AR - 8701 Landscape Design - Full

SIGMA COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE
Moododu, Anducode post, Kanyakumari District-626169

(Affiliated to Anna University and Approved by Council of Architecture)
AR8701
LANDSCAPE DESIGN
(STUDY MATERIAL)
Academic year: 2020-21
Batch: 2017-2022
Year: IV- Sem: VII
Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION
Introduction to landscape architecture.
Basic concepts of ecology and the impact of human activities on them.
Bio, Geo, chemical cycles including water cycle, carrying capacity of an ecosystem.
Environmental impact assessment.
Reclamation and restoration of derelict lands.

Introduction to Landscape Architecture
Definition
Landscape Architecture is the design of outdoor public areas, landmarks and structures
to achieve environmental, socio-behavioral or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the
systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and processes in
the landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome.
Scope
The scope of the profession includes landscape design; site planning; storm-water
management; environmental restoration; parks and recreation planning; visual resource
management; green infrastructure planning and provision; and private estate and
residence master planning and design; all at varying scales of design, planning and
management.
Landscape Architect
A practitioner in the profession of landscape
architecture is called a landscape architect.
Landscape architects work on structures and
external spaces with limitation towards the
landscape or park aspect of the design —
large or small, urban, suburban and rural, and
with "hard" (built) and materials, while
integrating ecological sustainability.
The most valuable contribution can be made

at the first Stage of a project to generate ideas
with technical understanding and creative flair
for the design, organization and use of spaces.
The landscape architect can conceive the
overall concept and prepare the master plan,
from which detailed design drawings and
technical specifications are prepared.
They can also review proposals to authorize
and supervise contracts for the construction work.
Ecology
Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their
environment.
It is an inter-disciplinary field that includes biology, geography and Earth science. Ecology
includes the study of interactions biotic organisms have with each other, other organisms,
and with abiotic components of their environment.

Topics of interest to ecologists include the diversity, distribution, amount (biomass), and
number (population) of particular organisms, as well as cooperation and competition
between organisms, both within and among ecosystems.
Practical Applications of Ecology:

Conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource management agro-
ecology, agriculture, forestry, agroforestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology),
community health, economics, basic and applied science, and human social interaction
(human ecology).
Ecological balance
Ecological balance has been defined as "a state of dynamic equilibrium within a
community of organisms in which genetic, species and ecosystem diversity remain
relatively stable, subject to gradual changes through natural succession." and ' 'A stable
balance in the numbers of each species in an ecosystem."
The most important point being that the natural balance in an ecosystem is maintained.
This balance may be disturbed due to the introduction of new species, the sudden death
of some species, natural hazards or man-made causes.

Human Impact on Environment
The adverse effects caused by development, industrial, or by the release of a substances
in the environment or by any other human activity
Factors affecting the ENVIRONMENTAL LOSS are:
 Deforestation,
 Over-population,
 Waste (municipal solid waste, hazardous waste, waste water, radioactive waste)
 Pollution,
 Overuse/wastage of natural resources, (Mining, petroleum extraction, Fishing,
Forestry)
 Energy industry (biodiesel, coal mining and burning, electricity generation, nuclear
power, oil shale industry, petroleum)
Bio, Geo, chemical cycles

A biogeochemical cycle or substance turnover or cycling of substances is a pathway by
which a chemical substance moves through biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth.
There are biogeochemical cycles for the chemical elements calcium, carbon, hydrogen,
mercury, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, selenium, and sulfur; molecular cycles for water
and silica; macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle; as well as human-induced cycles
for synthetic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). In some cycles there
are reservoirs where a substance remains for a long period of time.

Water cycle
Nitrogen cycle
* Nitrogen RETURNS to soil by:

1. decomposition of once living things ammonifying bacteria + fungi
2. exists in soil as nitrate (N03-), nitrite (NOD, and ammonia (NH3)
* Nitrogen returns to atmosphere by:
1. denitrifying bacteria
* Nitrogen Cycle and Humans:
I. Nitrogen required for genetic materials (DNA, RNA, amino acids)

Carbon cycle
Carbon Cycle and Humans:

I. Removal of photosynthesizing plants
*Carbon enters biotic environment through

1. Photosynthesis: changes light energy to chemical energy
* Carbon RETURNS to atmosphere by:

1. Respiration  CO2
2. Decomposition Decay
3. Burning
Phosphorus cycle:
Major environmental reservoir: rocks
1. Leaching: water dissolves phosphates in rocks and carries to lake, stream, etc.
2. Dissolved phosphate: used by plants and passed through food chain
3. Animals return phosphorus to environment by:
 excretion
 death and decay
Phosphorus Cycle and Humans:

1. Phosphates mined for fertilizers - returns p to soil
2. Erosion: P in soil and locks washed away into water systems

Oxygen cycle

Sulphur cycle
Carrying capacity:
Is the largest population size that an ecosystem can sustainably support without
degrading the ecosystem.
To a certain extent, population numbers are self-regulating because deaths increase
when a population exceeds its carrying capacity.
Disease, competition, predator-prey interaction, resource use and the number of
populations in an ecosystem all affect carrying capacity.
Changes in carrying capacity:

Limiting Factors:
A limiting factor is an abiotic or biotic factor that restricts the number of individuals in a
population.
Limiting factors can include:
1. Competitors
2. Disease and parasites
3. Weather
4. Fires
5. Available habitat
6. Predators

Reclamation & Landscaping of Derelict Lands:
Reclamation is the engineering of derelict terrain so that it can be used for some purpose.
The combined process of land treatment that minimizes water degradation, air pollution,
damage to aquatic or wildlife habitat, flooding, erosion, and other adverse effects from
surface mining operations, including adverse surface effects incidental to underground
mines, so that mined lands are reclaimed to a usable condition which is readily
adaptable for alternate land uses and create no danger to public health or safety. The
process may extend to affected lands surrounding mined lands, and may require
backfilling, grading, resoiling, revegetation, soil compaction, stabilisation, or other
measures.
The National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) has defined wasteland as

"degraded land which can be brought under vegetative cover with reasonable effort
and which is currently under utilized and land which is deteriorating for lack of
appropriate water and soil management or on account of natural causes".
Categories of wasteland in India (Source: NWDB)

•Gullies and/or ravines
• Upland with or without scrub Waterlogged and marshy land
•Land affected by salinity /alkalinity in coastal and inland areas
•Land under shifting cultivation under-utilized / degraded notified forest land Degraded
pasture / grazing land Degraded land under plantation crops Shifting sands - inland
'coastal Mining / industrial wastelands
• Barren rocky / Stony waste/ sheet rock areas
• Steep sloping area Snow covered and/ or glacial area.
There are various methods by which wastelands can be reclaimed.

1. Afforestation: It means growing the forest over culturable wasteland.
2. Reforestation: Growing the forest again over the lands where they were existing and
was destroyed due to fires, over—grazing, and excessive cutting. Reforestation checks
water logging, floods, soil erosion and increase productivity of land.
3. Providing Surface Cover: The easiest way to protect the land surface from soil erosion
is of leave crop residue on the land after
4. Mulching: Mulch is a layer of

material applied to the surface
of an soil. In this protective
cover of organic matter and
plants like stalks, cotton area of
stalks, tobacco stalks etc. are
used which reduce
evaporation, help in retaining
soil moisture and reduce soil
erosion.
5. Changing Ground Topography on Downhill's Running water erodes the hill soil and
carries the soil along with it. This be minimized by following alternation in ground
topography:
(a) Strip the farming: Different kinds of crops are planted in alternate strip along contour.

(b) Terracing: In this arrangement, the earth is
shaped in the form of levelled terraces to hold
soil and water. The terrace edges are planted
with such plant species which anchor the soil.
(c) Contour ploughing: In this arrangement, the
ploughing of land is done across the and not in
up and down style.
5. Leaching: In salt affected land, the salinity can

be minimized by leaching them with more
water.

6. Changing Agricultural Practices: Like mixed cropping, crop rotation and cropping of
plants are adopted to improve soil fertility.
7. Ecological Succession: This refers to the natural development or redevelopment of an
ecosystem which help in reclaiming the minerally deficient soil of wasteland.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental assessment (EIA) is the term used the assessment of the environmental
consequences (positive and negative) of a plan, policy, program, or project prior to the
decision to move forward with the proposed action. In this context, the term
'environmental impact assessment' (EIA) usually used when applied to concrete projects
and the term 'strategic applies to policies, plans and programmes environmental
assessment' (Fischer, 2016).
The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the
environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The
International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact
assessment as ' 'the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the
biophysical, social, and other relevant effects Of development proposals prior to major
decisions being taken and commitments made."
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) of India has been in a great effort in
Environmental Impact Assessment in India. The main laws in action are the Water Act
(1974), the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972), the Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act (1981) and the Environment Protection Act (1986), Biological Act (2002). The
responsible body for this is Central Pollution Control Board
EIA requires a significant amount of primary and secondary data.

Primary data: are those collected in the field to define the status of the environment (air
quality data, water quality data)
Secondary data: are those collected over the years that can be used to understand the
existing environmental scenario in the study area.

EIA studies are conducted over a short period of time and therefore the understanding of
the environmental trends based on a few months of primary data has its limitations.
Ideally, the primary data must be considered along with the secondary data for
complete understanding of the existing environmental status of the area
In many EIA studies, the secondary data needs to be as high as 80% of the total data
requirement.

UNIT – 2
ELEMENTS IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN
Introduction to hard and soft landscape elements.
Different types of hard landscape elements.
Plant materials, water and landform - classification, characteristics, use and

application in landscape design.

INTRODUCTION TO HARD AND SOFT LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS
Hard Landscaping:
The space surrounding buildings can be shaped by, or clothed in living materials such as
trees, shrubs or grass or inert materials such as concrete, brickwork and cobbles. The inert
materials are called 'hard' landscaping.
Soft Landscaping:
The living materials are referred to as 'soft' landscaping
The importance of soft landscaping is well recognized but hard landscaping frequently
appears to be left to chance.
Function of Hard Landscapes

Hard landscaping may be used for many reasons, such as to:
 Create links between buildings
 Enclose space
 Create a 'theme' within a development
 Define private areas
 Give security to private areas
 Cater for pedestrian or vehicular movement
 Assist people with disabilities
 Virtually link a development with its surrounding
Choosing materials:
Hard landscaping materials should be selected not only for their appearance but also for
their ability to withstand the use to which they are being put.
Urban or Rural:
Urban areas tend to be tight knit with buildings in close proximity to one another. In these
locations boundary walls, railings and gates, together with the traditional surface treatments of
roads and footpaths, all combine to make an important contribution to the character of the
area. Soft landscaping is generally subordinate to the buildings, although individual mature trees
can have a particular significance in such areas.
Rural areas tend to be characterized by a feeling of spaciousness with the soft landscaping
dominating rather than the buildings. There may be a compact group of buildings around a
village green or flanking the street but other buildings will be set in spacious plots generally, the
hedges, trees and gardens are visually as important as the buildings themselves.

These basic differences should be recognized when deciding between hard or soft landscaping
for any new development, for example, a brick wall may be an appropriate enclosure for a
garden in an urban development, but a hedge could be more appropriate in a rural area.
Elements of Hard Landscapes

Walls:
Appropriately designed walls can greatly enhance the appearance of new developments by
physically and visually linking them to the established street scene and even provide ventilation as
required. If old brick walls exist on or around potential development site, every effort should be
made to retain them
'Crinkle-crankle' or 'Serpentine' walls, which comprise a series of curves on plan, can provide visual
interest as well as structural stability.
Traditionally, walls would be capped with a brick-on-edge detail or with semi-circular or ridged
clay bricks. Plinths, piers, corbelling and buttresses would frequently form part of the design.
Concrete copings, concrete blocks and pre-fabricated slabs, patterned and perforated
concrete or terracotta jaalis could also be used as appropriate to the context
Fences:
Close boarded fences provide effective screening and security but can become visually
obtrusive unless combined with substantial soft landscaping.
Timber or Stone posts and rail or post and wire fences come in many forms and are satisfactorily
used for field and roadside boundaries in the countryside. This includes the use of posts and chain-
link fencing which needs to be judiciously used so that it does not mar an attractive street scene
in both town and village.
Metal Railings
Metal railings are frequently used in both urban and rural areas, where it was combined and set
with low brick walls. Cast-iron railings instead of steel or galvanized iron which tend to rust even if
painted, can also be used to advantage in providing security against intruders without creating a
total visual barrier.
Timber, Stone or Concrete posts and tubular rail or chain fences, may be appropriate in a small
number of locations but their use and design may cause a hazard to young children or the
partially sighted.
Hard Surfaces
In the past, in the more important and areas, stone flags and kerbs would have been used to
provide a smooth, hard wearing surface for pedestrians; granite setts, cobbles or pavers were laid
to accommodate vehicular traffic and gravel was laid in areas with limited traffic for both.

The advent of bitumen macadam led to the decline in use of many of these traditional materials.
Recent mass production of clay and concrete block pavers provides a cost-effective option that
is suitable for both pedestrian and vehicular use. Such pavers could be combined with traditional
materials. In rural areas a simple sealed gravel surfacing fir roads and footpaths will often be
appropriate.
Properly designed and constructed soft landscape treatments such as shrub beds, tree planting
and grassing can create interesting and dynamic public spaces within the urban environment. As
these elements generally require ongoing maintenance throughout the entire life of the
landscape, their design and construction should be carefully considered to ensure that they serve
their intended purposes including:
 Providing solar screening around buildings
 Providing amenity and distinct landscape character for recreational
 Directing the flow of pedestrian and vehicular traffic along paths and roadways
 Providing safe and accessible public spaces
 Providing habitat for wildlife
 Reducing noise and providing privacy for properties
 Creating interest and visual stimulation in public spaces
 Defining boundaries between two or more facilities
 Screening of undesirable objects.
Designers should also consider the site conditions, maintenance requirements and design intent
when selecting species. Plants with respect to architecture can perform two roles:-
 They can complement and reinforce the existing architecture of the house and
structure.

 They can create outdoor rooms.
Trees, shrubs, and ground covers can be used to emphasize the desirable architectural lines and
masses of the house. The form and branching pattern of particular trees and shrubs can echo the
vertical, horizontal and diagonal roof and wall lines of a house.
PLANT MATERIALS - CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS, USE AND APPLICATION
Physical characteristics give each plant a distinct look and personality. Some plants are
extroverts—loud, boisterous, and energetic attention-getters— while other plants are introverts—
quiet, calm, and content to be in the background. A good mix of plant personalities creates an
interesting and appealing garden.
Some plants may have more value as a visual element in the landscape based on their physical
characteristics. The visual value describes the energy or impact of the plant in relation to its
surroundings. Some characteristics are more visually dominant and have a higher visual value,
some are more functionally dominant, and some dominate simply by size.
Upright forms, bright colors, and coarse textures are dramatic and have high visual impact.
Low or prostrate forms, dull colors, and fine textures are calm and have low visual impact. The
visual value of all plants is dependent on the distance from which they are viewed, the time of
year, the quality of light, the adjacent plants, and the plants' health.
Although colour usually attracts the most attention, form and texture are more enduring, and they
are the characteristics used most often to identify and classify plants. Common plant forms are
well established and standardized; most people first recognize a plant by its form. Plant groups
with distinctive forms include trees, shrubs, grasses, vines, and palms. Texture is also an enduring
characteristic of plants, but it can change temporarily with the seasons, particularly if the plant
sheds its foliage in the winter since foliage provides much of the texture

TREES:
Trees are the most functional plants in the landscape providing shade and blocking views.
Creating a shady area in the garden requires a round or oval tree, while a screen requires a more
columnar or pyramidal form, and a weeping tree makes a good focal point. It is also important to
ensure that the tree will not outgrow and require pruning.
COMMON SHRUB FORMS:

It is important to consider how shrubs will look when massed together. Mounding and spreading
shrubs look best in a mass, while cascading and spiky forms work well for individual specimen
plants. Upright, vase, mounded and round forms work best as taller screens and buffers; irregular
and spreading forms work well as groundcovers; and arching, cascading, pyramidal and spiky
forms work best as focal points.
GROUNDCOVER:
Groundcover or bedding plants tend to have the most complex forms, but they typically look
better in masses because they are often small and Common Groundcover Forms have little
impact as individual plants. Masses of groundcover plants usually lose individual form and look like

one plant, so it's important to consider how plants will look as a mass. Groundcover forms include
clumping, matting, sprawling, short spikes, and spreading. Matting, spreading, or sprawling plants
are used to form a solid, low large areas. Plants that grow in clumps or short spikes can be used in
cover over smaller masses and work well in planters or enclosed areas.
A simple form study can be used to determine how different combinations of forms create
balance and fill spaces. Plants are drawn in a simple outline to focus on shape and arrangement.
Form studies are also useful when locating forms for functions, such as blocking views or creating
shade.
For example, to determine if the form
is adequate to block the view from a
window, draw the plant, to scale, in
front Of a scale drawing of the wall
and windows. When choosing plants
for the composition, consider form
and size first, then texture, and finally
color. Consider the space where the
plant will be located and note the
following: size of the space, color of
the walls and hardscape, texture of
the hardscape and surrounding views.
Other plant materials include climbers that climb structures or supports and sometimes clasp the
surface by means of long and thick roots, while some climb by leaves or tendrils. They can be
used to hide walls and fence-off boundaries to provide shade. There are also ferns, lilies, grass,
cactii and succulents.
Plants are grouped into 3 types: Annual, Biennial & Perennial
Annuals:
An Annual plant is a plant that usually germinates, flowers and dies in a year or season. True
annuals will only live longer than a year if they can also be considered as annuals, even though
they do not flower. Some annuals are corn, wheat, rice and peas.
Biennials:
Are flowering plants that take 2 years to complete its biological cycle. In the first year, the plant
grows leaves, stem and roots and then enters a period of dormancy over the colder months.
During the next spring or summer, the stem of the plant elongates greatly, then flowers, producing
fruits and seeds before it finally dies. An example is Brussels sprouts.
Perennials:
Are plants that live more than 2 years. Especially small flowering plants that bloom over the spring
and summer and then back every autumn and winter. Examples are Begonias and Bananas.

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN - LINE
• Straight lines
• Curved lines
• Vertical lines
• Horizontal lines
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN - FORM
• Circular form
• Square form
• Irregular polygons
• Tree forms
• Shrub forms
• Groundcover forms

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN - TEXTURE
• Coarse texture
• Fine texture
• Medium texture
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN – COLOUR
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN – PLANTS
The human eye has a tendency to

follow the outline of the objects in the
landscape.
With this idea in mind the apparent
size in affected

By graduating plant sizes away from the house,
the apparent size of the structure is increased.
Tall evergreen create an uninviting, inhibiting
appearance to this entrance
Plants that reach large sizes at maturity are

often planted too closely to the house
when small. When mature, they dominate
and make the house look smaller
Creating outdoor rooms – soft landscaping:

The development of outdoor rooms utilizes the same elements as indoor architecture-
floors, walls, and ceilings.
The difference is that the elements of outdoor rooms are composed of plant materials
that have a changing and dynamic, living quality.
Inwardly oriented space is characterized by either complete or

nearly complete enclosure or a strong central focal point.
Central areas for sitting, sculpture displays, patios, and hot tubs
require enclosure for purpose of privacy and concentration.
Various plant types, heights, and

combinations create walls, partial Inwardly focused space
screens, and overhead canopies

Outwardly oriented rooms are enhanced by amenities outside the
space such as good views and breezes.
Activities taking place within the front yard are more public in
nature and will require free visual access on and off the site and
little enclosure.
Outwardly focused space
Planting beds and walks act as a breezeway between

driveway and entrance courtyard.
WATER
Water is essential to human well-being, and to life itself. It also has a unique power to
stimulate the mind and captivate attention. Water is an important element in the
landscape design palette. It is also perhaps the site designer's most versatile tool. Water is
the medium within which life processes occur and is also a limited resource. It exists in
various reservoirs on, above and below the earth's surface. Water in its various forms
comprises the water or hydrologic cycle.
Water provides human sustenance and it is used for irrigation and industry, climate
control, recreation and frequently transportation. Historically, we satisfied many of our
water needs from surface flows (streams, rivers and lakes) and so we located cities along
waterways. We subsequently faced property losses during periods of flood and sought to
minimize these losses by building dams and reservoirs. In so doing, we stopped the river's
ability to replenish the land.
Water as Allusion and Symbol:

Moving water implies instability, movement towards equilibrium. Still water conveys
stability, resolution and peacefulness. The rare expansive park in the city or town, strives to
express nature in the city, the mountain stream, river and pond can symbolize, and
transpose the meanings of nature to the urban context.
Pools and ponds are bodies are bodies of still water. Pools function as reflecting surfaces,
but to do so effectively, they must have sufficient depth and dark containers. Pools are
most effective when reflecting something of visual interest, with proper sightlines so that
people can see the subject in the reflecting surface, without disruptive glare.

The pool must also be of proper size for reflections based on design intent, object size and
viewer location.
Ponds are bodies of still water with naturalistic line quality, often reinforced by naturalized
plantings. Ponds are usually located at the lowest elevation of the landform to reinforce
their equilibrium with gravity. They distinctly contribute towards the pastoral mood of the
place.
Channels are linear water conduits that convey movement and decentralize meaning.
The sensual effect of a water channel depends upon volume of water, rate of flow and
channel size, shape and gradient. Slick channels produce smooth flows, ones produce
turbulence. Channel obstructions divert flow, constrictions increase velocity, turbulence
and level of sound generated.
Environmental role – Plants and Water

• Pollution control
• Noise control
• Climate control
embankments., deciduous
and evergreen plantings
and masonry walls are used
together for effective sound
control.
Use of windbreaks to control Use of deciduous plants to direct

winter winds summer breezes
• Microclimate created.
• Moisture level maintained.
• Wetland, marshes, swampy areas are conserved.
• Maintaining vegetation into wetlands.
• Site aesthetics are enhanced

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN – WATER
LANDFORM
Landform represents the topography of a site, which maybe flat, undulating or sloping.
Major landforms affecting a site are mountains, valleys and plains. Depending on the
macroclimate and seasons, some locations within a particular landform experience a
better microclimate than others.
In valleys, the hot air (being lighter) rises, while cooler air having higher density, 'settles into
the depressions, resulting in a lower temperature at the bottom. Upward currents form on
sunny slopes in the morning. By night, the airflow reverses, because cold ground surfaces
cool the surrounding air, making it heavier and causing it to flow down the valley.
Moreover the wind flow is higher along the direction of the valley than across it due to
unrestricted movement.

On mountain slopes the air speed increases as it moves up the windward side, reaching a
maximum at the rest and minimum on the leeward side. The difference in air speed is
caused due to the low pressure area created on the leeward side.
Temperature also varies with elevation. The cooling rate is 0.8 degrees Celsius for every
100m of elevation. Air moving down the slope will thus be cooler than the air it replaces
lower down, and vice versa. Further, the orientation of the slope also plays a part in
determining the amount of solar radiation incident on the site.
For example a south-facing slope will get more exposure than a north facing one in the
northern hemisphere. Careful positioning of a building with respect to landform can thus
help in achieving comfort.
Earth berms, terracing and land forms are examples of landform elements. These
elements should be in harmony with the site's natural topography or contrast and respond
to the architectural form.
 Earth berms provide spatial enclosures, screening of undesirable areas and

reinforce architectural forms.
 Terracing creates usable areas on a sloped site and reinforces architectural form.

 Retaining walls preserve vegetation, minimize grading requirements on steep
slopes, and create visual interest.
SPURRED AND STACKED EDGES:

'Spurred' edges refers to the topographic arrangement of an edge where higher ground
projects in repeated fingered 'spurs' into a lower space. Spurs create niches at the lower
level while the 'fingers' become vantage points for play and seating. Spurred edges can
be naturalistic or geometric in form, or be combinations of both.
'Stacked' describes a topographic edge in which a change of level incorporates clusters

of strongly vertical forms similar to (in form not scale) geological stacks. Stacks provide
stepped forms which enable movement between levels and can be arranged in random
or rhythmic groups suggesting 'naturalness'. They have the potential for incorporating
plants and water.
BANKS, RIDGES & DITCHES:

Sloping ground that separates or encloses space can provide an edge space to
accommodate use. Mowed grass and built banks provide play environments for a wide
range of age groups.

Two banks 'back to back' become a ridge, that while separating spaces, also becomes a
place of use in its own right, especially for walking, sitting, watching/ viewing and so on.
Ditches separate spaces through lower ground. Often damp, watery and concealed
spaces, they are attractive to children for play, hiding and for wildlife, but are less
attractive to adults. Ditches often signal their presence in the landscape through the
strapped texture of rushes and reeds.
STEPS AS EDGES, CLIFFS & CHASMS:

Broad flights of steps can wrap around spaces to enclose them. These stepped edges
often create positive social environments that are adopted by people for sitting, eating
and drinking, as well as enabling access to the space they enclose.
Occasionally in urban places, cliff and chasm forms sometimes necessary and can be
used to create distinctive and dramatic edge places.
'Cliffs' and high retaining walls can provide settings for theatre, video or digital light
projections, ball games and recreational climbing. Cliffs and chasms are Of course
barriers to easy movement and can therefore be alienating and disorienting for people.

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN – LANDFORM
Sloped landform blocks

views & creates spatial
edges.
Level landform does the
opposite

UNIT – 3
GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORY
Japanese, Italian Renaissance, Mughal and English gardens.
Outline of landscape and garden design in Indian history.
Gardens depicted in Sanskrit literature, Nandavanams and residential gardens of South

India. Moghul gardens.
Public parks and residential gardens of the colonial period.
Contemporary public landscape projects. Study of notable examples. Spatial

development in landscape design.

JAPANESE GARDENS:
Much of the landscape of Japan, an island nation, consists of mountains and oceans.
These ever-present mountains and oceans are reduced to two of the primary and
enduring components of the Japanese Garden — rocks and water.
In traditional Japanese gardens these elements has been created in miniature forms,
often in a highly abstract and stylized way. Spirit of Japanese Garden -Nature is the ideal
in Japanese gardens. They idealize it, even symbolize it, but never create something that
nature itself cannot.
From ancient times to the present, living in harmony with nature has reflected the in
Japanese gardens as per seasons. A traditional garden will usually have an irregular-
shaped pond, or, in larger gardens, two or more ponds connected by a channel or
stream, and a cascade, a miniature version of Japan's famous
mountain waterfalls
ELEMENTS OF JAPANESE GARDENS

WATER –
•Japanese gardens always have water, either a pond or stream, or,
in the dry rock garden, represented by white sand.
•In Buddhist symbolism, water and stone are the ying-yang, two
opposites which complement and complete each other
•In traditional gardens, the ponds and streams are
carefully placed according to Buddhist
geomancy, the art and science of putting things
in the place most likely to attract good fortune.
Kenroku- en Island garden
ROCKS AND SAND

•Rock, sand and gravel are an essential feature of the Japanese garden.
•Rocks are traditionally classified as tall vertical, low vertical, arching, reclining, or flat.
• Rocks and water also symbolize yin and yang, in Buddhist philosophy; the hard rock and
soft water complement each other, and water, though soft, can wear away rock.
•Rough volcanic rocks are usually used to represent mountains or as stepping stones.
•Smooth and round sedimentary rocks (suisei-gan) are used around lakes or as stepping
stones.
•Hard metamorphic rocks are usually placed by waterfalls or streams.

Rocks should vary in size and color but from each other, but not have bright colors, which
would lack subtlety.
• Rocks are arranged in careful compositions of two, three, five or seven rocks, with three
being the most common.
•In a three-arrangement, a tallest rock usually represents heaven, the shortest rock is the
earth, and the medium-sized rock is humanity, the bridge between heaven and earth
•In ancient Japan, sand (suna) and gravel (jari) were used around Shinto shrines and
Buddhist temples. • Later it was used in the Japanese rock garden or Zen Buddhist
gardens to represent water or clouds.
FISH
•The idea of using fish in landscape garden is borrowed from
Chinese garden.
•Goldfish were introduced to Japan in the 16th century.
brocaded (colored) carp, a decorative fish bred for gardens
GARDEN BRIDGES:
Stone bridge in Koishikawa Flying Geese Bridge in Rustic bridge at Tensha-en

Kōrakuen Kenroku-en, (1822 -1874) garden in Uwajima (1866)

Bridges first appeared in the Japanese garden during the Heian period.
Bridges could be made of stone (ishibashi), or of wood, or made of logs with earth on top,
covered with moss (dobashi); they could be either arched (soribashi) or flat (hirabashi).
Bridges can be painted red if it is used for temple garden, as per Chinese tradition.
During the Edo period, when large promenade gardens became popular, streams and
winding paths were constructed, with a series of bridges, to take visitors on a tour of the
scenic views of the garden.
STONE LANTERNS AND WATER BASINS

Stone lanterns in its complete and original form, a dai-doro, like the pagoda, represents
the five elements of Buddhist cosmology.
The piece touching the ground represents chi, the earth; the next section represents sui,
or water; ka or fire, is represented by the section encasing the lantern's light or flame,
while fū (air) and kū (void or spirit) are represented by the last two sections, top-most and
pointing towards the sky.
The segments express the idea that after death our physical bodies will go back to their
original, elemental form.
Stone water basins, (tsukubai)

were originally placed in
gardens for visitors to wash
their hands and mouth before
the tea ceremony.
The water is provided to the
basin by a bamboo pipe and
they usually have a wooden Stone Lantern at Ryoan-ji, Kyoto Water basin at
ladle for drinking Ryoan-ji, Kyoto
In tea gardens, the basin was placed low to the ground, so the drinker had to bend over
Water basin at Ryoan-ji, Kyoto
to get his water
Water basin at
Ryoan-ji, Kyoto
GARDEN FENCES, GATES, AND DEVICES

The exterior wall of Katsura Imperial Villa, designed, like all the garden, for purity and
simplicity Garden fences
The traditional garden gate of the Adachi Museum of Art Garden Gate Garden Devices
A shishiodoshi is garden device, made of bamboo and wood, designed to scare away
birds. As the bamboo tube fills with water, it clacks against a stone, empties, then fills with
water again.
TREES AND FLOWERS

•Plants are chosen according to aesthetic principles,
•Plants are used either to hide undesirable sights or to
serve as a backdrop to certain garden features, or to
create a picturesque scene, like a landscape painting
or postcard. •Trees are carefully chosen and arranged
for their autumn colors.
•Mosses often used to suggest that the garden is
ancient.
•Flowers are also carefully chosen by their season of
flowering.
•. Some plants are chosen for their religious symbolism,
such as the lotus, sacred in Buddhist teachings, or the
pine, which represents longevity.
•The trees are carefully trimmed to provide attractive
scenes, and to prevent them from blocking other views of
the garden sculpted trees and bushes at a Residence.
AESTHETIC PRINCIPLES
Japanese gardens largely followed the Chinese model, but gradually developed their
own principles and aesthetics.
Some basic principles are:
Miniaturization - The Japanese garden is a miniature and idealized view of nature. Rocks
can represent mountains, and ponds can represent seas.
Concealment - ('hiding and revealing.') The Zen Buddhist garden is meant to be seen at
all once, but the promenade garden is meant to be seen one landscape at a time, like a
scroll of painted landscapes unrolling. Features are hidden behind hills, trees groves or
bamboo, walls or structures, to be discovered when the visitor follows the winding path. "
BORROWED" SCENERY (SHAKKEI)-

Smaller gardens are often designed to incorporate the view of features outside the
garden, such as hills, trees or temples, as part of the view. This makes the garden seem
larger than it really is.

ASYMMETRY –
Japanese gardens are not laid on straight axes, or with a single feature dominating the
view. Buildings and garden features are usually placed to be seen from a diagonal, and
are carefully composed into scenes that contrast right angles, such as buildings with
natural features, and vertical features, such as rocks, bamboo or trees, with horizontal
features, such as water.
PURPOSE & STYLES

Earlier the gardens were designed for recreation and aesthetic pleasure of emperors and
nobles, while the gardens of Buddhist temples were designed for contemplation and
mediation. Today there are several styles in Japanese gardens as per function
1. POND GARDEN (Eg: Heian- jingū and Daikaku-ji Temple in Kyoto)
2. PARADISE GARDEN (Eg: Phoenix Hall of Byōdō-in Temple, built in 1053, in Uji, near
Kyoto)
3. HERMITAGE GARDEN (Eg: Shisen-dō garden in Kyoto. 17th century)
4. DRY ROCK GARDEN OR ZEN GARDENS (Ryōan-ji Temple in Kyoto. Rosan-ji garden,
Kyoto Zuihō-in garden, Kyoto)
5. TEA GARDENS - simple, rustic gardens with teahouses where the Japanese tea
ceremony is conducted. (Eg: tea garden, at Ise Jingu)
6. PROMENADE OR STROLL GARDENS - where the visitor follows a path around the
garden to see carefully-composed landscapes. Eg : Suizen-ji Jōju-en Garden in
Kumamoto has a miniature version of Mount Fuji)
7. COURTYARD GARDENS (Eg: garden in villa of Murin-an in Kyoto)
FAMOUS JAPANESE GARDENS

Ryoan-ji, Tokyo
Tenryū-ji Garden in Kyoto.
Kōraku-en in Okayama.
Adachi Museum of Art Garden, Yasugi.
Suizen-ji Jōju- en, near Kumamoto Castle
RYOAN-JI, TOKYO
Zen gardens or dry gardens
also known as rock gardens and waterless stream gardens.
• Influenced by Zen Buddhism and can be found at Zen temples of meditation

• Found in the front or rear gardens at the residences or temples.
• No water presents in gardens, raked gravel or sand that simulates the feeling of water.
• The rocks/gravel used are chosen for their artistic shapes, and mosses as well as small
shrubs.
• Plants are much less important (and sometimes nonexistent)
• Rocks and moss are used to represent ponds, islands, boats, seas, rivers, and mountains
in an abstract way.
• Gardens were meant to be viewed from a single, seated perspective.
• Stones are usually off-white or grey though the occasional red or black stone were
added later.
Ryoan-ji (Peaceful Dragon Temple)

Best known for its Zen garden, simple
gravel-and-rock arrangement that
inspires peace and contemplation. It is
considered one of the finest surviving
examples of kare-sansui (dry landscape).
The garden measures thirty by seventy-
eight feet.
To the east, a low wall surrounds the
garden.
On its north side the long veranda where
the visitors experience the garden is
located
On the southern and western side, a wall-topped with thatched roof tile edges the
garden.

The Zen garden itself is comprised of fifteen stones, arranged in five groups, placed on of
raked sand.
KINKAKU-JI GARDEN
Also known as Rokuon-ji, is a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Japan.
The Golden Pavilion is a three-story building on the grounds of the Rokuon- ji temple
complex.
The top two stories of the pavilion are covered with pure gold leaf.
The Golden Pavilion is set in a magnificent Japanese strolling garden. The pavilion
extends over a pond, called Kyoko-chi (Mirror Pond) that reflects the building.
The Kinkaku-ji grounds were built according to descriptions of the Western Paradise of the
Buddha Amida, intending to illustrate a harmony between heaven and earth.
The largest islet in the pond represents the Japanese islands.
The Kyoko-chi pond spreads in the central of the garden (south) with the Kinugasa-yama
mountain (north) in the background.
Inside the pond are eight vary sized islands or famous rocks dedicated by feudal lords of
that time, expressing the Land of Happiness
The gorgeous Golden pavilion symbols the Land of Happiness.
PLANNING

The pond reflects the Golden Pavilion like a mirror,
and makes the gorgeous Golden Pavilion shine
even more. The rustic thatch-roofed building
stands in great contrast to the shiny Golden
Pavilion. The water falls in the Kinkaku-ji garden
drop a distance of 2.3 meters before emptying
into the pool.
Tranquillity Pond (Anmintaku, also known as

Ushitaku and Bôuntaku) is a small pool surrounded
by trees. Because it never dried up, even during
droughts, the pond was also used as a spot at which to pray for
rain. In the centre is a small island with a five-element stupa
known as the White Snake Mound.
In the pool are stones resembling carp (rigyoseki), in reference

to the ancient Chinese myth that when carp climb up waterfalls
they transform into dragons. The dragon itself is exemplified by
the diagonal rock seeming to rise up out of the water at the
base of the falls.
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE GARDENS

The Italian Renaissance garden was a new style of garden which emerged in the late
15th century at villas in Rome and Florence, inspired by classical ideals Of order and
beauty, and intended for the pleasure of the view Of the garden and the landscape
beyond, for contemplation, and for the enjoyment of the sights, sounds and smells of the
garden itself. The Italian Renaissance garden broke down the wall between the garden,
the house, and the landscape outside.
In the Italian Renaissance Garden, nature and order, planting and design, cannot be
separated. They are interlocked in the compartments or squares that form the basic
units, in trees planted in rows, in straight paths that cross in right angles, and in hedges
that delimit all parts and axes. A Renaissance garden could above all as a geometric
garden.
The first Renaissance text to include garden design was 'The Ten Books of Architecture' by
Alberti (1404—1472). He drew upon the architectural principles Of Vitruvius, and argued
that a villa should both be looked at and a place to 100k from; that the house should be
placed above the garden, where it could be seen and the owner could look down into
the garden.

While the early Italian Renaissance gardens were designed for contemplation and
pleasure with tunnels of greenery, trees for shade, an enclosed giardino segreto (secret
garden) and fields for games and amusements, the Medici, the ruling dynasty of
Florence, used gardens to demonstrate their own power and magnificence.
The oldest existing Italian Renaissance garden is at the Villa Medici in Fiesole, north of
Florence. It was created sometime between 1455 and 1461 by Giovanni de Medici. The
Villa Medici followed Alberti's precepts that a villa should have a view 'that overlooks the
city, the owner's land, the sea or a great plain, and familiar hills and mountains.' The
garden has two large terraces, one at the ground floor level and the other at the level of
the first floor.
From the reception rooms on the first floor, guests could go out to the loggia and from
there to the garden so the loggia was a transition space connecting the interior with the
exterior. Unlike later gardens, the Villa Medici did not have a grand staircase or other
feature to link the two levels.
VILLA D'ESTE
The Villa d'Este at Tivoli is one of the grandest and best-
preserved of the Italian Renaissance gardens.
CLIENT: Cardinal Ippolito Il d'Este
ARCHITECT: Pirro Ligorio
Garden:
Series Of terraces descending the steep hillside at the
edge of the mountains overlooking the plain of Latium.

Terraces:
Terraces were connected by gates and grand stairways starting from a terrace below
the villa and traversing down to the Fountain of Dragons at the foot of the garden.
Stairway:
The stairway was crossed by five traversal alleys on the different levels, which were
divided into rooms by hedges and trellises covered with vines.
At the crossing points of the stairway and the alleys there were pavilions, fruit trees, and
aromatic plants.
Fountains:
The glory of the Villa d'Este was the system of fountains,
fed by two aqueducts that Ligorio constructed from the
River Aniene. In the centre of the garden, the alley of
one hundred fountains (which actually had two
hundred fountains), crossed the hillside, connecting the
Oval Fountain with the Fountain of Rome, which was
decorated with models of the famous landmarks of
Rome.
Each fountain and path told a story, linking the d 'Este
family to the legends of Hercules and Hippolytus or
Ippolito.
Axis:
The Central axis organizes the garden with several Cross axes which afforded views
across the open plain to Rome, contrasting the city and country, and the secular and
sacred lifestyle of the Cardinal.

VILLA LANTE
Begun in 1568 by Cardinal Gianfrancesco Gambara
Architects: Vignola, Giacomo del Duca
Since antiquity, the town of Bagnaia was celebrated for its springs and Baths. The
Cardinal repaired the aqueducts bringing fresh water to the town in the hope of restoring
its ancient status.
Organized around a central axis of water, the compact garden at Villa Lante presents a
unified composition of ‘part to whole’. The architectural massing reinforces the perfect
symmetry. Two casinos flank the central axis, creating a continuous experience of
landscape space.
Paths and stairs move the visitor to and from the axis in a subtle choreography of dark
and light, open space to enclosed, internal focus to outward view. An allegory of control
of nature was told through the course of water as it flowed from the upper to the lower
parts of the garden. Fountains, mythological sculptures, grottos, terraces, steps and
ramps contribute to make it a stunning example of Renaissance design to this day

MUGHAL GARDENS
The Mughal Empire at it's height stretched from the base of the Himalayas to the Bay of
Bengal, covering territories in present day Afghanistan and north-west India. The natural
landscape varies widely in these regions, from dry desert plains to lush river valleys.
Garden forms were adapted to changes in climate and terrain.
The Mughal Garden style was heavily influenced by the Persian gardens particularly the
Charbagh structure. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled

enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the
gardens. The tomb garden was a distinctive combination of landscape and architecture
that joined aspects of the Islamic paradise garden with the Central Asian tradition of
garden burial.
Important Charbaghs are:

The Mughal Garden at Rashtrapati Bhawan, New-Delhi.
Ram Bagh , Agra built by in the 16th century
Nishat Bagh , Kashmir on banks Of Dal Lake
Shalimar Bagh
The founder of the Mughal Empire, Babur, described his favorite type of garden as a
charbagh. The Agra garden, now known as the Ram Bagh, is thought to have been the
first charbagh. India, Bangladesh and Pakistan have a number of Mughal gardens which
differ from their Central Asian predecessors with respect to "the highly disciplined
geometry".
Shalimar Bagh
Shalimar, built as a summer palace along the shores of Lake Dal by Jahangir in
1619, was expanded by Shah Jahan in 1630. Set in a wide ravine and framed by the
mountains, Shalimar consists of three terraces connected by a central axis Of water
punctuated with jets. The main canal is bordered by pathways on both sides, shaded by
chenar trees. Turf, flowers, and fruit trees grew on the terraces.
At each level change, shallow falls were highlighted by chini kanas.
The lowest level contained the public audience hall. The middle level was known as the
emperor's garden and contained a private audience hall. A pathway crossed the main

axis to create a quadripartite division of space. The uppermost level was the zenana, or
women's garden, and contained the black marble pavilion, thought to be a banqueting
hall. The pavilion was surrounded on all four sides by fountains; a lateral canal subdivided
the terrace.
Taj Mahal
The marble of Taj Mahal are inlaid with semiprecious stone depicting scrolling naturalistic
floral motifs, the most important being the tulip, which Shah Jahan adopted as a
personal symbol.
It is an enormous char bagh, unique in that the tomb is located at the far end of the
garden, above the Yamuna river, rather than at the intersection of the water canals.
Legend has it that Shah Jahan had one day hoped to build his tomb garden (out of
black marble) as a mirror image on the opposite side of the river. Thus the river would
form the cross axis and both tomb would occupy the center
As it is, a raised tank of water marks the center of the garden of the Taj Mahal, reflecting
the white marble dome and its minarets. Tree lined canals divide the garden into the
typical four-square pattern.
The tomb stands isolated on a terrace paved with black and white wave pattern.
Minarets stand at the corners of the elevated terrace, countering the bulk of the
architecture and creating a restful void space. The mosque and assembly hall at either
side of the tomb are made from red sandstone, as is the entry gatehouse and the two
small pavilions at the end of the cross-axis. The entire 20-acre garden is walled. The round

dome over the tomb rests on a squarish octagon; the octagon is symbolic of the union of
heaven (the circle) and earth (the square). The number 8 is also significant in Islamic
cosmology, representing the levels of paradise and the number of angels supporting the
throne Of God.
ENGLISH GARDENS:
The English garden, is a style of "landscape" garden which emerged in England in the
early 18th century, and spread across Europe, replacing the more formal, symmetrical
17th century principal gardening style of Europe.
• The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. It drew inspiration from
paintings of landscapes by Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin, and, in the Anglo-
Chinese garden, from the classic Chinese gardens of the East, which had recently been
described by European travellers.
• The English garden usually included a lake, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against
groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other
picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.
Early stages
• The predecessors of the landscape garden in England were the great parks created by
Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor at Castle Howard, Blenheim Palace, and the
Claremont Landscape Garden at Claremont House.
• These parks featured vast lawns, woods, and pieces of architecture, such as the
classical mausoleum designed by Hawksmoor at Castle Howard. At the center of the
composition was the house, behind which were formal and symmetrical gardens in the
style of the garden with ornate carpets of floral designs and walls of hedges, decorated
with statues and fountains.
Eg: GARDEN OF VERSAILLES
Introduction of the new style

• The new style that became known as the English garden was invented by landscape
designers William Kent and Charles Bridgeman
CHISWICK HOUSE By William Kent
ELEMNTS IN ENGLISH GARDEN

• Recreations of classic buildings.
• Ruins.
• Bridges.
• Natural stone.

• Cobblestone.
• Wattle edging & panels
• Bee skep
• Rolling lawns
Rolling lawn topography
allowed visitors for surprises as
they come around mounds or
niches

• Lake
There was always a lake in the English gardens, most were man-made but all appeared
to be natural forming basins.
Their edges were meandering and irregular and often had pathways weaving through
the trees and close to the water’s edge
• Tree groves were spread

throughout the landscape with
paths that allowed the gardens
users to wander in and out of the
groves and provide a view of
rolling lawns against mass tree
plantings.
• Ha ha wall
The purpose of ha ha wall was to
separate garden from the grazing
land but was invisible from a
distance. Cattle could be kept
securely in their fields without the
use of hedges or fences to
interrupt the view
• Grottos were used as romantic

hide outs. They were manmade
but build to resemble a dark
natural forming cave.
CHISWICK HOUSE
By 1733 William Kent was recognized as having introduced 'the natural taste in
gardening',
The gardens at Chiswick were an attempt to symbolically recreate a garden of ancient
Rome. Kent experimented with new designs, incorporating such diverse elements as

mock fortifications, a Ha-ha, classical fabriques, statues, groves, faux Egyptian objects,
bowling greens, winding walks, cascades and water features.
Theatrical aspects were added to the gardens by William Kent,
The gardens at Chiswick were filled with fabriques (garden buildings)
Lord Burlington's gardens at Chiswick had a number of these fabriques including the Ionic
Temple, Bagnio, Pagan Temple, Rustic House, and two Deer Houses.
Beyond the exedra in the gardens lies an area known as the 'Orange Tree Garden' in
which was situated a small garden building known as the Ionic Temple. The Ionic Temple
is circular in form and is derived from either the Pantheon in Rome or possibly from the
Temple of Romulus.
A theatre of hedges known as an exedra was designed by William Kent and originally
displayed ancient statues of Caesar, Pompeii, Cicero
Immediately in front of the Temple lies a circular pool of water with a small obelisk
positioned in its centre. Around the base of the pool of water are three concentric rings
of raised grass conforming originally to a 3:4:5 ratio echoing the dimensions of the Red
and Green Velvet Room within the Villa. A second obelisk was erected at the centre of
another patte d'oie ('Goose Foot', a set of paths converging at a point) beyond the
cascade to the west of the Villa.
Kent's garden also featured a flower garden, an orchard, an aviary (which included an
owl) and a symmetrical planned arrangement of trees known as the "Grove".
On the two ends of the ha-ha stands two deer houses. Immediately behind the ha-ha
and positioned between the two Deer Houses was a building known as the Orangery,

which, as its name suggests, originally housed Lords Burlington's orange trees over the
cold winter period
The lawn at the rear of the house was created and planted with young Cedar of
Lebanon trees which alternate with stone funerary urns. Placed between the urns and
the Cedar of Lebanon are three more sphinxes orientated to face the rising sun.
GARDENS IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

• Classical Sanskrit literature is mostly court poetry and it describes mostly royal
palaces and gardens.
• However at rare places like Kalidasa’s ‘Meghadoodam’ we find descriptions of
Residential gardens.
• It seems that these gardens were not composed as parts of a larger scheme.
Individual elements in a garden had importance on their own, and these were
arranged rather pictoriously.
• The following elements were from ‘Kadambari’, ‘Swapna vasvadattam’, ‘Pratima
natakam’, Malavikanimitram
Kridaparvataka
A mound very near to the vicinity of the
palace.
A play mountain
It can be viewed from all the rooms of
the palace.
Has water falls, shady trees and fauna –
particularly peacock, deer and
elephants.
Site selection advocates hilly areas,
availability of water and shade trees.
Himagriha
Snow house or Autumn house.
Approach road from Kridaparvataka.
Well decorated with trees blooming at different seasons,
fragrant, cool and colourful all through the year.
Plantain trees at both sides of the road
Lotus pond with elephants playing.
Main pavilion is located slightly within.

Samudhragriha
Literally means a sea house. A house
situated in the middle of a water body.
Probably meant for the ailing, and
depressed.
Consists of beautiful portraits of family
members especially young ladies and
princesses, various flower arrangements,
the garlands etc.
The lotus has been mentioned

frequently in the Sanskrit scriptures of Vedic times. The epics of the Aryans, the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata, also mentioned about gardens, trees and flowers. The
Asokavana where Sita was held captivity by Ravana, was composed mostly of Asoka
(Saraca indica) trees. In both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata trees and creepers
namely Ficus religiosa, Saraca indica, Terminalia arjuna, Mesua ferrea, Cassia fistula,
Shorea robusta, Butea menosperma are mentioned
Aryan and Indus Valley Civilization:

Harappan pots were generally decorated with the design of trees. In every village, trees
including Ficus religiosa (pipal) and F. bengalensis (banyan) were planted for worship as
well as for shade.
The Aryans of the Vedic period were great lovers of trees and flowers. The first evidence
of Asvatha tree, the Pipal (Ficus religiosa), comes from a seal from Mohen-jo-daro, of the
third millennium B.C. Another seal from Harappa of the same period depicts a weeping
willow (Salix babylonica).
While Indus valley reflected a refinement of many of the prehistoric cults and their reliefs,
Aryans brought their metaphysical views of the world into India.

The influence of many concurrent societies in India following ancient pre Aryan, pre Indus
beliefs remained strong and was slowly assimilated into the Indian mainstream.
The combination of all three formed the basis of Indian Art, Architecture and Landscape.
This became the seed for further development of the Indian landscape.
Sangam literature of Tamils

Ecological knowledge was immense, especially in Tamil literature. The sangam literature
divides the land into five classifications
 Kurunji-hilly tracts,
 Mullai-forests or the pastoral tracts,
 Marudham-riverine plains, agricultural land.
 Neidhal-coastal area.
 Palai- desert land.
Each of these had its own deity, Inhabitants, occupation, food, settlements, Music,
Musical Instruments, drum, type of waters, flowers, Trees, Birds, and Animals other than
birds.
Sacred grooves- (Sthala Vriksham)

Sacred Groves are remnants of Forests preserved intact in Agricultural societies.
They are prevalent all over the world in Ancient societies.
In India, they are present in various states, called variously as –Kovil Kadugal (Tamilnadu),
Nagakavu (Kerala), Devarai (Maharashtra).
These Forest remnants were preserved by social and religious tenants by primitive
societies, are still existing only in areas where such groups are prevalent even today.
Initially, when Mainstream Hinduism spread through India, and then because of the
influence of Monotheistic religions like Islam and Christians, these groves were slowly lost.
They remain in most temples, symbolically in the form of Sthala Vriksham.
Nandavanams
From the literary and epigraphic sources, we come to know that our temples were
located amidst groves and fertile belts. (for ex. Alagar malai-was called s ‘Mal irum
solai’.)
Many inscriptions in temple, notably in Srirangam and Periyakovil talk about land grants
for Nandavanams and Pushpavanams.
These were maintained mainly for the purpose of providing Flowers for the deity.
In addition, medicinal herbs were also grown.
This tradition of Nandavanam is continued even today, however they have shrunk in size
and do not have the variety of plants mentioned in literature.
Recent studies have found the evidence of extensive flower gardens near Kajhurahao
temple. It is probable that the temple itself was surrounded by a belt of gardens.

These are similar to sacred groves in the rest of India. Traditionally such gardens and
forests, which surrounded the temple, would hold trees and plants that would be
beneficial to the temple. For instance, they would provide oil to the lamps, medicines,
fruits and flowers for worship.” While traditionally sacred groves existed before a temple
did, Nandavanams were built around a temple. But functionally, they were similar
Residential gardens
Houses too had their gardens, ‘Andal tiruppaavai’ mentions the flower garden in the
backyard of the house. (pulakkadai tottathu vaaiyil, sengalunirvaai nelaambal vaai
koombina kan).
The term ‘Manaipadalai’ is used for the house garden in insciptions.
Andal’s father Peria alwar’s familiarity with flowers is evident in the poem ’Poochoottal’
where he mentions a number of flowers.
However these gardens, did not seem to have a structural organisation of spaces as we
know of gardens today.
Further study is needed to know the character of these gardens and their influence on
the landscape traditions.
These gardens have a healthy population of native trees and they attract frugivores and
small mammals
PUBLIC PARKS AND RESIDENTIAL GARDENS OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD

Gardening during Britishers Period The arrival of the British in India changed the whole
pattern of gardening.
The Mughal gardens in India were laid out in formal (symmetrical) patterns, but the
English changed the style into informal patterns by laying out parks and gardens. Indians
gardens had only scented trees and shrubs, climbers and bulbs, but had no flowering
annuals The Britishers brought with them beautiful annuals and biennials such as Phlox,
Carnation, Verbena, Dahlia, Lakhspur etc and idea of flower arrangements for interior
decoration, which was taught by them
Botanical gardens developed by Britishers in India:

1. Horticulture Research Institute, Saharanpur in 1750.
2. Indian Botanical Garden, Sibpur, Kolkata in 1787.
3. Govt. Botanical Garden, Ootacamund in 1848.
4. Agri-horticultural Society Garden, Kolkata in 1872.
5. Sim’s Park Conoor, Tamil Nadu in 1874 by J.D. Sim.
6. Llyod Botanical, Garden Darjeeling in 1878.
7. Botanical Garden Coimbatore, 1908.
8. Bryant Park, Kodaikonal, Tamil nadu in 1909

9. Rashtrapati Bhavan Garden, New Delhi was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyen in 1929 on
advicse of Lady hardinge.
10.Forest Research Institute, Dehradun in 1934
The greatest contribution by the Britishers was the establishment of Botanical gardens
starting from the one established near Calcutta.
RESIDENTIAL GARDENS:
Lakshmi Vilas – Baroda
Lakshmi Vilas Palace, the magnificent
residence of the royal family of Baroda was
built by Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III in
1890 with Major Charles Mant as the chief
architect
The materials used were a blend of east
and west. The basic construction was brick
faced with red sandstone from the quarries
of Agra, with some blue trapstone from
Poona and marble from the quarries of
Rajasthan.
Workmen from Madras came to apply the
‘chunam’ plaster to many of the interior
walls. Then twelve workmen from the
Murano Company of Venice spent
eighteen months in Baroda laying the floor
of Venetian mosaic in the Durbar hall.
Outside the ornate Durbar Hall is an Italian courtyard of fountains and the palace
compound of over 700 acres which houses the Motibaug palace and Maharaja
Fatehsingh Museum.The resplendent Darbar
Hall is the venue for reputed music concerts
and other cultural events.
The Lukshmi Vilas in Baroda is set in a vast

landscape park with sculptures. The dazzling
Lukshmi Vilas palace also houses an
exceptional compilation of old armoury and
sculptures in bronze, marble & terracotta by

Fellici. The grounds were landscaped by
William Goldring, a specialist from Kew
Gardens.
The Navlakhi (literally meaning "of nine
hundred thousand")well, a fine 'baoli' or step
well, is 50 metres north of the palace.
BOTANICAL GARDEN
Lal Bagh
'Lal Bagh is a 240 acre (971 ,OOO sq.m. - almost 1 km2) Garden and is located on the
southern part of Bangalore. It holds a number of flower shows, especially on the Republic
Day (26th January). The garden has over 1 ,OOO species of flora.
. Lal Bagh Botanical Garden was commissioned by the ruler Of Mysore, Hyder Ali. Hyder
Ali started building the Garden Of Lal Bagh in the year 1760 and his son Tipu Sultan"
completed the garden. The garden derived its name 'Lal Bagh' because Of a collection
of red roses that remain blooming all through the year in this garden. Lal BaghGardens
was known Rose and Cypress Garden till 1856.
After the fall of Tipu Sultan in the year

1799, the Lalbagh was taken over by the
British.
The real developmental works in Lalbagh
started from the year 1 874, when John
Cameron took charge of the garden.
Vigorous and systematic introduction and
expansion of the garden took place
during his tenure. From original area Of 45
acres Lalhagh was expanded to 100
acres by the turn of the 19th century.
The credit of starting commercial

cultivation of several fruits, vegetables and plantation crops, undoubtedly goes to John
Cameron. His long term of office from 1874 to 1908 is regarded as the 'Golden Period' of
plant introductions at Lalbagh.
He beautified Lalbagh with large number of native and exotic species and gave special
impetus to the creation Of Park and Gardens in Bangalore and Mysore cities.

The garden also has trees that are over 1 00 years old.
'Formal and informal styles dominate the garden in perfect harmony, which is a testimony
to the beauty of nature. Nearly 673 genera and 1854 species of plants are found in
Lalbagh.
LalBagh Botanical Garden is considered to be one of the most diverse botanical garden
in South Asia. Lalbagh has four approach gates.
CONTEMPORARY PUBLIC LANDSCAPE PROJECTS:

The famous architects were:
KISHORE PRADHAN,
SATISH KHANNA,
GAVANDI,
SAVITA PUNDE
KISHORE PRADHAN
PHILOSOPHY
Landscape design is an important mean to enhance the efficiency of the project and
not just a matter of cosmetic beautification and applied ornamentation, but should
satisfy both the functional and aesthetic needs

Answering the functionality of the space is of prime concern. Just as the planning of the
built structure, the planning of landscape design is derived from the functional use. In
landscape designing, the created environment is not alien to the existing context. It must
contribute to the context and not imposed.
For example, brochures of most of the real estate projects these days display landscapes
designed with lavish use of water bodies, while the reality could be that the place
actually has issues of availability of adequate drinking water. For me, such an approach
is like being insincere to the client, users and the project.
Umaid Heritage, Jodhpur (2013)

Grade: Housing & Township
Total area: 120 acres
This is a bungalow scheme at the foot-hills of the world famous Umaid Bhavan.
Like palace, all the bungalows are being built in local Jodhpur stone. The landscape
design too relies heavily on this stone for the hard surfaces as well as garden furniture
such as pavilions, pergolas, seats etc.
In order to avail of the maximum usable space, the level differences were achieved with
help of stone retaining walls.
However while selecting the plant material, care was taken that the plant heights helped
to visually subdue the level differences.
Privacy of the bungalows adjacent the central green was given equal importance and
while selecting the species, care was taken to ensure that the garden user was unable to
look into the residences while the view from the bungalow was intact.
In order to ensure the sustainability of the greenery due attention was given to the
selection of plants which are able to withstand the extreme Jodhpur climate

HIS DESIGN PROCESS
• While designing a landscape for low rainfall zones, he referred to CAZRI (Central Arid
Zone Research Institute) to determine a good palette of plantation.
The best way is to learn from the villages of the region as they naturally adopt the most
appropriate solutions. There were many species that he wanted, which were not readily
available in the nursery, and extra effort was required. He feels it is necessary to take the
first step so that with increase in demand, supply would become easier.
In low rainfall zones, lawns should be minimised and more trees should be planted.
Trees offer manifold benefits, especially in desert regions. They require less water and
reduce the salinity of the ground water. They also provide shaded areas, absorb
radiation, reduce the glare and cool the microclimate. In sandy deserts, the violent dusty
winds can be muted by the use of the right trees. The trees that he recommend for arid
regions are Neem, Shee-sham, Khejri and different varieties of palm.
The notion that a larger spread of hard landscape can work in low rainfall regions. But,
this is not necessarily true. In fact, one must try to minimise hard cover as it emits more
radiation and glare. Hard surfaces must be sufficiently covered by the shade of trees.
Also important is the use of local stones. Nature has distributed the appropriate material
as per the climate of the region.
For example, the desert zones of Rajasthan have sandstone quarried as it has less heat
holding capacity. And granite, which has greater heat holding and emitting capacity, is
quarried from regions in South Rajasthan. On a general note, the natural stone paving
suitable for hot and dry climate is of Kota, Shahabad, Slate, Jodhpur red, Jodhpur pink,
Mandana Red Sandstone, Bansi Paharpur Sandstone and Agra Red stones.
SATHISH KHANNA
VIRASAT- E- KHALSA HERITAGE MEMORIAL COMPLEX (2011)
Grade: Public Space
Total area: 75 acre
• Museum of Sikh people located in the holy town of Anandpursahib, near Chandigarh
• Situated in foothills of Shivalik
• The museum celebrates 500 years of Sikh history and the 300th anniversary of the
khalsa, the scriptures written by the tenth and the last guru, GobindSingh.
• Located on a 75 acre site overlooking the town, the memorial is divided into two
sections that extend over a valley and are joined by a pedestrian bridge.

• The western area, connected to the town of Anandpursahib, is organized around an
entrance piazza and contains an auditorium, a library, and temporary exhibition
galleries.
• The eastern portion, housing permanent interpretive exhibition space, consists of 2
clusters of undulating galleries that evoke the fortress architecture of the region and form
a dramatic skyline against the surrounding sand cliff terrain and the foothills of the
Himalayas
• . The clustering of the galleries in the groups of five, reflects the Five Virtues, a central
tenet of the Sikh faith.
HIS DESIGN PROCESS:

• The design approach relies on the creation of unique related environments that
effectively engages multiple media to present a truly immersive experience for all
audience types
• Considering the fact that the site is located at the low end of a large watershed,
amidst hills with native vegetation, the landscape design incorporated a series of
cascading retention ponds and reflecting pools with overflow channels.

• A series of dams create a water garden in the valley
• The broad concept was to have the buildings come out of the natural hills –these hills
were disturbed to some extend due to the excavation for basements
• the steep slopes were then reconstructed/ stabilized using native vegetation and geo
grids . The plants palette chosen is native water use plants.
• Buildings clad with local sandstone and evoking the fortress cities of Rajasthan, Gwalior,
and Punjab

UNIT – 4
SITE PLANNING
Organization of spaces in the outdoor environment.
Role of circulation and built form in shaping the environment.
Role of landscape design in design of
neighbourhood parks,
children’s play area and
campus development.

ORGANIZATION OF SPACES - CIRCULATION, BUILT-FORM & OPEN SPACES
Effective architecture addresses interior spatial needs, provides desirable shelter,

enhances the quality of the outdoor experience, positively modifies the site and improves
site microclimate. Successful buildings provide meaningful spaces, both interior and
exterior.
As the interface between building and site, the facade must support both the design
intent of the architect (responsible for designing building and interior spaces) and the
landscape architect (responsible for designing the exterior space and for siting the
building).
Singular buildings on a development site can be seen as sculpture in space. The building
can be built to integrate with the site, or conversely to contrast with the site to make the
viewer acutely aware of both architectural and building character. Multiple buildings
placed on site can read as numerous foci or as a sculptural mass. Building facades can
read as spatial edge, and by their interaction create exterior space.
Architecture as Enclosure
 Planar building facades read as hard spatial
edges. The more closed and continuous this
edge, the more definite the enclosure.
 Singular buildings are perceived primarily as

sculpture: their facades do little to define
space.
 Multiple buildings can imply enclosure. Two

adjacent building facades at right angles to
each other can imply asymmetric space.
 Two parallel facades suggest a space with a

strong directional character that directs the
eye to the open ends of the space, where
emphasis is concentrated. As the facades
become longer or close together, view
enframement increases.

 Three facades at right angles substantially increase perceived enclosure. The
space exhibits uni-directional character and importance to the view beyond the
open edge.
 Space with facades on four sides appears predominantly closed. When facades
close
 The corners of the space, maximum enclosure occurs.
 Exterior spaces with architectonic ceilings (concrete, steel, wood and so on),
located adjacent to buildings, are perceived to be within the building shroud.
They feel like architectural extensions into the site.
Nature of Enclosure
Building facades enclose space more forcefully than vegetative edges. Facades
therefore have a tendency to overpower exterior space.
When breaks in the spatial edge align (Figure 11-52), the perceived degree of alignment
is reduced as the line of sight (upon approach) crosses the space and focusses on the
view beyond. Such axial alignments tend to minimize the impact of the space. When
breaks in the edge do not align, enclosure is increased as the approach sightline is
focused onto the opposite edge (Figure 11-53). The viewer is forced to slow and change
direction within the space and is more acutely aware of its character.
Enclosure is felt most strongly when the space is fully bounded by facades or when breaks
in the edge display nearby facades rather than a less architectural edge (Figure 11-54).

When portions of the edge are implied by plants used in an architectonic manner, the
space has a high degree of unity, yet has somewhat less of an architectural character
and feels less enclosed (Figure-11-55). When portions of the edge are implied by plant
materials used in a non-architectonic manner, the space feels less enclosed still (Figure
I1.56)
When rectilinear buildings are not orthogonally related, exterior space is loosely defined.
Conversely, when buildings are geometrically related (usually orthogonal), the mind
extends building lines into the site and architectonically structures the space.
Buildings can be grouped to form

simple space and a static resolved
sense (11-58) or clustered to provide a
dominant space with spatial alcoves
(11-59).
Complex architectural forms can

create pure and simple exterior
spaces (Figure 11-61). The viewer is
therefore made aware of the
boldness and purity of the exterior
space, and this space becomes
dominant.
Conversely, simple building forms can

create complex exterior space (Figure
11-62). The purity of the building forms
can be played off against the

complexity and dynamic character of the exterior space. Buildings take dominance.
Balanced complexity between space and mass can
convey a sense of integration of both (Figure 11-63).
Neither space nor mass will assert dominance in this
dynamic interplay.
Building facades can be cold and harsh when

massive, inhumanely scaled, lacking in detail or
texture, or cold in colour. When designers vary the
roofline, add detail or texture, extend the edge with
arcades, layer the facades or employ transparency
or warm colours, facades can become more
humane, friendly, and cheerful.
Space enclosure with Vegetation

In design, enclosure by vegetation, landform, structures or water in wall planes enables
the definition and separation of spaces and their related human activities. The type and
degree of enclosure affect human experience and use, microclimate and character.
Enclosure refers to the perceived degree of separation of space. Plant material that
block vision provide enclosure; those that do not only imply enclosure. Plants at eye level
enclose space. Solid plant masses provide strong enclosure (Figure 5-68); porous masses
only provide partial enclosure. Overall spatial definition and enclosure arc the net visual
effect of the various strata working together, as shown in Figure 5-69.

Degrees & Permeability of Enclosure
The Landscape architect must decide how enclosed or 'open' a space should be —
ranging from entirely open with space defined only on the ground plane, to fully
enclosed in wall planes.

Full enclosure Suggests and provides security and privacy, but can be experienced as
threatening and unsafe in a public urban environment. Enclosure on two or three sides
provides refuge but allows prospect.
The height of an enclosure affects scale. There is a tendency amongst inexperienced

designers to make enclosing planes too high and dense, therby creating claustrophobic
or intimidating places. Conversely, too little enclosure can result a monotonous and bleak
landscape. Visual and physical permeability of enclosing planes is an extremely
important in landscape architecture and is one that the designer can use with subtle
variation.
The nature of enclosing elements contribute largely to defining the character of a space.
A solid, smooth concrete wall, roughly textured hedge, billowing trees, dry stone wall, or
meadowed bank all have very different character, texture, qualities which influence how
a place is experienced.
SITE PLANNING & MICROCLIMATE

Man has changed the microclimate over much of the earth. He has reduced its contrasts
by his agriculture, and the planting of standard crops. He has invented the urban
microclimate as a result Of his extensive paving, dense structures, and the emission of
heat, noise and impurities. Thus a "heat island" is formed over a city, and the upward
convection within this island generates clouds and draws land breezes in from the
surrounding countryside. Extensive city paving causes rapid runoff, with a loss of local
humidity and cooling, the depletion of groundwater, and more frequent and disastrous
floods downstream. Cities are warmer, dustier, drier, and yet have more rain, cloud and
fog than their rural counterparts. The level of noise and air pollution is higher; there is more
glare and less sunlight.
Tall buildings are sun snatchers, and public regulation may be necessary to prevent the
theft of sunlight. In hot climates, on the contrary, buildings clad in reflective surfaces
redouble the radiation on people nearby and deny them the comfort of any shade. In
low-rise development, streets can be oriented to increase the number of building sites
with a favorable solar outlook. Siting and building design can reduce energy
consumption
The original studies of microclimate were concerned with agriculture. There are not yet
much quantitative data on the outdoor effects of man-made materials and structures.
Nor is there any large-scale, systematic recording of the microclimate in any urban or
sub-urban area.

Climate exerts a dominant control on the spatial distribution of the major vegetation
types on a global scale. The moist tropics are associated with tropical forests, the dry
subtropics with subtropical deserts, regions of temperate climate with temperate/boreal
forests, and Polar Regions with polar/tundra deserts.
Vegetation & Microclimate

In turn vegetation cover affects climate by alteration of the
 Physical characteristics of the land surface
 Atmospheric gas composition
 Processing and release of water vapour (necessary for cloud formation)
 Absorb and emit the energy to influence weather.
 Produce their own micro-weather by controlling the humidity and temperature
immediately surrounding their leaves through transpiration.
 Most plants and forest soils have a very low albedo (reflection coefficient) and
absorb a large amount of energy.
 Plants don’t contribute to overall warming because the excess warmth is offset by
evaporative cooling through transpiration.
 Photosynthesis is responsible for building up atmospheric oxygen, using up
 C02, which slightly offsets the amount of greenhouse gases being released in
atmosphere through the combustion of fossil fuels.
Large and intermediate trees are effective microclimate modifiers. They provide shade
from high and mid-angle Sun (as Figure above). If closed at their edge by lower
branching material or if great in depth (in the direction of airflow), they can substantially
reduce ventilation. On the other hand, if the edge is open and the mass is relatively
shallow, they can accelerate airflow because the wind can be compressed and forced
below their canopy.
Enclosure substantially influences

microclimate and therefore human in
temperate climates, warm south facing
walls ripen fruit comfort and use. In
temperate climate warm south facing
wall ripen fruit and enable tender plants
to be grown. A south facing bank is good
for basking in the sun. Broad trees provide
dappled shade, cooling he air and
providing sitting spaces. Pines and dunes
protect places from coastal winds.

Open valleys channel cooling winds into hot cities. Climate is fundamental to landscape
architecture and the designer always considers and works with microclimate

Effect of Trees & Plant Material on Temperature, Shading & Airflow
Trees are natural "evaporative coolers" when solar radiation is absorbed by leaves and
then re-transmitted by Evapo-transpiration.
Evapo-transpiration increases humidity and consequently reduces air temperature. 5
degrees Celsius differences in net peak noontime temperatures are observed between
forests and open terrain.
Magnitude of the effect depends on

several factors — species, size and
extent covered by the tree, exposure of
canopy, water availability etc.
Individual leaves of the vegetation allow

some radiation to be transmitted through
them (20%), absorb some radiation (55%)
and reflect some (25%).
Trees are often employed as shading

devices for buildings, pedestrian
pathways and vehicular traffic. Broad,
low hanging canopies will display less variable shadow patterns as against trees with a
limited horizontal section.
Plants can be used to regulate wind speeds and direction. The geometry, height,
permeability and crown of the vegetation influence and control air movement.
Trees and plant material can filter air-carbon sink, noise, release 02 and buffer noise as
well.

Urban Climate & Heat Islands
Urban development plays a major role in making urban climates different from rural
areas. The reasons include the choice of building materials, waste heat oases from
factories and vehicles, and problems of precipitation due to surface run-offs.
Warmer air temperatures in urban areas as compared to countryside is a primary feature

of "urban heat island" effect. The effect is more pronounced during the night time.

Solar radiation and heat gain in urban areas dependent its layout, street pattern,
buildings, open spaces and plazas, can be most actively controlled by vegetation.
Tree canopies can absorb large quantities of short wave radiation and dense vegetation
can reduce air temperature to the tune of 6 degrees Celsius.
Deciduous trees are most suited for composite climates, since they provide shade in hot
seasons while permitting the sun to penetrate in winter.
Wall climbing vines and other vegetation/green walls on huge vertical surfaces of high-
rise structures, can reduce heat gain.
Roofs made of materials that have been coated with solar reflective coating or green
planted roofs can reduce heat gain in the microclimate.
Direct evaporation from open water and design solutions with fountains, pools or artificial
lakes and permeable paving and surfaces, can help reduce heat gain. Evapo-
transpiration from plants can help regulate temperature and humidity. Plants and trees
can also act as C02 sinks and provide shading. Use of forest cover/ shelter belts/ wind
barriers and wind break planting can help regulate wind effects.
General design principles for managing urban microclimate include —

 Retention and enhancement of natural features (natural patterns of land,
mountains, hills and valleys, rivers, streams, open water, forest and grassland)
 Establishing canopy vegetation wherever possible.
 Retention of water in surface water bodies for maintaining energy balance.
 Managing the roof-scape by roof top planting and vertical green walls.

 Passive techniques of orientation, mutual shading and fenestration design.
 Use of designed planting for wind breaks, fountains, pools and artificial lakes.
SITE PLANNING FOR NEIGHBOURHOOD PARKS, CHILDREN'S PLAY AREA &

CAMPUS DEVELOPMENT
Neighbourhood Parks
The neighborhood park can be the visual and social center for the local community.
In addition to meeting the local residents' recreational needs, the neighborhood park is
also a village green." These parks should be designed to reflect the unique character of
each neighborhood.
Neighborhood parks arc developed to provide space for relaxation, play and informal
recreation activities in a specific neighborhood or cluster of residential units.
Neighborhood Squares provide specialized facilities that serve a concentrated or limited

population or special interest group such as young children or senior The Neighborhood
Square is a scaled-down version of the Neighborhood citizens.

Children's Play Area
A common solution bundles all the stereotyped activities of children below adolescence
into a single facility, tucked away in an unusable corner of the ground. Teenagers are
usually forgotten altogether. The remainder of the ground is then designed for its
appearance to the adult eye
Play areas and playgrounds should provide a variety of play equipment, with special
areas for different age groups and activities. The design should provide for shade and
sunny areas, places for quiet activity and observation, as well as the play facility
Toddlers may spend time in a playground, supervised by their parents, but older children
will roam from place to place. They out a hard-surfaced areas for games and cycling, an
isolated area where they can construct a primitive shelter, trees to climb, and any other
possibilities for adventure and stimulation. It is better to distribute a varied set of play
opportunities in many locations rather than to concentrate them in one area.
Play areas for small children must include benches for parents to sit on and observe their
children, and the design should allow for strollers, carriages, and the like.
Ideally the playground should not have direct Street access and should located at least
some distance from the Street.
In regard to teenagers, the best strategy may be to ensure that the "hanging out", the
socializing on the automobile, and the noisy events will occur at arm's length from adults.
If numbers warrant, a separate teen center, a place for a small business enterprise, or an
active recreation area (basketball, cricket, volleyball etc) can be useful additions.
Campus Development
Architectural and Visual coherence of the campus should sustained and enhanced by
campus development.
Structures and outdoor spaces of historical, architectural, or environmental significance

should be preserved.
Unified academic communities should be planned with a fundamental framework of

social and environmental amenities (e.g. child care, food services, recycling etc.).
The expansion of campus-wide service networks, such as utilities and communications,

should integral to campus planning.

A system of continuous pedestrian routes throughout the campus should be established
which provide safe and convenient access to all University facilities, including convenient
access for the physically disabled.
The grouping of buildings with related use and technical support facilities should be
encouraged.
Personal safety considerations must be paramount in building and landscape design
Optimal microclimatic conditions should be promoted through site and building design.
Specifically, design must take into account that peak use of the campus occurs during
respective seasons.
Streetscapes should identifiable through distinctive paving, lighting, signage, and outdoor
furnishings.
The Campus Plan for 11M Ahmedabad by Louis Kahn

UNIT – 5
LANDSCAPING OF FUNCTIONAL AREAS
Urban open spaces and principle of urban landscape.
Street landscaping
Landscape design for waterfront areas
Functional areas in urban centres.
Green infrastructure including green roofs and walls.

URBAN OPEN SPACES
INTRODUCTION
The activities of a town take place in public and private spheres. The behavioral patterns
of people are similar in both. So, the result is that the way in which public space has been
organized has in all periods exercised a powerful influence on the design of private
houses.
What concerns us above all here are those activities which take place in the town in the
open air: i.e. actions which a person performs outside the familiar territory of his own
home and for which he utilizes public space. As for example travelling to work, shopping,
selling goods, recreation, leisure activities, sporting events, deliveries etc.
Urban open spaces have been critical sites of cultural, political, and economic life from
early civilizations to the present day. We define open space as any urban ground space,
regardless of public accessibility, that is not roofed by an architectural structure.
Another definition would be

"Open space is land and/or water area with its surface open to the# sky, consciously
acquired or publicly regulated to sense conservation and urban shaping function in
addition to providing recreational opportunities.'
From another standpoint public space in general is defined as the meeting or gathering
places that exist outside the home and workplace that are generally accessible by
members of the public, and which foster resident interaction and opportunities for
contact and proximity. Availability of open space, distribution and accessibility are a
major concern for cities. Open space are a necessity and not a luxury.
Due to ongoing urbanisation trend worldwide, the distance between city inhabitants and
nature is increasing. Urban greenery is one of the ways to bridge this gap between
people and nature. Most of the Indian cities are far behind in this.
High population density is one of the reasons for underdevelopment of urban greenery
sector.
The two basic elements are the street and the square, chowk or the courtyard of a house.
In the category of 'interior space' we would be talking about the corridor and the room.
The geometrical characteristics of both spatial forms are the same. They are
differentiated only by the dimensions of the walls which bound them and by the patterns
of function and circulation which characterize them.

THE SQUARE
The square was the first way man discovered of
using urban space. It is produced by the
grouping of houses around an open space.
This arrangement afforded a high degree of
control of the inner space, as well as
facilitating a ready defense against external
aggression by minimising the external surface
area liable to attack. This kind of courtyard
frequently came to bear a symbolic value and
was therefore chosen as the model for the
construction of numerous holy places (Agora,
Forum, cloister, mosque courtyard).
With the invention of houses built around a

central courtyard or atrium this spatial pattern became a model for the future. Here
rooms were arranged around a central courtyard like single housing units around a
square
THE STREET
The street is a product of the spread of a
settlement once houses have been built on all
available space around its central square. It
provides a framework for the distribution of
land and gives access to individual plots. It
has a more pronouncedly functional
character which by than the square, which is
virtue of its size is a more attractive place to
pass the time than the street, in whose
confines one is involuntarily caught up in the
bustle of traffic. Its architectural backdrop is
perceived only in passing.
The street layouts which we have inherited in

our towns were devised for quite different functional purposes. They were planned to the
scale of the human being, the horse and the carriage.
The street is unsuitable for the flow of motorized whilst remaining appropriate to human
circulation and activity. It rarely operates as an autonomous isolated space, as for

example in the case of villages built along a single street. It is mainly to be perceived as
part of a network.
Without careful planning, cities will be stressed with environmental challenges. Planning
may help in conserving open space as it offers places for wildlife habitat, wilderness
protection, ground water retention, air oxygenation, active recreational use, historic
landscapes.
URBAN OPEN SPACE

 Open space exists at many different scales in many different forms and under the
jurisdiction of different organizations
 Open space occur incidentally like the agricultural lands/ barren lands or are
formally planned
 Open space is a basic type of land use along with residential, commercial,
industrial, transportation etc.
 Other than open space, the rest are given due Importance for progress and it is
neglected because it caters to natural, recreational and cultural needs that are
intangible
 Large open areas are often encroached and converted to housing colonies
leading to environmental degradation.
 Open space is too precious an ingredient for healthy urban living to be sacrificed
so as to satisfy the greed of real estate promoters or any other hijackers of public
property
The conscious provision of open space is an integral

part of modern town planning. By and large, it was
towards the end of the 19th century that green open
space became important. Although most town and
cities have occupied the same location for centuries,
the buildings and other infrastructure which comprise
the built environment are not fixed but affected
continuously by the dynamic forces of change
The debate over the meaning and role of open space

starts here as urbanization, migration, increasing
population, land use change all contributing to less and
less open space. Urban population growth urban-sprawl
induced land use changes coupled with industrial
development are resulting in a challenge for city
planners. The changes of land use/land cover pattern

over a time period controls the pressure on land. Unplanned use as well as misuse of land
is leading to conversion of useful land into wastelands.
According to Conzen (1960). The urban landscape is divided into three main elements of
town plan, building forms and land use and demonstrated how each reacted at a
different rate to the forces of change:
 Land use is most susceptible to change;
 Since buildings represent capital investments and are adaptable to alternative
uses without being physically replaced, change occurs at a slower rate than with
land use.
 The town plan or street layout w most resistant to change
The debate over the meaning and role of open space in cities has grown as a result
 Increasing privatization of urban public space
 Urban sprawl
Public open space is necessary to retain urban quality. Open space planners seek to
ensure this through open space type and its distribution pattern that have assigned use
for recreation.
Concept of Open Space

The definition of open space has evolved with time, covering all types of opportunities to
suit the various needs of human beings, plants and animal species. This concept has been
very important m urban city planning literature. In the ancient period, the sizes of the
villages were small and surrounding open countryside was quite abundant.
Also, the studies on Vedic villages confirm that open space was either a private open
space in front of the house or a common court.
In the ancient civilization of Greece and Rome a number of open space were traditional:
the market place, gymnasia for athletes and sacred burial groves
Open spaces are valued by theorists who relate them to the social, political and physical
health of urban residents and communities
 high-quality, pedestrian friendly neighborhood spaces can engender beneficial

inter-personal connections
 The spatial ideal of a "public sphere" where the functioning of democracy is

strengthened when urban space encourages exchange understanding among
diverse subcultural groups. This public ideal is closely intertwined with

controversial arguments emphasizing the "contact hypothesis," socio-spatial
contact between different ethnic and class generates the healthy
psychological, social, and political development groups of urban citizens.
 The accessibility of green open spaces has been ideologically linked with positive
human health outcomes from the Garden City movement to more recent
discourses concerning urban sustainability and medical health.
 Equitable access to public space, especially proximity to parks, increasingly

addressed as an environmental justice concern as well a broad, comparative
perspective on urban history confirms that open space has assumed a
tremendous range of forms and functions, with a variety of benefits for urban
populations.
TYPE/SUBTYPE OF OPEN SPACE - A Typology of Urban Open Spaces (Adapted from Carr ,
Francis, Rivlin and Carr, 1992)
Public Parks
Public/Central Park
Publicly developed and managed open space as part of zoned open space system of
city; open space of city-wide importance, often located near centre of city; often larger
than Neighborhood Park.
Downtown Parks
Green parks with grass and trees located in downtown areas; can be traditional, historic
parks or newly developed open spaces
Commons
A large green area developed in older New England cities and towns; once pasture area
for common use; now used for leisure activities
Neighbourhood Park
Open space developed in residential environments; publicly developed and managed
as part of the zoned open space of cities or as part of new private residential
development; may include playgrounds, sport facilities, etc.
Mini/ Vestpocket Par

Small urban park bounded by buildings, may include fountain or water feature
Squares and Plazas

Central Square

Square or plaza; often part of historic development of city center; may be formally planned
or exist as a meeting places of streets; frequently publicly developed and managed
Memorial
Public place that memorializes people or events of local and national importance
Markets
Farmer’s market
Open space or streets used for farmer's Markets or flea Markets; often temporary or occur
only during certain times in existing space such as parks, downtown streets or parking lots
Streets
Pedestrian Sidewalks
Part of cities where people move on foot, most commonly along sidewalks and paths,
planned or found which connect one destination with another.
Pedestrian Mall
Street closed to auto traffic; pedestrian amenities provided such as benches, planting;
often located along Main Street in downtown area
Transit Mall
Development of improved transit access to downtown areas; replacement of traditional
pedestrian malls with bus and "light
rail" malls
Traffic Restricted Streets

Streets used as public open
space; traffic and vehicle
restriction can include pedestrian
improvements and side-walk
widening, street tree planting.
Town Trails
Connect parts of cities through
integrated urban trails; use of
streets and open spaces planned
as setting for environmental
learning; some are designed and
marked trails.
THREE General types of Street patterns (below)
Intersections as nodes and streets as edges (above)

Playgrounds/Schoolyard
Play area located in neighbourhood; frequently includes traditional play equipment such
as slides and swings; sometimes include amenities for adults such as benches; can also
include innovative designs such as Adventure Playgrounds.
Schoolyard as play area; some developed as place for environmental learning or as
community use spaces.
Community Open Spaces

Neighbourhood spaces designed, developed or managed by local residents on vacant
land, may include viewing gardens, play areas and community gardens, often
developed on private land, not officially viewed as part of open space system of cities,
often vulnerable to displacement by other uses such as housing and commercial
development
Street Hierarchy
The way people experience the place they live and work in as they move through it has a
crucial impact upon how it is perceived and how people behave.

Greenways and Linear Parkways
Interconnected recreational and natural areas connected by pedestrian and bicycle
paths.
Urban Wilderness
Undeveloped or wild natural areas in or near cities. Often popular for hiking, dog walking
and recreation. Frequently involves conflicts between users and ecological
preservation/restoration.
Atrium/Indoor Market places

Interior private space developed as indoor atrium space; an indoor, lockable plaza or
pedestrian street; counted by many cities as part of open space system; privately
developed and managed as part of new office or commercial development.
Waterfronts
Open space along waterways in cities; increased public access to waterfront areas;
development of waterfront parks.
Stanley et Al’s typology delineates seven major types of open space: (1) food production
areas; (2) parks and gardens; (3) recreational space; (4) plazas; (5) streets; (6) transport
facilities; and (7) incidental space.

PRINCIPLES OF URBAN LANDSCAPE
Elements in design are form, line, texture, and colour. In landscape design, additional
elements of sound (chimes, or the sound of water in rivers, the ocean, or waterfalls) and
fragrance can also be included. Design elements are arranged according to design
principles. These include order and unity, scale and proportion, balance and harmony,
and rhythm and repetition. Design themes such as Japanese, tropical, or contemporary
can also unite the design components in a distinct fashion.
❖ ORDER AND UNITY

Order generally refers to the spatial layout or organization of the design and is most often
achieved through balance. Balance is the concept of equal visual attraction and weight,
usually around a real or imaginary
central axis. Form, color, size, and
texture all affect balance. Balance can
be symmetrical, asymmetrical, or
perspective. Order can also be
achieved by massing features or
elements into distinct groups and
arranging them around a central point.
SYMMETRICAL BALANCE
Symmetrical balance is achieved when
the same objects (mirror images) are
placed on either side of an axis. Figure 1
shows the same trees, plants, and
structures on both sides of the axis. This
type of balance is used in formal
designs and is one of the oldest and
most desired spatial organization
concepts. This is because the mind
naturally divides space by assuming a
central axis and then seeks an even
distribution of objects or mass (visual
weight). Many historic gardens are
organized using this concept.
ASYMMETRICAL BALANCE
Asymmetrical balance is achieved by
equal visual weight of non-equivalent
forms, color, or texture on either side of

an axis. This type of balance is informal and is usually achieved by masses of plants that
appear to be the same in visual weight rather than total mass. The mass can be achieved
by combinations of plants, structures, and garden ornaments. To create balance,
features with large sizes, dense forms, bright colours and coarse textures appear heavier
and should be used sparingly, while small sizes, sparse forms, gray or subdued colours,
and fine texture appear lighter and should be used in greater amounts.
PERSPECTIVE BALANCE
Perspective balance is concerned with the balance of the foreground, midground, and
background. When looking at a composition, the objects in front usually have greater
visual weight because they are closer to the viewer. This can be balanced, if desired, by
using larger objects, brighter colors, or coarse texture in the background. In most cases,
either the foreground or background should be dominant.
MASS COLLECTION
Mass collection is the grouping of features based on similarities and then arranging the
groups around a central space or feature. A good example is the organization of plant
material in masses around an open circular lawn area or an open gravel seating area.
Unity
Unity is achieved by linking elements and features to create a consistent character in the
composition. Unity is sometimes referred to as harmony—the concept of everything fitting
together. By comparison, scattered groupings of plants and unrelated garden ornaments
are the opposite of unity. Unity is achieved by using dominance, interconnection, unity of
three (described below), and simplicity to arrange colors, textures, and form.
UNITY BY DOMINANCE
Dominance or emphasis is the
property of a plant or object that
attracts and holds attention,
making the object an important
feature. The ability of an object to
capture attention usually depends
on contrast with adjacent objects.
A typical example for a garden
would be a very brightly coloured
ceramic pot among green
foliage.
Dominant features that capture
attention are called focal points.

Focal points are used to draw attention to a particular location, move the eye around
the space, or guide circulation. Emphasis is created through contrast in size, colour, form,
or texture.
UNITY BY INTERCONNECTION
Interconnection, the concept of physical linkage (touching) of various features, is present
in all designs.
UNITY OF THREE
Features that are grouped in threes, or in other groups of odd numbers, such as in groups
of five or seven, feel balanced to the eye and give a stronger sense of unity.
UNITY BY SIMPLICITY
Simplicity is the concept of reducing or eliminating non-essentials to avoid a chaotic look.
This brings clarity and purpose to the design
❖ RHYTHM AND REPETITION

The principle of rhythm and repetition tends to achieve visual unity. Repetition is created
by the repeated use of elements or features to create patterns or a sequence in the
landscape. Repeating line, form, colour, and texture creates rhythm in the landscape.
Repetition must be used with care — too much repetition can create monotony, and too
little can create confusion
Repetition can be made more interesting by using alternation, which is a minor change in
the sequence on a regular
basis—for example, using a
square form in a line with a
circular form inserted every
fifth square.
Gradation, which is the

gradual change in certain
characteristics of a feature,
is another way to make
repetition more interesting.
An example would be the
use of a square form that
gradually becomes smaller
or larger. The Figure below

illustrates repetition of a square form in an entry courtyard, lawn panels, a patio, and a
water feature.
REPETITION IN PLANTS AND HARDSCAPE

a gradual change in height or size (e.g., using small grasses in front, backed by medium
grasses, and then large grasses). A more obvious gradation is plants that transition from
fine to coarse texture, or from light green to dark green.
❖ SCALE AND PROPORTION

Scale and proportion can refer to individual plants or the relationship of the plants to the
architectural structure. An important absolute scale in design is the human scale because
the size of other objects is considered relative to humans. Plant material, garden
structures, and ornaments should be considered relative to human scale. Other important
relative proportions include the size of the house, yard, and the area to be planted.
PROPORTION IN PLANTS
Proportion can be found in plant material relative to people, the surrounding plants, and
the house. When all three are in proportion, the composition feels balanced and
harmonious. A feeling of balance can also be achieved by having equal proportions of
open space and planted space.
PROPORTION IN HARDSCAPE
Features are most functional for people when they fit the human body. Benches, tables,
pathways, arbors, and gazebos work best when people can use them easily and feel
comfortable using them. The hardscape should also be proportional to the house—a
verandah or patio should be large enough for entertaining but not so large that it doesn’t
fit the scale of the house.
PROPORTIONS IN VOIDS
Human scale is also important for
psychological comfort in voids or
open spaces. People feel more
secure in smaller open areas, such
as patios and terraces. An
important concept of spatial
comfort is enclosure. Most people
feel at ease with some sort of
overhead condition that implies a
ceiling. The does not have to be
solid; in fact, enclosure an implied

enclosure, such as tree branches, serves as a good psychological enclosure that still
allows light and views of the sky
❖ BALANCE AND HARMONY

The use of line can be a strong element in design. Vertical lines, for example, can impart
an emotional lift to a design. Coconut and Ashoka trees besides Bamboo have been
used as vertical elements in landscapes. The use of horizontal lines in hedges and the
stairs of buildings can impart a solid, grounded feeling.
STREETSCAPE
The streetscape is composed of many distinct elements that relate to the installation
landscape, roadway, and infrastructure design. These include paving, landscape
planting, site furnishings, lighting, signs, and utilities.
Streetscape Hierarchy
The visual character of the streetscape should convey the function of streets and
reinforce the circulation hierarchy, thereby assisting in orientation and contributing to a
sense of organization for the installation. Streetscape visual character is influenced by the
width of the corridors, the scale of various streetscape elements, and the level and
uniformity of treatment.
PRIMARY STREETS
Primary streets provide access to major activity areas and to secondary streets. They carry
the highest volume of traffic and are therefore the most visually prominent and largest
streetscape corridors on an installation. Primary streetscape corridors should be designed
to:
• provide two to three moving lanes in each direction;
• provide a minimum twelve-foot-wide landscaped median, where space allows;
• provide channelization for left and right turns;
• provide vehicular access only to major facilities or facility groupings to minimize traffic
conflicts;
• prohibit on-street parking;
• provide, where walkways are required and appropriate, a minimum eight-foot-wide
sidewalk,
• reflecting the scale and nature of the corridor;
• provide a minimum eight-foot-wide landscaped zone adjacent to the street where it is
necessary to buffer walkways and reduce the impacts of traffic on adjoining uses;
• avoid, where possible, the shared use of the road surface for bicycle travel or, where
bikeways are required, provide a minimum 6'-6" wide Class II Bike Lane for one-way travel;

• include elements such as trees, light fixtures, signs, and site furnishings to spatially define
the streetscape zone, reinforce the purpose and importance of the corridor, and
complement the character and function of surrounding uses
• insure that elements such as trees, light fixtures, and signs are appropriate in their scale
and placement relative to the size of the corridor and the moderate-to-high speed of
travel along the corridor.
SECONDARY STREETS
Secondary streets provide access to facilities and connection between primary and
tertiary streets. They carry a moderate volume of traffic and are relatively visually
prominent streetscape corridors. Secondary streetscape corridors should be designed to:
• provide one to two moving lanes in each direction;
• provide direct vehicular access to adjacent facilities but minimize the number of turning
conflicts;
• prohibit on-street parking where possible;
• provide, where walkways are required and appropriate, a minimum six-foot- wide
sidewalk, reflecting the scale and nature of the corridor;

• provide a minimum eight-foot-wide landscaped zone adjacent to the street where it is
necessary to buffer walkways and reduce the impacts of traffic on adjoining uses;
• provide a minimum 6'-6" wide Class II Bike Lane for one-way travel where bikeways are
required;
• include elements such as trees, light fixtures, signs, and site furnishings to spatially define
the streetscape zone, reinforce the purpose of the corridor, and complement the
character and function of surrounding uses; and
• insure that elements such as trees, light fixtures, and signs are appropriate in scale and
placement relative to the size of the corridor and the moderate-to- slow speed of travel
along the corridor.
TERTIARY STREETS
Tertiary streets accommodate local traffic and provide direct connection to adjacent
uses. They carry a relatively low volume of traffic and are therefore less visually prominent
streetscape corridors. Tertiary streetscape corridors should be designed to:
• provide one moving lane in each direction;
• provide direct vehicular access to adjacent facilities;
• allow, where necessary, on-street parking by including a parallel parking lane;
• provide, where walkways are required and appropriate, a minimum four-foot- wide
sidewalk, reflecting the scale and nature of the corridor;
• provide a landscaped zone adjacent to the street where possible to buffer walkways
and reduce the impacts of traffic on adjoining uses (walkways may be adjacent to the
street in residential areas);
• provide, where bikeways are required, a minimum 4'-0" (preferred 6'-6") wide Class III
Bike Route for one-way travel;
• include elements such as trees, light fixtures and site furnishings to spatially define the
streetscape zone, reinforce the purpose of the corridor, and complement the character
and function of surrounding uses

• insure that elements such as trees, light fixtures and signs are appropriate in scale and
placement relative to the smaller size of the corridor and the slower speed of travel along
the corridor.
❖ SAFETY
This involves eliminating physical obstructions, maintaining visibility and providing traffic
control devices and barriers.
• All signs, light poles, hydrants, fences and other physical obstructions should be set back
a minimum of two feet from the face of the curb. Where there is no curb, this setback
should be increased.
•Barriers to sight lines should be avoided
•Clear sight lines are especially critical at street intersections, driveways, and pedestrian
crossings
•Street lighting levels should allow drivers at night-time to clearly distinguish the alignment
of the road and quickly ascertain signs, traffic control devices, obstacles, pedestrians,
and other vehicles.
• All intersections should include some form of traffic control device. Intersections where
two primary streets cross should be signalized.
•Regulatory and directional signs should be unobstructed, easily discernible, and properly
locate
• Medians should be used not only to reinforce the streetscape hierarchy but also to
separate opposing traffic, channelize turns to minimize conflicts and provide a mid-
crossing island for pedestrians.
• All walks should be separated from a road by, at a minimum, a raised curb. Planted
buffer strips provide an additional barrier for safety and comfort.
• Site furnishings should be located adjacent to rather than on walkways, such that they

do not present a hazard or impede pedestrian traffic.
• Lighting levels should allow pedestrians to clearly distinguish the edge of the walkway,
changes in direction, intersecting walkways, and any potential obstacles or hazards
LANDSCAPE PLANTING
The use of planting material is one of the simplest and most effective means to achieve a
desirable impact on the streetscape setting. Plant material provides many environmental
benefits including shade, climate modification, air purification, erosion control, and glare
reduction. Plant material can be an effective visual screen and provide a psychological
buffer between traffic and adjacent uses. Plants provide colour and visual variety and
can effectively reinforce or establish scale for pedestrian settings and vehicular settings.
Ground cover and shrubs planted in the streetscape corridor should be low maintenance
The streetscape planting design should reflect the architectural character and natural
environment of the installation. Indigenous material that is well adapted to local climatic
conditions and will require only supplemental irrigation should beused where possible.
SITE FURNISHINGS
Site furnishings, including such elements as benches, trash receptacles, bus shelters,
drinking fountains, kiosks, and phone booths, can improve the function of the streetscape
and help unify and enhance its appearance. They also reinforce the streetscape
hierarchy by helping define the role of various corridors and they provide a human scale
to a vehicular-oriented environment.
• Streetscape site furnishings should be simple and straightforward in their design and
reflect the architectural character of the installation.
•Seating area should be located along the walkway edge farthest from the street and
should be enhanced with planting Bus benches and shelters should be set back a
minimum of four feet from the face of the curb.
• All furnishings, including seating areas, tables, drinking fountains, and phone booths,
should be selected and sited to accommodate physically challenged individuals.
• Furnishings should be made of durable and low maintenance materials such as metal
and concrete. A hard paving surface should surround each furnishing for ease of access
and maintenance.
PAVING
Along with plant material, paving composes the ground plane of the streetscape.
Differences in paving can help reinforce the hierarchy of the streetscape, accent special
areas,or define areas of potential conflict.

• All streets should be paved with asphalt or concrete. All streets in developed areas of
an installation should have similar and continuous curbs and gutters to define the street
edge and carry runoff. In rural areas, swales or ditches can be employed.
• In general, paving should be consistent throughout the streetscape to establish
continuity. Varied paving treatments, such as coloured or textured concrete, should be
reserved to accent special areas such as primary intersections or the walkways in front of
major facilities.
• Paving treatments should be used to differentiate between vehicular and pedestrian
traffic areas, including special colouring and texture
LANDSCAPE DESIGN FOR WATERFRONT AREAS

Waterfronts are settlements, civilizations or commercial developments that come up
along water bodies like rivers, coastal regions or lakes, acting as lifelines for development
of cities.
The waterfronts have the potential to become the cultural and heritage hubs of these
cities that lie on the bank of the rivers and attract people from the city and also tourists to
spend time. Thus, waterfronts have emerged as the lively urban core of cities.
There are different types of waterfronts like Riverfront, Lakefront and Seafront based on
the source of water in the city. The creation of waterfront is considered as a better
commercial idea for transforming an otherwise underutilized area into a booming centre
of tourism, culture, leisure and business.
Riverfront Development
The development of riverfronts typically includes the following activities:
a. Boat trips b. Shopping c. Petty shops d. Restaurants e. Theme parks
f. Parks g. Parking lots h. Walk ways i. Sitouts
Seafront Development
The development of seafronts typically includes the following activities:
a. Water sports b. Deep sea touring c. Commercial complexes d. Hotels
e. Restaurants f. Bars g. Cinemas h. Shops
i. Ocean aquarium j. Scuba diving k. Museums l. Offices
m. Residential buildings n. Rented houses
Lakefront Development
The development of lakefronts typically includes the following activities:
a. Boating b. Various rides c. Restaurants d. Walkways

ELEMENTS OF SUCCESSFUL WATERFRONT DEVELOPMENT
General principles for waterfront development

Waterfront development planning is often guided by four priorities: balanced land use;
respect for limited resources; improved public access; and safeguards for environmental
quality.
The general principles for waterfront development are set out below:
a. Interconnected, linear waterfront development with broad public access
• Encouraging the use of the riverfront greenway as a daily commuter path and
recreational amenity.
• Demonstrating the connection between access, greenway development and market
demand.
• Creating a coherent, visually pleasing order to the water’s edge
b. Protection and enhancement of the natural riverfront environment
• Documenting the ecological state of the waterfronts in order to preserve this
environmentally diverse natural habitat.
• Preventing and, where possible, eliminating inappropriate uses and practices from the
rivers’ edge.
• Protecting existing natural areas from development.
c. Reclaim the city’s identity as one of the best water cities.
• Raising public expectations of what the city’s waterfront offers.
• Attracting people, investment and the best aspects of urban living to the waterfront.
SABARMATI RIVERFRONT DEVELOPMENT
• Sabarmati Riverfront is a waterfront being developed along the banks of Sabarmati
river in Ahmedabad, India.
• The major objectives of project are environment improvement, social infrastructure and
sustainable development.
NEED FOR RIVERFRONT DEVELOPMENT

The intensive uses took their toll on the river.

• Untreated sewage flowed into the river through storm water outfalls and dumping of
industrial waste posed a major health and environmental hazard.
• The river bank settlements were disastrously prone to floods and lacked basic
infrastructure facilities. Lacklustre development took shape along the riverfront. Such
conditions made the river inaccessible and it became a virtual divide between the two
parts of the city.
PROJECT OBJECTIVES
• The objectives of this multidimensional project can be categorised under three topics-
• Environmental Improvement: reduction in erosion and flood to safeguard the city;
sewage diversion to clean the river; water retention and recharge.
• Social Infrastructure: rehabilitation and resettlement of riverbed dwellers and activities;
creation of parks and public spaces; provision of socio-cultural amenities for the city.
• Sustainable Development: generation of resources, revitalisation of neighbourhoods.
FEATURES
• The reduction of the riverbed from a variable width of 600- 300 m to a fix width of 275 m,
thus reclaiming 185 ha of land.
• The construction of RCC diaphragm walls (10-20 m depth) and anchor slabs (10 m) to
prevent the riverbanks from erosion. After the finishing the anchor slab is turned in the so-
called lower promenade.

• The construction of interceptor sewers on both the riverbanks able to prevent the waste
water to flow directly into the river and diverting it to the two sewage treatment plants of
vasna and pirana.
• The construction of RCC retaining walls (2.5 - 9 m) to protect the city from flooding. The
height of the walls is determined by the 100-year flood level. An upperpromenade is
created on top of the retaining walls
LAND USE MAP
The key feature of this project is a two-level, continuous promenade at the water’s edge
along each bank of the river. The lower level promenade is built just above the water

level and an upper level promenade. Together these provide Ahmedabad with an
uninterrupted, pedestrian walkway, of 11.3km in length, in the heart of the city.
LOWER-LEVEL PROMENADE
The lower-level promenade is built just above the water level to serve pedestrians and
cyclists solely and to provide access to the water.
The width of the promenade varies from 6-18m. Facilities provided at the River
Promenade include:
• Access points from the city level via staircases and ramps at regular intervals.
• Lifts or elevators to make lower-level promenade accessible for people with disabilities.
• Concrete paved flooring which can support walking, jogging and cycling.
• Continuous seating arrangement at the river’s edge along with protective railing.
• Platforms at regular intervals for regulated and organized vending activities.
RECREATION MAP
UPPER LEVEL PROMINADE

The upper level promenade host a variety of public features at the city level.
BOATING STATIONS
3 NOS
Boating Stations have been provided at the lower-level River Promenade to enable
recreational boating in the river as well as a water-based mode of public transport in the
future. Three boating stations have been completed so far. First station is located on the
eastern bank near Subhash Bridge. The other two stations are located downstream on the
western bank, near Nehru Bridge and Sardar Bridge, respectively.

FLOWER GARDEN
Area 5 ha
This garden has been envisioned as a venue for Ahmedabad’s Annual Flower Show- an
event for exhibition and sale of native and exotic species of plants and flowers.
Throughout the year, the garden shall serve as a neighbourhood park.
PLAZA: GANDHI ASHRAM

Owing to its significance as a national heritage site, Gandhi Ashram is the only property
that opens up directly onto the river. The series of wide steps that presently lead down
from the Ashram, connect to the lower level-River Promenade. This space is envisioned as
a multi-functional public space. The visualizations show the transformation of the space
into an amphitheatre, where the existing steps serve as seating.
CONCLUSION
• The Sabarmati Riverfront Project add almost 10,00,000 sq. mts. of parks, promenades
and plazas to Ahmedabad.
• The Sabarmati Riverfront Project help provide Ahmedabad with many new cultural
trade and social institutions (36,000 Sq.m).
• Creating of City Level Recreational Activities – Water Sports and Floating restaurants.
• Tourist attraction. • Recharge of Ground water Aquifers of the city
• Continuous Green coverage along the river corridor.
• Elimination of Flood Hazard.
• Creating Vibrant Urban neighborhoods and beautification of the city.
Other examples of waterfront development are

Hussain Sagar Lake Development, Hyderabad;
Kolkota Millenium Park Development;
Cape Town Waterfront, South Africa;
Canary Wharf, London; Hong Kong Harbour;
Sydney Harbour, Australia

LANDSCAPE DESIGN FOR FUNCTIONAL AREAS IN URBAN CENTRES
Parks and Gardens
Parks and gardens are defined as partly landscaped, mostly green areas intended for
social and recreational activities as well as aesthetic or display purposes, although
historically these functions have been intertwined with food production.
While some parks and gardens are highly specialized and institutionally designed for
specific cultural functions, others have operated as multi-purpose spaces of social
interaction, recreation and ritual.
Parks and gardens in many cultural contexts have been constructed as sites of aesthetic
reflection or for specific social practices and the intentionality inherent in these uses tends
to require such “top-down” planning.
In ancient states, large gardens and parks were usually royal or elite installations and had
only sporadic or selective public access (e.g., to upper classes).In recent centuries, elite
estates have often been appropriated by authorities and converted to public use.
Recreational Space
Recreational space involves functionally specialized green and grey spaces designed or
used for leisure activities, such as sports or exercise. In many cases, spaces defined solely
in terms of recreation are modern in origin.
Institutional control of recreational space is especially prevalent when activities require

special facilities and maintenance, such as stadia and golf courses and these
requirements may translate into reduced accessibility across socioeconomic classes or
uneven quality of facilities.
Plazas
Plazas are defined as intentionally established open space framed by buildings on most
sides and usually hard surfaced. Plazas can host a diversity of civic activities and tend to
be multi-purpose. At the city and intermediate levels they normally are open to public
access.
Streets
In ancient as in modern cities, streets functioned as pedestrian and vehicular corridors as
well as crucial locales of social interaction, political demonstration, ritual, recreation,
economic production and trade.
Boulevards, streets, and alleys in urban history reflect a range of origins, usually they were
built for pedestrians and carts driven by animals, later when fossil fuel came into picture
and technology took over, Yet regardless of technological level, streets have been

historically critical sites of grassroots social and economic activity for urban classes lacking
much private enclosed space; recent functional specialization threatens these resources.
Incidental Space
Incidental space, also referred to as marginalized or amenity space, is defined here as
any green or grey space located on the margins of other spaces or buildings that is either
ignored or not intended for a specific use other than safety, visual amenity, or physical
separation. These spaces are not easily amenable to either formal or functional
classification.
GREEN ROOFS AND WALLS

Green roofs, walls and facades can reduce cooling and heating costs, by reducing heat
gain or loss across the building surface. A green roof performed best out of four different
roof treatments in reducing heat flux from the outside to the inside of the building. The
roofs differed in albedo (the ability to reflect, rather than absorb, solar energy).
A high albedo value means that more light is reflected and less is absorbed. A green roof
planted with lawn grass had the lowest albedo, but was most effective at reducing heat
flux into the building. Heat flux across the ‘cool roof’ treatment using reflective white paint

was 10 times higher than for the green roof, although its albedo was almost five times
greater.
GREEN ROOF

The sensible heat flux across the white roof surface is small because most solar radiation is
reflected, and little is absorbed. Sensible heat flux across the green roof is small because
of loss of latent heat through evaporation of water from plants and the growing substrate,
even though the amount of solar radiation absorbed is high.
Green roofs for biodiversity

Green roofs that are designed to increase biodiversity should feature indigenous
vegetation local to the area. Biodiversity roofs should also incorporate different
vegetation layers and landscaping features to increase opportunities for wildlife to feed
and shelter .These may include hollow logs or twig bundles, rocks, different substrate
types, such as areas of sand or rubble, and spaces for shelter, such as roof tiles and
nesting boxes.
The value of green roofs for biodiversity will depend on their characteristics and location.
In general, larger green roofs on relatively low buildings closer to natural areas will be
more valuable than small, high green roofs in dense urban areas remote from parks or
native vegetation remnants.
Irrigation may need to be provided during hot dry periods to ensure greater vegetation
success. The vegetation must not create a fire hazard or block drains, so non-vegetated
areas around the roof perimeter, drains or other fixtures must be kept clear.

Planting a diverse range of species on a green roof is more likely to attract a broad range
of invertebrates, birds and other wildlife than a monoculture of a single species.
Planning for Drainage & Irrigation

Good drainage ensures that the green roof, wall or facade does not compromise the
structural integrity of the building and that plants are not adversely affected by
waterlogged substrate. A drainage system must effectively remove surface and sub-
surface water from the roof or wall.
The likely water demand of vegetation can be estimated by developing a water budget
based on multiple characteristics of the green roof, wall or facade, including:
• calculating total water needs based on the ‘landscape coefficient ’or ‘crop factor’
values
• evaporation data
• effective rainfall
• the capacity of the substrate to store water

It is desirable to maximize water retention in the system for as long as possible and to send
reduced volumes of high quality (low nutrient) run-off off the roof. Re-use of irrigation
water is useful in green roof, wall and facade installations, where large volumes of water
flow through the system. Treatment to disinfest and treat run-off water is needed in these
situations as continuous recycling of untreated water can spread soil-borne disease
and/or lead to the build-up high levels of nutrients. In many green wall installations, water
reticulation and reuse is standard practice.
Roof Deck
Green roofs can be installed on roofs made of concrete, timber, sheet metal (usually clip-
lock, or corrugated galvanized steel) and a range of other materials. Green roofs are
most commonly installed on concrete roof decks because of structural integrity, ease of
design, durability and amenity when complete.

Waterproofing
• Liquid applied treatments can be composed of bitumen emulsions, modified bitumen,
polymer cement systems, polyurethane, polyurethane modified acrylic, acrylic or two
part polyurethane hybrid elastomers that require mixing prior to application.
• Preformed sheets are asphalt-based or comprised of thermosetting polymers or
thermoplastic polymers.
Protection Layers
ROOT BARRIER
Root barriers are often used in green roofs to provide some protection to the
waterproofing from invasive stolons, rhizomes and from woody roots from trees and
shrubs. The most common root barriers used are thin polyethylene sheets, laid over the
waterproofing membrane.
PROTECTION MAT
Protection mats or boards are used to protect the waterproof membrane from damage
following installation. The most common materials used are water- permeable, hard
wearing and dense synthetic fibers, polyester and polypropylene.
DRAINAGE LAYER
The growing substrate must be kept separate from the drainage layer with a filter sheet.
Older green roofs often used a permeable layer of rock aggregate (such as gravel) for
drainage. On modern, lightweight, green roofs, plastic drainage sheets or boards are the
preferred drainage materials.
FILTER SHEET
A filter sheet acts to retain the growing substrate, by preventing wash-through of the
substrate particles into the underlying layers and to prevent clogging of holes in the
drainage layer. Filter fabric is sometimes referred to as geotextile fabric.
Considerations in the selection and use of filter sheets include:

• the expected flow rate of water as it drains through the system
• substrate type – if components of the substrate have sharp edges,the filter sheet should
be strong
• vegetation type – the filter sheet must allow penetration of roots, and certain roots will
be more or less aggressive(for example: herbs versus trees roots)
The filter sheet can be either a woven or non-woven material. A non-woven material is
preferable as it is more resistant to root penetration and can sometimes be used as a root
barrier system.

GROWING SUBSTRATE
The growing substrate supplies water and nutrients to plant roots, ensures gas exchange
at the roots and provides anchorage to support plants.
Growing substrates for green roofs are typically composed of a mix of inorganic (mineral)
and organic components.
Soil is generally not used on green roofs, as its properties will be less well known compared
to an engineered substrate, and therefore its longevity and suitability is harder to judge.
Also, silt particles from soil can clog filter sheets and cause drainage problems.
GREEN WALLS
Structures and Components for Green Wall Systems:
Hydroponic green wall systems can be either modular containers or large panels. The
systems are installed via brackets that sit out from the load-bearing wall (or a stand-alone
structure) to create an air gap between the wall (or other structure) and the backing
sheet of the green wall system.
In a hydroponic system, an inert growing medium is provided to which the plants

physically anchor, such as a horticultural foam,a mineral fibre or a felt mat.These
materials can act as a water retentive sponge
ADVANTAGE of the hydroponic system is that there is no structural decay of the growing
medium, no salt build up from fertilisers and nutrients are supplied in a precise and
controlled manner.
MATERIAL:
Substrate-based systems use substrate-holding containers made of plastic or metal. The
substrate is packed directly into the empty container or placed in a water permeable,
synthetic fiber bag.
The growing medium in these systems provides a structure to support the plant and
facilitates water, air and nutrient access, decreasing the need for constant management
associated with hydroponic systems. Drip trays are used to capture excess irrigation water
from the growing medium as well as water droplets that drip off foliage. The size of the
drip tray should be sufficient to hold an entire irrigation cycle’s water volume
WATERPROOFING
In some cases there will be a sufficient air gap between the back of the planting system
and the wall, making waterproofing treatment unnecessary. The air gap prevents
movement of water between the wall and the planting system, and air-prunes plant roots

to reduce the risk that they will directly contact the wall and provide a path for
movement of moisture. Provision for an air gap between the planting system and the
building wall will also prevent growth of mould.
Irrigation & Plant Nutrition

Systems designed with inbuilt irrigation should mitigate plant losses due to inconsistent
moisture management, although errors can still occur.
Automated, remotely controllable irrigation systems are used for walls in high profile
locations, or in situations where access is challenging.
In hydroponic systems, plant nutrition is delivered by a fertiliser injection system that

releases controlled doses of fertiliser into the irrigation system (fertigation).
Hydroponic systems require continual monitoring of pH, water hardness and total
dissolved solids (TDS) and adjustment of these parameters where necessary.
Vegetation
Planting densities can be as high as 25 to 30 plants per square metre. Decorative patterns
can be designed by repeat different parts of the wall have not been considered.

GREEN FACADES
Special considerations for walls
Plants require very specific lighting quantities and qualities to photosynthesise, grow,
flower and develop appropriately.
Air movement around the foliage is important to help prevent fungal growth, and
additional ventilation may be needed to ensure sufficient air movement for indoor walls.
Outdoor walls usually create their own microclimate that creates enough air movement,
but in very sheltered positions attention should be given to this issue.
Wall protection and different facade treatments

It is important to select plant species with a growth habit that will not damage the fabric
of the wall. Some species with adventitious roots or scrambling stems can damage the
building fabric over time, such as Common Ivy (Hedera helix)
Plants can damage buildings by physical and chemical means, over timescales of
centuries.
Metal systems have the longest lifespan and require less maintenance. Stainless steel
cables and trellis are low maintenance and have a long lifespan and offer the greatest
flexibility to suit a variety of plant species and wind loads.
Soils and growing substrates

The use of planter boxes, mounted at varying heights above the ground, can allow
greater coverage of the facade, where the building is so tall that ground level plants will
not reach (the soil will not dry out as quickly the top. The advantage of in-ground
planting, where soil is of a reasonable quality, is that the plants will have more access to
water and will have more space for their root systems to grow.
Climbers required to cover greater areas will require greater substrate volumes.
In-ground plantings will generally outperform container plantings in the long term. Ensure
the planting bed soil or growing media has a suitable balance of porosity and water-
holding capacity, and an adequate supply of nutrients to ensure optimal growing
conditions
Vegetation
Pruning and training of new plants is essential to promote the development of an
effective facade. Plants may need to be trained to the facade support, or temporarily
attached to the wall after planting, to encourage upward growth. Once the plant is
established, the main runners should be trimmed to encourage lateral shoots that will

create a more radial growth pattern. If this is not done, the climbers will typically branch
out only once they have reached a significant height, and it may take years for the lower
portions of the facade to receive any coverage. The use of diagonally oriented cables
on facade systems facilitates horizontal, as well as vertical, growth of the plant (preferred
over the plant shooting straight up) and thereby increases the density of foliage cover.
Drainage and irrigation

Garden beds, or at-ground planter boxes used for climbing plants for facade greening,
should have drainage appropriate for the plant species selected for use. Container
systems placed at elevation on the face of a building should have a free- draining
growing substrate to avoid potential waterlogging in the event of prolonged periods of
wet weather.
The potential for ponding of water above the top of the growing substrate should be
minimised by providing overflow drainage holes in the sides of the container, just higher
than the level to which the container is filled. In most cases, run-off through the base of
the growing containers will simply run down onto the ground beneath, but drip trays can
be installed to collect water.

AR - 8701 Landscape Design - Full

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AR - 8701 Landscape Design - Full

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SIGMA COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

Moododu, Anducode post, Kanyakumari District-626169

Academic year: 2020-21

Year: IV- Sem: VII

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Basic concepts of ecology and the impact of human activities on them.

Environmental impact assessment.

Reclamation and restoration of derelict lands.

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

The most valuable contribution can be made

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Practical Applications of Ecology:

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Bio, Geo, chemical cycles

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

* Nitrogen RETURNS to soil by:

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Carbon Cycle and Humans:

*Carbon enters biotic environment through

* Carbon RETURNS to atmosphere by:

Phosphorus Cycle and Humans:

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Changes in carrying capacity:

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

The National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) has defined wasteland as

Categories of wasteland in India (Source: NWDB)

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

There are various methods by which wastelands can be reclaimed.

4. Mulching: Mulch is a layer of

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

5. Leaching: In salt affected land, the salinity can

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

EIA requires a significant amount of primary and secondary data.

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Different types of hard landscape elements.

Plant materials, water and landform - classification, characteristics, use and

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Function of Hard Landscapes

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Elements of Hard Landscapes

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

PLANT MATERIALS - CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS, USE AND APPLICATION

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

COMMON SHRUB FORMS:

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Plants are grouped into 3 types: Annual, Biennial & Perennial

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN - FORM

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN – COLOUR

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN – PLANTS

The human eye has a tendency to

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Plants that reach large sizes at maturity are

Creating outdoor rooms – soft landscaping:

Inwardly oriented space is characterized by either complete or

Various plant types, heights, and

Ar.Priyadarshini Assistant Professor Sigma College of Architecture

Outwardly focused space