‫االجمهــــوريــــــة الجزائــــريــــــة الديمقــــراطيــــــة الشــعبيـــــة‬

‫وزارة التــــــعلـــــيـــــــــــم العــــــــــــالــــــــــــي والبــــحــــــــــــث العـــلمـــــــــي‬

Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

‫ محمد بن أ حمد‬2 ‫جامعة وهران‬

‫معهد الصيانة و األمن الصناعي‬
‫قسم الصيانة الكهرو ميكانيكية‬
‫قسم صيانة األجهزة‬

University of Oran 2 Mohamed Ben Ahmed

Institute of Maintenance and Industrial Safety
Department of Electro mechanics Maintenance
Department of Instrumentation Maintenance

First-Semester Technical-English Course

- Theory and Practice –

First-Year LMD Master Level

Presented by Dr Larbi BOUMEDDANE

Academic Year: 2019-2020

Technical English Dr Larbi BOUMEDDANE
First-Year LMD Master Level University of Oran 2
Institute of Maintenance and Industrial Safety

Text Study 1

Read the following text carefully and repeatedly then answer the ensuing exercises. Provide your answers
on these very sheets.

I - Comprehension

Exercise One: Pick out from the text one word similar in meaning to each following word or group
of words.

in direction of = towards efficient = good

minute = small goes higher = rises

flow = movement types = groups

matters = substances permit = allow

act = behave

1
Exercise Two

A- Which main criterion is used for the given classification ?

B- According to that criterion, classify in a table the materials named in the text.

ALREADY DONE

C- Give a title to the text.

Exercise Three: What do the following pronouns refer to in the text.

Line 3: they

Line 14: they ALREADY DONE WITH FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE BOARD

Line 16: they

Exercise Four: A- Pick out from the text one word opposite in meaning to each following word.

narrowly ≠ collect ≠

considerable ≠ detach ≠

B- By derivation, give the negative forms of the following words.

connect ≠ known ≠

perfect ≠ ability ≠

ALREADY DONE WITH FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE BOARD

2
II- Grammar
1- Morphology
Morphology is a branch of grammar, that studies the structures of words. A morpheme is the smallest unit
of word. The stem or root of any word is meaningful and can stand by itself. So, all stems of words are
free morphemes. On the other hand, affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are meaningless but functional as they
are used for word derivation. Affixes cannot stand by themselves. So, they are bound morphemes.

Examples

Words Free Morphemes Bound Morphemes

chemicals chemical s
impurity pure im, ity

Notice that the above morpheme S, of which function is to mark plural, is dependent on the morpheme
chemical to convey meaning. Also, the morphemes im and ity, of which functions are to mark negation and
quality respectively, depend on the morpheme pure to derive another word which is impurity.

1-A- Parts of Speech

Parts of speech, also called word classes, are the different types of words.

Nouns
A noun is a word that occurs either as a subject or object. Factory, measure, safety, workers, cleanliness,
cleaning, Algeria, advice, and production are all nouns but correspond to different noun categories. Refer to
page 6-11 for details.

Verbs
Verbs are words telling about action or state. To get, send, burn, throw, pull, make, give, seem, be, need, and
advise are all verbs but do not belong to the same verb category. Refer to pages 11-15 for details.
Adjectives
An adjective is a word describing a person or a thing. All past participles are adjectives. Words ending in
ing, called gerunds or present participles, may be used as nouns or adjectives.

Examples
The insulating property of rubber makes this material fit for making anti-shock shoes.

Gerunds as Factories must have chimneys conducting fumes and steam out.
Adjectives

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 The insulating property of rubber makes this material fit for making anti-shock shoes.
Gerunds as
Nouns
Conducting fumes and steam out of factories usually occurs through chimneys.

Adverbs
Adverbs tell about how actions are performed and can be derived from adjectives by using the suffix ly.
Not all words ending in the bound morpheme ly are adverbs. The words timely, deadly, daily, weekly,
monthly, yearly, and costly are rather adjectives. There exists no adverb for an adjective ending in ly. The
words apply, rely, supply, and certify are verbs, not adverbs. Both adverbs and adjectives are modifiers.
Rapidly, tomorrow, today, quite, always, here, and there are all adverbs but do not belong to the same
category. Refer to pages 20-22 for details.

Pronouns

Types of Pronouns

Personal Pronouns I, you, he, she, we, they.

Impersonal Pronouns it, they

Possessive Pronouns my, your, its, his, her, our,

their

Demonstrative Pronouns this, these, that, those

Relative Pronouns that, which, who, whose,

whom, where

Reflexive Pronouns myself, yourself, himself,

herself, itself, ourselves,
themselves

Interrogative Pronouns what, which, why, who,

where, how

Articles
There exist only three articles in English. The is the definite article. A and an are the indefinite ones.
Unlike the article a, an is used when followed by a vowel sound.

Examples
a factory - an element - a university

4
Notice that the word university agrees with the article a and not an because the initial sound of
university, of which phonetic symbol is / j /, is a semi-vowel, not a vowel.

Prepositions
A preposition is a word that indicates location or any other relationship between two words in a sentence
or phrase. The English prepositions are in, within, inside, outside, on, through, across, over, above, near, of,
from, towards, beyond, till, until, for, as, about, with, without, between, to, into, during, at, beneath, under, before,
after, against, by, among, except, behind. A word is not a preposition unless it is followed by a noun or
pronoun called object of preposition.

Examples
Preventive measures are to be applied on time before any accidental occurrence.
In this sentence, before is a preposition.

Industrial accidents may happen if no preventive measure is applied before.

In this sentence, before is not a preposition. It is rather an adverb modifying the verb applied.

Exercise: Fill in each following gap with one necessary preposition. The answers are given between
brackets.

Many chemical processes produce hazardous substances ….…(as)...… useful by-products or waste. Such
matters may not be easily identified …….(during)……. their generation ……(at)…. workplace for example
diesel exhaust fumes leaving a pipe or an engine. Information ….(about)….. dangerous products may not be
always available. You should know in advance which hazardous substances are produced by a given
industrial activity. For example, the use …..(of)……. welding rods and metal grinding may cause toxic
fumes or dust. Solvent propagates …….(from)…. glues that are used ……(for)…. making wood furniture.
Industrially-resulting dusts are hazardous, too. They can engender serious diseases or blasts. Therefore, if
you produce hazardous chemicals, you must know whatever risk associated ….(with) …… them.

For more practice of the use of prepositions, refer to parts A and C of the last chapter.

1-B- Nouns
There exist several types of nouns.

Action Nouns
Action nouns refer to action. The suffixes al, tion, ance, ence, ing, ure, and age are used to derive action
nouns from verbs.
5
Examples

Suffixes Action Nouns

al arrival, proposal, refusal

tion transportation, production, reduction

ing transporting, producing, reducing

ure failure, departure, pressure

ance / ence acceptance, preference, insistence

age passage, carriage, pipage

Notice that the gerund used in the following sentence is an action noun.

Reducing shock risk is possible by means of special thick rubber shoes.

However, gerunds do not always occur as action nouns. Notice that the gerund used in the following
sentence is rather an adjective because it is preceded by a noun it qualifies.

Rubber is a widely-used material reducing shock risk.

Agent Nouns
An agent noun refers to the doer of an action. The suffixes er, or, ian, ant, and ist are used to derive agent
nouns from verbs.

Examples

Suffixes Agent Nouns

er fire-fighter, radiographer, strainer

or actor, ventilator, accelerator

ian electrician, mathematician, technician

ist chemist, physicist, hygienist

ant assistant, occupant, disinfectant

6
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns can be used in both single and plural forms with numbers or determiners such as many,
most, more, several, and lots of. They also agree with the articles a, an, and the. In plural form, they often
agree with the final marker S such as elements, industrialists, and workers. But, there exist irregular plural
cases as shown in the ensuing table.

Singular Forms Plural Forms

person people

shelf shelves

appendix, helix appendices, helices

criterion criteria

analysis, thesis, hypothesis, synopsis, synthesis, basis analyses, theses, hypotheses, synopses, syntheses, bases

The noun time may be countable as in the following sentence:

The validity of fire extinguishers must be checked several times a year.

Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable or mass nouns cannot occur in plural form such as liquid and powder nouns but agree with
the determiner much. When used as subjects, uncountable nouns always agree with singular verbs. Advice,
information, garbage, assistance, equipment, knowledge, prudence, salt, sugar, copper, oxygen, argon, and health
are all non-countable nouns. To express plural with uncountable nouns, the latter can be paired with plural
phrases.

Examples
Pieces of information
Pieces of advice
Bags of garbage
Kilos of salt

Uncountable nouns do not agree with the definite article the unless followed by the preposition of and
another noun as in the management of factories.
The noun time may be uncountable as in the following sentence:
It takes a few time for sodium to dissolve in water.

7
Common Nouns
Common nouns refer to general unspecific things or places. Law, table, state, and university are all common
nouns.

Proper Nouns
Unlike common nouns, proper nouns refer to specific things or places. As a way of distinguishing between
common nouns and proper nouns, the latter always have their initial letters capitalized. Whereas table is a
common noun because it can refer to any table, Mendeleev is rather a proper noun as it names a
particular table of substances. In the following examples, the proper nouns are in italics whereas the
common nouns are underlined.
The Mendeleev table

The Monte Carlo law

The state of Algeria

The university of Saint Andrews

Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns refer to physically-existent things that can be seen, touched, smelt, or tasted such as wood,
tungsten, solids, and hydrogen.

Abstract Nouns
Unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns refer to ideas, theories, qualities, or situations such as quickness,
understanding, freedom, and stability. The suffixes ness, cy, and lity are used for deriving abstract nouns.

Exercise: To illustrate the abovementioned definitions, pick out from the ensuing text one noun
relevant to each definition.

Petroleum refining refers to the chemical engineering process of converting crude oil into useful products. This
process is carried out by chemists in Arzew, Oran. Crude oil is composed of hundreds of different hydrocarbon
molecules, and the matter goes through three basic successive steps namely separation, conversion, and treatment.
Separation is known as the process of distillation. Crude oil is heated in a special furnace so that hydrocarbons can
be separated via their boiling point. Inside large towers, heated petroleum steams are separated into fractions
according to weight and boiling point. The lightest fractions, which include petrol, rise to the top of the towers
before they condense back to liquids whereas the heaviest fractions will settle at the bottom as they condense early.
Conversion is the process of changing one kind of hydrocarbon into another. Amongst the obtained products, petrol
is usually the most desired one. Cracking takes heavier less valuable fractions of crude oil and convert them into
lighter products. Cracking utilizes heat and pressure to break heavier components into lighter ones. Alkylation is
another common conversion process which rather makes heavier hydrocarbons. In it, small gaseous by-products are

8
merged into larger hydrocarbon molecules. As for treatment, it includes the fusion of products to create various
octane levels, steam pressure features, and special characteristics for products meant to extreme environments. One
common example of treatment is the removal of sulphur from diesel. Treatment is highly technical and the most
time-consuming step of refining.

Nouns Action Agent countable Uncountable Common Proper Concrete Abstract

noun noun noun noun noun noun noun noun

Examples treatment chemist components sulphur point Arzew oil conversion

Noun Compound
A noun compound is the combination of two nouns or more. This combination is widely used in technical
English as it contributes to make style slight and easy for the reader by avoiding wordiness. For instance,
it is slighter to use the noun compound diesel engine than the phrase engine functioning with diesel
though these two expressions are grammatically correct and equivalent in meaning. Every noun compound
may be extended to clarify its meaning.

Examples

Noun Compounds Extensions

steam generation process process in which steam is generated

pipe steam steam travelling through a pipe

steam pipe pipe carrying steam

desalination company company specialized in desalination

iron ores ores containing iron

fuel combustion chamber chamber in which fuel is burned

filter paper paper used as a filter

paper filter filter made of paper

heat transfer theory theory explaining the transfer of heat

9
1-C- Verbs
English verbs may be classified into two major different groups according to whether or not they occur
with another verb form.

I- Auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary or helping verbs are necessarily used with other verbs or past participles. They are be, do, need,
and the models. The latter are may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, have to, can, and could.
Auxiliary verbs come to use when for example you put any verb in passive voice (refer to pages 25-28),
negation, probability, permission, future, obligation, advice, and ability. When need is used as an auxiliary, its
form is invariable whatever the number of the subject is. The models are always followed by bare
infinitive. Whereas may is used for asking or giving permission or expressing probability, can rather for
expressing physical, chemical, or mechanical ability.

Examples
Sodium will dissolve if mixed with water.

The gases arranged in the last column of the periodical table usually do not produce chemical reaction.

Any reactive substance must receive careful attention.

When working with very low electrical intensity, you need not wear thick rubber shoes as a safety
measure.

Need the electrician wear thick rubber shoes ?

II- Main Verbs

Main or lexical verbs express the state or action of the subject. They can stand without auxiliary verbs
and are categorized into five classes according to their relationship with other words in the sentence.

Linking Verbs
Linking verbs may be referred to as copulas. They link the subject to its complement; in other words, they
provide more information about the subject. The most frequent one is to be. Other than to be, this verb
class counts to become, turn, get, seem, look, remain, grow, and run.

Examples
Supplies run low if consumed without being supplemented.

When rolled up, paper turns more difficult to tear.

10
Your industrial workplace gets less exposed to fire risk when you check regularly that your electrical
insulation is not broken or frayed.

Overtime, precautions grow old-fashioned and are therefore replaced by more advanced ones.

Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs express action but do not necessitate the use of a direct object such as to travel, melt,
evaporate, burn, grow, arrive, go, lie, and stand.

Examples
Interest in hygiene and industrial safety grows incessantly.

Unlike nitrogen, sulphur burns.

Across the Algerian Sahara, petroleum travels through special pipelines to reach northern areas.

Platinum acts as a catalyst in some chemical reactions.

Notice that no direct object is included in these above sentences.

Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs express action and necessitate the use of a direct object to get a full sentence such as
need, get, burn, run, leave, make, do, and prepare.

Examples
When working as a joiner, you usually do not need thick rubber shoes.

The implementation of any industrial safety measure needs money, time, and efforts.

Notice that need as a transitive verb is rather variable.

If you mix sugar with water, you get a solution.

Specialists in hygiene and industrial safety are fit to run factories.

If you work without a break, you become more prone to make errors.

Notice that all of a solution, factories, and errors are direct objects.

11
Complex Transitive Verbs
Complex transitive verbs call into use a direct object and an object complement such as to make, paint,
get, render, turn, wedge, and leave.

Examples
Wedge the door open, please !

Working without a break makes you more prone to errors.

For aeration, you should not leave windows closed.

High temperatures turn solids into liquids.

Notice that all of the door, you, windows, and solids are direct objects whereas open, more prone to errors,
closed, and into liquids are object complements.
Notice also that as the sentence pattern changes the type of some verbs also changes. A verb known to be
transitive may become intransitive, a copula, complex transitive, or even auxiliary.

Double Transitive Verbs

Double transitive verbs express action and call into use both direct and indirect objects.

Examples
Some approaches give the factory administrator the opportunity to reduce risk level.

Hassi Messaoud sends its oil to northern Algerian areas through special pipelines.

Notice that the opportunity and its oil are direct objects whereas the factory administrator and to northern
Algerian areas are indirect objects.

Exercise: Classify in the following table the verbs mentioned in bold in the ensuing text. Respect the
order of the occurrence of the verbs.

All human activities have to be conducted following rational rules in order to spare unnecessary risks.
Similarly, all chemicals have to be used for the goals they are intended for, with the application of measures to
protect the consumer and the environment from any unacceptable risk. The same goes for aromatics; they are
innocuous in all their uses, but if they are not duly used or handled, they can have an adverse expected impact on
the environment as well as on human health and safety. Not only the aromatics industry but the whole chemical
industry is committed to continuous improvement in all aspects of health and environmental performance. This
commitment is called Responsible Care trying to monitor and minimise the potential adverse impact of products on
12
human health and the environment. Every industry must give the highest priority to the safety of its workers by
providing strict and detailed instructions concerning handling, transportation, and disposal. Key factors in deciding
whether or not chemicals could harm human health or the environment are hazard and risk. The hazard of chemical
is its intrinsic ability to have a bad result. As for risk, it is the chance that such effects will occur. For example,
while a chemical may have hazardous properties, any risk to human health or the environment is low if the
chemical is handled safely under precise conditions. Almost all human activities involve some level of risk: the key
is to ensure that the benefit outweighs the risk. The use of fire by humans is an interesting example of optimising
the balance between hazard and risk. Fire has played a vital role in the evolution of our species, allowing us to eat
a wider range of foods and live in less cold environments. Fire is however extremely hazardous and must be used
under carefully-controlled conditions to keep risks to a minimum. Risk assessment examines the hazard posed by a
chemical so as to know to what degree humans are exposed to that chemical. Risk assessments are carried out to
ensure that the usage of chemicals poses no intolerable risk to human health or the environment. In fact, risk
assessment aims to make human health and environment safe.

Verb Transitive Intransitive Copula Complex Double Auxiliary

Type Transitive Transitive

spare, have to,

involve, live are, is make give
are, may
poses

1-D- Adjectives

In English, adjectives remain invariable having no plural form. Adjectives can modify nouns or pronouns.

Examples

Adjectives Modifying Nouns Adjectives Modifying Pronouns

In Sonatrach, numerous notices read instructions. They are numerous.

Chinese industry is gigantic. It is Chinese.
Our industry is limited. Theirs is gigantic.

Location of Adjectives within Sentences

Adjectives can be put before nouns and are qualified in this case as attributive. They can also be put after
nouns, implying the use of linking verbs, and are qualified in this case as predicative. The English linking
verbs are be, appear, become, feel, get, go, turn, smell, seem, sound, and remain.

13
 Examples

The inert gases come in the last column of the periodical

table.
Attributive Adjectives

In industrial workplaces, panels must be posted reading

preventive measures.

Neon, helium, argon, xenon, and krypton are inert whereas

oxygen and hydrogen are active.
Predicative Adjectives

In industrial workplaces, panels must be posted reading

preventive measures.

Other Types of Adjectives

Denominal Adjectives
Denominal adjectives are derived from nouns.

Examples

Meaning

a mathematical notion a notion based on mathematics

an environmental danger a danger threatening environment

a wooden insulation an insulation made of wood

Proper Adjectives
Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns to qualify things in terms of nationality or provenance.
The initial letter of any proper adjective is always capitalized.

Examples
German studies on industrial safety are much more advanced than the Spanish ones.

German are Spanish are derived from the proper nouns Germany and Spain.

14
Comparative Adjectives

Adjectives may also be used to indicate a position on a scale of comparison. The lowest degree on the
scale is the positive form; the middle degree the comparative form; and the highest degree the superlative
form. Comparative form is recognizable by the use of the bound morpheme er with short adjectives or the
free morpheme more with long adjectives and the word than. Superlative form is recognizable by the use
of the bound morpheme est with short adjectives or the free morpheme most with long adjectives. A short
adjective is composed of only one syllable such as short, cheap, good, clear, bad, big, large, small, high, low,
easy, and long. A long adjective is composed of more than one syllable such as active, expensive,
innocuous, harmful, difficult, hazardous, and precise.

Examples

Positive Forms Co2 is dangerous for human health.

Modern machines are very fast.

Comparative Forms Co is more dangerous than Co2 for human health.

Modern machines are faster than old ones.

Superlative Forms Hydrogen sulphide is the world’s most dangerous gas.

The fastest preventive measure may be the most efficient one.

Exceptional Cases

Positive Forms Comparative Forms Superlative Forms

good better best

bad worse worst

far further furthest

Compound Adjectives
A compound adjective consists of two or more words hyphenated to modify a noun. Compound adjectives
cannot modify pronouns.

15
Examples

Every industrial worker should go on at least a one-month training about industrial safety before assuming
any task within a factory.

Part-time and full-time factory workers alike must wear special protective clothes during activity.

A ten-square-metre space is not a decent place for any industrial activity.

This industrial multifunctional machine is designed to fulfil an eight-hour activity per day.

In the Institute of Maintenance and Industrial Safety, second-semester final exams usually take place in
June.

Notice that ten-square-metre and eight-hour do not agree with the plural marker S although the nouns
metre and activity are countable. Like the other types of adjectives, compound adjectives remain invariable.

Types of Compound Adjectives

Examples

number + singular noun a twenty-minute process

adjective + noun high-quality instruments

adjective + gerund a long-lasting guarantee

noun + gerund time-consuming activities

noun + adjective an oil-rich country

noun + past participle water-heated tanks

adverb + past participle a well-known approach

adjective + past participle old-fashioned techniques

16
1-E- Adverbs

Use of Adverbs
Adverbs can modify different types of word or sentences.

Uses of Adverbs Examples

Modifiers of Fire spreads quickly in wind.

Verbs
Some substances such as diesel and petrol burn dangerously.

Petrol is an extremely-dangerous chemical.

Modifiers of
Adjectives Sonatrach is a publicly-owned Algerian company.

The Algerian company of Sonatrach is publicly owned.

Modifiers of Factories must be rigorously well protected against electrical hazards.

Adverbs
Blasts can occur enormously loudly.

Modifiers of There are quite a lot of international regulations for industrial safety.
Quantities
China is internationally much criticized for its atmospheric pollution caused by its
enormous industry.

Modifiers of Today, industry is better protected courtesy of up-to-date preventive measures.

Sentences In former centuries, asbestos was thought to be innocuous. Retrospectively, modern
studies show its hazardous property.

Notice that when an adverb comes to modify an adjective qualifying a following noun, the adverb and
adjective are hyphenated.

Types of Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner slowly, rapidly, dangerously, well, safely, precisely, promptly, immediately, forthwith,

abroad, upstairs, downstairs, everywhere, far, here, there, overseas, anywhere,

Adverbs of Place
somewhere, backwards, inwards, forwards, downwards, upwards.

17
 Adverbs of Time ago, already, before, after, early, immediately, now, since, soon, still, today, yesterday,
tomorrow, yet.

Adverbs of Repetition once, twice, occasionally, always, sometimes, never, often, rarely, seldom.
or Frequency

about, almost, practically, virtually, well-nigh, completely, entirely, fully, wholly,

Adverbs of Degree or
utterly, exactly, half, hardly, much, very, partly, quite, enough, too, deeply, thoroughly,
Quantity
partially,

Adverbs of how, how much, how many, how often, when, where, why, who, which.
Interrogation

Adverbs of Affirmation indeed, actually, in fact, certainly, surely, definitely, undoubtedly, doubtless.
or Certainty

Adverbs of Order Firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, ………

Hardly is not the adverb of hard. Hardly is synonymous with barely and scarcely. The adverbs of hard,
fast, and good are hard, fast, and well respectively.

1- F- Negative Prefixes

In English, there exist items that come stuck at the beginning of words. These items cannot stand by
themselves meaningfully but are functional. In other words, they can only be used together with words for
the derivation of other words. These items are called prefixes many of which are used to derive negative
form. The English negative prefixes are il, in, im, ir, un, dis, and non. To derive a negative form of an
adjective, the standard prefix non may be used followed by a hyphen.

Exercise Four: Give the negative forms of the following words. Use the appropriate negative prefixes other than
‘non’.

efficient ≠ inefficient necessary ≠ unnecessary

functional ≠ dysfunctional ability ≠ inability

respectful ≠ disrespectful able ≠ unable

Homework: Consult Google or library dictionaries and make up a list of thirty or more technical-English
words of different parts of speech with their negative forms. Use the appropriate negative prefixes other than
‘non’.

18
Exercise Five: Complete the following table on word derivation.

Infinitive Verb Noun Adjective being not a

Gerund

end end ended

classify classification classified

permit permitting permitted

perfect perfection perfect

provide provision provided

widen width wide

exemplify example exemplified

strengthen strength strong

2- Syntax
Syntax is a branch of grammar, that studies the combination of words to form sentences, phrases, and
clauses. Words being used in either of these three categories are syntagms. A syntagm is the smallest unit
of syntactical study. The four words composing the sentence Carbon is very noxious are syntagms.
2-A- Sentence and Phrase

I- Phrase
A phrase is a group of words with no subject-verb combination. Gerund and past participle are verb forms
but show no tense. A phrase cannot stand by itself meaningfully.

Examples
in a factory – conducting electricity – done quickly

II- Sentence
A sentence is a group of words containing one or more subject-verb combination. This type of group of
words can stand by itself meaningfully. A simple sentence contains only one subject-verb combination. A
compound sentence contains two simple sentences joined together by means of a semicolon only, a
semicolon with an interrupter followed by a comma, or a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

19
Interrupters, also known as conjunctive adverbs, are however, nevertheless, nonetheless, and notwithstanding
expressing contrast; besides, furthermore, in addition, and moreover expressing addition; otherwise and if not
expressing alternative; therefore, hence, as a result, consequently, and thus expressing result; in fact, indeed,
and actually expressing restatement and emphasis; and on the other hand expressing contrast or
comparison. Coordinating conjunctions are yet and but, and, and so expressing contrast, addition, and result
respectively.

Examples

Copper is a good conductor.

Simple Sentences
You should wear thick rubber shoes before working with
high-intensity electricity.

Electrical current is widely advantageous in our daily life;

however, it can cause shock or fire.

Asbestos is industrially useful, but its inhalation may cause

cancer.
Compound Sentences
Asbestos is still much used in various industries, yet it is
known to be carcinogen.

Asbestos inhalation is too hazardous; therefore, the control of

this chemical is strictly necessary.

All industrialists must comply with international preventive

standards; otherwise, their activities are outlawed.

2-B- Active and Passive Voices

Any declarative sentence is either in active voice or passive voice. Active voice is recognizable by the
subject performing or not performing the action stated by the verb.

Examples
CuSo4 accelerates chemical reactions.
S V DO

Wood does not conduct electrons.

S V DO

Passive voice is recognizable by the use of the auxiliary to be put in a given tense and followed by a
past participle without necessarily mentioning the actor.

20
Examples

Chemical reactions are accelerated by CuSo4.

V Actor

Electrons are not conducted by wood.

V Actor

Notice the use of the preposition by in passive voice to mention the actor. But, passive sentence may stand
without actor when there is no need to mention it. Active voice is relatively more direct and clearer.
However, you may use passive voice when you want to emphasize the action or the object of the action.
Example

CuSo4 and platinum are often used as catalysts.

If the verb you use is transitive; i.e. involving the use of a direct object, and your sentence is declarative,
this means that the latter contains, at least, a subject, an action, and a direct object. So, the transformation
from active to passive voice is possible. When a sentence is in active voice, the subject usually comes
before the action it plays. It is recommended to parse your sentence, as done previously, before converting
your active sentence to passive voice.
Example

Industrial machines consume a lot of electrical energy.

S V DO

When a sentence is in passive voice, the subject is preceded by the action.

Example

A lot of electrical energy is consumed by industrial machines.

DO auxiliary past actor / subject
to be participle

The latter sentence is in passive voice because the thing performing the action is not mentioned until after
the action while to be is used as an auxiliary followed by a past participle.

It is recommended to use the voice that best expresses your idea as shortly as possible and not to shift
between active and passive voices needlessly. In technical English, there is a tendency to use passive voice
more than active voice because in this type of English you are not interested in people and who does the
action. In technical English, you are interested rather in processes, experiments, factors, and results. So, even

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the need to mention the actor in passive voice does not arise unless the actor is a thing such as a
material, tool, product, or a chemical element.

Technical Process

There are two different ways to express the steps of any technical process in English: imperative form and
declarative affirmative form. The latter form occurs either in active or passive form.

Example

Apply a transistor to control the electric current within a television. (This sentence is in imperative
form recognized by the use of bare infinitive in initial position and the omission of subject).

A transistor is applied to control the electric current within a television. (This sentence is declarative
affirmative in passive form recognized by the use of a noun followed by a conjugated form of be and a past
participle.)

To clearly express the passage from a step to a next one within a process, we use sequencers. These are first,
then, next, after that, finally, at the end.

Exercise Six: Here is a passage describing how a battery is to be charged. Turn the imperative
sentences into passive sentences.

First, remove the filler plugs and connect the battery to the charger. Give attention to the correct polarity and
make good connections. Then, switch on the charger. Next, keep it switched until the battery is fully charged.
Finally, reset in the filler plugs and leave the battery to cool before use.

First, the filler plugs are removed, and the charger is connected to the battery. Attention is given to the
correct polarity, and good connections are made. Then, the charger is switched on. Next, it is kept switched
until the battery is fully charged. Finally, the filler plugs are reset in, and the battery is left to cool before
use.

Notice above that there is no need to use the preposition by and an actor in the passive sentences.
However, this does not always occur. In the following active sentences, the actor is clearly mentioned being
needed to fully understand the given ideas. Transform these sentences to passive form.

1 – Wood does not conduct electricity.

Electricity is not conducted by wood.

2- Electricians should wear thick rubber shoes.

Thick rubber shoes should be worn by electricians.

What is the difference between phrase, sentence, and clause ?

1- Phrase

A phrase is a group of words without a conjugated verb. A conjugated verb is put in a tense. Gerund and
past participle are verb forms but show no tense.

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Examples

in a factory – conducting electricity – done quickly

2- Sentence

A sentence is a group of words containing one or more subject-verb combination. This type of word group
can stand by itself meaningfully.

Example

Copper is a good conductor.

You should wear thick rubber shoes before you work with high-intensity electricity.

3- Clause

A clause is a group of words containing only one subject-verb combination. This type of word group can
stand by itself meaningfully and is qualified in this case as independent or main such as ‘Copper is a
good conductor’. But, a clause may not stand by itself meaningfully and is qualified in this case as
dependent, relative, or subordinate such as ‘since copper is a good conductor’. Subordinate clauses start
with subordinators. The English subordinators are numerous including because, since, as, as long as, before
and after, when , whenever, while, which, whereas, in case that, that, who, whoever, whom, where, wherever, so
that, in order that, what, whatever, provided that, on the condition that, though, although, even though, even if,
unless, and no matter how. As a homework, consult your Oxford or Cambridge dictionaries to see the
meaning and use of each above subordinator.

Exercise Seven: Link the sentences of each following pair by making the second sentence of each
pair either a subordinate clause or a phrase. Make the necessary changes without
affecting the given ideas. The two first answers are given to you.

1- A fluorescent lamp consists of a glass tube.

2- The glass tube is coated on the inside with phosphor. (as a phrase)
A fluorescent lamp consists of a glass tube coated on the inside with phosphor.

1- Industrial consumers are supplied with higher voltages than domestic consumers.
2- Industrial consumers use too large quantities of energy. (as a subordinate clause)
Industrial consumers, who use too large quantities of energy, are supplied with higher voltages than
domestic consumers.

1- Consumers are supplied with higher voltages than domestic consumers.

2- Those consumers use comparatively larger quantities of energy. (as a phrase)
Consumers using larger quantities of energy than domestic consumers are supplied with comparatively
higher voltages.

1- The supply is fed to a distribution substation.

2- The supply is reduced to 415 V in the distribution substation. (as a subordinate clause)
The supply is fed to a distribution substation where the former is reduced to 415 V.

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1- Workers require a high degree of illumination.
2- The workers assemble very small instruments. (as a subordinate clause)
Workers who assemble very small instruments require a high degree of illumination.

1- A signal passes to a detector.

2- The signal is rectified by the detector. (as a phrase)
A signal passes to a detector for rectification.

1- A signal passes to a detector.

2- The signal is rectified by the detector. (as a subordinate clause)
A signal passes to a detector so that it is rectified.

1- A power correction capacitor is connected to the mains.

2- This capacitor compensates for the inductance of masses. (as a phrase)
A power correction capacitor compensating for the inductance of masses is connected to the mains.

1- Electricians should wear thick rubber shoes.

2- Electricians are not electrocuted. (as a subordinate clause)
Electricians should wear thick rubber shoes in order that they are not electrocuted.

1- Electricians should wear thick rubber shoes.

2- Electricians are not electrocuted. (as a phrase)
Electricians should wear thick rubber shoes not to be electrocuted.

1- Manganin is an alloy.
2- Manganin has a high resistance. (as a prepositional phrase)
Manganin is an alloy of a high resistance.

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition such as of. Consult your dictionaries to revise the use of
prepositions.

1- A milliammeter is an instrument.
2- This instrument is used for measuring small currents. (as a prepositional phrase)
A milliammeter is an instrument for measuring small currents.

1- Fuses may break.

2- Strong electric currents pass through circuits. (as a prepositional phrase)
Fuses may break in case of strong electric currents.

1- Fuses may break.

2- Strong electric currents pass through circuits. (as a subordinate clause)
Fuses may break in case (that) strong electric currents pass through circuits.

The Pronunciation of the ed Suffix

The suffix ed, used to derive the simple past or past participles of regular verbs, may be uttered in three
different ways viz. / t /, / d /, or / Id /. It is to be uttered according to the final phoneme of the given
regular verb.

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Before explaining the three rules of this pronunciation, it is worthwhile to assimilate the binary
classification of the English phonemes according to the vibration of the vocal cords. A phoneme is the
smallest, i.e. minimal, unit of sound such as / ǀ /, / ɒ /, / I /, / k /, / ŋ /, / t /, / uː /, / m /, / ə: /, / θ /, / ʒ /, and / ʊ /.
All phonemes of English are classified into voiced or voiceless. Unlike voiced phonemes, voiceless ones
produce no vocal-cord vibration. By touching with one’s fingers one’s throat and articulating at the same
time any phoneme, one can feel whether or not vibration occurs.

Voiceless Phonemes Voiced Phonemes

all vowels

/ f /, / θ / , / p / , / t /, / s /, / ʃ / , / k /, / h / all consonants except / f /, / θ / , / p /, / t /, / s /, / ʃ / ,

/ k /, / h /

Unlike a consonant sound, a vowel sound lets air flowing out of the vocal tract freely; in other words,
with no air obstruction such as / ɒ /, / ʊ /, / uː /, / ə: /.

Notice that sounds are not letters. Whereas the former are more concerned with hearing (audition) than
graphic representation, letters more with graphic representation than hearing. The final phonemes of the
regular verbs to repair, weigh, touch, accelerate, and achieve are not / r /, / h /, / h /, / e / and / e / but rather /
ə /, / I /, / ʃ / , / t / , and / v / respectively.

The Three Rules of ed-Suffix Pronunciation

When the final phoneme of any given regular verb is either / t / or / d /, ed is to be uttered / Id / as in
melted.

When the final phoneme of any given regular verb is voiceless apart from / t /, ed is to be pronounced / t
/ as in finished.

When the final phoneme of any given regular verb is voiced apart from / d /, ed is to be uttered / d / as
in repaired.

Exercise: Classify the ensuing past participles according to ed-suffix pronunciation.

dropped, mended, established, linked, catched, produced, moved, raised, heated, cooled, joined, closed,
transformed, appeared, rubbed, lowered, copied, bringed.

/ Id / /t/ /d/

moved, raised, cooled, joined,

mended, heated dropped, established, linked, closed, transformed, appeared,
produced, rubbed, lowered, copied.

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The items catched and bringed are not the past participles of to catch and bring. These items do not even
exist as words in English. To catch and bring are rather irregular verbs and do not agree with the ed
suffix. Expect such trap cases in tests and exams.

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing, also known as rephrasing or rewording, is expressing an idea in different words without
altering it. This practice calls into use synonyms, opposites, active-passive transformation, and different
sentence structures so as to achieve greater clarity and enrich one’s style through diversification. Here is a
sentence expressing composition. Paraphrase it as many times as you can using different verbal forms.

A piston contains a tube and an internal cylinder.

A piston includes a tube and an internal cylinder.

A piston is made up of a tube and an internal cylinder.

A piston is composed of a tube and an internal cylinder.

A piston consists of a tube and an internal cylinder.

A piston comprises a tube and an internal cylinder.

A piston does not lack a tube and an internal cylinder.

A tube and an internal cylinder are piston components.

NB: DO AND REVISE YOUR HOMEWORKS !

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