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Review article
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Due to excessive greenhouse gas emissions and high dependence on traditional petroleum jet fuel, the sus-
Bio-jet fuel tainable development of the aviation industry has drawn increasing attention worldwide. One of the most
Feedstock promising strategies is to develop and industrialize alternative aviation fuels produced from renewable re-
Production technology sources, e.g. biomass. Renewable bio-jet fuel has the potential to reduce CO2 emissions over their life cycle,
Environmental influence
which make bio-jet fuels an attractive substitution for aviation fuels. This paper provided an overview on the
Economic evaluation
conversion technologies, economic assessment, environmental influence and development status of bio-jet fuels.
Challenges
The results suggested that hydrogenated esters and fatty acids, and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis can be the most
promising technologies for bio-jet fuels production in near term. Future works, such as searching for more
suitable feedstock, improving competitiveness for alternative jet fuels, meeting emission reduction targets in
large-scale production and making measures for the indirect impact are needed for further investigation. The
large-scale deployment of bio-jet fuels could achieve significant potentials of both bio-jet fuels production and
CO2 emissions reduction based on future available biomass feedstock.
1. Introduction as well as the average price of jet fuel would increase at a 2.7% annual
growth rate from 2016 to 2050 [5]. Fuel cost continues to be one of the
Air transport is important for promoting global social contacts and main cost for the global airline industry, which accounted for about
business. As reported by International Air Transport Association 27% of all the airline’s operating costs in 2015, and is primarily related
(IATA), more than 3.8 billion passengers and 54.9 Mt of goods valued at to oil prices [6,7]. It is also worth mentioning that, as the world second
nearly $5.5 trillion were transported by the air in 2016, representing jet fuel consumer, China’s jet fuel consumption keeps growing at an
about 35% of global trade by value. Forecasts also indicate that the air annual rate of 12% from 2008 to 2013 [3]. In 2016, the domestic
passenger numbers will double over the next 20 years [1], which means passenger market in China once again witnessed the biggest incre-
that the corresponding consumption of aviation fuel will rise accord- mental change in journey numbers, with 37 million more passenger
ingly. In 2012, the global consumption of jet fuel reached 12.48 journeys, which was more than that in the next two fastest-growing
quadrillion btu, accounting for 12% of global transportation energy markets domestic United States and domestic India combined. And
consumption. While jet fuel consumption is projected to grow by an- China will possibly overtake the United States as the biggest air pas-
other 10 quadrillion btu from 2010 to 2040 [2]. As the biggest user, the senger market by 2029 [8].
U.S. consumes more than 25% of the world’s total jet fuel annually [3]. For road transport, electric vehicles powered from renewable en-
In 2016, U.S. jet fuel accounted for 11.6% of the national petroleum ergy sources could be an effective substitution of conventional vehicles
consumption in the transportation sector (5.1 billion barrels petroleum) propelled by gasoline. Such strategy, however, is not applicable for
[4]. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the aviation industry. To ensure its sustainable development, it is urgent to
global consumption of jet fuel increased at a 1.5% annual growth rate develop an alternative renewable fuel to meet the growing demand
⁎
Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Coal Combustion, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, PR China. Tel.: 617 961
2963; fax: 617 495 4551.
E-mail address: qyang@hust.edu.cn (Q. Yang).
1
Contributed as the first author.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.06.007
Received 15 January 2019; Received in revised form 15 May 2019; Accepted 4 June 2019
Available online 20 June 2019
0016-2361/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
while reducing the dependency on fossil fuel. Flights produced 781 Mt fuels for commercial (Jet A/Jet A-1) and military aircrafts (JP-4/JP-5)
of CO2 in 2015, which amounted to more than 2% of all human-induced in the US [30].
CO2 emissions and 12% of CO2 emissions in the transport sector [9]. In The main technical approaches for biofuel production are re-
2008, EU proposed the directive 2008/101/EC, and officially included presented by the biochemical route and the thermochemical pathway.
aviation carbon emissions into the European Union Emissions Trading For the biochemical route, enzyme and other micro-organisms are
Scheme(EU ETS): starting from 2012, any flight is required to pay for its ususlly used to produce biofuel. As for thermochemical route, it can
carbon emissions when it enters into the EU region. In 2009, IATA put convert to biofuel from the synthesis gas produced by pyrolysis or ga-
forward three emission reduction targets of the whole aviation industry, sification technologies [31]. The typical examples are oil-to-jet, Fischer-
one of which is to cut net emissions in half by 2050 compared with Tropsch process, alcohol-to-jet, and sugar-to-jet [32]. Meanwhile, some
2005 [10]. In 2016, the member states of International Civil Aviation researchers are focusing on the synthesis of jet fuel range hydrocarbons
Organization (ICAO) adopted a global carbon offsetting scheme for with the lignocellulose derived platform compounds [33–35].
international aviation. The scheme is set to commence with a voluntary Recently, there are many review papers focusing on bio-jet fuels
period (2021–2026) after which it will become mandatory, and it will production. Hari et al. [36] overviewd the bio-jet fuels production in
cover approximately 80% of CO2 growth in 2021–2035 [11]. China also three aspects: rounts, opportunities and challenges. In their work, a
aims to reduce the unit transport turnover CO2 emissions by 4% from section introduced the environmental challenges, such as food scarcity,
2016 to 2020 [12]. In meeting these standards, it is not enough to rely soil quality reduction and water availability. However, quantitative
only on improving fuel efficiency. Therefore, production of renewable analysis of environmental concern were scant. Meanwhile, with the
jet fuel for aviation from biomass is widely researched, for reducing the increasing concern on environmental issues, the environmental im-
carbon emissions and achieving a sustainable development of the pacts, such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water useage and land
aviation industry. use, should draw more attention, which are lacking in previous papers.
Biomass is the only renewable energy source that contains carbon, On the other hand, Gutiérrez-Antonio et al. [37] reviewed the scientific
which can directly absorb CO2 from air to produce organic matter. And and technological advances of hydroprocessing, thermochemical route
it is widely distributed and largely produced. Technology that em- and alcohol to jet pathways. David et al. and Liu et al. [27,38] reviewed
ploying biomass as a resource to produce liquid fuel for transportation different production routes of jet fuel. Gabriel et al. [39] studied the
has advanced substantially over the past decade and still has significant techno-economics of bio-jet fuels from different feedstocks. However,
potential for improvement in the future [13–17]. For aviation, bio-fuel the technologies for bio-jet is under rapid development, and new con-
not only can decrease dependence on fossil fuel, but also can reduce version technologies, such as lignin-to-jet, have not yet been analysised
emissions over the life cycle, due to the carbon neutral of biomass [18]. and compared.
The use of sustainable aviation fuels has the potential over their life This paper aims to give a general overview of conversion tech-
cycle to save up to 80% in CO2 emissions [1]. Besides, commercial jet nology, economic evaluation, environmental influence and develop-
fuels have a high requirement for the chemical and physical properties. ment status of bio-jet fuels, and summarizes the challenges and op-
Bio-jet fuels have low sulfur content, low tailpipe emissions, high portunities that the aviation industry is now facing. Policy suggestions
thermal stability, and good cold flow properties [19–21]. In addition, are also provided for the further development of the aviation alter-
bio-jet fuels have the advantage over other substitute fuels (e.g. native fuels.
ethanol) on compatibility with the conventional engine and fuel system:
bio-jet fuels can be used without any engine modification and would 2. Bio-jet fuels production routes
not raise any fuel quality issues [22]. Ethanol is not suitable for the
aviation fuel due to its poor fuel properties. Besides, the biggest pro- The feedstocks for the production of jet fuel are various and could
blem is a lack of compatibility with the existing mechanical systems- be classified in three different categories. The first-generation bio-fuels
upgrading all the flight engines to operate on a new type of fuel would are derived from edible crops, such as wheat and corn, which are not
cost trillion dollars [23]. Some of the bio-jet fuels have been put into popular now as they compete with the land use and human diet [40].
use successfully. It is set by the EU Biofuels Flightpath to produce 2 Mt The second-generation bio-fuels for aviation could be produced from
biofuels for aviation every year by 2020, which is about 3%–4% of total non-edible oil crops and lignocellulose biomass, typically camelina,
jet fuel consumption in Europe [24]. The U.S. Federal Aviation Ad- jatropha, used cooking oils (UCOs) and waste animal fats (WAFs). These
ministration (FAA) has also established a goal to provide one billion feedstack have high content of fatty acids and can be reacted to bio-
gallons of alternative jet fuel to the US annually from 2018 [25]. Sev- fuels through esterification and isomorphism via hydroprocessing [41].
eral airlines such as United, Cathay, FedEx/Southwest, JetBlue, Lufth- Some co-products from the waste of industrial production process, such
ansa, Alaska Airlines and KLM have reached long-term offtake agree- as crude tall oil from the paper making industry and the soapstocks, oil
ments with biofuel suppliers [26]. sediments, acid oils from the edible oil refinery, can also serve as the
Jet fuel is an aviation fuel designed specifically for commercial and feedstock to be hydrogenated to jet fuel [38,42]. Lignocellulose bio-
military aircrafts. Conventional jet fuel is produced from the distillation mass, including wood and forestry residues, agricultural residues, ha-
of crude oil ranging from 205 °C to 260 °C [27]. The compositions of jet lophytes, short rotation woody crops (SRWCs), and municipal solid
fuel are main C8 to C16 hydrocarbons, and the chemical components are waste, also can be converted into jet fuel by gasification through Fi-
alkanes, iso-alkanes, naphthenic or naphthenic derivatives and aro- scher-Tropsch process and/or some other thermochemistry/biochem-
matic compounds [23]. The content of each component has a direct istry routes [43]. Due to its ample production, lignocellulose is con-
relationship with the characteristic of the jet fuel. The high hydrogen- sidered as the most appropriate long-term alternative [44]. The third-
carbon ratio of alkanes could ensure the energy density of the fuel. generation bio-fuel for aviation is based on algal feedstock, which
Naphthenes help to reduce the freeze point, which is critical in high- contains relatively high oil content, occupies less land than many other
attitude flying. The aromatics contribute to the lubricity to enhance the biomass, and is viewed as one of the most promising feedstocks for
material compatibility and prevent leaks in the seals of some aircraft, biofuels production and solution for CO2 sequestration [45].
but excessive aromatic will influence the cleanliness of the fuel, so the Due to the heterogeneous nature of biomass feedstock, such as
content of aromatics should be controlled in a reasonable range moisture content, density and energy content, pretreatment is an im-
[23,27–29]. Except for the features above, commercial jet fuels also portant part of bio-jet fuels production. Except some physical methods,
have strict requirements for other characteristics, including sulfur such as densification and milling, which are usually used to produce
content, density, flash point, viscosity, smoke point, naphthalenes, and higher energy-density pellet and reduce transport costs, torrefaction
conductivity. Table 1 summarizes the jet specifications for typical jet and pyrolysis are two main thermal pretreatment [46]. Under inert
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H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
Table 1
Jet Fuel Properties in Specifications.
Specification ASTM D1655 Joint Check List MIL-T-5624 MIL-T-5624
a
or 25% max + report % hydrogen.
b
Jet A-1 freezing point is −47 °C (-53°F) maximum.
c
ASTM D1655 permits retesting at 245 °C.
d
If conductivity improver is used.
* Flash point by D 56 (Tag).
** Flash point by D 93 (PM).
atmosphere and moderate conditions (200–300 °C), biomass feedstock 2.1. Conversion process of oil feedstock
can be upgraded to a higher quality biofuel by torrefaction. The results
from recent research suggested that torrefied biomass had lower atomic Different type of oil feedstock has various converting pathways to
O/C and H/C ratios [47,48]. In addition, torrefaction also had an im- jet fuel. The common pathways include the hydrogenated esters and
portant influence on the subsequent thermochemical conversions to get fatty acids (HEFA) and catalytic hydrothermolysis (CH). The feedstocks
bio-oil. As for fast pyrolysis, thermal decomposition of biomass feed- for HEFA are vegetable oils, used cooking oil, and animal fats. While the
stock is performed in the absence of oxygen at about 500 °C to produce feedstocks for CH are algal oils or oil plant.
high energy density fuel, commonly known as pyrolysis oil. Then the
intermedia product can be converted to bio-jet fuels by different pro- 2.1.1. Hydrogenated esters and fatty acids
cesses. HEFA is a process to hydrotreat the triglycerides, saturated or un-
Table 2 summaries the key conversion step and catalysts used of saturated fatty acids in the vegetable oils, used cooking oils and animal
different pathways. The synthetic pathway can be classified by feed- fats to produce bio-jet fuels. The process diagram of HEFA was shown in
stocks as follows. Fig. 1.
The process is generally divided into two steps. The first step is
converting unsaturated fatty acids and triglycerides into saturated fatty
acid by catalytic hydrogenation, the triglycerides occur a β-hydrogen
Table 2
The key conversion and catalysts of different jet fuel production pathways.
Pathway Key conversion step Catalyst
Lignin to jet Hydrodeoxygenation Transition metals, metal sulfides, metal phosphides, metal nitrides, carbides and metal oxides
Hydrogenation Ru/C
ATJ Ethanol dehydration Al2O3, transition metal oxides, zeolite catalyst, and heteropolyacid catalysts
Isobutanol dehydration Inorganic acids, metal oxides, zeolites, acidic resins
Butanol dehydration Zeolite, zircornia, solid acid catalysts, HPW (H3PW12O40), and mesoporous silica group
3
H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
elimination reaction to yield a fatty acid during the process [49]. The undergo a cracking and hydrolysis reaction with the help of water and
saturated fatty acid is converted to C15–C18 straight chain alkanes by catalysts. Then it occurs catalytic decarboxylation and dehydration
hydrodeoxygenation and decarboxylation [50]. The co-products are during the CH process. Last, post-refining hydrotreating and fractio-
propane, H2O, CO and CO2. The early-devoloped catalysts for this step nation are designed to convert straight-chain, branched and cyclo-ole-
are noble metals supported with zeolites or oxides, and later shifted to fins into alkanes. Up to 60% aromatics in Tung-oil-based biofuels are
other transition metals, such as Ni, Mo, Co, Mo or their supported bi- derived from the CH process. And it is a desirable ingredient for fuel
metallic composites due to catalyst deactivation by poisoning, pro- blends [61]. Except for water solvent, methanol/ethanol could also be
duction of cracking species and process costs [51–53]. the solvent to convert triglycerides to biofuels in supercritical, while it
The second step is the cracking and isomerization reactions: the is now widely used for the conversion of bio-oil [62,63].
deoxygenated straight chain alkanes are further selectively hydro-
cracked and deep isomerized to generate highly branched alkanes 2.2. Conversion process of lignocellulosic biomass
mixed liquid fuels. The common catalysts for this step are Pt, Ni or
other precious metals supported by activated carbon, Al2O3, zeolite Lignocellulosic biomass have advantages in lowering cost, feasible
molecular sieves [54–57]. Ni supported by moderately acidy zeolite availability and no competition with food supplies [64–66]. Cellulose,
catalyst shows excellent activities. While the high acidity catalyst hemicellulose and lignin are major components of lignocellulosic bio-
would result in an overcracking and reduce the isomers yield. The mass. Lignocellulose biomass can be converted into fuel by multiple
mixed liquid fuels are then separated to paraffinic kerosene (jet fuel), technologies.
paraffinic diesel, naphtha, and light gases by a fractionation process.
Using catalysts, Verma et al. [58] achieved a single-step process for
2.2.1. Hydroprocessed depolymerized cellulosic jet
hydroconversion of triglycerides and free fatty acids. They used Ni–W
Hydroprocessed depolymerized cellulosic jet (HDCJ) is a oil up-
catalyst supported on acidic zeolite ZSM-5 to finish the deoxidation and
grading technology to convert bio-oils produced from the pyrolysis or
cracking at a reactor and got a high yield of jet-fuel range hydrocarbons
hydrothermal of the lignocellulose into a jet fuel by hydrotreating. Due
(77%) with moderately high isomerization selectivity when algal is
to high oxygen content, biomass pyrolysis oil has undesirable proper-
used as the feedstock [58]. Li et al. [59] proposed a nickel-based me-
ties, such as high corrosively, low energy density and poor thermal
soporous zeolite Y catalyst to convert waste cooking oil to jet biofuel. At
instability [67]. The process diagram of HDCJ was shown in Fig. 3.
an optimized temperature (400 °C), a high jet range alkane yield
The main technology for bio-oil upgrading is a two-step hydro-
(40.5%) and a low jet range aromatic hydrocarbon yield (11.3%) were
processing. First, the bio-oil is hydrotreated with the help of catalyst
attained. Wu et al. [60] produced jet fuel with aromatic components
under mild conditions. Organic could be used to promote hydro-
from the triglycerides based vegetable oils through a three step catalytic
deoxygenation of bio-oil and overcome coke formation. Second, con-
process. First, the vegetable oils were catalytic cracked into light aro-
ventional hydrogenation setup and catalyst were used under high
matics over the zeolite catalyst. Second, C8–C15 aromatics are produced
temperature for obtaining hydrocarbon fuel [68]. Wang et al. [69]
by the alkylation of light aromatics using the ionic liquid. Third, aro-
transformed pyrolysis oils of straw stalk to into the jet and diesel fuel by
matics are converted into saturated cycloparaffins by the hydrogenation
a three-step reaction. The first step is catalytic cracking of bio-oil into
at 200 °C and 5 MPa for 6 h over the Pd/AC catalyst.
low-carbon aromatics and light olefins. Second, C8–C15 aromatic hy-
The bio-jet fuels produced by HEFA, as high energy biofuels, can be
drocarbons are synthesized by the alkylation of low-carbon aromatics
directly used in flight engine even without blending. The fuel has high
with light olefins. Third, C8–C15 cyclic alkanes are produced by the
thermal stability, good cold flow behaviors, high cetane number, and
hydrogenation of C8–C15 aromatic. The combustion heat, viscosity,
low tailpipe emissions, while has low aromatic content, which would
freeze point as well as other characteristics of synthetic biofuels basi-
cause fuel low lubricity and fuel leakage problems [36].
cally met the technical specifications [69,70]. Other researches for
converting bio-oils are catalytic cracking and hydrothermal liquefaction
2.1.2. Catalytic hydrothermolysis [71,72]. In addition, in order to simplify the process and improve ef-
Another pathway to convert algal or oil plant to jet fuel is CH, which ficiency, the synthesis of jet fuel range hydrocarbons with derivatives,
is also named hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL). The process diagram of which come from the pyrolysis of lignocellulose, has drawn tremendous
CH was shown in Fig. 2. attention [73,74]. Cao et al. [75] presented a three-step strategy to
The conversion occurs at a mild temperatures ranged from 250 to convert lignocellulosic biomass into alkylphenols and hydrocarbins.
380 °C, at a pressure of 5 MPa to 30 MPa in the presence of water. The The first step is converting biomass feedstock to pyrolysis oil. Second,
process can use wet feedstock and have a high-energy efficiency due to under low H2 pressures (5 bar) at 300 °C, MoCx/C catalyzed selective
the mild reaction conditions. Li et al. [61] put forward an integrated CH hydrodeoxygenation (SHDO) reactions on a pyrolysis oil were per-
processing concept to convert triglycerides derived from crop oils to formed. Third, the product mixture was separated over silica, using n-
non-ester biofuels. The integrated process has three steps, including hexane and ethyl acetate. Duan et al. [76] presented the hydro-
pretreatment of triglycerides, CH conversion and post-refining steps. deoxygenation (HDO) of bio-oil to alkanes using a highly dispersed Pd-
The pretreatments including conjugation, cyclization, and cross-linking, Mo catalyst which combines highly dispersed Pd and ultrafine Mo
which are aiming to improve the molecular structures. The products phosphate nanoparticles on silica. Using a wet-impregnation, the
4
H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
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H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
and alkylation, and last the jet fuel is produced though a distillation mesoporous nanoparticles, carbons and activated carbons, and other
[88]. metal oxides, such as ZrO2, TiO2, CeO2 and MgO [95,96]. And the
The typical methods for lignin depolymerization are fast pyrolysis, standard Schlenk line techniques can be employed for catalyst pre-
hydrolysis, and hydrogenolysis. In fast pyrolysis, lignin polymers are paration [97]. After the upgrading, the products are main alkylated
broken into phenolic monomers and dimers, at extremely high heating cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons, the could future alkylation to
rates in the absence of oxygen. The product distribution and yield of produce n- and iso-alkanes, which means that lignin itself might be used
bio-oil from lignin fast pyrolysis are highly influenced by these factors: to produce the primary and cyclic components for alternative jet fuels
lignin pretreatment methods, sources and reaction conditions [88–90]. without any need for blending. As for hydrogenation, Ben et al. [98]
Hydrolysis includes hydrothermal liquefaction, supercritical organic presented a two-step hydrogenation of lignin-derived bio-oils at 600 °C
solvolysis and ionic liquid solvolysis. Due to the good characteristics, for 30 min over Ru/C catalyst. The first step was accomplished under
such as tunable physical properties by altering combinations of cations high H2 pressures (14 Mbar) at 300 °C for 4 h over Ru/C. This treatment
and anions, extremely low partial pressures as well as the abilities to can convert bio-oils to a transparent product. The final product was
serve as catalyst or solvent, ionic liquid solvolysis have attracted at- produced by further hydrogenation of product under high H2 pressures
tention for lignin depolymerization [88]. Hydrogenolysis is known as a (14 Mbar) at 250 °C for 2 h with Ru/C catalyst.
useful method for producing high yields of monomeric phenols with In the process of jet fuel production from lignocellulose, lignin
low char [91]. The molecular weights of the resulting liquid fraction mostly used to provide heat simply through combustion, which is a
range and includes simple aromatic hydrocarbons with carbon numbers waste of resources and harmful for system economy [99,100]. Besides,
from 6 to 11. According to the source of hydrogen, lignin depolymer- lignin has abundant sources. Compared with other biomass compo-
ization by hydrogenolysis can be classified into three categories, in- nents, lignin is more easily transformed into aromatic hydrocarbons.
cluding pressurized gaseous hydrogen, hydrogen produced in situ by a While aromatics are essential for commercial jet fuel in jet fuel quality
hydrogen donor solvent as well as hydrogen generated from the solvent and safety [88], so it is necessary to develop lignin-to-jet pathway.
by a specific catalyst [88].
The lignin-derived bio-oils after depolymerization are mainly com- 2.3. Conversion process of sugar feedstock
posed predominately of monomeric or dimeric alkoxyphenols. The high
oxygen content, acidity, instability, high viscosity, and complexity of Sugars can produce alkane-type fuels directly by anaerobic fer-
constituent compounds limit the use directly as jet fuels [92]. The up- mentation instead of firstly converting to ethanol intermediate, which
grading of lignin-derived bio-oils mainly focus on aromatic hydro- called Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbons (DSHC), or Direct Fermentation of
carbons and cycloalkanes for the inefficiency of aromatic and cy- Sugar to Jet (DFSTJ), and the ASTM named it Synthetic Iso-paraffin
cloalkane ring-opening reactions [88]. The typical way for lignin- from Fermented Hydroprocessed Sugar (SIP). In addition to biochem-
derived bio-oils upgrading is HDO. HDO is a process to deoxidize and istry pathway, sugar can also convert to jet fuel through the thermo-
saturate the bio-oil under a high hydrogen pressures and moderate chemistry way, such as Aqueous Phase Reforming (APR).
temperatures. The reactions include hydrogenation, decarboxylation,
trans-alkylation, deoxygenation as well as hydrogenolysis [88]. There 2.3.1. Direct sugar to hydrocarbons
are two basic parallel reactions in the HDO process: direct HDO and The feedstock for the DSHC are similar to the feedstock of ethanol
hydrogenation. In direct HDO, the aromatic character of molecules is production, including the sugar cane, beets and maize, while lig-
retained by hydrogenolysis of C–O bonds in side chains, leaving aro- nocellulosic biomass also could be the feedstock for the production after
matic hydrocarbons as the primary products. In hydrogenation, the some pretreatments [101]. The process diagram of DSHC process was
benzene ring is saturated first, followed by hydrogenolysis of C-O bonds shown in Fig. 6.
in side chains, the primary produces are cycloalkanes, such as cyclo- DSHC is a process to produces alkane-type fuels directly from sugars
hexane and methyl-cyclohexane [89,93,94]. The catalysts for the HDO via fermentation. It is different from the alcohol to jet pathway, which
are transition metals, metal sulfides, metal phosphides, metal nitrides, needs an alcohol intermediate. The technology is developed based on
carbides and metal oxides. The supports include alumina, silica, the development of genetic engineering and screening technologies that
6
H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
enable to modify the way microbes metabolize sugar [102]. The fer- intermediates oxygenates converting to jet fuel, including acid con-
mentation products are various, basically relate to the substrate feed- densation, base condensation and dehydration/oligomerization [114].
stock, fermentation process and microbial species [103–105]. Amyris The acid condensation is to convert alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, acids
has developed a biochemical technology to produce farnesene using the to alkanes, iso-alkanes by using acid catalysts, such as solid acids and
mevalonate pathway in yeast cells by the fermentation of sugar. Far- zeolites. The process includes dehydration of oxygenates to alkenes, the
nesene is a hydrocarbon molecule that can replace petrochemicals in a oligomerization of the alkenes to larger alkenes, cracking, cyclization
wide variety of products, such as diesel and jet fuel [106]. Davis et al. and dehydrogenation of larger alkenes to aromatics isomerization as
[104] gave a complete conversion process of DSHC, involving six major well as cyclization of alkenes and hydrogen-transfer to form alkanes.
steps: pretreatment and conditioning, enzymatic hydrolysis, hydro- The base condensation is to convert alcohols, ketones and aldehydes to
lysate clarification, biological conversion, product purification and alkanes by direct catalytic condensation. The oxygens firstly convert to
hydroprocessing. LS9 is another company to commercialize the biolo- β–hydroxyketoneor or β–hydroxyaldehyde by an aldol condensation,
gical conversion of sugar to jet fuel [107]. Except for the fatty acids then β–hydroxyketoneor and β–hydroxyaldehyde dehydrate to form
aerobically production through the fatty acid biosynthesis pathway, the conjugated enones. The conjugated enones next convert to ketones and
LS9 company has focused on developing directly produce alkanes using aldehydes or further to alcohol by a hydrogenation. Finally the alcohols
a one-step fermentation. This process had achieved diesel production convert to jet ranged fuel by the third routes dehydration/oligomer-
without elevated temperatures, high pressures, toxic inorganic cata- ization or by hydrogenolysis [114].
lysts, hydrogen, or complex unit operation [108]. Other intermediates In addition, Bond et al. [99] proposed a conversion route based on
from the fermentation of sugar are in a research stage and need future the biomass components. Firstly, lignocellulose is pretreated using hot
development [109,110]. water extraction to get hemicellulose aqueous solution. Subsequently,
The DSHC has a low energy input due to the low temperature of the hemicellulose oligomers are introduced to a two-stage biphasic reactor
fermentation, while the fuel blend is limited (10%) and not meet some with HCl and tetrahydrofuran to form furans. With an acetone co-feed,
performances standards. And it is also identified as more suitable for furfural is then condensed in basic media to produce high molecular
production high-value chemicals [111]. weight oxygenates. Finally the oxygenates are hydrotreated over bi-
functional catalysts to remove oxygen and saturate any C]C bonds to
get stable jet fuel. Pretreated solids which main contain cellulose and
2.3.2. Aqueous phase reforming
lignin are treated with dilute sulfuric acid to convert cellulose to le-
Catalytic aqueous phase reforming is a technology to converts so-
vulinic and formic acids. Residual lignin and degradation products are
luble plant sugars into chemical intermediates, such as alcohols, ke-
used as a boiler feed for process heat. Levulinic is recovered from the
tones, aldehydes, acids, furans and other oxygenated hydrocarbons, and
hydrolyzate by extraction using 2-secbutylphenol and then convert to γ-
then further convert these intermediates to jet range hydrocarbons
valerolactone (GVL) by hydrogenation. GVL is further converted to
[100,112,113]. The process diagram of APR process was shown in
branched alkenes in a two-reactor system, including decarboxylation to
Fig. 7.
form butane isomers and oligomerization to form a mixture of alkenes,
The process starts with the pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis
the mixture is final hydrogenated to produce a branched alkane pro-
of lignocellulosic biomass to get C5 and C6 sugars. Then the hydrolysate
ducts [99].
slurry suffers a purification and concentration to satisfy requirements of
There are also routes to convert a single component, typically the
the catalytic upgrading processes. Next step is the aqueous phase re-
sugar alcohols and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) [112], which is de-
forming conversion of the sugars. Finally the products are sent to
rivative from the sugars to jet fuel by catalytic aqueous phase re-
fractionation to get jet fuel [113]. The unconverted solids, lignin and
forming. Wang et al. [115] produced high aromatics content jet fuels
the lighter alkanes from APR could be heated to provide heat for the
from mixed polyol (60% sorbitol + 40% xylitol) with Ni@HZSM-5/
process. The remaining hydrolysate is concentrated and purified to
MCM-41 catalysts. Under the conditions of 300 °C, weight hourly space
increase the economy [100].
velocity (WHSV) of 1.25 h−1, gas hourly space velocity (GHSV) of
Before the aqueous phase reforming, the solvent sugar is firstly
2500 h−1 and 4.0 MPa of hydrogen pressure, the yield of liquid fuel
converted to polyhydric alcohols by hydrogenation or other shorter-
with aromatics content of 84.3% was obtained [115]. HMF can be
chain oxygenated compounds by hydrogenolysis. Then during the
produced by acid-catalyzed dehydration of hexoses. It can convert to
aqueous phase reforming, there are three main reactions for
7
H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
alkanes through aldol condensation, cross-condense, hydrogenation using the γ-Al2O3 catalyst. It found that water content and pressure both
and dehydration/hydrogenation [116]. Li et al. [117] presented a novel negatively affect conversion and selectivity of isobutene. Under the
process for the one-pot production of furan-based fuels from fructose. condition of 325 °C and 60 psig, the conversion of feedstocks and the
Fructose can be obtained from carbohydrates by hydrolysis. Over an isobutylene selectivity were 98.8% and 95.0%, respectively. After de-
acid catalyst, HMF can be producted from fructose by dehydration in an hydration, the isobutene then undergo an oligomerization to jet range
aqueous/organic system. Subsequently, the purified HMF was con- alkenes. Phosphoric acid impregnated on solid supports is an early in-
verted to dimethylfuran (DMF) by hydrodeoxygenation reaction over dustrial catalyst for light olefins oligomerization, and more catalysts
Ru/C catalyst. As for Ru/C catalyst, it can be prepared by incipient wet have been investigated these years, including sulfonic acid resins, acid
impregnation and followed by reduction in H2 at 300 °C for 1 h. solids such as sulfated zirconia, sulfated titania, nickel-doped zeolites,
nickel supported on sulfated zirconia, and NiO-W2O3/Al2O3 et al.
2.4. Conversion process of alcohol feedstock Among these, zeolites are attractive stable acid catalysts as it exists both
Lewis and Bronsted acid sites. However, the deactivation is still a
Alcohol, such as methanol, ethanol or higher alcohols, can be used problem. Dong et al. [127] used mesostructured aluminosilicates as the
to produce biofuels through a series of reactions: dehydration, oligo- catalyst for isobutene oligomerization. It is found that the catalyst had
merization and hydroprocessing and distillation [38]. Commercial both strong acid sites and longevity. The reactivity and selectivity are
production always use ethanol, butanol and isobutanol to be the in- superior to commercial zeolite catalysts. conversions can be 80% at a
termediate to converse biomass to jet fuel. The process diagram of APR GHSV of 32.8 h−1 [127]. The resulting products are then hydrotreated
process was shown in Fig. 8. to get jet ranged hydrocarbons.
There are a wide range of processes to synthesis alcohols based jet Just like isobutanol, butanol could also be converted to jet fuel
fuel. Sugars can be directly converted to alcohols by fermentation with during the same procedure with the similar catalyst. The common
yeasts or microbe. Starches should be acidic or enzymatic hydrolyzed to catalysts for dehydration of butanol includes zeolite, zircornia, solid
release sugars, then fermented to alcohols. For lignocellulosic feed- acid catalysts, HPW (H3PW12O40), and mesoporous silica group. Jeong
stocks, the conversion is more complex, including hydrolysis followed et al. [128] used a new mesoporous materials produced from ferrierite
by fermentation or thermochemical conversion, or gasification followed as the catalyst to synthesis of butenes through butanol dehydration. It
by fermentation [118]. Some research also show that sugar can convert found the catalyst had excellent catalytic activity, selectivity, and sta-
to alcohol by a direct catalytic conversion [119]. Except for H2 and CO, bility [128]. Compared to the direct conversion of 1-butanol to 1-bu-
CH4 is also a promising substrate in fermentation for the production of tene, John et al. [129] proved that there are lower energy barriers in
biofuels as the development of shale gas and biogas technologies. the consecutive reaction scheme of 1-butanol dehydration to ether
The process of production hydrocarbons in the jet fuel range from followed by ether decomposition. After dehydration, the butene is
the alcohols generally undergoes a four-step upgrading process. First is subjected to the oligomerization process. Wright et al. [130] used
the alcohol dehydration to generate olefins, then the olefins are oligo- Cp2ZrCl2 dissolved in methylaluminoxane (MAO) solution to be the
merised in the presence of catalysts to produce a middle distillate. Next, catalyst for oligomerization. It can bring about 95% carbon use or
the middle distillates are hydrogenated to produce the jet-fuel-ranged greater. Then the products are convert to jet fuel through a hydro-
hydrocarbons. And final step is the distillation [120,121]. genation and distillation.
The common catalysts for ethanol dehydration include Al2O3,
transition metal oxides, zeolite catalyst, and heteropolyacid catalysts 3. Economic evaluation
[122]. Phung et al. [123] compared some commercial zeolite catalysts,
alumina and silica alumina for ethanol dehydration. Compared with Economic evaluation mainly analyze the economics of the existing
silica alumina and alumina, H-zeolites are definitely more active on technology. And advice on promoting technology and improving the
catalyst weight base. H-FER and faujasite show highest ethylene yield economy, can be given based on economic evaluation. Table 3 sum-
(99.9%) under the temperature 573 K [123]. The ethylenes then un- maries the economic characteristics of different jet fuel production
dergo a catalytic oligomerization process, and the catalysts could be pathways.
either homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts. Steven et al. [124]
described an ethylene oligomerization process which used cationic (α- 3.1. Hydrogenated esters and fatty acids
Diimine) nickel(II) catalysts pretreated with aluminum alkyl activators
as the catalyst. The selectivity could be 96% for linear α-olefins when For the HEFA process, Mupondwa et al. [131] studied a
the reaction conditions achieved optimization. Andrei et al. [125] 120,000–1,500,000 tonnes per year solvent extraction plant for jet fuel
prepared a Ni-AlSBA-15 heterogeneous catalysts with highly active, production from camelina oil. The break-even selling price (BESP)
selective and stable for ethylene oligomerization. These oligomers can ranged from 1.63 to 4.62 USD·gallon−1. While the feedstock re-
convert to branched alkanes after hydrotreating and isomerization presented up to 81–90% of operating cost. The feedstock cost, seed
process, and jet fuel could be get by distillation. yield, oil content, plant size as well as co-product camelina meal rev-
The dehydration of isobutanol could produce a mixture of olefins, enue had a significant effect on the BESP. Meanwhile the higher plant
including 1-butene, cis-2-butene, trans-2-butene and isobutene [126]. scale would get better economies. The case for soybean oil got a
Isobutanol is most typically dehydrated over mildly acidic γ-Al2O3 3.82–4.39 USD·gallon−1 for different factory size [132]. The minimum
catalysts. However, more catalysts have been demonstrated these years, jet fuel selling price (MJSP) for jatropha-derived HRJ is calculated to be
including inorganic acids, metal oxides, zeolites, acidic resins, and 5.42 USD·gallon−1 based on the plant capacity of 2400 tonne of feed-
many more. Taylor et al. [126] studied the dehydration of isobutano by stock per day when the feedstock was jatropha fruit. While the MJSP
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H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
For the FT process, the feedstock has a significant effect on the cost For DSHC, the MJSP was 7.17 USD·gallon−1 when the feedstock is
of the fuel. Compared with producing liquid fuels from coal and natural sugarcane. And feedstock cost occupied 70.89% of the fuel cost., The
gas, the cost of FT fuel from biomass was higher due to its low energy sensitivity analysis of the development of technology and the market
density as well as long distance transport of feedstock. FT process has would project the prices to decrease to 4.00 USD·gallon−1 [136]. Jong
the biggest fixed capital cost proportion to any other jet fuel production et al. [111] compared several different pathways to produce jet fuel
pathway. Diederichs et al. [39] analyzed the techno‑economic for jet from biomass. The MJSP of DSHC from either forestry residues or wheat
production from gasification followed by FT synthesis (GFT-J), whose straw was much higher than any other pathways, were
MJSP were 7.57 USD·gallon−1. For this process, variation in feedstock 18.55–20.61 USD·gallon−1 and 24.74–26.80 USD·gallon−1. However,
and fixed capital cost can cause a larger than 10% overall change in the DSHC process could produce a high-valued intermediates iso-
MJSP. The fixed capital cost and by-products can cause a high un- prenoids, which can be used to produce cosmetics, flavors, fragrances,
certainty in the GFT-J process [39]. The MJSP for another plant which lubricants and biopharmaceuticals. One of these isoprenoids, farnesene
produced jet fuel from biomass gasification followed by FT process was is at the price 22.53 USD·gallon−1 [111]. The feedstock is a main factor
6.23 USD·gallon−1 [138]. This plant could process 864 dry tonne wood to effect the economics of the DSHC, sugarcane is the best feedstock.
chips in one day and employ circulating fluidized bed gasifier. It was And the process is considering more suitable for high-valued
9
H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
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H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
negative emissions, when 42% biomass mixed with coal and carbon (including blue, green and gray water consumption footprint) was
capture and storage (CCS) was used, the GHG emission would be es- 131–143 m3/GJ using energy allocation [154].
sentially zero [78]. Han et al. [148] got a 89% GHG emission when used For DSHC process, Cox et al. [150] indicated that the higher water
coal and corn stover for jet fuel production by FT jet fuel. Stratton et al. use of sugarcane was 15.60 and 147.00 m3/GJ for the scenario of
[145] also found that the GHG emission of biomass FT jet fuel pro- economic allocation and system expansion, respectively. Staples et al.
duction was −1.6 to 18.2 g CO2-eq/MJ. In a conclusion, the feedstock [153] studied the jet fuel production from sugarcane, corn and
effect the FT emission a lot. However, it is suggested that the CCS, co- switchgrass. The results indicated the mid water consumption was
production of fuels and power will help to reduce the GHG emission. 71.73–86.57, 76.46–85.81 and 92.40–104.74 m3/GJ, respectively.
For alcohol to jet process, Staples et al. [139] assessed the life cycle
CO2 emission from advanced fermentation using the sugar cane, corn 4.3. Other environmental issues
grain and switchgrass as feedstock. Compared to 90.0 g CO2-eq/MJ for
conventional jet fuel, the GHG emission of these feedstock were Land use intensity is another important factor of environmental
−27.0–19.7, 47.5–117.5, 11.7–89.8 g CO2-eq/MJ, respectively [139]. influence. Cox et al. [150] accessed the land use of bio-jet fuels pro-
The feedstock yield is found to have an important effect to the GHG duction from sugarcane, pongamia and microalgae. The land use in-
emission and direct land use change emissions [139]. Budsberg et al. tensities for sugarcane pathway had the largest range (5.1–38.9 m2/
[95] used a short rotation woody crops poplar to produce jet fuel by the 100 MJ). As for pongamia and microalgae, the land use was 4.5–7.8 and
intermediate ethanol. The GWP were different for different hydrogen 6.8–7.0 m2/100 MJ, respectively.
production methods. For hydrogen produced by natural gas steam re- Eutrophication was also analyzed by Cox et al. [150]. The results
forming way, the GWP was 60–66 g CO2-eq/MJ, the fossil fuel usage was suggested that sugarcane pathway had higher impact on eutrophication
0.78–0.84 MJ/MJ. While for hydrogen produced by lignin gasification, (0.015–0.044 kg PO4eq/100 MJ), while lower impact on eutrophication
the GWP was 32–73 g CO2-eq/MJ, the fossil fuel usage was was in pongamia (0.009–0.012 kg PO4eq/100 MJ) and microalgae
0.71–1.00 MJ/MJ, and the GWP of the petro-jet was 93 g CO2-eq/MJ, (0.007–0.011 kg PO4eq/100 MJ).
the fuel usage was 1.2 MJ/MJ. The results suggested that the bior- There are also other environmental issues to be identified in the
efinery category and jet fuel use are the two main source of GHGs that future. For example, the influence on global nitrogen cycle associated
contribute to the GWP [95]. In a conclusion, the sugar cane is thought with the production of bio-jet fuels, which involve the ultilization of
more suitable to be the feedstock for the alcohol-to-jet process in the chemical fertilizer; the impacts on other species in the ecosystem; the
sight of CO2 emission, and the hydrogen resource, biorefinery category complex relationship with global climate system.
process are important factors for the emission analysis. As for DSHC
process, the GHG emission reduced by 73% when compared to the fossil 5. Bio-jet fuels development
based jet fuel, and the fossil energy consumption was 1.7 MJ/MJ [150].
5.1. Current polices and status of bio-jet fuels
4.2. Water consumption
In addition to the development of conversion technologies, the
Water supply of bio-jet fuels has been an important concern of en- policy designed by government also can provide significant support to a
vironmental viability, especially considering a widely application of widespread deployment of bio-jet fuels. In the United States, the
bio-jet in the future. Table 6 gives the water consumption focusing on Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) tries to make price-competitive alter-
several bio-jet fuels production pathways. For HEFA process, Cox et al. native jet fuel available by providing support for building up new-
[150] studied the environmental impacts of bio-jet fuels production technology production plants as well as incentives for agriculture. For
from pongamia and microalgae in Australia. This study indicated that starting a regular supply of a biofuel blend to the joint fuel distribution,
these two pathways have the lower impact on water use. For the sce- these organizations, including KLM, Schiphol Airport, the bio-jet fuels
nario of economic allocation, the water use of pongamia and micro- supplier SkyNRG, the Dutch government and other local partners, are
algae was 5.5 and 6.4 m3/GJ, respectively. As for system expansion, the working together in the Bioport Holland project in Schiphol Airport in
water use of pongamia (11.8 m3/GJ) and microalgae processing 2017. The EU has recently announced plans to revise the Renewable
(13.9 m3/GJ) was higher than economic allocation [150]. Staples et al. Energy Directive (2020–2030), including proposals to increase in-
[153] studied water consumption footprint of middle distillate (MD) centives for sustainable aviation fuels. Indonesia has introduced an al-
transportation fuels production in the US. For the rainfed biomass-de- ternative jet fuel mandate of 2% commencing in 2018, rising to 5% by
rived jet fuel production, the mid water use (including blue and green 2025. China has published the 13th Five Year Plan for energy, sug-
water consumption footprint) from jatropha, rapeseed and soybean was gesting that there will be a significant increase of renewable energy use
66.45, 57.91 and 63.65 m3/GJ, respectively. In the scenario of irrigated in the future [155], including biomass based fuels. As for the biofuel
biomass cultivation, the mid water consumption increased to 75.03, production, the demonstration project of biomass-to-liquids and bio-jet
102.65 and 106.7 m3/GJ, respectively, caused by the large water re- fuels can be the emphasis and direction to promote the biofuel devel-
quirement of irrigation [153]. Shi et al. [154] studied the water foot- opment. During the CAEP/11 cycle (2016–2019), the ICAO Alternative
print for rapeseed serived jet fuel in North Dakota. The water footprint Fuel Task Force assessed the effectiveness of different policy mechan-
isms for the commercial deployment of sustainable alternative jet fuel
Table 6 [6]. Table 7 gives the current status for different jet fuel production
Water consumption from different jet fuel production pathway. pathways. Some of the technologies, for instance, the Fischer-Tropsch
and the hydrogenated esters and fatty acids, are now in the commercial
Pathway Feedstock Water use (m3/GJ) Reference
stages, while some of others, especially for the new technologies, need
HEFA Pongamia oil 5.50–11.80 [150] further development before they could be industrialized.
Microalgae oil 6.40–13.90 [150]
Rapeseed 57.91–143.00 [151,152] 5.2. Certifications and commercial flights
Jatropha 66.45–75.03 [153]
Soybean 63.65–106.79 [153]
The certifications for sustainable aviation fuel was firstly proposed
DSHC Sugarcane 15.60–147.00 [148,151]
by ASTM. In 2009, ASTM approved fuels produced by the Fischer-
Switchgrass 92.39–104.74 [153]
Corn grain 76.46–85.81 [153] Tropsch process as the first bio fuel for commercial flights use. Soon
after, ASTM approved fuel produced by HEFA process in 2011. Then
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H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
Table 8
. Commercial flights tested with the bio jet fuels.
Airline Aircraft Partners Year Feedstocks Biojet Fuel Content Conversion Pathway
KML B737 SkyNRG 2011 Used cooking oil 50% Oil to jet
Lufthansa A321 Neste Oil 2011 Vegetable oils 50% Oil to jet
Finnair A321 SkyNRG 2011 Used cooking oil 50% Oil to jet
Interjet A320 ASA 2011 Jatropha 27% Oil to jet
Aeromexico B777 ASA 2011 Jatropha 30% Oil to jet
Iberia A320 ASA 2011 Camelina Oil to jet
Thomson Airways B757 SkyNRG 2011 Used cooking oil Oil to jet
Airfrance A321 SkyNRG 2011 Used cooking oil 50% Oil to jet
United 737–800 Solazyme 2011 Algae 40% Oil to jet
Alaska Airlines 737s and Q400s SkyNRG 2011 Used cooking oil 20% Oil to jet
Thai 777–200 SkyNRG 2011 Used cooking oil 50% Oil to jet
Lufthansa 747 Neste Oil 2012 vegetable oils Oil to jet
Lan A320 SkyNRG 2012 Used cooking oil 30% Oil to jet
Qantas A330 SkyNRG 2012 Used cooking oil 50% Oil to jet
Porter Q400 Honeywell/SkyNRG 2012 Used cooking oil Oil to jet
Jetstar A320 SkyNRG 2012 Used cooking oil Oil to jet
Porter Q400 2012 Camelina Oil to jet
Air Canada A319 SkyNRG 2012 Used cooking oil 50% Oil to jet
Aeromexico 777 ASA 2013 Mix of oils 50% Oil to jet
KML 777 SkyNRG 2013 Used cooking oil Oil to jet
KML 777 SkyNRG 2014 Used cooking oil Oil to jet
Lan A320 2014 Camelina 30% Oil to jet
KML A330 SkyNRG 2014 Used cooking oil 20% Oil to jet
GOL 737 Honeywell UOP 2014 Inedible corn oil and used cooking oil 50% Oil to jet
Lufthansa A320 Amyris Total 2014 Sugarcane 10% Sugar to jet
Finnair A330 SkyNRG 2014 Used cooking oil 10% Oil to jet
Scandinavain Airlines 737–800 SkyNRG Nordic 2014 Used cooking oil 10% Oil to jet
Scandinavain Airlines 737–800 SkyNRG Nordic 2014 Used cooking oil 48% Oil to jet
Norwegian 737–800 SkyNRG Nordic 2014 Used cooking oil 50% Oil to jet
Hannan Airlines 747–800 Sinopec 2015 Used cooking oil 50% Oil to jet
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H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
Table 9
Summary for different jet fuel production pathways.
Pathway Feedstock Technical characteristics Economic features Environmental influence Commercial issues
HEFA Vegetable oils High thermal stability Feedstock sensitive Low tailpipe emissions Certified
Waste animal fats Good cold flow behaviors Low impact on water use
Used cooking oils High energy efficiency Low impact on land use
Algal oils Low lubricity
Fuel leakage problems
CH Algal High energy efficiency Relatively low cost Significant CO2 reduction Under certified
Oil plants No commercial scale
demonstration
Lignocellulosic biomass
HDCJ Lignocellulosic biomass Few impurities Low byproduct utilization Low tailpipe emissions Under certified
High hydrogen consumption
High deoxygenation
requirements
FT Lignocellulosic biomass Good cold flow behaviors High production cost Low tailpipe emissions Certified
Municipal waste High thermal stability
Less energy density
Low lubricity
Fuel leakage problems
Alcohol to jet Sugarcane Long route High production cost Emission affected by
feedstock
Starch crops Long production cycle
Lignocellulosic biomass High energy efficiency
DSHC Sugarcane Low energy input More suitable for production high- Significant CO2 reduction Certified
value chemicals
Starch crops Limited blends (10%) High impact on water use
Lignocellulosic biomass High impact on land use
in research and development, as well as the demonstration and scale-up For the convenience of assessment, available biomass feedstock in-
of technologies. A wide range of promotion of aviation carbon taxes cludes agricultural residue, forestry residue and mill residue based on
would also increases the competitiveness of bio-jet fuels. statistics and crop-specific parameters. And these can be divided into
Except for feedstock availability and economics, the sustainability is two parts, lignocellulosic biomass and sugar feedstock. Potential re-
also an important issue for bio-jet fuels. The commercial scale devel- sidue biomass energy of lignocellulosic and sugar feedstock is 6.72 EJ/
opment may also have a broad scope of environmental, societal and yr and 0.41 EJ/yr in China, respectively [160]. By multiplying the en-
economic consequences. For example, the production of large volumes ergy efficiency of different pathway, there is 3.16 EJ/yr bio-jet fuels
of biomass may has high impacts on land and water use as well as produced, which is about 38% of transportation oil energy consumption
biodiversity, soil degradation, and the important changes in rural so- in China in 2014 [161]. Compared with conventional jet fuel, bio-jet
ciety and local communities [158]. Policies for the sustainable de- fuels can bring a huge GHG emission reduction, 0.23 billion metric
ployment of alternative fuels are needed, including seting sustainability tons, which surpasses the emissions from transportation energy in
targets and implementing associated dedicated measures, especially in China in 2014 [161], and reduces 2.71% of energy-related GHG emis-
terms of the indirect impacts of a large scale deployment of alternative sions in China in 2012 [2].
fuels, such as land use change and food security [36]. According to the reporter of U.S. Energy Information
Considering the feedstock available, technology state, environ- Administration, the global jet fuel consumption will increase to 22.88
mental impacts and economic assessment, HEFA and Fischer-Tropsch EJ in 2040 [2]. The global potential residue biomass energy of lig-
synthesis are thought to be the most promising technologies for the bio- nocellulosic biomass and sugar feedstock was 42.54 EJ/yr and 6.17 EJ/
jet fuels production in the future. The two technologies all have a wide yr for 2005, respectively [160]. Hence, the rough estimations of global
range of feedstock resources, mature technical states, low CO2 emission bio-jet fuels produced could reach 21.46 EJ, about 94% global jet fuel
and cheap selling prices. However, more works should be done before consumption in 2040. These bio-jet fuels will make a great GHG
the two technologies could be in the large-scale production. And along emission reduction, 1.50 billion tonnes, reduce 4.64% of world energy-
with the cost decreacing in emerging new technologies, there are many related GHG emissions in 2012 [2].
possibilities in the future development of bio-jet fuels.
6. Conclusion
5.4. The influence of large-scale deployment of bio-jet fuels production
The production of jet fuels from renewable bioresources is a pro-
With the development of bio-jet fuels, it can bring a huge potential mising way for aviation industry to reduce the dependence on fossil and
of renewable bio-jet fuels production and GHG emission reduction in achieve the carbon emission reduction targets. The feedstock for the
the future. Considering the availability of the biomass feedstock data, bio-jet fuel production is various, and different production pathways
the influence of large-scale deployment of bio-jet fuels production is require different feedstock. Feedstock availability, economics and sus-
evaluated based on previous literatures. tainability are the main challenges for the commercialization of jet fuel.
13
H. Wei, et al. Fuel 254 (2019) 115599
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