
1  Kc ( ) 0
s 0.2s  0.4s  1
2
sK  3K c 2
1 ( c ) 0
s 0.2s 2  0.4s  1
0.2s3  0.4s 2  s  2sK c  6K c  0
0.2s3  0.4s 2  (1  2K c )s  6K c  0
Row Row For Kc=2
1 0.2 1+2Kc 1 0.2 5
2 0.4 6Kc 2 0.4 12
3 A1 0 3 2  2.4 0
4 B1 0 0.4
4 1.2 0
0.4(1  2K c )  (1.2K c ) 0.4  0.8K c  1.2K c 0.4  0.4K c
A1   
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.4  0.4K c  0
The system is stable for K c  1
B1  6K c  6K c  0
And K c  0
Therfore Kc must within the range 0 <Kc< 1

Fourth Class
Ex:Designers have developed small, fast, vertical-take off fighter aircraft that are
invisible to radar. This aircraft concept uses quickly turning jet nozzles to steer the
airplane. The control system for the heading or direction control is shown in figure.
Determine the maximum gain of the system for stable operation.
+ controller ( s  20)
R(s) Y(s)
k s ( s  10) 2 Heading
-
Solution
k (s  20) ks  20k ks  20k
G(s) =  2  3
s(s  10) 2
s(s  20s  100) s  20s 2  100s
Characteristic equation,
1+GH = 0
ks  20k
1+ 3 *1  0
s  20s 2  100s
s3  20s 2  100s +ks+20k =0
s3  20s 2  (100  k )s  20k  0
The corresponding Routh array can now be formed
Row
1 1 100+k
2 20 20k
3 a 0
4 b 0
20(100  k )  20k 20 *100  20k  20k

a= = = 100
20 20
a * 20k  0
b= =20k
a
The system is stable, no sign change in 1st column,
b>0
20k >0
k>0
 Range of k is must be k>0

Fourth Class
Homework
Q1 )A single – loop control system is shown in figure.
2(s  1)(s  3)
+ G(s) = 3
R(s s(s  2)(s  4) Y(s)
-
)
Y (s)
(a)Determine closed-loop transfer function T(s) =
R (s)
(b)Determine whether or not the systems given below are stable.
Q2)Determine whether or not the systems given below are stable.
Q3) Determine the range of values of K for which the following system s are
stable.

Fourth Class
Frequency Response Analysis
It is how the output response (amplitude, phase shift) change with the frequency of
the input sinusoidal.
The input frequency is varied, and the output characteristics are computed or
represented as a function of the frequency. Frequency response analysis provides
useful insights into stability and performance characteristics of the control system.
Figure below shows the hypothetical experiment that is conducted.
Figure: How frequency response is defined.
Response of a first-Order System to a Sinusoidal Input

Consider a simple first-order system with a transfer function
y (s ) Kp
G (s )   (1)
F (s)  ps  1
Let F(t) be a sinusoidal input with amplitude A and frequency ω;
F(t) = A sin (ωt)
Then
A
F (s)  2 (2)
s  2
Sub. F (s ) from eq. (2) into eq. (1)
Kp A Kp A
y (s )   2  
 ps  1 s   2
 ps  1 (s  j )(s  j )
Expand into partial fraction and find
C1 C2 C3
y(s)   
s  1 /  p s  j s  j 
Compute the constants C1, C2 and C3 and find the inverse of laplace transform.
Kp A p  Kp A p Kp A
C1  2 2 , C2  2 2 , C3  2 2
p  1 p  1 p  1
Kp A p  t / p Kp A p Kp A
y( t )  e  cos(t )  sin(t )
 p2  2  1  p2  2  1  p2  2  1
t /
As t, then e p  0 , and the first term disappers.
Thus, after a long time, the response of a first order system to a sinusoidal input is
given by:
Fourth Class
Kp A p Kp A
yss ( t )   cos(t )  sin(t )
 p2  2  1  p2  2  1
Kp A
y ss ( t )  2 2 [   p cos(t )  sin(t )] (3)
p  1
Use the follwing trigonometric identity.
p cos  q sin   r sin(   )
p
r  p2  q 2   tan 1
q
q 1 p    p
r  ( p ) 2  1   2p  2  1
2
p   p
  tan 1  tan 1 ( )  tan 1 (  p )
q 1
Then eq.(3) yield
Kp A
yss ( t )  2 2 [(  2p  2  1) sin(t   )]
p  1
Kp A
yss ( t )  sin( t   ) (4)
 p2  2  1
  tan 1 (  p )  Phase lag (5)
From eq.(4) and eq. (5), we observe that:

1) The ultimate response (also referred to as s.s.) of a first order system to a sin
input is also a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency ω.
2) The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is called the “
amplitude ratio” and is a function of the frequency:
K pA
 p2 2  1 Kp
AR  amplitude ratio  
A  p2 2  1
Kp
AR  (6)
 p2 2  1
3) The output wave lags behind (phase lag) the input wave by an angle  >,
which is a function of the frequency  (see eq.(5)).
Input = A sin (ωt) 
A B
Fourth Class
T Output = B sin (ωt-  )
It is the most important methods for stability analysis and used for design purposes
control system.
Suppose the input to the process is sinusoidal signal
Where: A is amplitude
1
ω is frequency (rad/sec) =
T
T is period of one complete cycle (time)
Frequency Response of a Second Order System

For a second order system the transfer function is:
Kp
G (s )  2 2
 s  2s  1
Put s=jω then
1) Amplitude Ratio
Kp
AR 
(1   2 2 ) 2  (2   ) 2
2) Phase shift
2  
  tan 1 (  )
1   2 2
Which is aphase lag since   0
Frequency Response of a Pure Dead-Time Process

G (s)  e  t d s
Put s=jω
 G ( j )  e  j t d 
AR  1
   t d
That is aphase lag since   0
Frequency Response of a Feedback Controllers

1- Propertional controller:
The transfer function is G (s)  K c
Fourth Class
 AR  K c
 0
2- PI controller:
1
The transfer function is G (s)  K c (1  )
I s
1
 AR  K c 1 
( I )2
1
  tan 1 ( ) 0
 I
3- PD controller:
The transfer function is G (s)  K c (1   D s)
AR  K c 1   2D  2
  tan 1 ( D  ) 0
The positive phase shift is called phase lead and implies that the controller output
lead the input.
4-PID controller:
1
The transfer function is G (s)  K c (1    D s)
I s
1 2
AR  K c ( D  ) 1
 I
1
  tan 1 ( D  )
 I
ϕ is + or – ve depending on the values of τD, τI and ω

Fourth Class
Bode Diagrams
The bode diagrams consist of a pair of plots showing:

1. How the logarithm of the amplitude ratio varies with frequency.
2. How the phase shift varies with frequency.
First Order system:

Kp
Amplitude ratio AR  (*)
1   p2 2
Phase lag=   tan 1   p 
AR 1
log   log(1   p2  2 ) (**)
Kp 2
The plot can be carried by considering its asymptotic behaviour as ω0 and as
ω . Then
1. As ω0, then  p   0 and from eq.(*)
AR AR
log  0 or  1.This is the low-frequency asymptote. It is a horizontal line
Kp Kp
AR
passing through the point  1.
Kp
2. As ω, then  p    and from eq.(**)
AR
log   log  p  . This is the high frequency asymptote.
Kp
AR
It is a line with slope -1 passing through the point  1for p   1 .
Kp
3. At the corner  p  1    c
1
corner  c 
p
AR 1
The frequency c is known as the corner frequnecy (and   0.707 )
Kp 2
The phase lag plot
as   0 ,   0
1
as   ,   tan 1 (1)  45o
p
as    ,   tan 1 ( )  90 o
Fourth Class
‫ܴܣ‬
‫ܭ‬௣
߶
or
Phase lag
߬௣ ߱
Figure:Bode diagram for first-order system.
Second –order system

Kp  2
AR    tan 1 ( )
(1    )  ( 2 )
2 2 2 2 1   
2 2
ψ=0.1
‫ܴܣ‬
‫ܭ‬௣
ψ=0.1
߶
or
Phase lag
߬௣ ߱
1
Figure Block diagram for second-order system
 2s 2  2s  1
Fourth Class
AR 1
log   log[(1   2 2 ) 2  ( 2 ) 2 ]
Kp 2
AR 1
1) as   0 , then log   log(1)  0
Kp 2
AR
  1 stright line of a slope=0 (L.F.A)
Kp
0
  tan 1 0
1
AR 1
2) as    , then log   log ( ) 4  2 log ( ) (H.F.A)
Kp 2
It is a straight line with a slope -2 passing through the pointAR=1 and τω=1
1
3)   c 

Pure dead-time system
For the system
AR  1
   d 
as   0 ,   0
as    ,   
1.0
AR
ϕ -180
-360 | | |
1 10 100
ω
Ex: Two systems in series
1 6
G 1 (s )  and G 2 (s) 
2s  1 5s  1
The overall T.F. is
1 6
G (s)  
2s  1 5s  1
1 6
 AR  
1  4 2 1  25 2
log AR  log 6  log( AR )1  log( AR ) 2

Fourth Class
1
1- Region 1: From ω=0 to   , slope of the overall asymptote =0+0=0
5
(i.e. horizontal * going through the point AR=1)
1 1
2- Region 2: From   to   , slope of the overall asymptote =0+(-1)=-1
5 2
1
going through the point AR=1 ,  
5
1
3- Region 3: From   , slope of the overall asyptote =(-1)+(-1)=-2
2
For ϕ
When as   0 , 1  0 , 2  0,   0
When as    , 1  90 , 2  90,   180
1ൗ 1ൗ
1 ߬ଶ ߬ଵ
1 1
5‫ݏ‬+ 1 2‫ݏ‬+ 1
‫ܴܣ‬ ‫ = ݁݌݋݈ݏ‬−1
6
‫ = ݁݌݋݈ݏ‬−1
‫ = ݁݌݋݈ݏ‬−2
0
-45
߶ -90
-135
-180 | |
0.2 ω 0.5
Feedback Controller
1-Propertional controller
AR  K c   0
‫ܴܣ‬
1.0
‫ܭ‬௖
ϕ 0

Fourth Class
2-Propertional Integral controller (PI)
1
AR  K c 1 
( I ) 2
1
  tan 1 ( )0
 I
AR 1 1
log( )  log(1  )
Kc 2 (  I ) 2
1- Low frequencyasymptote
1 AR
as   0 ,  1 thenn log( )   log(  I )
(  I ) 2
Kc
Consequently, the LFA is a straight line with slope=-1
1
  tan 1   90o
0
2- High frequency asymptote
1 AR AR
as    ,  0 then  log( )  0 i.e 1
(  I ) 2
Kc Kc
AR
HFA is a horizontal line at value 1
Kc
For the ϕ
as   0 ,   90
as   c ,   45
as    ,   0

Fourth Class
-1
Figure Bode diagram for PI controller.
2-Propertional Derivative controller (PD)

AR  K c 1   D2  2
  tan 1 (  D )  0
1) Low frequency asymptote
AR 1 AR
as   0 , log( )  log( D2  2 )  0  1 (L.F.A) slope=0
Kc 2 Kc
  tan 1 0  0o
2) High frequency asymptote
AR 1
as    , log( )  log( D2  2 )  log( D ) (H.F.A) slope=+1
Kc 2
  tan 1 0  90 o
as   0 ,   0
as   c ,   45o
as    ,   90 o

Fourth Class
+1
ω=1/τD
Figure Bode diagram for PD controller.

3-Propertional Integral Derivative controller (PID)
AR 1 2
 1  ( D  )
Kc  I
1
  tan 1 ( D  )
 I
AR 1 2
1) as   0 then  1 ( ) PI Controller
Kc  I
AR
2) as    then  1  ( D ) 2 PD Controller
Kc
1 AR
3) as   then  1  ( D  1) 2
I Kc
1 AR 1 2
4) as   then  1  (1  )
D Kc  I
Frequency Response of non-interacting capactine in sereies
G (s )  G 1 (s)  G 2 (s)  G 3 (s)  .......... ..  G n (s)
AR t  AR 1  AR 2  AR 3  ............  AR n
log AR t  log AR 1  log AR 2  log AR 3  .......... ..  log AR n
 t  1   2  3  ............   n

Fourth Class
Ex:Bode Digram of PID Controller
1
G1 (s)  10 (1   5s )
10s
1
c1 (s)   0 .1 signal ( 1)
10
1
c1 (s)   0.2 signal ( 1)
5
஺ோ
௄೎ 1.0
1ൗ 1ൗ
߬ூ ߬஽
90
+45
ϕ
0
-45
-90
1ൗ
߬ூ ω 1ൗ
߬஽
Ex:Bode plots of open loop system
Gc Gf Gp
YSP(s) 1 10 5e 0.2s
K c (1  ) Y(s)
 Is 0.1s  1 ( 2s  1)(s  1)
Ym(s)
2
0.5s  1
The Open loop T.F. of the feedback control
G OL  G c G f G p G m
1 1 1 1
G OL  100K c (1  )   e  0. 2 s
 I s 0.1s  1 ( 2s  1)(s  1) (0.5s  1)
With Kc=4 and τI=0.25
K=400

Fourth Class
1
(1 + )
0.25‫ݏ‬
‫ = ݁݌݋݈ݏ‬−1 1
1
0.1‫ݏ‬+ 1
‫ = ݁݌݋݈ݏ‬−2
‫ܴܣ‬ 1
‫ܭ‬௖ 0.5‫ݏ‬+ 1
1
‫ = ݁݌݋݈ݏ‬−3 ‫ݏ‬+ 1
1
2‫ݏ‬+ 1
‫ = ݁݌݋݈ݏ‬−4
0.1 0.5 1 2 4 10
0 ‫ = ݁݌݋݈ݏ‬−3
-45
‫ = ݁݌݋݈ݏ‬−4
-90
߶ .0
-135
-180
ܱ‫݈݈ܽݎ݁ݒ‬
Ex: Plot the B.D. for the open loop T.F. for the fig. below
G U Gp
c
R K c (1   D s) 1
(s  1) (0.1s  1)
2 C
Ym(s) s

e 10
For Kc=10 and τD=0.5 the overall transfer function is

s

10(0.5s  1)e 10
G OL (s) 
(s  1)2 (0.1s  1)
Overall Bode diagram
1  1
G 1 (s )  c1   1 stright line slope=-1
1s  1 1
1  1
G 2 (s )  c 2   1 stright line slope=-1
1s  1 1
G 3 (s)  0.5s  1  c3 
1
 2 stright line slope=+1
0. 5
1  1
G 4 (s )  c 4   10 stright line slope=-1
0.1s  1 0 .1
s

G 5 (s )  e 10 stright line slope=0

Fourth Class
Amplitude Ratio Curve Prediction
ω SL1 SL2 SLC SL3 sLd SLTotal
0-1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1-2 -1 -1 0 0 0 -2
2-10 -1 -1 +1 0 0 -1
10- -1 -1 +1 -1 0 -2
Phase Lag Curve Prediction

ω ϕ L1 ϕL2 ϕC ϕ L3 ϕd SLTotal
0 0 0 0 0 - -
1 -45 -45 0 - - -
2 - - 45 - - -
10 - - - -45 - -
 -90 -90 90 -90 - -
Figure: Block diagram for: (a) Amplitude ratio; (b) phase angle.

Fourth Class

Control 4 DR - Ghanem

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‫ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﻭﻳﺔ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ‬

‫‪Save from: http://www.uotechnology.edu.iq/dep-chem-eng/index.htm‬‬

Figure (1) Open loop system

Figure (2) Manual Control system

Figure (3) Automatic Control system (Closed Loop)

Process Control /Lec. 1 1

System: it is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain

Plant: it is the machine of which a particular quantity or condition is to be controlled.

Controller: A device which receives a measurement of the process variable,

Feedback Control: A type of control whereby the controller receives a feedback

Transmitter: A device that converts a process measurement (pressure, flow, level,

Manipulated variable: process input which is adjusted to maintain the controlled

X(s) Y(s) Transfer function

Transfer Function: it is the ratio of the Laplace transform of output ( response

Final control element

Advantage: more accurate than the open-loop control system.

Process Control /Lec. 1 3

Process Control /Lec. 1 4

1. The Laplace transforms

Example:Find the Laplace Transform f (t )  1

Example:Find the Laplace Transform f (t )  e at

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of sin(wt ) & g (t )  cos(wt )

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of

Process Control /Lec. 2 5

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  e at cos(bt )

1.3 Laplace Transform of the Derivative

Process Control /Lec. 2 6

1.4 Laplace Transform of the integrs

Process Control /Lec. 2 7

As inabovefigure,it is clear that f(t) may be represented by the difference of two

2. Use Table of Laplace Transform to determine

Process Control /Lec. 2 8

9 e at cos bt sa sa

Process Control /Lec. 2 9

Example: Solve the IVP y   y  t , y (0)  1, y (0)  1.

Process Control /Lec. 3 10

Process Control /Lec. 3 11

1.6 Final Value Theorm

1.7 Initial Value Theorm

1.8 Special Functions

If A=1 the change is called unit step change

Process Control /Lec. 3 12

3. Impulse function A Area=1

Unit Impulse Time

Process Control /Lec. 3 13

1.9 Disturbance function (complex function)

Process Control /Lec. 3 14

0 0.5 1.5 2 3 3.5

1. Determine the inverse Laplace transform

2. Determine the partial fraction expansion

 L1[ F ( s )]  3et  2e3t

Process Control /Lec. 3 16

2. Dynamic behavior of first order system

2.1 The transfer function:

X(s) Y(s) Transfer

2.2Development of T.F for first order system:

Process Control /Lec. 4 17

The dynamic behavious must be defined by a deviatopn variables.

1.3 Properties of transfer functions

‫ିܮ‬ଵܻ(‫ିܮ = )ݐ(ܻ = )ݏ‬ଵ‫)ݏ(ܩ‬. ܺ(‫)ݏ‬

x(s) G(s) y(s)