Chapter 3: Redox Reactions

3.1 Redox Reaction

1. Redox reactions are reactions that both oxidation and reduction take place
simultaneously.
2. Oxidation is the process that:
(a) Gains oxygen
(b) Loses hydrogen
(c) Loses electrons
(d) Increases in the oxidation number
3. Meanwhile reduction is the process that:
(a) Loses oxygen
(b) Gains hydrogen
(c) Gains electrons
(d) Decreases in oxidation number
4. In a redox reaction, when one substance is oxidised, then the other one substance is
reduced.
5. An oxidising agent is a substance that cause oxidation process to happen and a
reducing agent is a substance that cause reduction process to happen.
6. Example:
The reaction between copper(II) oxide and carbon.
Oxidised

(Gain oxygen)

2CuO(s) + C(s) ® 2Cu(s) + CO2 (g)

Reduced

(Loss of oxygen)
Oxidising agent: Copper(II) oxide
Carbon is oxidised to carbon dioxide by copper(II) oxide
Copper(II) oxide is reduced to copper
Reducing agent: Carbon
Carbon reduces copper(II) oxide to copper
Carbon is oxidised to carbon dioxide

3.1.1 Redox reactions based on loss or gain of hydrogen

1. Oxidation is the process of losing hydrogen.

2. So, if a substance loses hydrogen during reaction, it means that the substance is
oxidised.
 3. Example:
Ethanol can be oxidised to ethanol.
oxidation (loses hydrogen)

2NH3(g) + 3Br2(g) ® N2(s) + 6HBr(g)

Oxidising
agent

a. Ammonia loses hydrogen. So it means that ammonia is oxidised to become

nitrogen. This is an oxidation process.
b. Bromine causes ammonia to be oxidised, so bromine is the oxidising agent.
reduction (gains hydrogen)

2NH3(g) + 3Br2(g) ® N2(s) + 6HBr(g)

Reducing
agent
a. Bromine is reduced to hydrogen bromine by gaining the hydrogen that lost by
ammonia.
b. Ammonia causes bromine to be reduced, so ammonia is the reducing agent.

3.1.2 Redox reactions based on loss or gain of oxygen

1. Oxidation is the process of gaining oxygen. So if a substance gains oxygen during

reaction, it means that the substance is oxidised.
2. Example:
The extraction of iron from its ore.

Reduction (Loses oxygen)

Fe2O3 + 3CO ® 2Fe + 3CO2

Oxidation (Gain oxygen)

a. Iron(III) oxide loses oxygen. It is reduced to iron. This is a reduction process.

b. Carbon monoxide causes iron(III) oxide to be reduced to iron. So carbon monoxide is
an oxidising agent.
c. Carbon monoxide gains oxygen. Iron(III) oxide is oxidised into carbon dioxide. This
is an oxidising process.
d. Iron(III) oxide causes carbon monoxide to be oxidised to carbon dioxide. So, iron(III)
oxide is a reducing agent.
Experiment

Aim: To investigate redox reaction involving oxygen.

A. Combustion of metal in oxygen

Materials: Magnesium ribbon, sandpaper, gas jar containing oxygen gas.

Apparatus: Tongs, Bunsen burner.

Procedure:

1. A piece of 5 cm magnesium ribbon is cleaned with sand paper.

2. The magnesium ribbon is then placed into the gas jar that contains oxygen gas with
tongs.
3. The changes that happen in the gas jar are observed and recorded.

Observations:

The magnesium ribbon burns with a bright white flame producing a white ash.

Discussion:

1. Magnesium burns in oxygen and produces white ash.

2. The equation of this reaction is:
oxidation (gains oxygen)

2Mg(s) + O2(g) ® 2MgO(s)

Oxidising
agent

3. Magnesium gains oxygen and forms magnesium oxide. This represents that
magnesium is oxidised to magnesium oxide.
 4. Oxygen gas causes magnesium to be oxidised to magnesium oxide. So, oxygen gas
acts as an oxidising agent in this reaction.

B. Heating of metal oxide with carbon

Materials: Copper(II) oxide, carbon powder.

Apparatus: Crucible, pipe-clay triangle, tripod stand, spatula, Bunsen burner.

Procedure:

Mixture

1. A spatula of copper(II) oxide is placed into a crucible.

2. Another spatula of carbon powder is then added into the copper(II) oxide.
3. Two of the substances are mixed thoroughly in the crucible and heated strongly.
4. Observations are recorded.

Observations:

Reddish-brown globules are formed.

Discussion:

1. When copper(II) oxide is heated with carbon, copper which is reddish-brown in

colour is formed.
2. The equation of this reaction:
reduction (loses oxygen)

2CuO(s) + C(s) ® 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)

Oxidising Reducing
agent agent

oxidation (gains oxygen)

 3. Copper(II) oxide loses oxygen atom to form copper. This means that copper(II) oxide
undergoes reduction process.
4. Copper(II) oxide is reduced by carbon. So carbon is said to act as reducing agent in
this reaction.
5. Meanwhile, carbon gains oxygen to form carbon dioxide. This proves that carbon
undergoes oxidation process.
6. Carbon dioxide s oxidised by copper(II) oxide. So, copper(II) oxide is said to act as
oxidising agent in this reaction.

Conclusion:

1. In the combustion of metal in oxygen, the metal will be oxidised to metal oxide by
oxygen.
2. In the heating of metal oxide with carbon, the metal oxide will be reduced by carbon
to form metal and the carbon will be oxidised by the metal to form carbon dioxide.

3.1.3 Redox reactions based on Transfer of Electrons

1. Oxidation is the process of losing electrons while reduction is the process of gaining
electrons.
2. During a redox reaction, transfer of electrons happens between the reactants.
3. The reactant that loses electron undergoes oxidation process and the reactant that
gains electron undergoes reduction process.
4. Example: Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce zinc chloride solution and
hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ® ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

(a) In this reaction, zinc is oxidised to zinc chloride. Zinc loses its electron to form
zinc ions in zinc chloride solution.
(b) Zinc acts as the reducing agent which loses electrons and is oxidised.
(c) The ionic equation of oxidation process: Zn(s) ® Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
(d) Meanwhile hydrochloric acid is reduced to hydrogen gas in this reaction.
Hydrochloric acid gains electron that is lost by zinc and forms hydrogen gas.
(e) Hydrochloric acid acts as an oxidising agent in this reaction because it accepts
electrons and is reduced by zinc.
(f) The ionic equation of reduction process: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- ® H2 (g)
(g) The overall equation: Zn (s) + 2H+ (aq) ® Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
3.1.4 Redox reactions based on changes in oxidation number

1. There are some redox reactions that occur without involving hydrogen or oxygen. In
addition, there are also some redox reactions involving molecules that do not involve
in complete transfer of electrons.
2. So, these kinds of oxidation and reduction reactions are discussed in terms of the
changes of oxidation numbers.
3. The oxidation number or oxidation state of an element is an arbitrary charge of the
atom in the element after the transfer of electrons.
4. There are some rules for assigning the oxidation numbers.

Rules for assigning oxidation numbers

Rule 1: The oxidation numbers of the elements that are in free states are 0. Example: The
oxidation number of each atom in Cu, Mg, Zn, Cl2, H2 and O2 are 0.

Rule 2: For monoatomic ions, the oxidation number is same with the charge on the ions

Ion K+ Zn2+ Al3+ Cl- S2- N3-

Oxidation +1 +2 +3 -1 -2 -3
number
Rule 3: In compound, the more electronegative atom is given with the negative oxidation
number and the less electronegative atom is given with the positive oxidation number.

Below shows the electronegativity of some elements:

Iodine, bromine, chlorine, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine

Electronegativity increases

(a) The oxidation number of fluorine in the compound is -1 because it is the least
electronegative atom.
(b) The oxidation number of other halogens such as chlorine, bromine and iodine in
the compound are always -1 except when they combine with other more
electronegative elements.
Example:

HCl Cl2O7

Oxidation
Number:
+1 -1 +7 -2
(c) The oxidation number of hydrogen in compound is always +1, except in metal
hydrides. Metal hydride is a compound that contains hydrogen and metal only. So
the oxidation number of hydrogen in metal hydrides is -1.
Example:

H2 O MgH2

+1 -2 +7 -1

(d) The oxidation numbers of oxygen in all of the compounds are -2 except in fluorine
compounds and peroxides. The oxidation number of oxygen in peroxides is -1.
Example:
PbO F2 O

+2 -2 -17 +2

Rule 4: The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in the formula of a
compound is 0.
Example:
CO2 Sum of the oxidation numbers

= (+4) + 2(-2)

=0
+4 -2

Rule 5: For polyatomic ions, the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms
are same with charge on the ions.
Example:
NH4+ Sum of the oxidation numbers

= (-3) + 4(+1)

= +1
-3 +1
3.1.5 Oxidation number and IUPAC nomenclature of compounds
1. For an ionic compound or a covalent compound that contains metal that has more than
one oxidation number, the oxidation number is stated in brackets with Roman
numerals after the name of metals.
2. IUPAC names of some compound that contains metal:
Formula of Oxidation number of IUPAC name
compound metal
FeCl2 +2 Iron(II) chloride
FeCl3 +3 Iron(III) chloride
CuCl +1 Copper(I) chloride
CuSO4 +2 Copper(II) sulphate
Mn(NO3)2 +2 Manganese(II) nitrate
MnO2 +4 Manganese(IV) oxide

3. The metallic elements in group 1, 2 and 3 always have the oxidation number +1, +2
and +3. Thus, according to the IUPAC nomenclature, Roman numerals are not used in
these elements.
4. For negative ions that contain metal and have more than one oxidation number,
Roman numerals are usually stated in the brackets after the name of the metal.

Formula Oxidation number of metal IUPAC name

in anion
K2MnO4 +6 Potassium manganate(VI)
KMnO4 +7 Potassium manganate(VII)
K2CrO4 +6 Potassium chromate(VI)
K2Cr2O7 +6 Potassium dichromate(VI)

5. Oxoanions are anions that contain an oxygen atom and non-metal atom. For the non-
metals that have more than one oxidation number in oxoanion, Roman numerals are
stated in the brackets besides the name of the ion that contains that element.
Formula Systematic name Traditional name
KNO2 Potassium nitrate(III) Potassium nitrate
KNO3 Potassium nitrate(V) Potassium nitrate
HNO2 Nitric(III) acid Nitrous acid
HNO3 Nitric(V) acid Nitric acid
H2SO3 Sulphuric(IV) acid Sulphurous acid
H2SO4 Sulphuric(VI) acid Sulphuric acid
NaOCl Sodium chlorate(l) Sodium hypochlorite
NaClO3 Sodium chlorate(V) Sodium chlorate
3.1.6 Type of Redox Reaction

A. Conversion of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions

1. Iron(II) ions can be converted into iron(III) ions through oxidation process.
2. The half equation for the oxidation process of Fe2+ ion:
Fe2+ (aq) ® Fe3+ (aq) + e-
3. Oxidising agents that can be used to oxidise Fe2+ ion to Fe3+ ion
(a) Chlorine
(b) Bromine
(c) Acidic potassium manganate(VII)
(d) Acidic potassium dichromate(VI)
4. As oxidising agents that are used to oxidise Fe2+ ion to Fe3+ ion
(a) Cl2(ak) + 2e¯ ® 2Cl-(ak)
(b) Br2(ak) + 2e- ® 2Br-(ak)
(c) MnO4-(ak) + 8H+(ak) + 5e- ® Mn2+(ak) + 4H2O(c)
(d) Cr2O72-(ak) + 14H+(ak) 6e- ® 2Cr3+(ak) + 7H2O(c)

5. Iron(III) ions can be converted to iron(II) ions through reduction process.

6. The half equation for the reduction process of Fe3+ ion:
Fe3+ (aq) + e- ® Fe2+ (aq)
7. Reducing agents that can be used to reduce Fe3+ ions to Fe2+ ions:
(a) Zinc
(b) Magnesium
(c) Tin(II) solution
(d) Potassium iodide
8. As reducing agents that used to reduce Fe3+ ions:
(a) Zn(s) ® Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
(b) Mg(s) ®Mg2+ (aq) + 2e-
(c) Sn2+ (aq) ® Sn4+ (aq) + 2e-
(d) 2I- (aq) ® I2(aq) + 2e-

Experiment

Aim: To investigate the oxidation of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions and the reduction of Fe3+ ions to
Fe2+ ions.

Materials: Iron(II) sulphate solution, iron(III) sulphate solution, acidic potassium

manganate(VII) solution, zinc powder, sodium hydroxide solution

Apparatus: Dropper, spatula, test tubes, test tube track, Bunsen burner, filter funnel

A. Conversion of iron(II) ions to iron(III) ions

1. 2 cm3 of iron(II) sulphate solution is poured into a test tube.
 2. 2 cm3 of iron(III) sulphate solution is then added into iron(II) sulphate solution.
3. The mixture is then shaken gently.
4. Sodium hydroxide solution is added slowly into the mixture until in excess.
5. Observations are recorded.

B. Changing of iron(III) ions to iron(II) ions

1. 2 cm3 of iron(III) sulphate solution is poured into a test tube.
2. 2 g of zinc powder is added into iron(III) sulphate solution.
3. The mixture is filtered.
4. Sodium hydroxide solution is added slowly into the filtrate until in excess.
5. Observations are recorded.

Observations:

Activity Reagent Observations

A Acidic potassium The light green iron(II) sulphate solution changes into
manganate(VII) brown.
solution The purple colour of acidic potassium manganate(VII)
solution becomes colourless.

Sodium A brown precipitate that is insoluble in excess sodium

hydroxide hydroxide solution is formed.
solution
B Zinc powder A section of zinc powder dissolves. The brown iron(III)
sulphate solution turns into light green.

Sodium A dirty green precipitate that is insoluble in excess sodium

hydroxide hydroxide solution is formed.
solution

Discussion:

A. Changing of iron(II) ions to iron(III) ions

1. Fe2+ ion is oxidised to Fe3+ ion by acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution.
2. The presence of iron(III) ions are confirmed through the brown precipitate that is
insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
3. Iron(II) ion donates electron to form iron(III) ion.
4. The half equation of the oxidation process is:
Fe2+ (aq) ® Fe3+ (aq) + e-
5. Manganate(VII) ion in acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution accepts electron
to form manganese(II) ion.
6. The half equation that represents the reduction process:
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5e- ® Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2O (l)
 7. In this reaction, acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution acts as oxidising agent
and iron(II) sulphate solution acts as reducing agent.
8. The overall equation of this reaction is:
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) ® Mn2+ (aq) + 5Fe3+ (aq) + 4H2O (l)

B. Changing of iron(III) ions to iron(II) ions

1. Iron(III) ion is reduced to iron(II) ion by zinc powder.
2. The presence of iron(II) ion is proved by the dirty green precipitate that is
insoluble in the excess sodium hydroxide solution.
3. Zinc atom donates electron to form zinc ion. And this shows that the zinc powder
dissolves in iron(III) sulphate solution.
4. The half equation that represents the oxidation process of zinc atom to zinc ion:
Zn(s) ® Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
5. Iron(III) ion accepts electron to form iron(II) ion.
6. The half equation that represents the reduction process:
Fe3+ + e- ® Fe2+
7. In this reaction, iron(III) ion acts as oxidising agent and zinc acts as reducing
agent.
8. The overall equation of this reaction:
Zn(s) + 2Fe3+(aq)® Zn2+(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq)

Conclusion:

1. Acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution acts as oxidising agent to convert iron(II)

ion to iron(III) ion.
2. Zinc acts as a reducing agent to convert iron(III) ion to iron(II) ion.

B. Displacement of metal from its salt solution

1. Electrochemical series arranges the metals according to their tendency to lose electron
and form positive ion.
2. Below shows the electrochemical series:

K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Al3+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Sn2+, Pb2+, H+, Cu2+, Ag+

Electropositivity increases
 3. The higher the position of the metal in electrochemical series:
(a) The more electropositive the metal.
(b) The easier the metal to donate electron and form positive ion.
(c) The easier the metal to undergo oxidation process.
(d) The stronger the metal as reducing agent.
4. A more electropositive metal will displace the less electropositive metal from its salt
solution.
5. Example:
(a) Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) ® MgSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
Ionic equation: Mg(s) + Cu2+ (aq) ® Mg2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
Explanation: Magnesium is more electropositive than copper in electrochemical
series. So magnesium displaces copper from copper(II) sulphate solution.
(b) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s) ® ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
Copper does not displace zinc from zinc sulphate solution because zinc is more
electropositive than copper in electrochemical series.
6. The more electropositive metal will act as reducing agent. It is because the more
electropositive metal tends to donate electron and undergo oxidation process.
7. On the contrary, the less electropositive metal acts as oxidising agent. The less
electropositive agent tends to accept electron and undergo reduction process.

Experiment

Aim: To study the redox reaction in terms of displacement reaction of a metal from its salt
solution.

Apparatus: Beakers.

Materials: Copper(II) sulphate solution and silver nitrate solution, zinc plate and copper plate,
sand paper.
Procedure:

1. A piece of zinc and a piece copper are cleaned with sand paper.
2. 2 cm3 of copper(II) sulphate solution is poured into beaker P and 2 cm3 of silver
nitrate solution is poured into beaker Q.
3. The zinc plate is added into copper(II) sulphate solution and copper plate is added into
silver nitrate solution.
4. The mixture is left aside for 30 minutes.
5. The changes of colour and metals are observed and recorded.

Observation:

Beaker Observation
P - A section of zinc place is dissolved.
- A brown precipitate is deposited on the zinc plate.
- The blue copper(II) sulphate solution turns into colourless.
Q - The copper plate dissolves.
- A greyish-black precipitate is deposited on the copper plate.
- The colourless solution turns into blue colour.

Discussion:

1. In beaker P, zinc displaces copper from copper(II) sulphate solution.

(a) Zinc is more electropositive than copper. Thus, zinc acts as reducing agent and
donates electron to form zinc ions.
Half equation of oxidation process:
Zn(s) ® Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
(b) Copper(II) ions act as oxidising agent and accept electron from zinc to form
copper. The presence of copper is proved by the greyish-black precipitate.
Half equation of reducing process:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ® Cu(s)
(c) The blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution faded because the concentration of
copper(II) ions decreases.
(d) The overall equation: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) ® Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

2. In beaker Q, copper displaces silver metal from silver nitrate solution.

(a) Copper is more electropositive than silver. Thus, copper acts as reducing agent
and donates electron to form copper(II) ions.
Half equation of oxidising process:
Cu(s) ® Cu2+ (aq) +2e-
(b) Silver ions act as oxidising agent and accepts electron copper to form silver metal.
Half equation of reducing process:
 Ag+ (aq) + e- ® Ag(s)
(c) The colourless solution turns into blue because the concentration of copper(II)
ions in the solution increases.
(d) The overall equation:
Cu(s) + 2Ag+ (aq) ® Cu2+ (aq) + 2Ag(s)

Conclusion:
During the displacement reaction, the more electropositive metal will act as reducing agent.
The more electropositive metal will displace the less electropositive ions from its solution
and form metals.

C. Displacement reactions of a Halogen from a halide solution by another halogen s a

redox reaction.
1. The higher the position of the halogen in group 17, the stronger the oxidising strength
of the halogen.
2. Below shows the reactivity of the halogens:

Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine

Electronegativity increases

3. A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from the solution of its
halide ions.
4. Example:
(a) Chlorine is more reactive than bromine. So chlorine displaces bromine from a
potassium bromide solution.
Cl2 (aq) + 2KBr (aq) ® 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
(b) Bromine is more reactive than iodine. So bromine displaces iodine from
potassium iodide solution.
Br2 (aq) + 2KI(aq) ® 2KBr (aq) + I2 (aq)
5. Halogens can be identified by adding 1,1,1- trichloroethane (CH3CCl3) to its aqueous
solution.

Below shows the colour of halogens in 1,1,1- trichloroethane:

Halogen Colour
Chlorine Colourless
Bromine Brown
Iodine Purple
Experiment

Aim: To study the displacement reactions between halogens and halide ions.

Apparatus: Test tubes, dropper.

Materials: 1,1,1-trichloroethane, chlorine water, liquid bromine, potassium chloride solution,

potassium iodide solution, iodine solution, potassium bromide solution.

KBr(aq)

Procedure:
1. 2 cm3 of potassium bromide solution is poured into a test tube.
2. A few drops of chlorine water are added into potassium bromide solution.
3. The mixture is shaken gently.
4. 2 cm3 of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is then added into the mixture and shaken vigorously.
5. The test tube is left for a few minutes. The colour of the 1,1,1-trichloroethane layer is
recorded.
6. Step 1 to 5 are repeated using the following mixtures:
(a) Chlorine water and potassium iodide solution
(b) Liquid bromine and potassium chloride solution
(c) Liquid bromide and potassium iodide solution
(d) Iodine solution and potassium bromide solution
(e) Iodine solution and potassium chloride solution

Observation:
Mixture Colour of CH3CCl3 Halogen in CH3CCl3 Has displacement
layer layer reaction occurred?
Cl2(aq) + KBr(aq) Brown Bromine Yes
Cl2(aq) + Kl(aq) Purple Iodine Yes
Br2(l) + KCl(aq) Brown #Bromine No
Br2(l) + KI(aq) Purple Iodine Yes
I2(aq) + KBr(aq) Purple *Iodine No
I2(aq) + KCl(aq) Purple *Iodine No
Discussion:
1. When chlorine water is added to potassium bromide solution, the colourless solution
turns into brown. It is because chlorine is more electronegative than bromine, so it
displaces bromine from potassium bromide solution.

oxidation

Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) ® 2KCl(aq) + Br2(l)

reduction

2. In the reaction, bromide ion is oxidised by releasing electrons to become bromine.

Meanwhile chlorine molecule is reduced by accepting electrons from bromide ion.
The half equation of reduction process:
2Br- (aq) ® Br2 (l) + 2e-
The half equation of reduction process:
Cl2 (aq) + 2e- ® 2Cl- (aq)

3. If 1,1,1- trichloroethane is added to the reaction mixture and shaken, two liquid layers
are formed. The lower organic layer (1,1,1- trichloroethane) has a brown colour and
shows the presence of bromine. This means that the bromide ions have been oxidised
to bromine.
4. (a) Displacement reaction between chlorine water and potassium iodide:

reduction

Cl2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) ® 2KCl (aq) + I2(aq)

oxidation

(c) Displacement reaction between liquid bromine and potassium iodide

reduction

Br2 (l) + 2KI(aq) ® 2KBr (aq) + I2 (aq)

oxidation

(d) Br2 (l) + 2KI(aq) ® no reaction

It is because romine is less reactive than chlorine.
 (e) (i) I2 (aq) + KBr(aq) ® no reaction
(ii) I2 (aq) + KCl(aq) → no reaction
This is because iodine is less reactive than bromine and chlorine.

Conclusion:

1. Chlorine displaces bromine from potassium bromide solution and iodine from
potassium iodide solution. Bromine displaces iodine from iodide solution but does not
displace chlorine from chloride solution. Iodine does not displace chlorine from
chloride solution or bromine from bromide solution.
2. A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from its halide solution.

D. Electron transfer at a distance as a redox reaction

1. The electron transfer occurs when the oxidising agent and reducing agent are
separated.
2. When the oxidation process occurs, electrons will be donated. Meanwhile when the
reduction process occurs, the electrons will be accepted.
3. Oxidising agents will act as positive electrode and reducing agent will act as negative
electrode.
4. Reducing agent which acts as negative electrode will donate electrons and the
electrons that have been donated will be accepted by the oxidising agent.
5. Below shows the apparatus set up in which the transfer of electrons occur at a
distance.

6. U-tube is used to separate the oxidising agent and reducing agent.

7. Sulphuric acid which acts as electrolyte is used as salt bridges to allow the ions move
through it.
 8. In this reaction, acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution acts as oxidising agent and
iron(II) sulphate solution acts as reducing agent.
9. Iron(II) sulphate solution undergoes oxidation process and donates electron.
The half equation of oxidation process:
Fe2+ ® Fe3+ + e-
10. Acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution undergoes reduction process and accepts
electron.
The half equation of reduction process:
MnO4- (ak) + 8H+(ak) + 5e- ® Mn2+ (ak) + 4H2O (ce)

Experiment

Aim: To study the redox reaction by the transfer of electrons at a distance.

Materials: Acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution, iron(II) sulphate solution, dilute

sulphuric acid, potassium iodide solution, acidic potassium dichromate(VI) solution, starch
solution, sodium hydroxide solution.

Apparatus: U-tube, dropper, carbon electrodes, galvanometer, retort stand, connecting wire
with crocodile clips.

Procedure:

1. A U-tube is half-filled with dilute sulphuric acid.

2. Iron(II) sulphate solution is added to the left arm of U-tube until 2 cm high by using a
dropper.
3. Acidic potassium manganate(VII) is then added into the right arm of U-tube by using
the same method.
4. Two carbon electrodes are placed into each arm of the U-tube.
5. The electrodes are connected to galvanometer by electric wire.
6. The deflection of the galvanometer is observed to determine the positive terminal and
negative terminal.
7. The apparatus is left aside for 30 minutes and changes are recorded.
8. By using a dropper, a few drops of iron(II) sulphate solution is removed and placed
into a test tube. Sodium hydroxide solution is then added into the test tube until in
excess.
9. Step 1 to 7 are repeated by using potassium iodide solution and acidic potassium
dichromate(VI) solution.
10. A small quantity of potassium iodide is removed and mixed with a few drops of starch
solution.

Observation:

1. Iron(II) sulphate solution and acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution:

Observation Inference

The carbon electron which is immersed in the
acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution
acts as positive terminal and the another
carbon electrode which is immersed in
iron(II) sulphate solution acts as negative
terminal.
Electrons flow through the negative terminal
to positive terminal.
Electrons flow from iron(II) sulphate solution
to acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution.

The green colour iron(II) sulphate solution Fe2+ ion is oxidised to Fe3+ ion.
turns into yellow.

The purple colour acidic potassium The concentration of manganate(VII) ion

manganate(VII) solution turns into decreases.
colourless.

A brown precipitate that is insoluble in Fe2+ ion is oxidised to Fe3+ ion.

excess sodium hydroxide solution is formed.

2. Potassium iodide solution and acidic potassium dichromate(VI) solution:

Observation Inference

The carbon electron which is immersed in the
acidic potassium dichromate(VI) solution
acts as positive terminal and the another
carbon electrode which is immersed in
potassium iodide solution acts as negative
terminal.
Electrons flow through the negative terminal
to positive terminal.
Electrons flow from potassium iodide
solution to acidic potassium dichromate(VI)
solution.

The colourless potassium iodide solution Iodide ion is oxidised into iodine molecule.
turns into brown.

The orange colour acidic potassium Dichromate(VI) ions turn into chromium(III)
dichromate(VI) solution turns into green . ions.

Blue-black colour is produced. Iodide ion is oxidised into iodine molecule.

Discussion:

1. Iron(II) sulphate solution and acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution

(a) At negative terminal,
i. Fe2+ ion is oxidised to Fe3+ ion and electron is released.

Oxidation number of iron increases

+2 +3
from +2 to +3. Fe2+ reducing agent.
Fe2+ ® Fe3+ + e-
 ii. The carbon electrode that is immersed in iron(II) sulphate solution is
negatively charged because electron released.
iii. Electron flows through the electric wire to positive terminal.
iv. The green colour iron(II) sulphate solution turns into yellow when Fe2+ ion
is oxidised to Fe3+ ion.
(b) At positive terminal
i. Manganate(VII) ion is reduced to manganese(II) ion. Electron is accepted
by manganese(II) ion.
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- ® Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)

ii. The purple colour acidic potassium manganate(VII) solution turns into
colourless.

The overall equation:

5Fe2+(aq) + MnO4(aq) + 8H+(aq) 5Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

2. Potassium iodide solution and acidic potassium dichromate(VI) solution

(a) At negative terminal
i. Iodide ion is oxidised to iodine molecule.

Oxidation number of iodine increases

-1 0

2I- (aq) ® I2 (aq) + 2e- from -1 to 0.

colourless brown

(b) At positive terminal

i. Dichromate(VI) ion is reduced to chromium(III) ion.

reduction

+6 +3

Cr2O7 (aq) + 14H (aq) + 6e ® 2Cr (aq) + 7H2O (l)

2- + - 3+

orange green

ii. The oxidation number of kromium decreases from +6 to +3.

The overall equation:

Cr2O2-(aq) + 6Fe2+(aq) + 14H+(aq) ® 2Cr3+(aq) + 6Fe2+(aq) + 7H2O(l)

Conclusion: The electrons flow through the wire from negative terminal to positive terminal.
 3.2 Corrosion as a Redox Reaction

Corrosion of metals
1. Corrosion of metals is a redox reaction where the metal loses electron and form
positive ion.
M ® Mn+ + ne-
metal metal ion
2. Metal transfers electron to water and oxygen gas which act as oxidising agent to
accept electron.
Oxidation process: M®Mn+ + ne-
Reduction process: O2 (g) + 2H2O (ce) + 4e- ® 4OH-

3. There are two conditions required for rusting:

(a) The presense of oxygen gas
(b) The presense of water
4. Descending the electrochemical series, the electropostivity of metals decreases. Thus,
the higher the position of the metal in electrochemical series, the more electropositive
the metal is and the easier the metal corrodes through the loss of electron.

Electrochemical series

K Very electropositive.
Na Corrodes easily.
Mg
Based on the
Al
electropositivity factor
Zn alone, the more
increase in Fe electropositive a metal is,
electropositivity Sn the easier it loses its
Pb electrons and the easier it
corrodes.
Cu
Hg
Less electropositive. Do
Ag not corrode easily.
Au

Rusting of iron as a redox reaction

Rusting of iron is an electrochemical process that occurs spontaneously. When iron is contact
with water, a simple chemical cell is formed.
 Process of Rusting in Iron
1. The centre of the droplet of water is the area where iron is lack of oxygen. So
this area acts as negative terminal (anode).
2. The side of the drop water is the area where iron is rich in oxygen. So this area
acts as positive terminal (cathode).
3. Stages of rusting in iron
i. At anode:
Iron rusts due to the oxidation process that produces iron(II) ion. Iron
donates electron to form iron(II) ion.
Fe(s) ® Fe2+ (aq) + e-
Electron flows to the edge of water droplet through the iron surface.
ii. At cathode:
Oxygen accepts electron through reduction process and is reduced by
hydroxide ion.
O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e- ® 4OH- (aq)
iii. Formation of Fe(OH)2
Fe2+ ion and OH- ion in the water droplets combine and form iron(II)
hydroxide.
iv. Formation of rust
Iron(II) hydroxide that is produced is oxidised by oxygen to form
iron(III) hydroxide. Iron(III) hydroxide is then decomposed to hydrate
iron(III) oxide.
oxidation

4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 ® 4Fe(OH)3

decomposition

Fe(OH)3 ® Fe2O3× xH2O

rust
 3.2.1 Prevention of Rusting of Iron

1. To prevent the rusting of iron, a protective layer can be made to prevent the oxygen
gas and water to contact with iron.
2. Below shows some method to make a protective layer for iron
Method Explanation
Paint Paint can protect iron from rusting.
Using alloys Another element of metals are added to iron such as chromium and nickel
to form a oxide layer.
Plating Electrolysis reaction is used to plate iron with tin or chromium.

Galvanising Coating of iron with zinc for protection from corrosion. The metal zinc is
called sacrificial metal because it is sacrificed in the protection of iron
from rusting.

Experiment

Aim: To study the effect on the iron nails when they contact with other metals.

Problem statement: What is the effect of other metals on the rusting of iron?

Variables:

a. Manipulated: Types of metal in contact with iron nails

b. Respond: The colour changes of the gelatin solution
c. Constant: Tron nail

Materials: Iron nail, magnesium ribbon, copper foil, phenolphthalein, potassium

hexacyanoferrate(III) solution, gelatin solution, sand paper.

Apparatus: Test tube, test tube rack.

Procedure:
 1. Three pieces of iron nails are cleaned using sand paper.
2. The first piece of iron nail is placed into test tube A.
3. Magnesium ribbon and copper foil are also cleaned with sand paper.
4. One iron nail is wrapped with magnesium ribbon and the last iron nail is wrapped
with copper foil.
5. Two of the nails are placed into test tubes B and C.
6. 10 cm3 of gelatin solution is poured into every test tube.
7. Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator
are added into each test tube.
8. The test tubes are left aside for few days.
9. The changes are observed and recorded.

Observations:
Test Metal pair Observation Inference on
Tube Blue spot Intensity Gas iron nail
of pink bubbles
colour
A Iron nail only A little - - Rusted
B Iron nail + magnesium None High A lot Do not rust
ribbon
C Iron nail + copper foil A lot Low A little A lot of rust

Analysis
1. Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution is used to detect the presence of Fe2+ ions.
Dark blue spots are formed if the Fe2+ presents.
2. Phenolphthalein indicator is used to detect the presence of OH- ions. It produces pink
colour when there is OH- ion.
3. The gas bubbles produced are oxygen gas.
4. Test tube A:
(a) Test tube A is used as a control to study the effect of other metals on the rusting of
iron.
(b) With the presence of water and oxygen, the rusting of iron occurs to form iron(II)
ion and hydroxide ion.
oxidation

Fe(S) ® Fe2+ + e-
reduction

O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e ® 4OH- (aq)

-

(c) Iron(II) ion reacts with potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution to form dark blue
precipitate.
(d) Phenolphthalein indicator does not produce pink colour because hydroxide ion
produces react with iron(II) ion to form Fe(OH)2.
5. Test tube B
(a) There is no dark blue precipitate because iron(II) ion is not produced. This shows
that the iron nail is not rusted.
 (b) Magnesium is more electropositive than iron. So magnesium acts as negative
terminal and iron acts as positive terminal.
i. At anode: Magnesium is oxidised to Mg2+ ion and electron released.
Mg (s) ® Mg2+ (aq) + 2e-
Magnesium is corroded instead of iron. Electrons are released and flow to
the iron nail to prevent the formation of Fe2+ ion.
ii. At cathode: Water molecule dissociates to form hydrogen ion and
hydroxide ion.
H2O (l) Û H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Hydrogen ion accepts electron and is reduced to hydrogen gas
2H+ (aq) + 2e- ® H2 (g)
When hydrogen ion is reduced to hydrogen gas, the concentration of
hydroxide ion in water increases. Thus, the surroundings of iron nail
becomes alkaline and causes the phenolphtalein produced pink colour.

6. Test tube C
(a) Dark blue precipitate produced because Fe2+ ion is formed and the rusting of iron
occurs. The high intensity of blue colour shows that the rusting of iron is speeded
up.
(b) Iron is more electropositive than copper. So iron is more tend to donate electron
and acts as negative terminal. On the contrary, copper acts as positive terminal.
i. At anode: Iron is oxidised to Fe2+ iron and electron is released.
Fe (s) ® Fe2+ (aq) + e-
ii. At cathode: Electron released from iron flows to copper which acts as
positive terminal. Hydrogen ion from water accepts electron and is
reduced to hydrogen gas.
2H (aq) + 2e- ® H2 (g)
+

Thus, copper is not corroded.

(c) When hydrogen ions are discharged, the concentration of hydroxide ions in water
increases. However, most of the hydroxide ions combine with iron(II) ion and
form rust. Thus, the area around copper is slightly alkaline and slightly pink
colour is produced.

7. Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution functions to detect the presence of iron(II)

ions. If the nails corrode (rust), dark blue spots formed.
8. Magnesium which is more electropositive than iron corrodes and protect the iron nail
in test tube B.
Mg(s) →Mg2+(aq) + 2e- (oxidation)
9. Iron is more electropositive than copper. Iron nail corrodes in a test tube C.
Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e-
10. The electrons released by magnesium in the test tube B and iron in the test tube C are
received by hydrogen ions in solution (H2O ⇌ H+ + OH-). Colourless bubbles of
hydrogen gas are released.
 2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2(g) (reduction)
11. Discharge of hydrogen ions leaves behind a lot of hydroxide ions that cause the area
surrounding the iron nails to be alkaline. The alkaline conditions can be detected by
phenolphthalein indicator and a pink colour is formed.
12. The hypotheses that are made are acceptable.

Conclusion
Rusting of iron can be prevented if the iron contacts with the more electropositive metal such
as magnesium. On the contrary, the rusting of iron is speeded up when iron contacts with the
less electropositive metal such as copper.
3.3 The Reactivity Series of Metal and its Application

3.3.1 Reactivity of Metals with Oxygen

1. Metals are arranged according to their reactivity with oxygen in the reactivity series
of metals.
2. The reactivity series of metals is similar with electrochemical series because the
reactivity of metal with oxygen is related to the tendency of the metal to donate
electron.
3. Descending the reactivity series of metal, the reaction between metal and oxygen
decreases.
4. Most of the reactive metals do not exist as element but combined with other elements
to form a compound.
5. The reactive metal is easy to oxidised and form metal oxide.
Metal + oxygen ® metal oxide
Example: 2Mg(s) + O2 ® 2MgO (s)
6. The oxide layer that is formed causes the metal loses its shining surface.
7. The more reactive the metal with oxygen, the more flame or the glow produced when
a metal is heated in oxygen.

8. The reactivity of a metal with oxygen may be determined through the reaction
between the metal and other metal oxide.

Experiment

Aim: To investigate the reactivity of metals with oxygen.

Materials: Magnesium powder, zinc powder, iron powder, lead powder, copper powder, solid
potassium manganate(VII), asbestos paper, glass wool.

Apparatus: Combustion tube, retort stand and clamp, Bunsen burner, spatula.

*Safety measure:
Asbestos paper and glass wool are hazardous and should be handled with care.
Procedure:

Asbestos paper

Heat Heat

1. A spatula of solid potassium manganate(VII) is placed into a combustion tube.

2. Some glass wool is pushed into the tube and the tube is clamped horizontally.
3. A spatula of magnesium powder is placed on a sheet of an asbestos paper and put
inside the tube.
4. The magnesium powder is then heated strongly.
5. The solid potassium manganate(VII) is then heated.
6. The intensity of the flame or glow is recorded.
7. When the reaction is completed, the combustion tube is set aside to cool and the
contents in the combustion tube are taken out. The colour changes of the reactants are
observed.
8. Steps 1 to 7 are repeated by using iron powder, zinc powder, lead powder, and copper
powder.

Result:

Metal Observation Inference

Magnesium Magnesium burns very rapidly with Magnesium has a very high reactivity with
very bright white flame. The colour oxygen. Magnesium oxide is formed.
of both hot and cold magnesium
oxide is white.
Zinc Zinc burns rapidly with bright Zinc has a high reactivity with oxygen. Zinc
glow. The colour of zinc oxide is oxide is formed.
yellow when hot but white when
cold.
Iron Iron burns less rapidly and the glow Iron has a medium reactivity with oxygen.
is less bright than zinc. The Iron(III) oxide is formed.
iron(III) oxide is reddish-brown in
both hot and cold condition.
Lead Lead burns slowly with faint glow. Lead has a low reactivity with oxygen.
Lead(II) oxide is brown when hot Lead(II) oxide is formed.
and yellow when it is cold.
Copper Copper glows faintly. The residue Copper has a lower reactivity with oxygen
is black when hot and cold. than lead. Copper(II) oxide is formed.
Discussion:

1. When solid potassium manganate(VII) is heated, it decomposes to give out oxygen

gas.

2KMnO4(s) → K2MnO4(s) + MnO2(s) + O2 (g)

D

2. The glass wool is placed to prevent the potassium manganate(VII) from spilling over
and mixed with metal powder. It is because an explosion may occur when potassium
manganate(VII) mixes with metal powder.
3. Based on the vigour of the reactions, the reactivity of metals with oxygen is arranged
like:
Mg, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu
Decrease in reactivity with oxygen

4. The following equations represent the reactions between the metals and oxygen.
a. Magnesium: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
b. Zinc: 2Zn(s) + O2(g) → 2ZnO(s)
c. Iron: 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
d. Lead: 2Pb(s) + O2(g) → 2PbO(s)
e. Copper: 2Cu(s) + O2 → 2CuO(s)

Conclusion:
The reactivity of metals with oxygen is as follows:

Mg, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu

(Very reactive) (Very unreactive)

Reactivity decreases

3.3.2 Position of carbon in the Reactivity Series of Metals

1. The position of carbon in the reactivity series of metal can be determined by the
reaction between a metal and carbon.
2. When a mixture of carbon and metal X oxide is heated strongly, a reaction will occur
if carbon is more reactive than metal X. In this reaction, carbon acts as reducing agent
and metal X oxide is reduced to metal X.
reduction

Carbon + metal X oxide ® metal X + carbon dioxide

oxidation
 3. Conversely, if carbon does not remove oxygen from a metal oxide, then it means that
carbon is less reactive than the metal.

Experiment

Aim: To determine the position of carbon in the reactivity series of metals.

Materials: Carbon powder, zinc oxide powder, copper(II) oxide and aluminium oxide.

Apparatus: Crucible, spatula, Bunsen burner, pipe-clay triangle, tripod stand.

Procedure:
1. A spatula of carbon powder is placed into a crucible.
2. Another spatula of zinc oxide powder is added into the carbon powder. Zinc oxide
powder and carbon powder are mixed thoroughly in the crucible.
3. The crucible is place on a pipe-clay triangle over a tripod stand. The mixture is heated
strongly for a few seconds.
4. Any changes that occur are observed.
5. Steps 1 to 4 are repeated by using a mixture of carbon and
i. Copper(II) oxide
ii. Aluminium oxide

Result:

Mixture Observation Inference

Carbon + zinc oxide The mixture glows Carbon is more reactive than zinc. So zinc
brightly. A grey oxide is reduced to zinc by carbon and
residue is formed. metallic zinc is formed.

Carbon + copper(II) The mixture burns Carbon is more reactive than copper. So
oxide with a bright flame. A copper(II) oxide is reduced to copper by
brown residue is carbon. Metallic copper is formed.
formed.
Carbon + aluminium No change. Carbon is less reactive than aluminium. So
oxide carbon is unable to reduce aluminium
oxide.

Discussion:
1. Carbon is more reactive than copper and zinc. Therefore, carbon reduce zinc oxide
and copper(II) oxide to their respective metals.
C(s) + 2CuO(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)
C(s) + 2ZnO(s) → 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)
(white) (grey)
2. Carbon does not reduce aluminium oxide because carbon is less reactive than
aluminium.

Conclusion:
The position of carbon is between aluminium and zinc.

K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au

Reactivity decreases
3.3.3 Position of Hydrogen in the Reactivity Series of Metal
1. The position of hydrogen in the reactivity series of metal can be determined by
passing by hydrogen gas over hot metal oxides.
2. If hydrogen is more reactive than metal M, hydrogen will reduce metal M oxide to
metal M.

oxidation

Hydrogen + oxide of metal M ® water + metal M

reduction

If hydrogen gas reacts with oxide of metal M, then the oxide metal will glow and
produces metal.
3. However, if the hydrogen gas does not remove oxygen from oxide of metal M, then it
means that hydrogen is less reactive than metal M.

Experiment

Aim: To determine the position of hydrogen in the reactivity series of metals.

Materials: Zinc, dilute sulphuric acid, copper(II) oxide, lead(II) oxide, iron(III) oxide, zinc
oxide, anhydrous calcium chloride.

Apparatus: Combustion tube, porcelain dish, flat-bottomed flask, U-tube, thistle funnel,
delivery tubes, Bunsen burner, retort stand and clamps, stoppers with one hole, stopper with
two holes.

Safety rules:
*A mixture of hydrogen and air will explode when lighted.
*Ensure that the flow of hydrogen is continuous throughout the activity.

Procedure:

1. A spatula of copper(II) oxide is placed on a porcelain dish which is put in a

combustion tube.
2. The hydrogen gas is produced by the reaction between dilute sulphuric acid and zinc.
3. The hydrogen gas is dried by passing through anhydrous calcium chloride in u-tube.
4. The dry hydrogen gas produced is passed through the combustion tube for 5 minutes
to remove all the air in the tube.
5. The hydrogen gas coming out from the small hole of the combustion tube is ignited
when all the air in the tube is removed.
6. Copper(II) oxide is heated strongly and the hydrogen gas is passed through the tube
until the reaction is completed.
7. The colour changes are observed.
8. Hydrogen gas is allowed to continue to flow through to cool the apparatus and prevent
air from entering the combustion tube.
9. Steps 1 to 8 are repeated by using lead(II) oxide, iron(III) oxide and zinc oxide.

Results:

Mixture Observation Inference

Hydrogen A bright flame is Hydrogen is more reactive than copper. So
+ produced and the black hydrogen reduce copper(II) oxide to copper
copper(II) powder changes to and a metallic copper is formed.
oxide brown.
 Hydrogen Zinc does not glow. Hydrogen is less reactive than zinc. So carbon
+ zinc The white powder is unable to reduce zinc oxide.
oxide becomes yellow when
hot and white when
cold.

Hydrogen Lead(II) oxide flames Hydrogen is more reactive than lead. So

+ Lead(II) brightly. The yellow hydrogen reduces lead(II) oxide to lead and a
oxide powder changes to metallic lead is formed.
grey.

Hydrogen A bright glow spreads Hydrogen is more reactive than iron. So

+ Iron(III) over iron(III) oxide. hydrogen reduces iron(III) oxide to iron and a
oxide The brown powder metallic iron is formed.
turns into grey.

Discussion:
1. Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to produced hydrogen gas and zinc sulphate
solution.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
The hydrogen gas produced is dried by passing it through anhydrous calcium chloride.
Another drying agent that can be used is concentrated sulphuric acid.
2. Hydrogen is more reactive with copper, lead and iron. Thus hydrogen can reduce
copper(II) oxide, lead(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide to form their respective metals.
H2(g) + CuO(s) → H2O(l) + Cu(s)
(black) (brown)

H2(g) + PbO(s) → H2O(l) + Pb(s)

(yellow) (grey)

3H2(g) + Fe2O3(s) → 3H2O(l) + 2Fe(s)

(reddish-brown) (grey)
3. Hydrogen is less reactive than zinc. Therefore, hydrogen is unable to reduce zinc
oxide.

Conclusion:
Hydrogen is positioned between zinc and iron in the reactivity series of metals towards
oxygen.
K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, H, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au

Reactivity decreases
3.3.4 Application of the Reactivity Series in the Extraction of Metals
1. To extract metals that higher than carbon in reactivity series of metal, electrolysis is
used to extract the metals from their ores.
2. Reduction of metal oxides by carbon is used to extract metal that is lower than carbon
in reactivity series of metals.
3. Table below shows some methods to extract metals:
Metal Method of extraction
Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium Electrolysis of metal chloride in molten state
Aluminium Electrolysis of Al2O3 in the molten state
Zinc, iron, tin, lead Heating metal oxide with carbon
Copper, mercury Heating metal sulphide in air
Silver, gold Exists as free element

A. Extraction of iron from its ore in industry

a. Iron ores that are used in extraction of iron are haematite and magnetite.
b. Iron extracted through the reduction by carbon. In this method, iron is
extracted by heating the iron with coke in blast furnace.
c. i. A mixture of iron ore, coke and limestone are placed into the blast furnace.
ii. Hot air is blown into the blast furnace from the bottom.
iii. Production of carbon dioxide
At the bottom of blast furnace, oxygen in hot air reacts with coke to form
carbon dioxide.
C(s) + O2 (g) ® CO2 (g)

Limestone is decomposed into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide at high

temperature.
CaCO3 (s) ® CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

iv. Production of carbon monoxide

 At the upper of blast furnace, carbon dioxide reacts with coke to form
carbon monoxide.
C(s) + CO2 (g) ® 2CO (g)

v. Reduction of iron oxide

The temperature at the upper section of blast furnace is 400°C to 800°C,
and iron oxide is reduced by carbon to iron.
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) ® 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
haematite
Fe3O4 (s) + 4CO (g) → 3Fe (l) + 4CO2 (g)
magnetite

At the bottom section of blast furnace, iron oxide is reduced by coke to

iron.
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(s) + 3CO2 (g)
Fe3O4(s) + 2C(s) → 3Fe(s) + 2CO2 (g)

vi. The molten iron produced is collected at the bottom of the blast furnace.
The molten iron is poured into moulds and set aside to solidify.
vii. Calcium carbonate is then added to remove the sand.
viii. At high temperature, calcium carbonate is decomposed into calcium oxide
and carbon dioxide.
ix. Calcium oxide is then combines with sand to form calcium silicate than
floats on top of iron.

3.4 Redox Reaction In Electrolytic Cell and Chemical Cell

1. Redox reaction occurs in both electrolytic and chemical cell.

2. An electrolytic cell is a device that uses electricity from an external source to drive a
redox reaction.
3. A chemical cell is a device that uses redox reaction to produce electricity.
4. The two cells differ in the following aspects.
 § It requires a source of
electric current.
§ The electrodes may be of
the same or different
materials.
The supplied electrical energy
causes chemical reactions to occurs conversion at the electrode produce an electric
at the electrodes.
Electrical energy → chemical
energy
Electrons flow from the positive
electrode to the negative electrode
through the connecting wires.
Basic § It does not require a source
structure of electric current.
§ The electrodes must be of
two different materials.
Energy The chemical reactions that occur
current.
Chemical energy → electrical
energy
Transfer Electrons flow from the more
of electropositive metal(negative
electrons terminal) to the less electropositive
metal (positive terminal)

Redox reaction in electrolysis cells

1. During electrolysis, oxidation process occurs at anode and reduction process occurs at
cathode.
(a) Anode: An- ® A + ne-
(b) Cathode: Bn+ + ne- ® B
2. In electrolysis cell, electrons flow through the electric wire from negative terminal to
positive terminal.
3. Example: Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide
(a) At anode, bromide ion, Br- donates electron to form bromine molecules.
2Br- (l) ® Br2 (l) + 2e-
This is an oxidation process because the oxidation number of bromide ion
increases from -1 to 0.
(b) At cathode, lead(II) ion, Pb2+ accepts electron to form lead.
Pb2+ (l) + 2e- ® Pb (l)
This is a reduction process because the oxidation number of lead decreases from
+2 to 0.
(c) Br- ion is a reducing agent because the oxidising number decreases from +2 to 0.
(d) Electrons transferred from Br- to Pb2+.
(e) The overall equation:
Pb2+(l) + 2Br- (l) ® Pb (l) + Br2 (l)

Redox reaction in chemical cells

1. In chemical cells, electric current is produced by the chemical reactions that occur
in the cell. Example of chemical cells:

a. Daniell cell
i. Below shows an example of the Daniell cell:
 - The porous pot is used to separate the copper(II) sulphate solution and
silver nitrate solution and even allows the ions to pass through it.
- Copper is more electropositive than silver in electrochemical series. Hence,
copper acts as terminal negative and silver acts positive terminal.
Half equation:

Anode: Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-

Cathode: Ag+ (aq) + e- ® 2Ag (s)

Observations:

Anode: Copper plate dissolves, the intensity of blue colour in solution increases.

Cathode: A shiny grey precipitate is formed.

Oxidation process occurs at anode. Copper is oxidised by silver ion to copper(II) ion. So,
silver ion acts as oxidising agent.

Reduction process occurs at cathode. Silver ion is reduced by copper metal to silver metal.
So, copper metal acts as reducing agent.

b. Alkaline cell
- Below shows an example of alkaline cell:
Half equation:

Anode: Zn (s) -® Zn
The2+ dry cell
+ 2e- is made up of a zinc container which acts as negative terminal
and manganese(IV) oxide acts as positive terminal.
+
Cathode: 2NH-4 (aq) + 2e- ®hydroxide
Potassium 2NH3 (g) + H2 (g) acts as electrolyte in alkaline cell.
solution

Oxidation process occurs at anode. Zinc is oxidised to Zn2+ by ammonium ion. So, ammonium
ion acts as oxidising agent.

Reduction process occurs at cathode. NH4+ is reduced to NH3 and H2 by zinc. So, zinc acts as
reducing agent.

Electrons flow from the zinc container to the manganese(IV) oxide.

The hydrogen gas that is produced through reduction process is removed by the reaction with
MnO2.

2MnO2 + H2 ® Mn2O3 + H2O

The overall equation: Zn + 2MnO2 + H2O → Zn2+ + Mn2O3 + 2OH-

c. Lead-acid accumulator
- Below shows an example of lead-acid accumulator

- Lead-acid accumulator is also known as car battery.

- The lead plate coated with PbO2 acts as positive terminal and lead plate acts
as negative terminal.
- The electrolyte of this cell is sulphuric acid.

Half equation:

Anode: Pb (s) ® Pb2+ (aq) + 2e-

Cathode: PbO2 (s) + 4H+ + 2e- ® Pb2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Oxidation process occurs at anode. Lead is oxidised to lead(II) ions by lead(IV)

oxide. So, lead(II) oxide acts as oxidising agent.

Reduction process occurs at cathode. lead(IV) oxide is reduced to Pb2+ ions by

lead. So, lead acts as reducing agent.

The electrons flow through the external circuit to the positive terminal.

The overall equation:

 - When an accumulator is recharged, the direct current is passed through it, in
the direction which is opposite to the discharge.

Half equation:

Anode: PbSO4 (s) + 2e- ® Pb (s) + SO42- (aq)

white grey

Cathode: PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l) ® PbO2 (s) + 4H+ + SO42- (aq) + 2e-

white brown

The overall equation during recharging:

2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l) ® Pb (s) + PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + 2SO42- (aq)