1.

CHINA
Capital -BEIJING
Historical Background-China's history is sometime marked to have begun as early as the 16th
century BC, but in terms of physical evidence, tortoise shells with carving similar to ancient
Chinese writing from the Shang Dynasty have been given carbon dates of approximately 1500
BC. This suggests that Chinese civilization began with unconnected "city-state" forms of
settlements in the Yellow River valley. What we think of as China today, however, was not
unified under a large kingdom or empire until 221 BC—just over 2,225 years ago.
There were two events in that era that we look back to as cornerstones of what is now
considered the Chinese civilization. First, the Qin Emperor imposed a common system of writing
for all his subjects in the 3rd century BC. Second, a state ideology based on Confucianism
emerged in the 2nd century BC. To characterize China's history in very general terms, historians
say that China has alternated politically between periods of unity and disunity, sometimes being
conquered by outsiders, some of whom end up being assimilated into the Chinese population.
Language-
The spoken Chinese language is comprised of many regional variants called dialects. Modern
Chinese dialects evolved between the 8th and 3rd centuries BC.8 The differences in dialect are
due to the different pronunciation and vocabulary. The official dialect of China is Mandarin, also
call “Putonghua”. More than 70% of the Chinese population speaks Mandarin, but there are
also several other major dialects in use in China: Yue (Cantonese), Xiang (Hunanese), Min
dialect, Gan dialect, Wu dialect, and Kejia or Hakka dialect.9
Cultures-
Foods
Like other aspects of Chinese life, cuisine is heavily influenced by geography and ethnic
diversity. Among the main styles of Chinese cooking are Cantonese, which features stir-fried
dishes, and Szechuan, which relies heavily on use of peanuts, sesame paste and ginger and is
known for its spiciness.
The arts
Chinese art is greatly influenced by the country's rich spiritual and mystical history. Many
sculptures and paintings depict spiritual figures of Buddhism, according to the Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
Many musical instruments are integral to Chinese culture, including the flute-like xun and the
guqin, which is in the zither family.
Eastern-style martial arts were also developed in China, and it is the birthplace of kung fu. This
fighting technique is based on animal movements and was created in the mid-1600s, according
to Black Belt Magazine.
Ancient Chinese were avid writers and philosophers — especially during the Ming and Qing
dynasties — and that is reflected in the country's rich liturgical history.
Religion-
-Confucianism and Taoism, later joined by Buddhism, constitute the “three teachings” that
historically have shaped Chinese culture. There are no clear boundaries between these
intertwined religious systems, which don’t claim to be exclusive, and elements of each enrich
popular or folk religion. Folk or popular religion, the most widespread system of beliefs and
practices has evolved and adapted since at least Shang and Zhou dynasties. During the period
fundamental elements of a theology and spiritual explanation for the nature of the universe
emerged. Basically, it consists in allegiance to the “shen”, a character that signifies a variety of
gods and immortals, who can be deities of the natural environment of ancestral principles of
human groups, concepts of civility, cultural heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese
mythology and history. Recent surveys estimated that some 80% of Han Chinese practice some
kind of Chinese folk religion and Taoism; 10-16% are Buddhists; 3-4% are Christians; and 1-2%
are Muslims.
Government
- China is a one-party state, with real power lying with the Chinese Communist party. The
country is governed under the constitution of 1982 as amended, the fifth constitution since the
accession of the Communists in 1949. The unicameral legislature is the National People's
Congress (NPC), consisting of deputies who are indirectly elected to terms of five years. The
NPC decides on national economic strategy, elects or removes high officeholders, and can
change China's constitution; it normally follows the directives of the Communist party's
politburo. The executive branch consists of the president, who is head of state, and the
premier, who is head of government. The president is elected by the NPC for a five-year term;
there are no term limits (since 2018). The premier is nominated by the president and approved
by the NPC. Administratively, the country is divided into 22 provinces, five autonomous regions,
and four municipalities. Despite the concentration of power in the Communist party, the
central government's control over the provinces and local governments is limited, and they are
often able to act with relative impunity in many areas.
Beliefs-
Basic Beliefs and Assumptions
First, Chinese emphasized biological continuance through descendants to whom they gave the
gift of life and for whom they sacrificed many of life's material pleasures. Moreover, personal
sacrifice was not rooted in a belief in asceticism per se but in a belief that sacrificing for one's
offspring would engender in them obligations toward elders and ancestors. As stated in the
ancient text, Scripture of Filiality (Warring States Period, 453-221 B.C.E. ), these included
obligations to care for one's body as a gift from one's parents and to succeed in life so as to
glorify the family ancestors. Thus, one lived beyond the grave above all through the health and
success of one's children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren.
Second, because of the obligations inculcated in children and grandchildren, one could assume
they would care for one in old age and in the afterlife. Indeed, afterlife care involved the most
significant and complex rituals in Chinese religious life, including funerals, burials, mourning
practices, and rites for ancestors. All this was important not only as an expression of each
person's hope for continuance beyond death but as an expression of people's concern that
souls for whom no one cared would become ghosts intent on causing mischief.
Finally, there was a stress on mutual obligations between the living and the dead; in other
words, an emphasis on the same principle of reciprocity that governed relations among the
living members of a Chinese community. It was assumed that the dead could influence the
quality of life for those still in this world—either for good or for ill. On the one hand, proper
burial, careful observance of mourning practices, and ongoing offerings of food and gifts for
ancestors assured their continued aid. On the other hand, failure to observe ritual obligations
might bring on the wrath of one's ancestors, resulting in family disharmony, economic ruin, or
sickness. Ancestral souls for whom no one cared would become "hungry ghosts" ( egui ), which
might attack anyone in the community. Royal ancestors, whose worship was the special
responsibility of the reigning emperor, could aid or harm people throughout the empire,
depending on whether or not the emperor upheld ritual obligations to his ancestors.
Landforms
Mountains
In southwest China, the Himalayas front the borders with Nepal, Bhutan and India. More than
110 summits over 24,000 feet make the Himalayas the most elevated mountain range on Earth.
The highest peak on the planet, Mt. Everest, rises to 29,025 feet along the Chinese-Nepalese
border. North of the Himalayas in west-central China, the Kunlun Shan mountain chain runs in
an east-to-west direction. Still farther north, the Tien Shan mountains of northwest China
parallel the Kunlun Shan, extending westward for about 1,500 miles into neighboring
Kyrgyzstan. East of these ranges, the Altun Shan Mountains and ice-covered Qilian Mountains
rise in the heart of China, bounded to the north by the Great Wall. In northeast China, the Da
Hinggan mountain range runs from south to north, not far from the Mongolian and Russian
borders.
Plateaus
The Tibetan Plateau, also known as the Qinhai-Tibet Plateau, averages more than 5,000 feet
above sea level. It extends from the Kunlun Shan mountains southward to the Himalayas,
encompassing all of the Tibetan Autonomous Region as well as portions of other Chinese
provinces. East-central China's 154,000-square-mile Loess Plateau, also called the Huangtu
Plateau, is the largest plateau of its kind in the world. Composed entirely of loess, a yellowish-
brown windblown silt, the plateau's step-like appearance is its most striking characteristic. In
south-central China, the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau includes peaks rising above 12,000 feet, as
well as deep river gorges and ravines.
Deserts
The enormous Gobi desert occupies 500,000 square miles of land in northern China and
Mongolia. Unlike many deserts, the Gobi doesn't have sand dunes but is instead composed of
bare rock, including badlands similar to those found in South Dakota. Although temperatures in
the Gobi soar during summer, winter temperatures drop well below freezing, and snow can fall
as early as September. Some parts of the Gobi receive measurable precipitation only once every
two to three years. The Taklimakan desert, or Takla Makan, is west of the Gobi, sandwiched
between the Kunlun Shan and Tien Shan mountain ranges. Drier and hotter than the Gobi, the
Taklimakan is the largest desert contained entirely within China, as well as the world's biggest
sand-shifting desert. Crescent-shaped sand dunes up to 700-feet high migrate across the desert
floor, and rivers flowing out of the surrounding mountains dry up in this barren wasteland.
Plains and Depressions
Eastern China mainly consists of plains disrupted by occasional hills. The Northeast Plain, also
called the Manchurian Plain, lies north of the Yellow Sea, between Korea and the Da Hinggan
mountains, and features fertile soils. To its south, the North China Plain often is called the
Yellow Plain, as it is bisected by the Yellow River. Most of this plain sits at less than 160 feet
above sea level, and it is one of the most densely populated places in the world. China's
southernmost major plain is the Yangtze Plain, named for the river flowing through it. In
northwest China near the Tien Shan mountains, the 20,000-square-mile Turpan Depression
contains the lowest point in the country, Turpan Pendi, which lies at approximately 500 feet
below sea level.
2. INDIA
Capital- New Delhi
Historical Background
-The Indian subcontinent is the site of a civilization as ancient as any in the world. City states
arose in North India, along the Indus River, at about the same time as the early civilizations of
the Tigris-Euphrates at Sumer and other locations. Over the centuries, India was invaded by
many different peoples, all of whom left their imprint.
Hinduism developed out of a multiplicity of local gods, goddesses, and heroes. Gradually this
multiplicity was given a coherent framework, in which the individual deities were seen as
manifestations of a greater unity. Nonetheless, multiplicity remained a major feature of
Hinduism, as it is of Indian culture in general.
Local deities were identified with cyclical forces of nature, as is common in an agricultural
society-- birth, death, planting; and with the fertility of land, herds, and human beings.
Gradually the belief arose that all these gods were manifestation of the One- Brahma. The
physical world in all its variety was seen as a dream of Brahma; it comes into existence, ends,
and is reborn in great cycles, as are human souls in the shorter cycles of human lifetimes. This
cyclical idea, which reflects the cycles of seasons and fertility, repeats endlessly. The human
soul, which is eternal, is reborn, or reincarnated. The actions of the individual in this life
accumulate as karma, which affects the status one will achieve in the next life. The ultimate
goal is maksha, or the achievement of spiritual perfection which will enable the soul to achieve
release from the wheel of life, and attain oneness with Brahma. This link will take you to more
information about Hindu religion and culture.
Language
Official Languages
India has "Official Languages” at the state and central levels but there is no one "national
language." Hindi is the official language of the central government in India, with English as a
provisional official sub-language. Individual state legislatures can adopt any regional language
as the official language of that state.
Cultures
- India's culture is among the world's oldest; civilization in India began about 4,500 years ago.
Many sources describe it as "Sa Prathama Sanskrati Vishvavara" — the first and the supreme
culture in the world, according to the All World Gayatri Pariwar (AWGP) organization.
Western societies did not always see the culture of India very favorably, according to Christina
De Rossi, an anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College in London. Early anthropologists
once considered culture as an evolutionary process, and "every aspect of human development
was seen as driven by evolution," she told Live Science. "In this view, societies outside of
Europe or North America, or societies that did not follow the European or Western way of life,
were considered primitive and culturally inferior. Essentially this included all the colonized
countries and people, such as African countries, India, and the Far East."
However, Indians made significant advances in architecture (Taj Mahal), mathematics (the
invention of zero) and medicine (Ayurveda). Today, India is a very diverse country, with more
than 1.2 billion people, according to the CIA World Factbook, making it the second most
populous nation after China. Different regions have their own distinct cultures. Language,
religion, food and the arts are just some of the various aspects of Indian culture. Architecture
and art
The most well-known example of Indian architecture is the Taj Mahal, built by Mughal emperor
Shah Jahan to honor his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It combines elements from Islamic, Persian,
Ottoman Turkish and Indian architectural styles. India also has many ancient temples.

India is well known for its film industry, which is often referred to as Bollywood. The country's
movie history began in 1896 when the Lumière brothers demonstrated the art of cinema in
Mumbai, according to the Golden Globes. Today, the films are known for their elaborate singing
and dancing.
Indian dance, music and theater traditions span back more than 2,000 years, according to
Nilima Bhadbhade, author of "Contract Law in India" (Kluwer Law International, 2010). The
major classical dance traditions — Bharata Natyam, Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri,Kuchipudi,
Mohiniattam and Kathakali — draw on themes from mythology and literature
Clothing
Indian clothing is closely identified with the colorful silk saris worn by many of the country's
women. A traditional piece of clothing for men is the dhoti, an unstitched piece of cloth that is
tied around the waist and legs. Men also wear a kurta, a loose shirt that is worn about knee-
length. For special occasions, men wear a sherwani or achkan, which is a long coat that with a
collar having no lapel. It is buttoned up to the collar and down to the knees. A shorter version of
a sherwani is called a Nehru jacket. It is named after Jawaharlal Nehru, India's prime minister
from 1947 to 1964, but Nehru never wore a Nehru jacket. He preferred the achkan, according
to Tehelka, an Indian newspaper. The Nehru jacket was primarily marketed to Westerners.
Customs and celebrations
Diwali is the largest and most important holiday to India, according to National
Geographic. It is a five-day festival known as the festival of lights because of the lights lit during
the celebration to symbolize the inner light that protects them from spiritual darkness. Holi, the
festival of colors, also called the festival of love, is popular in the spring. The country also
celebrates Republic Day (Jan. 26), Independence Day (Aug. 15) and Mahatma Gandhi's birthday
(Oct. 2).
Religions
- India is identified as the birthplace of Hinduism and Buddhism, the third and fourth largest
religions. About 84 percent of the population identifies as Hindu, according to the "Handbook
of Research on Development and Religion," edited by Matthew Clarke (Edward Elgar Publishing,
2013). There are many variations of Hinduism, and four predominant sects — Shaiva,
Vaishnava, Shakteya and Smarta.
About 13 percent of Indians are Muslim, making it one of the largest Islamic nations in the
world. Christians and Sikhs make up a small percentage of the population, and there are even
fewer Buddhists and Jains, according to the "Handbook."
The CIA cited similar figures. According to its World Factbook, around 80 percent of the
population is Hindu, 14.2 percent is Muslim, 2.3 percent is Christian, 1.7 percent is Sikh and 2
percent is unspecified.
Government
- Federal parliamentary republic
Beliefs
- Respect is an extremely valued component of the everyday life of people in India. Children are
taught from a very young age to always respect their elders. Even as adults, the elderly are still
at the top of the totem pole. Children take care of their parents once they are adults, and their
parents will most likely live with them until their lives have ended.
Family is also an extremely important component of Indian culture. Families are valued highly
and are a part of an individual’s life until death. Often when people get married, they take in
their older relatives and other relatives and provide support of them.
Indians seek harmony throughout life. They are concerned with “cosmic energy.”
Tying into the values of Indians is their religious beliefs. The most prominent religion in India is
Hindu. Most of the values mentioned derive from the specific beliefs of Hindus. Hindus value
their gods and worship a variety of gods and goddesses. They believe in reincarnation, with
good karma, are reborn into a higher caste or even as a God. Bad Karma can result in being
reborn into a lower caste or even as an animal. The ultimate goal of a Hindu is to reach
“nirvana”. Nirvana is the releasing of the soul from a cycle of reincarnations or rebirths. Hindus
also believe
Landforms
The Himalaya Mountains serve as the northern boundary of India; some of the mountains and
many of the surrounding foothills are within the country. You can divide the Indian Himalayas
into five different regions. The region of Jammu and Kashmir has foothill plains and lakes as well
as some higher peaks. The Himachal Pradesh region is generally snow-capped and forested with
conifers; Dharamshala, home to the Dalai Lama, is within this region. The Uttaranchal region
attracts many adventure sports enthusiasts. Sikkim is home to some of the tallest peaks; once
an independent kingdom, it is now an Indian state, bounded by Nepal on the west and Bhutan
to the east. The North Eastern states comprise a fifth region, which includes the "seven sisters"
of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya and Mizoram.
Ganges River
The Ganges River runs 1,560 miles, beginning in the Himalayas and flowing into the Bay of
Bengal. The river flows through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Upon merging with the
Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers, it forms a river delta that is 200 miles across. Hindus attribute
holy significance to the river's water, going to designated bathing places along the river's
course, known as tirthas. It is also a common tradition to cast the ashes of the deceased into
the river.
Thar Desert
In western India, the Thar Desert is the seventh-largest desert in the world, covering about
92,200 square miles. With extremely severe temperatures, the Thar is one of the most
inhospitable parts of the country. Winter temperatures are regularly around freezing, and
summer temperatures can surge to more than 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Annual rainfall is
condensed into a few months of monsoons in late summer. The Thar Desert spans the Indian
states of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Punjab and extends into Pakistan to the west. Given the
extreme climate, the Thar has plentiful fauna and flora, with around 141 known species of
native birds.
Andaman Islands
The Andaman Islands form an archipelago in the Bay of Bengal, just south of Burma. Altogether,
the archipelago numbers about 300 islands, most of which comprise a territory of India. The
islands are mountainous with dense rain forests. The islands also feature two volcanoes, the
Narcondam and the Barren Island volcano. The Barren Island is the only historically active
volcano in India.
3. INDONESIA
Capital – JAKARTA
Historical Background
- The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th century; the islands were occupied by
Japan from 1942 to 1945. Indonesia declared its independence after Japan’s surrender, but it
required four years before the Netherlands agreed to relinquish its colony.Fossilized remains of
Homo erectus, popularly known as the “Java Man”, suggest the Indonesian archipelago was
inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.Austronesian peoplearrived in Indonesia around
2000 BCE, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they
expanded.Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of rice cultivation allowed villages,
towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE.Indonesian strategic sea-lane
position fostered inter-island and international trade. For example, trade links with both Indian
kingdoms and China were established several centuries BCE. Trade has since fundamentally
shaped Indonesian history.From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom
flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism .Between the
eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties
thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Borobudur and
Prambanan.Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century. Under
Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia. This period is often referred to as a
“Golden Age” in Indonesian history.
Language
- Indonesian (locally referred to as Bahasa Indonesia) is the primary lingua franca. Indonesian is
spoken by over 94% of the population, but it is the primary language of only 20% of the
population. Javanese (Jawa) is the most common primary language, spoken by over 30% of the
population.

Cultures
- The most striking ceremonial occasion is the Muslim month of fasting, Ramadan. Even less-
observant Muslims fast seriously from sunup to sundown despite the tropical heat. Each night
during Ramadan, fine celebratory meals are held. The month ends with Idul Fitri, a national
holiday when family, friends, neighbors, and work associates visit each other's homes to share
food treats (including visits by non-Muslims to Muslim homes).
In traditional ritual, special food is served to the spirits or the deceased and eaten by the
participants. The ubiquitous Javanese ritual, selamatan , is marked by a meal between the
celebrants and is held at all sorts of events, from life-cycle rituals to the blessing of new things
entering a village. Life-cycle events, particularly marriages and funerals, are the main occasions
for ceremonies in both rural and urban areas, and each has religious and secular aspects.
Elaborate food service and symbolism are features of such events, but the content varies
greatly in different ethnic groups. Among the Meto of Timor, for example, such events must
have meat and rice ( sisi-maka' ), with men cooking the former and women the latter. Elaborate
funerals involve drinking a mixture of pork fat and blood that is not part of the daily diet and
that may be unappetizing to many participants who nonetheless follow tradition. At such
events, Muslim guests are fed at separate kitchens and tables.
Religion- Indonesia’s main religion is Islam, though the government officially recognizes six
distinct faiths: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Few
of these are practiced anywhere in Indonesia in a traditional form, as they have been heavily
influenced by the presence of other world religions, indigenous beliefs, and cultural practices.
Government- Presidential republic
Beliefs
- Religious Beliefs. Indonesia has the largest Muslim population of any nation, and in 1990 the
population was reported to be 87 percent Muslim. There is a well-educated and influential
Christian minority (about 9.6 percent of the population in 1990), with about twice as many
Protestants as Catholics. The Balinese still follow a form of Hinduism. Mystical cults are well
established among the Javanese elite and middle class, and members of many ethnic groups
still follow traditional belief systems. Officially the government recognizes religion ( agama ) to
include Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism, while other belief systems are called just
that, beliefs ( kepercayaan ). Those who hold beliefs are subject to conversion; followers of
religion are not. Belief in ancestral spirits, spirits of diverse sorts of places, and powerful relics
are found among both peasants and educated people and among many followers of the world
religions; witchcraft and sorcery also have their believers and practitioners. The colonial regime
had an uneasy relationship with Islam, as has the Indonesian government. The first of the Five
Principles extols God ( Tuhan ), but not Allah by name.
Landforms
Trans-Fly Savanna and Grasslands
On the island of New Guinea, along the border with the nation of Papua New Guinea, lies a
lowland region known as the Trans-Fly Savanna and Grasslands. Composed of a mixture of
savannas, monsoonal forests, mangroves, floodplains and some of the most vast wetlands in
the Asia-Pacific, the Trans-Fly Complex, as it is sometimes called, has earned itself a spot as a
contender on the United Nation’s tentative list of World Heritage Sites.
Kedu Plain
In south-central Java, the Kedu Plain spreads out between the surrounding mountains and
volcanoes. Although not particularly noteworthy in terms of geographic area, the plain is famed
for its historical religious sites. It contains some of Indonesia’s most significant monuments,
including two temple complexes dating back to about 800 C.E.
Barisan Mountains
Most of Indonesia’s major islands are covered by towering mountain ranges, with numerous
peaks reaching above 12,000 feet. On Sumatra, the long, narrow Barisan chain stretches some
1,000 miles down the entire length of the western portion of the island. At the tail end of this
range in southern Indonesia is the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, home to exotic wildlife,
such as the endangered Sumatran tiger and rhinoceros. The southern edge of the Barisan
Mountains are also home to important cultural and archaeological sites, mainly consisting of
megaliths in the shape of humans and animals, some of which may date back to nearly 1,000
B.C.E.
Maoke Mountains
On New Guinea, the Maoke Mountains extend from Indonesia’s border with Papua New Guinea
in a west-northwest direction to the island’s edge. This lofty range includes Indonesia’s highest
peak, Puncak Jaya, which rises to 16,502 feet. The Maoke mountains and their fertile valleys are
primarily covered by tropical rainforest, with the exception of the summits, which are
composed of glaciated rock.
Mountains of Borneo
The island of Borneo is not without sizable mountains. Numerous ranges crisscross Borneo’s
Kalimantan provinces, particularly in the north, near the Malaysian border. The most extensive
of such ranges are the Muller and Schwaner Mountains. In the southeast, the unspoiled
wilderness of the Meratus Mountains hearkens back to an ancient time, with its jagged peaks,
misty river valleys and dense population of indigenous people, known as the Dayak.

4. PAKISTAN - City of Islamabad

HISTORY BACKGROUND

The history of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan began on 14 August 1947 when the country
became an independent nation in the form of Dominion of Pakistan within the British
Commonwealth as the result of Pakistan Movement and the partition of India. While the history
of the Pakistani Nation according to the Pakistan government's official chronology started with
the Islamic rule over Indian subcontinent by Muhammad bin Qasim[1] which reached its zenith
during Mughal Era. In 1947, Pakistan consisted of West Pakistan (today's Pakistan) and East
Pakistan (today's Bangladesh). The President of All-India Muslim League and later the Pakistan
Muslim League, Muhammad Ali Jinnah became Governor-General while the secretary general
of the Muslim League, Liaquat Ali Khan became Prime Minister. The constitution of 1956 made
Pakistan an Islamic democratic country.

Pakistan faced a civil war and Indian military intervention in 1971 resulting in the secession of
East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The country has also unresolved territorial
disputes with India, resulting in four conflicts. Pakistan was closely tied to the United States in
Cold War. In the Afghan-Soviet War, it supported the Sunni Mujahideens and played a vital role
in the defeat of Soviet Forces and forced them to withdraw from Afghanistan. The country
continues to face challenging problems including terrorism, poverty, illiteracy, corruption and
political instability. Terrorism due to War of Afghanistan damaged the country's economy and
infrastructure to a great extent from 2001-09 but Pakistan is once again developing.

Pakistan is a nuclear power as well as a declared nuclear-weapon state, having conducted six
nuclear tests in response to five nuclear tests of their rival Republic of India in May 1998. The
first five tests were conducted on 28 May and the sixth one on 30 May. With this status,
Pakistan is seventh in world, second in South Asia and the only country in the Islamic World.
Pakistan also has the sixth-largest standing armed forces in the world and is spending a major
amount of its budget on defense. Pakistan is the founding member of the OIC, the SAARC and
the Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition as well as a member of many international
organisations including the UN, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Commonwealth of
Nations, the ARF, the Economic Cooperation Organization and many more.

Pakistan is a regional and middle power which is ranked among the emerging and growth-
leading economies of the world and is backed by one of the world's largest and fastest-growing
middle class. It has a semi-industrialized economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. It is
one of the Next Eleven, a group of eleven countries that, along with the BRICs, have a high
potential to become the world's largest economic beggar country in the 21st century. Many
economists and think tanks suggested that until 2030 Pakistan become Asian Dog and CPEC will
play an important role in it. Geographically, Pakistan is also an important country and a source
of contact between Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia and East Asia.

LANGUAGE

Pakistan is home to many dozens of languages spoken as first languages. Five languages have
more than 10 million speakers each in Pakistan – Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, Saraiki and Urdu.
Almost all of Pakistan's languages belong to the Indo-Iranian group of the Indo-European
language family.
Pakistan's national language is Urdu. It is also proposed to be the co-official languages along
with English.[2]

The country also has several regional languages, including Punjabi, Saraiki, Pashto, Sindhi,
Balochi, Gujari, Kashmiri, Hindko, Brahui, Shina, Balti, Khowar, Dhatki, Haryanvi, Marwari,
Wakhi and Burushaski. Four of these are provincial languages – Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, and
Balochi.
Ethnologue lists 74 languages in Pakistan. Of these, 66 are indigenous and 8 are non-
indigenous. In terms of their vitality, 6 are classified as 'institutional', 18 are 'developing', 39 are
'vigorous', 9 are 'in trouble', and 2 are 'dying
CULTURES
Comprises numerous ethnic groups: the Punjabis, Saraikis, Pothwaris, Kashmiris, Sindhis,
Muhajirs, Makrani in the south; Baloch, Hazaras and Pashtuns in the west; Dards, Wakhi, Baltis,
Shinaki and Burusho communities in the north.
RELIGIONS
Religion in Pakistan
Islam (state religion) (96.47%)
Hinduism (2.14%)
Christianity (1.27%)
Ahmadiyya (0.09%)
Other Religions (0.02%)
GOVERNMENT
federal government established by the Constitution of Pakistan as a constituted governing
authority of the four provinces, two autonomous territories, and one federal territory of a
parliamentary democratic republic, constitutionally called the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

BELIEFS
Every year during the month of Ramadan (called “Ramzan” in Pakistan), Pakistani Muslims fast
from first day light until sunset. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, Al-
Hijrah. During the Fast of Ramadan, Moslems are not allowed to eat or drink during the daylight
hours. Smoking and sexual relations are also forbidden during fasting. At the end of the day the
fast is broken with prayer and a meal called the iftar.The fast is resumed the next morning and
continues for the whole month of Ramadan.
It is believed that fasting teaches obedience to God and is required only by adults who are
physically capable and mentally competent. Elderly people, ill people, travelers, pregnant
women, lactating mothers, menstruating women, women with postpartum discharge, and
women who have experienced a miscarriage are exempt from fasting. The physiological effects
of fasting include lowering of blood sugar levels, lowering of the cholesterol level and lowering
of the systolic blood pressure. Also spiritually it draws Moslems closer to their creator.
LANDFORMS
The Geography of Pakistan (Urdu: ‫ )جغرافیۂ پاکِستان‬is a profound blend of landscapes varying from
plains to deserts, forests, and plateaus ranging from the coastal areas of the Arabian Sea in the
south to the mountains of the Karakoram, Hindukush, Himalayas ranges in the north. Pakistan
geologically overlaps both with the Indian and the Eurasian tectonic plates where its Sindh and
Punjab provinces lie on the north-western corner of the Indian plate while Balochistan and
most of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa lie within the Eurasian plate which mainly comprises the
Iranian Plateau. Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir lie along the edge of the Indian plate and are
prone to violent earthquakes where the two tectonic plates collide.
Pakistan is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the northwest and Iran to the west
while China borders the country in the northeast. The nation is geopolitically placed within
some of the most controversial regional boundaries which share disputes and have many-a-
times escalated military tensions between the nations, e.g., that of Kashmir with India and the
Durand Line with Afghanistan. Its western borders include the Khyber Pass and Bolan Pass that
have served as traditional migration routes between Central Eurasia and South Asia.
At 881,913 square kilometres (340,509 sq mi), Pakistan is the 33rd largest country by area, little
more than twice the size of the US state of California, and slightly larger than the Canadian
province of Alberta.

5. BANGLADESH
- Dhaka, also spelled Dacca, city and capital of Bangladesh
HISTORICAL BACKROUND
History of Bangladesh dates back over four millennia, to the Chalcolithic. The country's early
documented history featured successions of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms and empires, vying
for regional dominance.
Islam arrived during the 6th-7th century AD and became dominant gradually since the early
13th century with the conquests led by Bakhtiyar Khalji as well as activities of Sunni
missionaries such as Shah Jalal in the region. Later, Muslim rulers initiated the preaching of
Islam by building mosques. From the 14th century onward, it was ruled by the Bengal
Sultanate, founded by king Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, beginning a period of the country's
economic prosperity and military dominance over the regional empires, which was referred by
the Europeans as the richest country to trade with.[1] Afterwards, the region came under the
Mughal Empire, as its wealthiest province. Bengal Subah generated almost half of the empire's
GDP and 12% of the world's GDP,[2][3][4] larger than the entirety of western Europe, ushering
in the period of proto-industrialization.[5] The population of the capital city, Dhaka, exceeded a
million people.
Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, Bengal became a semi-
independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, ultimately led by Siraj ud-Daulah. It was later
conquered by the British East India Company at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Bengal directly
contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain but led to its deindustrialization.[6][7][8][9]
The Bengal Presidency was later established.
The borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the separation of Bengal and India in
August 1947, when the region became East Pakistan as a part of the newly formed State of
Pakistan following the end of British rule in the region.[10] Proclamation of Bangladeshi
Independence in March 1971 led to the nine-month long Bangladesh Liberation War, that
culminated with East Pakistan emerging as the People's Republic of Bangladesh.
After independence, the new state endured famine, natural disasters, and widespread poverty,
as well as political turmoil and military coups. The restoration of democracy in 1991 has been
followed by relative calm and rapid economic progress.
LANGUAGE
Bengali is the mother tongue of almost the entire population of Bangladesh. However, the
indigenous minority groups have their own languages and dialects, some of which are Tibeto-
Burman languages. English, an Indo-European language, is spoken in urban centres and among
educated groups.
CULTURES
Bangladesh has a rich, diverse culture. Its deeply rooted heritage is thoroughly reflected in its
architecture, dance, literature, music, painting and clothing. The three primary religions of
Bangladesh (Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam) have had a great influence on its culture and
history.
Bangladesh is ethnically homogeneous, with Bengalis comprising 98% of the population.
Bangladesh is a Muslim-majority country. Muslims constitute around 90% of the population in
Bangladesh while Hindus and Buddhists are the most significant minorities of the country.
Bangladesh is a predominantly Muslim country, and Islam's adherents in Bangladesh celebrate
the joyous festival of the two Eids, Eid-ul-Fitr, and Eid-ul-Azha, the month of Ramadan, Shab-e-
Qadr, Shab-e-Barat etc. Hindus in Bangladesh celebrate Durga Puja, Kali Puja and Janmastami.
RELIGIONS
The major religion in Bangladesh is Islam (90.4%), but a significant percentage of the population
adheres to Hinduism (8.5%). Other religious groups include Buddhists 0.6%, (mostly Theravada),
Christians (0.3%, mostly Roman Catholics), and Animists (0.2%).
GOVERNMENT
Politics of Bangladesh takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic
republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Bangladesh is the head of government, and of a multi-
party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in
both the government and parliament.
BELIEFS
Bangladeshis identify with the folk traditions of Bengali culture. This includes belief in
shamanism and the powers of Fakirs (Muslim holy men who are exorcists and faith healers),
Ojhaa (shamins with magical healing powers), and Bauls (religious mendicants and wandering
musicians).
There is a strong tradition of music, dance, and literature that includes classical devotions of
Hindu and Muslim music.
Religion plays an incredibly important role in Bangladesh and it’s important that you never
under-estimate its influences. Religion shapes many areas of Bangladeshi culture and, many
Bangladeshis prioritise their religious identity over their national identity.
However, it’s also important to note that Bangladeshis practice a tolerant form of Islam and are
generally very accepting of non Muslims.
LANDFORMS
The physical geography of Bangladesh is varied and has an area characterised by two distinctive
features: a broad deltaic plain subject to frequent flooding, and a small hilly region crossed by
swiftly flowing rivers. The country has an area of 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi) and
extends 820 kilometres (510 mi) north to south and 600 kilometres (370 mi) east to west.
Bangladesh is bordered on the west, north, and east by a 4,095 kilometres (2,545 mi) land
frontier with India and, in the southeast, by a short land and water frontier (193 kilometres
(120 mi)) with Burma (Myanmar). On the south is a highly irregular deltaic coastline of about
580 kilometres (360 mi), fissured by many rivers and streams flowing into the Bay of Bengal.
The territorial waters of Bangladesh extend 12 nautical miles (22 km), and the exclusive
economic zone of the country is 200 nautical miles (370 km).

Roughly 80% of the landmass is made up of fertile alluvial lowland called the Bangladesh Plain.
The plain is part of the larger Plain of Bengal, which is sometimes called the Lower Gangetic
Plain. Although altitudes up to 105 metres (344 ft) above sea level occur in the northern part of
the plain, most elevations are less than 10 metres (33 ft) above sea level; elevations decrease in
the coastal south, where the terrain is generally at sea level. With such low elevations and
numerous rivers, water—and concomitant flooding—is a predominant physical feature. About
10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of the total area of Bangladesh is covered with water,
and larger areas are routinely flooded during the monsoon season.

The only exceptions to Bangladesh's low elevations are the Chittagong Hills in the southeast,
the Low Hills of Sylhet in the northeast, and highlands in the north and northwest. The
Chittagong Hills constitute the only significant hill system in the country and, in effect, are the
western fringe of the north–south mountain ranges of Burma and eastern India. The Chittagong
Hills rise steeply to narrow ridge lines, generally no wider than 36 metres (118 ft), with altitudes
from 600 to 900 metres (2,000 to 3,000 ft) above sea level. At 1,052 metres (3,451 ft) altitude,
the highest elevation in Bangladesh is found at Saka Haphong, in the southeastern part of the
hills. Fertile valleys lie between the hill lines, which generally run north–south. West of the
Chittagong Hills is a broad plain, cut by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal, that rises to a final
chain of low coastal hills, mostly below 200 metres (660 ft), that attain a maximum elevation of
350 metres (1,150 ft). West of these hills is a narrow, wet coastal plain located between the
cities of Chittagong in the north and Cox's Bazar in the south.

6. JAPAN
- Tokyo is tha capital.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Jomon Period (- 300 BC)
The early Japanese were gatherers, hunters and fishers.
Yayoi Period (300 BC - 250 AD)
The introduction of rice agriculture begins the development of a social hierarchy and hundreds
of small countries that started to unify into larger countries.
Kofun Period (250 - 538)
Japan is for the first time more or less united. Large tombs (kofun) were built for the deceased
leaders.
Asuka Period (538 - 710)
538/552 Introduction of Buddhism.
604 Prince Shotoku's Constitution of seventeen articles is promulgated.
645 The Taika reform is introduced. The Fujiwara era starts.
Nara Period (710 - 784)
710 Nara becomes the first permanent capital.
784 The capital moves to Nagaoka.
Heian Period (794 - 1185)
794 The capital moves to Heian (Kyoto).
1016 Fujiwara Michinaga becomes regent, marking the peak of Fujiwara power.
1159 The Taira clan under Taira Kiyomori takes over the power after the Heiji war.
1175 The Buddhist Jodo sect (Pure land sect) is introduced.
1180-85 In the Gempei War, the Minamoto clan puts an end to Taira supremacy.
Kamakura Period (1192 - 1333)
1191 The Zen sect is introduced.
1192 Minamoto Yoritomo is appointed shogun and establishes the Kamakura government in
Kamakura.
1221 The Jokyu Disturbance ends a struggle between Kamakura and Kyoto, resulting in the
supremacy of the Hojo regents in Kamakura.
1232 A legal code, the Joei Shikimoku, is promulgated.
1274 and 1281 The Mongols try to invade Japan twice, but fail mainly because of bad weather
conditions.
1333 The Kamakura government falls.
Muromachi Period (1338 - 1573)
1334 Kemmu Restoration: the emperor restores power over Japan.
1336 Ashikaga Takauji captures Kyoto.
1337 The emperor flees and establishes the Southern court in Yoshino.
1338 Takauji establishes the Muromachi government and a second emperor in Kyoto (Northern
court).
1392 Unification of the Southern and Northern courts.
1467-1477 Onin war.
1542 Portuguese introduce firearms and Christianity to Japan.
1568 Nobunaga enters Kyoto.
1573 The Muromachi government falls.
Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1573 - 1603)
1575 The Takeda clan is defeated in the battle of Nagashino.
1582 Nobunaga is murdered and succeeded by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
1588 Hideyoshi confiscates the weapons of farmers and religious institutions in the "Sword
Hunt".
1590 Japan is reunited after the fall of Odawara (Hojo).
1592-98 Unsuccessful invasion of Korea.
1598 Death of Hideyoshi.
1600 Tokugawa Ieyasu defeats his rivals in the battle of Sekigahara.
Edo Period (1603 - 1868)
1603 Ieyasu is appointed shogun and establishes the Tokugawa government in Edo (Tokyo).
1615 The Toyotomi clan is destroyed after Ieyasu captures Osaka Castle.
1639 Isolation of Japan from the rest of the world except for strictly regulated trade with China,
Korea, the Netherlands, the Ryukyu Kingdom and the Ainu.
1688-1703 Genroku era: popular culture flourishes.
1792 The Russians unsuccessfully try to establish trade relations with Japan.
1854 Commodore Matthew Perry forces the Japanese government to open a limited number of
ports for trade.
Meiji Period (1868 - 1912)
1868 Meiji Restoration.
1868 The capital moves to Tokyo.
1872 First railway line between Tokyo and Yokohama.
1889 The Meiji Constitution is promulgated.
1894-95 Sino-Japanese War.
1904-05 Russo-Japanese War.
1910 Annexation of Korea.
1912 Death of Emperor Meiji.
Taisho Period (1912 - 1926)
1914-18 Japan joins allied forces in WW1.
1923 The Great Kanto Earthquake devastates Tokyo and Yokohama.
Showa Period (1926 - 1989)
1931 Manchurian Incident.
1937 Second Sino-Japanese War starts.
1941 Pacific War starts.
1945 Japan surrenders after atomic bombs are dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
1946 The new constitution is promulgated.
1952 The Allied Occupation of Japan ends.
1956 Japan becomes member of the UN.
1972 Normalization of relations with China.
1973 Oil crisis.
Heisei Period (1989 - 2019)
1992 Burst of the Bubble Economy.
1995 The Great Hanshin Earthquake hits Kobe.
1995 Sarin Gas attack in the Tokyo subway by Aum sect.
2011 The Great East Japan Earthquake hits the Tohoku Region.
LANGUAGE
The most widely spoken language in Japan is Japanese, which is separated into several dialects
with Tokyo dialect considered standard Japanese. In addition to the Japanese language,
Ryukyuan languages are spoken in Okinawa and parts of Kagoshima in the Ryukyu Islands.
CULTURES
Japanese Culture
Early Japanese culture was heavily influenced by China. During the Edo era, Japan exercised a
strict isolationist policy, closing its doors to all relationships with the outside world. This
cultivated a distinct Japanese culture.
After the fall of that era in 1868, Japan reversed this practice, adopting cultural practices from
all over the world and mixing them with what was established during the Edo era. Over the
years, Western culture has influenced all aspects of Japanese culture including art, lifestyle and
food.

RELIGIONS
There are two main religions in Japan: Shinto and Buddhism. Shinto is a Japanese religion, while
Buddhism was imported in the 6th century from China. A recent poll found that 39% of
Japanese people identify as Buddhist, 3.9% as Shinto and 2.3% as Christian.
GOVERNMENT
The Government of Japan (日本国政府, Nihonkoku-seifu or Nipponkoku-seifu) is the central
government of Japan. The Government of Japan consists of legislature, executive and judiciary
branches and is accountable to the Emperor of Japan. The Prime Minister of Japan is the chief
executive of the government and is responsible for selecting ministers to serve in the Cabinet of
Japan, the executive branch of the state government.
The Government runs under the framework established by the Constitution of Japan, adopted
in 1947. It is a unitary state, containing forty-seven administrative divisions, with the Emperor
as its Head of State.[1] His role is ceremonial and he has no powers related to Government.[2]
Instead, it is the Cabinet, comprising the Ministers of State and the Prime Minister, that directs
and controls the Government and the civil service.
BELIEFS
Shinto, Buddhism and the Japanese belief system. Religion in Japan is a wonderful mish-mash of
ideas from Shintoism and Buddhism. Unlike in the West, religion in Japan is rarely preached,
nor is it a doctrine. Instead it is a moral code, a way of living, almost indistinguishable from
Japanese social and cultural values .
In Japan, people greet each other by bowing. The bow ranges from a small nod of the head
(casual and informal) to a deep bend at the waist (indicating respect). A bow of the head from a
foreigner is usually sufficient; most Japanese people don't expect foreigners to know the
bowing rules.
LANDFORMS
Japan is an archipelago, or string of islands, on the eastern edge of Asia. There are four main
islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. There are also nearly 4,000 smaller islands!
Japan's nearest mainland neighbors are the Siberian region of Russia in the north and Korea
and China farther south.
Almost four-fifths of Japan is covered with mountains. The Japanese Alps run down the center
of the largest island, Honshu. The highest peak is Mount Fuji, a cone-shaped volcano considered
sacred by many Japanese.
Japan can be a dangerous place. Three of the tectonic plates that form Earth's crust meet
nearby and often move against each other, causing earthquakes. More than a thousand
earthquakes hit Japan every year. Japan also has about 200 volcanoes, 60 of which are active.
PHILIPPINES
Capital -MANILA
History-
The Early Philippines
10th Century Filipinos trade with China
12th Century Filipinos trade with the Arabs
1521 Magellan reaches the Philippines and claims them for Spain
1565 Miguel Lopez de Legazpi leads an expedition to The Philippines and builds a fort there
1571 The Spaniards land in Luzona and found Manila. The Spanish set up a feudal system.
Spanish friars convert the indigenous people to Christianity.
1762-62 The British occupy Manila
1872 A rebellion takes place in Cavite but it is soon crushed
1892 Jose Rizal founds Liga Filipina
1896 Another rebellion breaks out but the Spanish crush it
1898 The Philippines declare independence. However the USA plans to take over from Spain
after winning a war with that country.
1899-1902 The USA fights Filipino patriots
"The Modern Philippines"
1935 The Philippines are made semi-independent
1942 Japan occupies the Philippines
1945 The Americans recapture Manila
1946 The Philippines become independent
1965 Ferdinand Marcos becomes president of The Philippines
1972 Marcos declares martial law
1980 Benigno Aquino goes into exile
1983 Aquino returns to the Philippines but he is shot
1986 Marcos is forced to flee and Cory Aquino replaces him
1992 Fidel Ramos becomes president
1993 The Americans leave Subic Bay
2000 Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo becomes president of The Philippines
Language
-There are over 120 languages spoken in the Philippines. Filipino, the standardized form of
Tagalog, is the national language and used in formal education throughout the country.
Filipino and English are both official languages and English is commonly used by the
government.
Culture
-The culture of the Philippines comprises a blend of traditional Filipino and Spanish Catholic
traditions, with influences from America and other parts of Asia. The Filipinos are family
oriented and often religious with an appreciation for art, fashion, music and food.Filipinos are
also hospitable people who love to have a good time. This often includes getting together to
sing, dance, and eat. The annual calendar is packed with festivals, many of which combine
costumes and rituals from the nation’s pre-Christian past with the Catholic beliefs and
ideology of present day.
Government
-The Philippines is a republic with a presidential form of government wherein power is
equally divided among its three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.
Beliefs
-Faith and Religious Belief in the Philippines
Catholicism, mostly Roman Catholicism, is the most predominant religion in the Philippines,
making up around 85% of the population. Filipino people are deeply religious and their strong
faith in God is reflected in their daily lives.
Landforms(Geography)
-From the famed Chocolate Hills in Bohol to the famous Banaue Rice Terraces in Benguet, the
Philippines is truly blessed with the richness of its lands. Natural formation of rocks, soil, and
dirt that come in different sizes and shapes, landforms, or anyong lupa in Tagalog, hit the
bucket lists of most tourists in the country.
Known as bundok in Tagalog, a mountain is a landform that rises above the surrounding land
in a limited area, creating a peak.
Generally steeper than a hill, mountains are formed through the slow but gigantic
movements of tectonic plates or volcanism.
Mountains erode slowly through rivers, weather conditions, and glaciers.
Some mountains are isolated summits, but most of these landforms are in huge mountain
ranges.
Mt. Apo. Located between the provinces of North Cotabato and Davao, Mt. Apo is the
Philippines’ highest peak at 2,954 meters. This mountain displays terrain covered with moss
and cultivated by substantial amounts of rainwater that flows from the Agco River.
Mt. Kabunian. Found in the northern Philippines, Mt. Kabunian gives a distinct hiking
adventure, on top of the majestic views that await the mountaineers who climb its peak.
Considered a holy ground, this mountain has a number of hanging wooden coffins that can be
seen on the side of the steep walls up to its highest point.
Mt. Pico de Loro. ‘Parrot’s beak’ is among the highly suggested summits to climb as its trail,
which is only five kilometers long, is not as hard as the other mountains. Pico de Loro’s peak
gives an amazing view of the mountainous terrain, aside from serving a panoramic
perspective of the nearby province of Batangas, the historic island of Corregidor, and the
West Philippine Sea and even Manila Bay. A monolith, or a single natural rock formation that
forms an obelisk or a column that stands at least 60 meters tall, can also be seen in its
summit.
Mt. Pulag. Another must-visit mountain in the northern Philippines, even for those who are
not into hiking or mountain climbing, is Mt. Pulag. This mountain serves a unique experience
of literally walking in a sea of clouds, though this feature strongly depends on the weather
and a pinch of luck.
Mt. Batulao. A mountain near Metro Manila, Mt. Batulao is also among the easier summits to
climb because of its moderate slopes. Serving awesome views of the provinces of Cavite and
Batangas, Mt. Batulao is the perfect mountain for hiking and mountain climbing newbies as it
only needs an average level of skill and stamina.
MOUNTAIN RANGES
A mountain range or bulubundukin is a chain of mountains or hills close together and
connected by high ground.
The country is blessed with many mountain ranges which act as natural barriers against
typhoons and allow some indigenous communities to preserve their culture and traditions.
The Ifugao tribe of Northern Luzon are surrounded by the Cordilleras and the Caraballo,
protecting them from outside influences and interference.
The Sierra Madre, which stretches from Cagayan to Quezon, is located at the northeast
portion of Luzon. It runs parallel to the Cordillera in the Ilocos.
VOLCANO
Called a bulkan in Tagalog, a volcano is a rupture of the Earth, letting hot lava, volcanic ash,
and gases escape from a magma chamber below the planetary-mass’ surface.
Volcanoes are commonly found in areas where there are movements of tectonic plates, and
in rare cases, underwater.
Though living a few kilometers close to a volcano might sound scary, these landforms are
actually among the most majestic natural spectacles worldwide, displaying unique profiles
and supporting life around them. Dormant volcanoes are a good place to appreciate nature
and enjoy trekking and photography.
Mayon Volcano. Standing 8,081 feet high, Mayon Volcano is surrounded by three cities in
Albay, which is 11 hours away from the metro if you travel by car. Known for its perfect
conical shape, this volcano has 51 recorded eruptions, with the most violent occurrence in
February 1814.
Taal Volcano. Found in Batangas, Taal is among the most intriguing volcanoes in the country.
As a caldera type, it is among the deadliest. Observing its geography, Taal is a volcano island
inside Taal Lake which is enclosed by Taal Caldera, 25 kilometers in diameter.
Mount Kanlaon. Located in Negros Oriental, Mount Kanlaon is the third most active volcano
in the country, with a total of 30 eruptions which are mostly phreatic and mild, characterized
mainly by ashfalls.
Mount Bulusan. Another active volcano in the Bicol Region, Mount Bulusan is located in
Sorsogon province. Its worst eruption was in 1918 and ended in 1822. Despite its phreatic
eruptions, this volcano has gifted its surrounding towns with a number of hot springs that
both locals and tourists enjoy.
Mount Pinatubo. Found within the boundaries of Pampanga, Tarlac, and Zambales, Mount
Pinatubo has only two recorded eruptions, with the most historic and destructive in 1991,
causing hundreds of casualties and thousands affected. Now, this volcano serves locals and
tourists with a peaceful scenery and a number of activities such as trekking, camping, volcanic
mud spa, and more.
PLAIN
Known as a kapatagan in Tagalog, a plain is a broad area of flat sweeping landmass that does
not change in elevation.
It can be seen on lowlands along valleys or on the doorsteps of mountains, as coastal plains,
and as plateaus or uplands.
This landform is essential for agriculture and supports grasslands for livestock.
The largest in the Philippines, Central Luzon is also referred to as the ‘central plains’ of the
island, famous for being the traditional rice granary of the country. This houses the provinces
of Aurora, Bataan Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Zambales.
HILL
Called a burol in Tagalog, a hill is a landmass that extends above the surrounding terrain but
is generally less tall and less steep than a mountain.
Chocolate Hills. A popular tourist attraction in Bohol, the Chocolate Hills, despite its name, is
covered in green grass that turns brown during the dry season. There are at least 1,260 hills
scattered in the province. These rolling terrain of haycock-shaped hills are featured in the
provincial flag and symbolize the abundance of natural attractions in Bohol.
Ligñon Hill. A prominent landmass in Legazpi, Albay, Ligñon Hill is a prehistoric cinder cone
close to the foot of Mayon, mostly made of dolerite and basaltic volcanic rocks.
Manduyog Hill. Located in Aklan, Manduyog Hill is a holy sanctuary that stands at the eastern
portion of the Aklan State University.
PLATEAU
A flat stretch of land on top of a mountain, a plateau or talampas often has deep hills on one
or more sides. This high plain or tableland can be formed through upwelling of volcanic
magma, extrusion of lava, and erosion by water and glaciers.
A plateau works best for tending animals due to its cool temperature, and is ideal for plants
that do not require much water.
Larger than the island of Luzon and part of the country’s continental shelf, the Benham Rise is
a 13-million hectare underwater plateau in Aurora.
Plateaus around the Philippines are found in the Mountain Province, Benguet, Ifugao,
Kalinga-Apayao in Luzon, and in Bukidnon and Lanao del Norte in Mindanao.
VALLEY
Suitable for planting crops, a valley or lambak is a flat stretch of landmass in between two
mountains.
Cagayan Valley in Region II is the country’s second largest administrative region by land area,
composed of five provinces: Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, and Quirino.
Other valleys in the country are found in the provinces of Baguio, Cotabato, Agusan, Aklan,
Antique, and Zamboanga.
ISLAND
An island or isla is a landmass, either flat or mountainous, surrounded by water.
An archipelago is a group of islands. A great example of this is the Philippines itself,
composed of three big groups of islands, namely Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.
There are ten biggest islands in the country: Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Palawan,
Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, and Bohol.

VIETNAM
Capital-HANOI
History- BCE
2879 - The Hong Bang Dynasty begins when the first Hung King unites the tribes under one
rule. The Hong Bang Dynasty will rule for over 2500 years.
2500 - Rice cultivation is introduced into the region.
1912 - The Middle Hong Bang period begins.
1200 - Bronze casting and irrigation is introduced.
1054 - The Late Hong Bang period begins.
700 - Chinese from the Spring and Autumn Period migrate to Vietnam.
500 - The Vietnamese New Year, called Tet, is first celebrated.
300 - Buddhism reaches the area.
157 - End of the Hong Bang Dynasty. Beginning of the Thuc Dynasty. 118 - Confucianism
reaches Vietnam.
111 - The land is conquered by the Chinese and the Han Dynasty.
CE
40 - The Trung Sisters Rebellion occurs against the Han Chinese rule. They temporarily
overthrow the Han.
43 - The Han crush the rebels and retake control. The Chinese dominate Vietnam until 544.
544 - The Early Ly Dynasty is founded by Ly Nam De. Ly Nam De becomes the first emperor of
Vietnam.
602 - The Chinese once again conquer Vietnam.
938 - Ngo Quyen leads the Vietnamese forces to victory over the Chinese at the Battle of Bach
Dang.
939 - Ngo Quyen becomes king of Vietnam and founds the Ngo Dynasty.
968 - The Dihn Dynasty begins.
981 - An invasion by the Song Dynasty of China is defeated.
1009 - The Later Ly Dynasty begins.
1075 - The government begins to use examinations to select minor officials.
1225 - The Tran Dynasty begins. 1258 - The Mongols first invade Vietnam, but are driven
back.
1400 - The Ho Dynasty Begins.
1407 - The Chinese conquer Vietnam again.
The country is ruled by the Ming Dynasty.
1428 - Le Loi overthrows the Chinese and founds the Le Dynasty. Vietnam declares its
independence.
1471 - The Dai Viet people conquer the Champa of southern Vietnam.
1802 - The Nguyen Dynasty takes control and names the country Vietnam. It will be the last
ruling family of Vietnam.
1858 - France takes control of Vietnam making it a French colony.
1893 - Vietnam becomes part of French Indochina.
1930 - Ho Chi Minh forms the Communist Party of Vietnam.
1939 - World War II begins.
1940 - Japan invades Vietnam and takes control of the country from France.
1945 - World War II ends and France reoccupies the southern portion of Vietnam. Ho Chi
Minh and the Viet Minh seize control of Northern Vietnam and declare independence.
1946 - The French-Viet Minh War begins.
The United State supports the French in an effort to prevent the spread of communism. 1954
- Vietnam is divided into two countries by the Geneva Conference: Communist Northern
Vietnam and Southern Vietnam.
1959 - The Vietnam War begins as Ho Chi Minh declares war in an effort to unite Vietnam.
1961 - Advisors from the United States begin to take a direct role in the war.
1965 - The first U.S. troops arrive in Vietnam.
1968 - Northern Vietnam launches the Tet Offensive.
1969 - The United States begins to withdraw troops. Ho Chi Minh dies.
1973 - A cease fire is negotiated and the United States leaves Vietnam.
1975 - Southern Vietnam surrenders to Northern Vietnam. The city of Saigon is renamed Ho
Chi Minh City.
1976 - The Republic of Vietnam is declared.
1977 - Vietnam is admitted to the United Nations.
1979 - Vietnam invades Cambodia.
1986 - More liberal economic policies are put into effect. These policies are called Doi Moi.
1992 - A new constitution is adopted that allows for more economic freedoms.
1995 - The United States and Vietnam establish full diplomatic relations.
2000 - U.S. President Bill Clinton makes an official visit to Vietnam.
2007 - The United States agrees to help study the effects of the herbicide Agent Orange used
in the Vietnam War.
2008 - A longtime border dispute with China is resolved.
2013 - A new law prevents people from discussing current affairs on the internet.
Language
-Vietnamese is the official language; English is increasingly favored as a second language.
French, Chinese, Khmer and various highlander languages are also spoken. Between 85
percent and 90 percent of Vietnam's residents are ethnically Vietnamese.
Culture
-The Vietnamese culture is one of the oldest in Southeast Asia and is heavily influenced by
the Chinese culture. ... Despite the changes over the years, some elements of the Vietnamese
culture like the veneration of the ancestors, respect for family values, devotion to study, etc.,
remained intact
Religion
-There are 6 major religions, including Buddhism, Catholicism, Caodaism, Protestantism,
Hoahaoism, and Islam, along with several folk religions. Many religious rituals from the
ancient times are still practiced and have become a part of Vietnamese daily life.
Government
-Vietnam is a socialist republic with a fairly authoritarian government. The Communist party
has had control over the country since the end of the Vietnam War, and there are no other
political parties allowed.
Beliefs
-Vietnamese religion was a syncretic amalgamation of the three great religions of East Asia—
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism—onto which had been added a rich variety of
preexisting animist beliefs. All Vietnamese believed in this single religious conflation in one
form or another, but these forms varied greatly.
Landforms(Geography)
Vietnam has a lot of tropical lowlands, rolling green hills, and forested mountains. 20% of
the country is covered in low-leveled land.
Deltas
The Red River Delta is covered in hills that rise gently that rise gently in the mountains
of the northwest and in the southern areas. The Mekong Delta is a low-level plain. Thick
jungles and mangrove swamps mostly cover the southern part of the land. Vietnam's highest
point is Fansipan which reaches up to 10,315 ft. Vietnam's lowest point is the South China Sea
at 0 m.
Mountains
Vietnam is mainly hills and densely forested mountains. 40 percent of Vietnam's
population lives on 331,688 square kilometers on mountains. The south of Vietnam is made
up of the Annamite Mountain Range. The Annamite Cordilleras is a ridge of mountains
running from north to south rising to heights around 1,500 m. In the northwest there are
recent mountains.(geologically speaking) These recent mountains are called the Northern
Highlands.

TURKEY
Capital-ANKARA
History-
23,000 BC
A cave at Karain, north of Antalya, is inhabited by humans, the oldest known evidence of
habitation in Anatolia. People live in the cave until a few centuries ago, making it one of the
longest continuously-inhabited spots on earth.
9000 BC
Construction of the first temple/religious site at Göbekli Tepe near Şanlıurfa in southeastern
Turkey.
8500 BC
Development of agriculture and pastoralism(domesticated animals) in southeastern Turkey.
7500 BC
Earliest known human community at Çatal Höyük, 50 km (31 miles) southeast of Konya.
5000 BC
Stone and Copper Age. People have already been living in Anatolia for 20,000 years.
Settlement at Hacılar.
2600-1900 BC
Old Bronze Age. The Proto-Hittite Empire flourishes in Central Anatolia and the Southeast.
1900-1300 BC
The Hittite Empire flourishes with its capital at Hattuşa, battles Egypt. Patriarch Abraham,
who has been dwelling in Harran, near Şanlıurfa, leaves for Canaan (Israel).
1250 BC
The Trojan War fought between the armies of Troy and Achaea (Greece) for control of trade
passing through the Dardanelles strait. More…1200-600 BCThe Phrygian kingdom of
Mithridates flourishes at Gordion, west of Ankara. Mysians invade. The great period of
Hellenic civilisation in Greece and Aegean Anatolia follows. King Midas reigns in splendor,
and King Croesus of Lydia invents coinage. The kingdoms of Ionia (İzmir), Lycia (Fethiye), Lydia
(Sardis), Caria(Marmaris) and Pamphylia (Side) flourish, as does the Empire of Urartu (Van).
547 BC
Cyrus of Persia invades and conquers most of Anatolia.
334 BC
Alexander the Great of Macedon marches through Anatolia on his way to India.
279 BC
Celts (or Gauls) invade and establish the kingdom of Galatia near Ankara.
250 BC
Rise of the Kingdom of Pergamum (Bergama) as an Anatolian power.
129 BC
Anatolia becomes the Roman Province of Asia (‘Asia Minor’), with its capital at Ephesus.
47-57 AD
St Paul travels to the Christian and Jewish communities in Anatolia.
330 AD
Emperor Constantine the Great dedicates Constantinople as the ‘New Rome,’ which becomes
the empire’s center of government.
527-565
Reign of Justinian, greatest Byzantine emperor, builder of Hagia Sophia, largest and most
splendid church in the world.
570-622
Birth of Muhammed. Revelation of the Kur’an. Muhammed’s ‘flight’ (hijra) from Mecca to
Medina.
1037-1109
Turkish Empire of the Great Seljuks in Iran.

1071-1243
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, an offshoot of the Great Seljuk empire, established in Anatolia with
its capital in Konya. Mystic poet and philosopher Jelaleddin Rumi, called Mevlana, takes up
residence in Konya, writes his great works, and inspires the founding of the Whirling Dervish
Sufi order.
1000s-1200s
Crusader armies cross Anatolia through the lands of the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, with frequent
battles.
1288
Foundation of the Ottoman state by a warrier chieftain named Osman, at Sögüt near Bursa.
1453
Conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) by Sultan Mehmet II ‘the Conqueror’.
1520-1566
Reign of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, the great age of the Ottoman Empire. The sultan
rules most of North Africa, most of Eastern Europe and all of the Middle East. His navies
patrol the Mediterranean and Red seas and the Indian Ocean.
1699
Treaty of Karlowitz, the first time in over 400 years that the Ottomans were decisively
defeated and forced to sign a peace treaty as the clear losers. The mighty empire was clearly
in decline.
1876-1909
Reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II, a ruthless despot who was the last of the powerful sultans.
The European empires ask themselves the ‘Eastern Question’: which European nations will
grab Ottoman territory when the sultan’s empire collapses?
1914-1918
The Ottoman Empire enters World War I in alliance with Germany. Australian, British, French
and New Zealand troops invade Gallipoli which is successfully defended by Ottoman forces
led by Mustafa Kemal. Eventual defeat of the Ottomans, loss of most of the empire’s
territory, and occupation of parts of Anatolia by victorious foreign troops.
1919-1923
Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) organizes remaining Ottoman military units into an army of
resistance, and establishes a government of resistance at Ankara.1922
Encouraged by Great Britain, Greece invades Anatoliathrough Izmir and presses eastward,
threatening the fledgling government in Ankara.
1923
Defeat and explusion of the invading armies. Abolishment of the last vestiges of the Ottoman
Empire andProclamation of the Turkish Republic by Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), its founder and
first president. Most ethnic Greeks in Turkey, and ethnic Turks in Greece, migrate to the
opposite country.
1923-1938
Atatürk’s reforms: equal rights for women, secular government, prohibition of the fez and the
veil, substitution of the Latin alphabet for the Arabic, Turkification of city names, everyone
adopts a surname, etc.
1938
Death of Atatürk, continuation of one-party rule.
1939-1945
Turkey maintains a precarious neutrality during World War II.
1946-1950
Institution of multi-party democracy.
Language-The common ethnic languages spoken in Turkey are Turkish, Kurmanji, Arabic and
Zazaki. Other ethnic languages have very few speakers including Turkish dialects, Balkan, Laz,
Armenian and Circassian languages. Turkish is the most widely spoken ethnic language with
more than 70% of users

Culture-
The culture of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye Kültürü) combines a heavily diverse and
heterogeneous set of elements that have been derived from the various cultures of the
Eastern Mediterranean (West Asian) and Central Asian region and Eastern European, and
Caucasian traditions.
Religion-Turkey has been home to all three great revealed religions Islam, Judaism and
Christianity for centuries. Turkey is also the only Islamic country which is a secular state.
Government-The Government of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Hükûmeti) is a unitary
government established by the Constitution of Turkey as a constituted governing authority of
a parliamentary democratic republic, constitutionally called the Republic of Turkey.
Beliefs-
The Turkish Constitution officially recognises Sunni Islam, Christianity (some Catholic and
Orthodox sects) and Judaism. Non-Sunni variations of Islam and other sects of Christianity
(including Reformist Christians and Rum Orthodox Christians) are not recognised.

Landforms(Geography)
Turkey, a country that connects Asia Minor and Europe, includes a variety of landforms. The
Asian part of the country is called Anatolia, while the European part is called Thrace. The
interior of Turkey consists of the Anatolian Plateau, bordered by the Koroglu, Pontic and
Taurus mountains, and the eastern highlands. The periphery of the country consists of the
northern Black Sea region, the Aegean region to the west, the Mediterranean region to the
southwest, and the Fertile Crescent to the southeast.
IRAN
Capital-TEHRAN
History-
550-330 BC - Achaemenid dynasty rules the first Persian Empire. At its greatest extent under
Darius I stretches from the Aegean Sea and Libya to the Indus Valley.
Advent of Islam
636 - Arab invasion brings end of Sassanid dynasty and start of Islamic rule.
9th century - Emergence of modern Persian language, written using a form of Arabic script
1220 - Mongol forces of Genghis Khan overrun Persia, which becomes part of the Ilkhanate,
ruled by descendants of Genghis' grandson Hulagu.
1501 - With the support of Shia Qizilbash warrior tribes, Shah Ismail I becomes first ruler of
Islamic Safavid dynasty; Shia Islam declared state religion.
1571-1629 Apogee of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas I, who reforms the army,
sidelines the Qizilbash and establishes first diplomatic links with western Europe.
1794 - Mohammad Khan Qajar founds the Qajar dynasty, restoring stability to Iran after half a
century.
1828 - Iran cedes control of Caucasus to Russia after second Russo-Persian war.
1907 - Introduction of constitution which limits the absolutist powers of rulers.
Pahlavi dynasty
1921 February - Military commander Reza Khan seizes power.
1926 April - Reza Khan crowned Reza Shah Pahlavi.
1935 - Iran is adopted as the country's official name.
1941 - The Shah's pro-Axis allegiance in World War II leads to the Anglo-Russian occupation of
Iran and the deposition of the Shah in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
1951 April - Parliament votes to nationalise the oil industry, which is dominated by the
British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Britain imposes an embargo and a blockade,
halting oil exports and hitting the economy. A power struggle between the Shah and
nationalist Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadeq ensues.
1953 August - Prime Minister Mossadeq is overthrown in a coup engineered by the British
and US intelligence services. General Fazlollah Zahedi is proclaimed prime minister, and the
Shah returns from temporary exile.
Campaign to modernise
1963 January - The Shah launches the 'White Revolution' programme of land reform and
social and economic modernisation. During the late 1960s he becomes increasingly
dependent on the SAVAK secret police in controlling opposition movements.
1978 September - The Shah's policies alienate the clergy and his authoritarian rule leads to
riots, strikes and mass demonstrations. Martial law is imposed.
Shah exiled, Khomeini returns
1979 January - As the political situation deteriorates, the Shah and his family are forced into
exile.
1979 February - Islamic clerical opposition leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini returns from
14 years of exile in Iraq and France.
1979 April - The Islamic Republic of Iran is proclaimed following a referendum.
1979 November - Islamic militants take 52 Americans hostage inside the US embassy in
Tehran. They demand the extradition of the Shah, in the US at the time for medical
treatment, to face trial in Iran.
1980 January - Abolhasan Bani-Sadr is elected the first president of the Islamic Republic. His
government begins work on a major nationalisation programme.
1980 July - The exiled Shah dies of cancer in Egypt.
Iran-Iraq war
1980 22 September - Start of Iran-Iraq war, which lasts for eight years.
1981 January - The American hostages are released, ending 444 days in captivity.
1981 June - President Bani-Sadr is dismissed and later flees to France.
1985 - After the US and Soviet Union halted arms supplies, the US attempted to win the
release of hostages in Lebanon by offering secret arms deals. This would later become known
as the Iran-Contra affair.
1988 July - An Iran Air Airbus is mistakenly shot down by the USS Vincennes.
Ceasefire
1988 July - Iran accepts a ceasefire agreement with Iraq following negotiations in Geneva
under the aegis of the UN.
1989 February - Ayatollah Khomeini issues a religious edict (fatwa) ordering Muslims to kill
British author, Salman Rushdie, for his novel, 'The Satanic Verses', considered blasphemous
to Islam.
1989 3 June - Ayatollah Khomeini dies. On 4 June, President Khamene'i is appointed as new
supreme leader.
1989 August - Ali Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani is sworn in as the new president.
1989 November - The US releases 567 million dollars of frozen Iranian assets.
Major earthquake kills thousands
1990 June - A major earthquake strikes Iran, killing approximately 40,000 people.
1990 - Iran remains neutral following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.
1990 September - Iran and Iraq resume diplomatic ties.
US imposes sanctions
1995 - US imposes oil and trade sanctions over Iran's alleged sponsorship of terrorism, quest
for nuclear arms, and hostility to the Israeli-Palestinian peace process.
1997 May - Mohammad Khatami wins the presidential election with 70% of the vote, beating
the conservative ruling elite.
1998 September - Iran deploys thousands of troops on its border with Afghanistan after the
Taleban admits killing eight Iranian diplomats and a journalist in Mazar-e Sharif.
Student protests
1999 July - Pro-democracy students at Tehran University demonstrate following the closure
of the reformist newspaper Salam. Clashes with security forces lead to six days of rioting and
the arrest of more than 1,000 students.
2000 February - Majlis elections. Liberals and supporters of Khatami wrest control of
parliament from conservatives for the first time.
2000 April - The judiciary, following the adoption of a new press law, bans the publication of
16 reformist newspapers.
2001 June - President Khatami re-elected.
2002 January - US President George Bush describes Iraq, Iran and North Korea as an "axis of
evil", warning of the proliferation of long-range missiles being developed in these countries.
2002 September - Russian technicians begin construction of Iran's first nuclear reactor at
Bushehr despite strong objections from US.
2003 June - Thousands attend student-led protests in Tehran against clerical establishment.
2003 October - Shirin Ebadi becomes Iran's first Nobel Peace Prize winner. The lawyer and
human rights campaigner became Iran's first female judge in 1975 but was forced to resign
after 1979 revolution.
2003 November - Iran says it is suspending its uranium enrichment programme and will allow
tougher UN inspections of its nuclear facilities. The IAEA UN nuclear watchdog concludes
there is no evidence of a weapons programme.
2003 December - 40,000 people are killed in an earthquake in south-east Iran. The city of Bam
is devastated.
Conservative resurgence
2004 February - Conservatives regain control of parliament in elections. Thousands of
reformist candidates were disqualified by the hardline Council of Guardians before the polls.
2004 June - Iran is rebuked by the IAEA for failing to fully cooperate with an inquiry into its
nuclear activities.
2005 June - Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, Tehran's ultra-conservative mayor, wins a run-off vote
in presidential elections, defeating cleric and former president Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani.
2005 August-September - Tehran says it has resumed uranium conversion at its Isfahan plant
and insists the programme is for peaceful purposes. IAEA finds Iran in violation of the nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty.
2006 February - Iran resumes uranium enrichment at Natanz.
2006 August - UN Security Council deadline for Iran to halt its work on nuclear fuel passes.
IAEA says Tehran has failed to suspend the programme.
2007 March - Diplomatic stand-off with Britain after Iran detains 15 British sailors and
marines patrolling the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab waterway separating Iran and Iraq.
2007 October - US announces sweeping new sanctions against Iran, the toughest since it first
imposed sanctions almost 30 years ago.
2008 September - UN Security Council passes unanimously a new resolution reaffirming
demands that Iran stop enriching uranium, but imposes no new sanctions. The text was
agreed after Russia said it would not support further sanctions.
Election protests
2009 June - Mahmoud Ahmadinejad is declared to have won a resounding victory in the 12
June presidential election. The rival candidates challenge the result, alleging vote-rigging.
Their supporters take to the streets, and at least 30 people are killed and more than 1,000
arrested in the wave of protests that follow.
2009 August - Mahmoud Ahmadinejad sworn in for second term as president, presents
cabinet - the first since the founding of the Islamic Republic in 1979 to include women.
A number of senior opposition figures are accused of conspiring with foreign powers to
organise unrest and are put on trial.
Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei says there is no proof that opposition leaders
blamed for the post-election unrest were agents of foreign powers.
2009 September - Iran admits that it is building a uranium enrichment plant near Qom, but
insists it is for peaceful purposes.
The country test-fires a series of medium- and longer-range missiles that put Israel and US
bases in the Gulf within potential striking range.
More sanctions
2010 June - UN Security Council imposes fourth round of sanctions against Iran over its
nuclear programme, including tighter financial curbs and an expanded arms embargo.
2010 September - Stuxnet - a computer worm which affects industrial systems - is reportedly
detected in staff computers at the Natanz nuclear plant. Iran accuses Israel and the US of
infecting its system.
2011 September - Iran announces that the Bushehr nuclear power station has been
connected to the national grid.

2012 July - European Union boycott of Iranian oil exports comes into effect.
2012 September - International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) quarterly report says Iran
doubles production capacity at Fordo nuclear site and "significantly hampered" IAEA ability
to inspect Parchin military site.
2012 October - Iran's rial currency falls to a new record low against the US dollar, losing 80%
of its value since 2011 because of international sanctions. Riot police attack about 100
currency traders outside the Central Bank.
Rouhani becomes president
2013 June - Reformist-backed cleric Hassan Rouhani wins presidential election.
2014 April - The International Atomic Energy Agency says Iran has neutralised half of its
higher-enriched uranium stockpile under a deal agreed earlier in the year.
2014 June - President Rouhani says Iran is ready to assist the Iraqi government in its battle
against extremist Sunni insurgents, amid reports that Iranian Revolutionary Guards are in Iraq
providing military training and advice.
Nuclear deal
2015 July - After years of negotiations, world powers reach deal with Iran on limiting Iranian
nuclear activity in return for lifting of international economic sanctions. The deal gives UN
nuclear inspectors extensive but not automatic access to Iranian sites.
2016 January - Serious rift in relations after Saudi Arabia executes leading Shia cleric Nimr al-
Nimr. Crowd sets Saudi embassy alight.
International economic sanctions on Iran lifted after UN says satisfied with progress on
fulfilling nuclear agreement. President Rouhani embarks on the first European state visit of
an Iranian president for 16 years.
2017 May - Hassan Rouhani wins re-election as president.
2017 June - Several people are killed in co-ordinated attacks on parliament and the shrine of
Ayatollah Khomeini. Islamic State group claims responsibility.
2017 December - Mass protests in several cities over economic grievances, which are
acknowledged by President Rouhani and Supreme Leader Khamenei.
US withdraws from nuclear deal
2018 May-June - President Trump announces the US withdrawal from the 2015 international
deal on Iran's nuclear programme. Iran in turn warns that it will begin increasing its uranium
enrichment capacity if the deal collapses as a result of the US move.
2018 September - Gunmen open fire on a military parade in Ahvaz in Khuzestan Province,
which has a large Arab population. An Arab nationalist organisation and the Islamic State
jihadist group both claim responsibility for the attack, in which 25 people were killed.
2019 March-April - Floods cause widespread damage in across the country, leaving at least 70
people dead.
2019 May-June - Tensions rise as US accuses Iran of attacking oil tankers in the Gulf, which
Tehran denies.
2019 November - Fuel price hike prompts mass protests nationwide. Over 100 people are
reported dead in security crackdown.
2020 January - Quds Force commander Qasem Soleimani, responsible for Iran's military
support for the Syrian government, killed in a US air strike at Baghdad Airport, prompting
Iranian threats of retaliation.
2020 February - Hardliners score big wins in parliamentary elections, amid record low turnout
of 42.6%. Thousands of moderate would-be candidates were barred from running for not
meeting strict election criteria.
Language-Persian (Farsi) is the predominant and official language of Iran, a number of
languages and dialects from three language families—Indo-European, Altaic, and Afro-Asiatic
—are spoken.
Culture-

Iranian culture is one of the oldest in the region, and it has influenced cultures like Italy,
Macedonia, Greece, Russia, the Arabian Peninsula, and parts of Asia. Islam is practiced by the
majority of Iranians and governs their personal, political, economic and legal lives.

The Persian calendar is a solar calendar, however, some of the official religious Islamic and
Shia holidays are based on a lunar calendar. Government official working days are from
Saturday to Wednesday.

Family
In Iran, family matters are very important, as they take their responsibilities to their family
very seriously. Women are to be protected and taken care of and it is inappropriate to ask
questions about an Iranian’s wife or other female relatives. Their loyalty to the family comes
before everything.
Typical wedding rituals occur in two stages. The first stage, Aghd, represents the legal aspect
of marriage in Iran, where the bride and groom sign a marriage contract, usually in the bride’s
home. The second phase, Jashn-e Aroosi, is the wedding reception, where feasts and
celebrations are held.

Religion-Sunni and Shi'i are the two largest branches of Islam, with the overwhelming
majority of Iranians practicing Shi'i Islam. About 90 percent of Iranians practice Shi'ism, the
official religion of Iran. [i] By contrast, most Arab states in the Middle East are predominantly
Sunni.
Government-Iran is a unitary Islamic republic with one legislative house. The country’s 1979
constitution put into place a mixed system of government, in which the executive,
parliament, and judiciary are overseen by several bodies dominated by the clergy.
Beliefs-
The current religious demographics of Iran are disputed. According to the 2011 Iranian
census, 99.98% of Iranians believe in Islam, while the rest of the population believe in other
officially recognized minority religions: Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism.
Landforms(Geography)
Location :
Iran is situated in south-western Asia and borders Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, as
well as the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkey and Iraq to the west, the Persian Gulf and the
Gulf of Oman to the south and Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east.

Landscape :
A series of massive, heavily eroded mountain ranges surround Iran's high interior basin. Most
of the country is above 1,500 feet, one-sixth of it over 6,500 high. In sharp contrast are the
coastal regions outside the mountain ring. In the north, the 400-mile strip along the Caspian
Sea, never more than 70 miles wide and frequently narrowing to 10, falls sharply from the
10,000-foot summit to 90 feet below sea level. In the south, the land drops away from a 2,000
foot plateau, backed by a rugged escarpment three times as high, to meet the Persian Gulf
and the Gulf of Oman.

Mountains :
The Zagros range stretches from the border with Armenia in the north-west to the Persian
Gulf, and then eastward into Baluchistan. As it moves southward, it broadens into a 125-mile-
wide band of parallel, alternating mountains lying between the plains of Mesopotamia and
the great central plateau of Iran. It is drained on the west by streams that cut deep, narrow
gorges and water fertile valleys. The land is extremely hard, difficult to access, and populated
largely by pastoral nomads.

The Alborz mountain range, narrower than the Zagros but equally forbidding, runs along the
Zagros but equally forbidding, runs along the southern shore of the Caspian to meet the
border ranges of Khorassan to the east. The highest of its volcanic peaks is 18,600-foot, snow-
covered Mt. Damavand. On the border of Afghanistan, the mountains fall away, to be
replaced by barren sand dunes.

The arid interior plateau, which extends into Central Asia, is cut by two smaller mountain
ranges. Parts of this desert region, known as dasht, are covered by loose stones and sand,
gradually merging into fertile soil on the hillsides. Where fresh water can be held, oases have
existed from time immemorial, marking the ancient caravan routes. The most remarkable
feature of the plateau is a salt waste 200 miles long and half as wide, knows as the kavir
(deserts). It remains unexplored, since its treacherous crust has been formed by large, sharp-
edged salt masses which cover mud. Cut by deep ravines, it is virtually impenetrable.

Deserts :
The vast deserts of Iran stretch across the plateau from the north-west, close to Tehran and
Qom, for a distance of about 400 miles to the south-east and beyond the frontier.
Approximately one-sixth of the total area of Iran is barren desert.

The two largest desert areas are known as the Kavir-e-Lut and the Dasht-e-Kavir. Third in size
of these deserts is the Jazmurian. It is often said that the Kavir-e-Lut and Dasht-e-Kavir are
impossible to cross except by the single road which runs from Yazd to Ferdows, but in recent
years, heavy trucks and other vehicles have travelled over long stretches of these deserts
which contain extensive mineral deposits - chlorides, sulphates and carbonates - and it is only
a matter of time before they are exploited.
THAILAND
Capital-BANGKOK
History-Historical timeline
Pre-Thai Civilisation
3600-250 BC
Ban Chiang culture flourishes in northeastern Thailand.
AD 4th-8th century
Influence of Mon and Khmer empires spreads into Thailand.
9th-13th century
Khmer empire founded at Angkor. Tai peoples migrate south from China into northern
Thailand, Burma and Laos.
Sukhothai Era
1238
Khmer power wanes. Kingdom of Sukhothai founded.
1281
Chiang Rai kingdom founded in north.
1296
Lanna kingdom founded at Chiang Mai. Mangrai controls much of northern Thailand and
Laos.
1280-98
Reign of Ramkamhaeng in Sukhothai. First attempts to unify the Thai people, the first use of
the Thai script and the flourishing of the arts.
1298-1347
Lo Thai reigns at Sukhothai. The slow decline of the Sukhothai kingdom starts.
1438
Sukhothai is now virtually deserted; power shifts to the Kingdom of Ayutthaya.
Kingdom of Ayutthaya
1350
City of Ayutthaya founded by Phaya U Thong (Ramathibodi I).
1390-3
Ramesuen captures Chiang Mai and Angkor.
1549
First major warfare with Mon Kingdom of Bago (Burma).
1569
Burmese capture and destroy Ayutthaya.
1590
Naresuan becomes king and throws off Burmese suzerainty. Ayutthaya expands rapidly at the
expense of Burmese and Khmer empires.
1628-55
Reign of Prasat Thong. Trading concessions expand and regular trade with China and Europe
is established.

1656-88
Reign of King Narai. British influence expands. Reputation of Ayutthaya as a magnificent city
and a remarkable royal court spreads in Europe.
1733-58
Reign of King Boromakot. A period of peace, and of flourishing arts and literature.
1767
Invading Burmese sack Ayutthaya, before being repelled by General Phaya Taksin. Capital
moves from Ayutthaya to Thonburi, near Bangkok.
The Chakri Dynasty
1767
Phaya Taksin crowned as King Taksin.
1779
Chiang Mai is captured and the Burmese expelled. The Emerald Buddha is brought from
Vientiane, Laos, to Thonburi in Bangkok.
1782
Taksin is deposed. General Chao Phaya Chakri founds the Chakri Dynasty and assumes the
name Phra Phutthayofta (later Rama I). The capital is moved across the river to Bangkok.
1868-1910
Chulalongkorn (Rama V) ascends the throne. Schools, infrastructure, military and government
modernised.
End of Absolute Monarchy
1932
A coup d’état ends the absolute monarchy and ushers in a constitutional monarchy.
1939
The name of the country is officially changed from Siam to Thailand.
1941-5
Japanese occupation.
1946
King Ananda is killed by a mysterious gunshot, and King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX)
ascends the throne.
1973
Bloody clashes between army and demonstrating students bring down the military
government; political and economic blunders bring down the resulting civilian government
just three years later.
1992
Another clash between military forces and civilian demonstrators; the military then leaves
government to the civilian politicians.
1993-7 Years of unprecedented economic growth.

Contemporary Thailand
1997
Thailand’s banking system and economy in freefall as the baht loses half of its value.
1998
Thailand follows guidelines established by the International Monetary Fund to resuscitate its
economy.
2000
Senators for the Upper House are democratically elected for the first time.
2001
Thaksin Shinawatra and his populist Thai Rak Thai Party win the national polls for the Lower
House.
2002
Thai Muslim nationalists step up terror operations in Yala, Pattani and Narathiwat provinces.
2004
In December, a massive tsunami causes devastation along the Andaman Coast. Some 8,000
lives are lost.
2005
The Thaksin administration wins a second four-year term in the general elections.
2006
Thaksin is accused of evading taxes. Mass protests take place in Bangkok. A bloodless military
coup then removes his administration from power.
2007
General Surayud Chulanond is appointed interim prime minister by the military while a new
Constitution is drafted. In the December elections, the Thaksin-endorsed PPP party triumphs
and Samak Sundaravej is appointed as prime minister.
2008
Thaksin returns to Thailand with his wife, but jumps bail before being found guilty of
corruption and sentenced to two years in jail in absentia. Anti-government protestors block
Bangkok’s airports, causing widespread disruption. Abhisit Vejjajiva becomes prime minister.
2010
Anti-government protests in central Bangkok are overpowered by the army in May after two
months of violence.
Language-Thai language, the standard spoken and literary language of Thailand, belonging to
the Tai language family of Southeast Asia.
Culture-An enchanting archipelago brimming with cultural history, Thailand is steeped in rich
tradition and spirituality that is heavily influenced by ethnic groups from India, Cambodia,
China and Southeast Asia. Important to national identity, Theravada Buddhism is the national
religion and includes Hindu spirituality such as worshiping ancestors and animism.
Thailand has unique cultural norms and etiquette that tourists may be unaware of. For
example, pointing with your feet or touching a person's head are taboos in Thailand as the
feet are considered the dirtiest body part while the head is most sacred. It is also important
to remove your shoes when visiting a temple or entering someone's home.
Religion-, Buddhism is the most common Thailand religion with approximately 95% of the
population following this Theravada religion. The remaining population follows the Muslim
religion (4.6%), Catholic Christians (0.7%) with the remaining 1% divided between Hindu, Sikh
and Jewish religions.
Government-Thailand is a constitutional monarchy with the monarch as the head of state.
Beliefs- They are Animism, Brahmanism (Hinduism), and Buddhism. Before the introduction
of Buddhism, what did they believe in? Historical evidence shows that Thais believed in
Hinduism and animism. Today, Thai society portrays the harmony combination of three belief
systems: Animism, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
Landforms(Geography)

Thailand is located in southeast Asia. The country covers an area of 513,000 square
kilometers and, when looking on a map, resembles the shape on an axe. To the north it
borders Myanmar and Laos and to the east Laos and Cambodia. The south is next to the Gulf
of Thailand and Malaysia. Westwards is the Andaman sea and Myanmar.

Thailand has six different types of terrain.

1. mountains and Plains of the North

The North of Thailand has many high mountains and is the source of many Rivers that
become the Mekong, Chao Phraya, and Salawin Rivers. Notable mountains in the area are
Luang Phra Bang, Daen Lao, Thanon Thong Chai, Phee Pun Nam, Khao Khun Tan, and
Phetchaburi. The tallest one is doi inthanon in ChiangMai, coming in at an incredible 2,565
meters above sea level.
2. Central Plains

This region is home to the densest and largest sediment plains in Thailand. The most
important rivers here are the Chao Phraya, Mae Klong, Tha Jean, Pa Sak, and Bang Pa Kong
Rivers. With these river lines and the flatlands of central Thailand, there is no wonder this
area is an important agricultural asset to the country.

3. Northeastern Plateaus

Flanked on the western and southern edges by steep mountain ranges, the center of the
region lies the Korat Basin. The Chi and Moon Rivers run through the region and eventually
merge into the Mekong River in Ubon Ratchathani. Local mountains are the Phetchaburi,
Dong Phaya Yen, San Kampaeng, and Pha Nom Dong Rak.

4. High Mountains of the West

Sparse narrow plains weave between the dominating mountains of the west. The Thanon
Thong Chai and Ta Naw Sri Mountains are the sources of the Kwai Noi and Kwai Yai Rivers,
which eventually merge into the Mae Klong River.

5. Mountains and Coastal Plains of the East

To the north of the region are high mountains and coastal plains, the east is river plains, the
middle is a jagged sierra and rolling plains, and the south is coastal plains. Between the Ban
Tad and Chanthaburi Mountains is a narrow plain, perfect for growing fruit. The Bang Pa Kong
River flows through the region to the Gulf of Thailand. The shoreline is covered with beautiful
Beaches and offshore sits the Islands of Koh Chang, Koh Kood, and Koh Shi Chang.

6. Mountains, Plateaus, Coastal Plains and Islands of the South

Southern Thailand sits on a narrow peninsula. Two beach plains to the east and the west are
divided by tall mountain ranges running through the center of the peninsula. Notable
mountains in the area are San Ka Ra Kiri (which borders Malaysia) Phuket, and Nakhon Si
Thammarat. There are also many smaller rivers such as the Kra Buri, Trang, Kirirat, Ta Pee,
Pak Panang, and Klok. To the east is the island of Phuket and to the west lie Koh Samui and
Koh Pha Ngan.

Knowing Thai geography can be useful in helping you decide where to travel to in Thailand.
There are many natural wonders and vistas to visit and each province and region of Thailand
has its own unique sights.

MYANMAR
Capital-NAYPYITAW
History-A chronology of key events
1057 - King Anawrahta founds the first unified Myanmar state at Pagan and adopts
Theravada Buddhism.
Image copyrightAFPShwedagon pagoda, Rangoon
1287 - Mongols under Kublai Khan conquer Pagan.
1531 - Toungoo dynasty, with Portuguese help, reunites country as Burma.
1755 - Alaungpaya founds the Konbaung dynasty.
1824-26 - First Anglo-Burmese war ends with the Treaty of Yandabo, according to which
Burma ceded the Arakan coastal strip, between Chittagong and Cape Negrais, to British India.
1852 - Britain annexes lower Burma, including Rangoon, following the second Anglo-Burmese
war.

1885-86 - Britain captures Mandalay after a brief battle; Burma becomes a province of British
India.
1937 - Britain separates Burma from India and makes it a crown colony.
Japanese occupation
1942 - Japan invades and occupies Burma with some help from the Japanese-trained Burma
Independence Army, which later transforms itself into the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom
League (AFPFL) and resists Japanese rule.
1945 - Britain liberates Burma from Japanese occupation with help from the AFPFL, led by
Aung San.
1947 - Aung San and six members of his interim government assassinated by political
opponents led by U Saw, a nationalist rival of Aung San's. U Nu, foreign minister in Ba Maw's
government, which ruled Burma during the Japanese occupation, asked to head the AFPFL
and the government.
Independence
1948 - Burma becomes independent with U Nu as prime minister.
Mid-1950s - U Nu, together with Indian Prime Minister Nehru, Indonesian President Sukarno,
Yugoslav President Tito and Egyptian President Nasser co-found the Movement of Non-
Aligned States.
1958-60 - Caretaker government, led by army Chief of Staff General Ne Win, formed following
a split in the ruling AFPFL party.
1960 - U Nu's party faction wins decisive victory in elections, but his promotion of Buddhism
as the state religion and his tolerance of separatism angers the military.
One-party, military-led state
1962 - U Nu's faction ousted in military coup led by Gen Ne Win, who abolishes the federal
system and inaugurates "the Burmese Way to Socialism" - nationalising the economy,
forming a single-party state with the Socialist Programme Party as the sole political party,
and banning independent newspapers.
1974 - New constitution comes into effect, transferring power from the armed forces to a
People's Assembly headed by Ne Win and other former military leaders; body of former
United Nations secretary-general U Thant returned to Burma for burial.
1975 - Opposition National Democratic Front formed by regionally-based minority groups,
who mounted guerrilla insurgencies.
1981 - Ne Win relinquishes the presidency to San Yu, a retired general, but continues as
chairman of the ruling Socialist Programme Party.
1982 - Law designating people of non-indigenous background as "associate citizens" in effect
bars such people from public office.
Riots and repression
1987 - Currency devaluation wipes out many people's savings and triggers anti-government
riots.
1988 - Thousands of people are killed in anti-government riots. The State Law and Order
Restoration Council (Slorc) is formed.
1989 - Slorc declares martial law, arrests thousands of people, including advocates of
democracy and human rights, renames Burma 'Myanmar', with the capital, Rangoon,
becoming Yangon. NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi, the daughter of Aung San, is put under
house arrest.
Thwarted elections
1990 - Opposition National League for Democracy (NLD) wins landslide victory in general
election, but the result is ignored by the military.
1991 - Aung San Suu Kyi awarded Nobel Peace Prize for her commitment to peaceful change.
1992 - Than Shwe replaces Saw Maung as Slorc chairman, prime minister and defence
minister. Several political prisoners freed in bid to improve Myanmar's international image.
1995 - Aung San Suu Kyi is released from house arrest after six years.
1996 - Aung San Suu Kyi attends first NLD congress since her release; Slorc arrests more than
200 delegates on their way to party congress.
1997 - Burma admitted to Association of South East Asian Nations (Asean); Slorc renamed
State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).
Release of pro-democracy supporters
1998 - 300 NLD members released from prison; ruling council refuses to comply with NLD
deadline for convening of parliament; student demonstrations broken up.
1999 - Aung San Suu Kyi rejects ruling council conditions to visit her British husband, Michael
Aris, who dies of cancer in UK.
2000 September - Ruling council lifts restrictions on movements of Aung San Suu Kyi and
senior NLD members.

2000 October - Aung San Suu Kyi begins secret talks with ruling council.
2001 Ruling council releases some 200 pro-democracy activists. Government says releases
reflect progress in talks with opposition NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi who remains under
house arrest.
2001 February - Burmese army, Shan rebels clash on Thai border.
2001 June - Thai Prime Minister Shinawatra visits, says relations are back on track.
2001 November - Chinese President Jiang Zemin visits, issues statement supporting
government, reportedly urges economic reform.
Conflicting signals
2002 May - Pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi released after nearly 20 months of house
arrest.
Aung San Suu Kyi taken into "protective custody" after clashes between her supporters and
those of government.
2003 August - Khin Nyunt becomes prime minister. He proposes to hold convention in 2004
on drafting new constitution as part of "road map" to democracy.
2003 November - Five senior NLD leaders released from house arrest after visit of UN human
rights envoy.
2004 January - Government and Karen National Union - most significant ethnic group fighting
government - agree to end hostilities.
2004 May - Constitutional convention begins, despite boycott by National League for
Democracy (NLD) whose leader Aung San Suu Kyi remains under house arrest. The
convention adjourns in July.
New capital
2004 October - Khin Nyunt is replaced as prime minister amid reports of a power struggle. He
is placed under house arrest.
2004 November - Leading dissidents are freed as part of a release of thousands of prisoners,
including Min Ko Naing, who led the 1988 pro-democracy student demonstrations.
2005 July - Asean announces that Myanmar has turned down the 2006 chairmanship of the
regional grouping.
2005 November - Myanmar says its seat of government is moving to a new site near the
central town of Pyinmana; it is later given the name Nay Pyi Taw.
2007 January - China and Russia veto a draft US resolution at the UN Security Council urging
Myanmar to stop persecuting minority and opposition groups.
2007 April - Myanmar and North Korea restore diplomatic ties, 24 years after Rangoon broke
them off, accusing North Korean agents of staging a deadly bomb attack against the visiting
South Korean president.
2007 May - Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest is extended for another year.
2007 June - In a rare departure from its normally neutral stance, the International Committee
of the Red Cross accuses the government of abusing the Myanmar people's rights.
Public unrest
2007 August - Wave of public dissent sparked by fuel price hikes. Dozens of activists are
arrested.
2007 September - Military government declares 14 years of constitutional talks complete and
closes the National Convention.
Buddhist monks hold a series of anti-government protests. Aung San Suu Kyi is allowed to
leave her house to greet monks demonstrating in Rangoon. It is her first public appearance
since 2003.
UN envoy Ibrahim Gambari meets opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi.
2007 October - Normality returns to Rangoon amid heavy military presence. Monks are
absent, after thousands are reportedly rounded up.
After some delay, UN Security Council deplores military crackdown on peaceful protesters.
2008 January- A series of bomb blasts hits the country. State media blame "insurgent
destructionists", including ethnic Karen rebels.
2008 April - Government publishes proposed new constitution, which allocates a quarter of
seats in parliament to the military and bans opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi from holding
office.
Cyclone
2008 May - Cyclone Nargis hits the low-lying Irrawaddy delta. Some estimates put the death
toll as high as 134,000.
Referendum on new constitution proceeds amid humanitarian crisis following cyclone.
Government says 92% voted in favour of draft constitution and insists it can cope with
cyclone aftermath without foreign help.
Junta renews Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest.
2008 November - Dozens of political activists given sentences of up to 65 years in series of
secretive trials.
2008 December - Government signs deal with consortium of four foreign firms to pipe natural
gas into neighbouring China, despite protests from human rights groups.
2009 January - Thailand expels hundreds of members of Muslim Rohingya minority who
appeared off its coast. Myanmar denies the minority's existence. Several hundred Rohingyas
are subsequently rescued from boats off the coast of Indonesia.
UN envoy Ibrahim Gambari meets opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi for the first time in a
year.
2009 March- Senior US State Department official Stephen Blake visits for talks with Foreign
Minister Nyan Win in what the US calls a routine visit. Myanmar says it was notable given his
seniority.
2009 April - The National League for Democracy (NLD) main opposition group offers to take
part in planned elections if the government frees all political prisoners, changes the
constitution and admits international observers.
2009 May - The EU extends the 2006 sanctions for another year, but adds that they can be
reviewed in the event of moves towards democracy.
UN and aid agencies say hundreds of thousands in the Irrawaddy Delta still need assistance a
year after Cyclone Nargis. The UN says Myanmar now allows it to bring in all the staff it
needs.
Aung San Suu Kyi trial
2009 August - Opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi is convicted of breaching conditions of her
house arrest, following visit by an uninvited US national in May. The initial sentence of three
years' imprisonment is commuted to 18 months' house arrest.
2009 September - US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announces plans for engagement with
military rulers.
2009 October - Aung San Suu Kyi begins talks with Myanmar's military leaders and is allowed
to meet Western diplomats.
2010 February - The authorities free NLD vice-chairman Tin Oo. Aung San Suu Kyi's deputy
had spent more than a decade in prison or under house arrest.
2010 March - Government announces that long-awaited election laws have been passed, with
provisions for an electoral commission hand-picked by the junta.
NLD votes to boycott polls. A splinter party - National Democratic Front (NDF) - later gains
legal status and plans to compete in polls.
2010 October - Government changes country's flag, national anthem and official name.
2010 November - Main military-backed party, the Union Solidarity and Development Party
(USDP), claims resounding victory in first election for 20 years. Opposition groups allege
widespread fraud and the election is widely condemned as a sham. The junta says the
election marks the transition from military rule to a civilian democracy.
A week after the election, Aung San Suu Kyi - who had been prevented from taking part - is
released from house arrest.
2011 January - Government authorises internet connection for Aung San Suu Kyi.
Junta retires to wings
2011 March - Thein Sein is sworn in as president of a new, nominally civilian government.
2011 August - President Thein Sein meets Aung San Suu Kyi in Nay Pyi Taw.
2011 September - President Thein Sein suspends construction of controversial Chinese-
funded Myitsone hydroelectric dam, in move seen as showing greater openness to public
opinion.
2011 October - Some political prisoners are freed as part of a general amnesty. New labour
laws allowing unions are passed.
2011 November- Pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi says she will stand for election to
parliament, as her party rejoins the political process.
2011 December - US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visits, meets Aung San Suu Kyi and
holds talks with President Thein Sein. US offers to improve relations if democratic reforms
continue.
President Thein Sein signs law allowing peaceful demonstrations for the first time; NLD re-
registers as a political party in advance of by-elections for parliament due to be held early in
2012.
Burmese authorities agree truce deal with rebels of Shan ethnic group and orders military to
stop operations against ethnic Kachin rebels.
2012 January - Government signs ceasefire with rebels of Karen ethnic group.
Partly-free elections held
2012 April - NLD candidates sweep the board in parliamentary by-elections, with Aung San
Suu Kyi elected. The European Union suspends all non-military sanctions against Burma for a
year.

2012 May - Manmohan Singh pays first official visit by an Indian prime minister since 1987.
2012 August - President Thein Sein sets up commission to investigate violence between
Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims in the west, in which dozens have died.
Myanmar abolishes pre-publication media censorship.
In a major cabinet reshuffle, President Thein Sein replaces hard-line Information Minister
Kyaw Hsan with moderate Aung Kyi, the military's negotiator with opposition leader Aung
San Suu Kyi.
2012 September - Moe Thee Zun, the leader of student protests in 1988, returns from exile
after Burma removed 2,082 people from its blacklist.
President Thein Sein tells the BBC he would accept opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi as
president if she were elected.
Foreign ties
2012 November - Visiting European Commission chief Jose Manuel Barroso offers Myanmar
more than $100m in development aid.
Around 90 people are killed in a renewed bout of communal violence between Rakhine
Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims.
US President Barack Obama visits to offer "the hand of friendship" in return for more
reforms. He urges reconciliation with the Rohingya minority.
2013 January-February - The army surrounds Laiza, the biggest town controlled by Kachin
rebels. The government and rebels agree to disengage and start a political dialogue after
Chinese-sponsored talks.
2013 March - Rioting between Muslims and Buddhists in Meiktila, south of Mandalay, leaves
at least 10 people dead.
2013 April - Four private daily newspapers appear for the first time in almost 50 years as the
state monopoly ends.
2013 May - President Thein Sein visits Washington. President Obama praises Myanmar's
political and economic progress, but criticises violence against Rohingya Muslims.
Six Muslims are jailed over the Meiktila clashes in March. No Buddhists are convicted.
2014 April - At least 22 people are killed in fighting between government troops and ethnic
Kachin rebels in the north.
2014 May - US extends some sanctions for another year, saying that despite the recent
reforms, rights abuses and army influence on politics and the economy persist.
2014 October - Parliamentary elections set for October/November 2015.
Government announces release of 3,000 prisoners. Burma watchers say most are petty
criminals, but include ex-military intelligence officers imprisoned along with former Prime
Minister Khin Nyunt, who was freed in 2012.
2015 February - Flare-up in fighting with Kokang separatists in Shan State near the border
with China leaves nearly 50 soldiers dead. Government puts Kokang region under temporary
martial law.
Government withdraws temporary voting rights from Muslim Rohingyas ahead of proposed
constitutional referendum, following street protests by Buddhists.
Peace hopes
2015 March - A draft ceasefire agreement is signed between the government and 16 rebel
groups.
2015 May - Hundreds of Muslim Rohingyas migrants leave by sea in flimsy boats, along with
migrants from Bangladesh. UN criticizes failure of south-east Asian states to rescue them.
2015 July-August - Floods affect much of low-lying parts of country, killing 100 people and
displacing a million others.
2015 November - Opposition National League for Democracy - led by Aung San Suu Kyi - wins
enough seats in parliamentary elections to form a government.
2016 March - Htin Kyaw sworn in as president, ushering in a new era as Aung San Suu Kyi's
democracy movement takes power after 50 years of military domination.
Rohingya crisis
2017 March - The United Nations human rights council decides to set up an investigation into
alleged human rights abuses by the army against the Rohingya Muslim minority.
2017 August - Rohingya militants attack police posts in Rakhine. The response by security
forces prompts an exodus of Rohingya and allegations that their actions amount to ethnic
cleansing.
2017 October - The number of Rohingya Muslims who have fled military action in Rakhine
state and sought refuge in Bangladesh is estimated at one million.
2017 November - Pope Francis visits, disappoints Rohingya by failing to mention their plight.
2018 March - President Htin Kyaw resigns on health grounds and is replaced by Win Myint, a
fellow Suu Kyi loyalist.
2018 August - A UN report accuses Myanmar's military leaders of carrying out genocide, war
crimes, and crimes against humanity against Rohingya Muslims, calling for six generals to face
trial at the International Criminal Court. It also accuses Aung San Suu Kyi of failing to prevent
the violence. Myanmar rejects the findings.
2018 September - Two Reuters journalists are sentenced to seven years in prison for violating
state secrecy laws. They allege that they were framed by police, and link the case to their
reporting on the military's violence against the Rohingya.
Language-Burmese, spoken by two thirds of the population, is the official language.
Languages spoken by ethnic minorities represent six language families: Sino-Tibetan, Austro-
Asiatic, Tai–Kadai, Indo-European, Austronesian and Hmong–Mien, as well as an incipient
national standard for Burmese sign language.
Culture-A long and rich cultural life runs through Myanmar’s long and rich history, with
Buddhist architecture the most dazzling example of this nation’s creativity. You’ll find more
modest cultural expressions in the beautiful gold and silver work, the lotus silk scarves and
pretty lacquerware bowls and cups still widely used and made typically by hand, as part of an
artisan tradition. It is Myanmar’s relative isolation that has helped preserve its culture; the
country remains more untouched by modernity or the West than neighbouring Thailand, for
instance. It also means it’s still finding its feet as a new destination for tourists, and has more
recently hogged the headlines for ethnic cleansing rather than cultural achievements. That
said, Myanmar is a huge country, largely untainted by political strife, with a wealth of culture
to come and enjoy.
Religion-As much as 90% of the Burmese population practice Buddhism, making it the main
religion in Myanmar. Buddhism in Burma is attached to the Theravada branch which is the
oldest and more conservative branch of Buddhism, following the Buddha's teachings, without
modification.
Government-Parliamentary Republic
Beliefs-
WHEN THE KING COMES TO TOWN
Myanmar people still believes in mythology. The quaint idea of Sakra(in Sanskrit language),
King of the Celestial Beings who lives in heaven, coming down to earth at this time of the year
is one of such believe.
On the appointed day during the Thigyan Festival(the Water Festival), Sakra(or in the
Myanmar language, the Thagya Min) comes down to the abode of the humans. The
astrologers calculate, based on their own secret knowledge of the rotation of the planets the
earth and other mystic calculus,when the Thagya Min will come. The arrival is predicted
down to the exact time, the colour of the cloak the Thagya Min will be wearing, the tools are
in the hands, whether the rains will be good or the harvest bountiful, which person born on
which day of the week will be deemed lucky and what should be done by those deemed
unlucky to overcome the misfortunes and even the direction of arrival. All these are
calculated, reviewed over and then published in what are called "thingyan sar" or the
thingyan papers.
The rural people still believes in the predictions made in the thingyan sar. If the cloak is gold
with sheaves of paddy in the arms the harvest would be good. But if the cloak is red with a
thunder bolt in the hands beware for there is death and destruction in the future. The
thingyan sar also predict whether the monsoon will bring heavy rains in the beginning or less
rain later so that the farmers can know ahead what to expect.
The Thagya Min might stay 3 or 4 days on earth and then returns back to the Celestial Abode
but MM people welcome the Thagya Min with symbolic items. A pot of water with eugenia
leaves, a handful of grass are placed in front of every house and kept there until the Thagya
Min returns back to heaven.
The young children are also told that the Thagya Min has two rolls of parchment:one of gold
and one of dog skin. The good person's name is recorded on the gold rolls but a bad name
would be put on the dog skin one so everybody behaves.
Such are the quaint beliefs still with the Myanmar people even in this time of FACEBOOK and
TWITTER and interplanetary travels.

Landforms(Geography)
General Topography
Burma serves as part of the topographic and ecological bridge of Southeast Asia, spanning a
number of distinct geomorphic regions. Very generally, highlands bound the low floodplain
country of central Burma, with the broad Irrawaddy Delta southwest of Yangon, along the
Andaman Sea. Northern Burma fronts the southeastern fringe of the Himalayas, the planet's
greatest mountain chain, formed (and still forming) by the collision of two tectonic plates --
the Indian and the Eurasian. The Shan Plateau rises to the east, while the western border
with India is broken with ranges like the Chin Hills. In the far southern strip of the country,
bordering Thailand, the coastal plain swells to the rainforest hills and mountains of the Malay
Peninsula.

Hkakabo Razi
The highest summit in Burma belongs, not surprisingly, to the Himalayas: Hkakabo Razi,
straddling the borders with Tibet and India. Soaring 19,294 feet in the Eastern Himalayas, the
peak supports glaciers and icefields gleaming above lower, gorge-cleft flanks draped in
tropical forest, with transitional belts of coniferous woodland and r life zones in between.
This great spread of ecological domains makes Hkakabo Razi and other tropical high summits
critical bastions of biodiversity. A national park partly protects the mountain and its
surroundings.

Ecological Attractions
Burma's landforms provide the foundation for the ecosystems defining the country's natural
character. Wild boar and enormous estuarine crocodiles (also called saltwater or Indo-Pacific
crocodiles) find refuge in the coastal mangrove swamps of the Irrawaddy Delta, which
includes some protected acreage like Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary. Huge birds of prey
like bearded vultures or lammergeyers, which drop bones from the sky to bust them open for
marrow, soar the high buttresses of Hkakabo Razi and other Himalayan peaks. The mountains
of the Burmese-Java Arc on the India-Burma border support rich pine forests at their middle
elevations, and are roamed by beasts such as the Asiatic black bear -- also called "moon bear"
for the white crescent often gracing its chest.

Uzbekistan

 Uzbekistan declared its independence from the Soviet Union on August 31, 1991. The
capital city is Tashkent.
HISTORY

Early History:
 Uzbekistan was the site of one of the world’s oldest civilized regions. The ancient
Persian province of Sogdiana, it was conquered in the 4th cent. B.C. by Alexander the
Great. Turkic nomads entered the area in the 6th cent. A.D. It passed in the 8th cent. to
the Arabs, who introduced Islam, and in the 12th cent. to the Seljuk Turks of Khwarazm.
Jenghiz Khan captured the region in the 13th cent., and in the 14th cent. Timur made
his native Samarkand the center of his huge empire. The realm was much reduced
under his successors, the Timurids, and began to disintegrate by the end of the 15th
cent.
  Throughout these turbulent times, the cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, and Tashkent,
situated on major trade routes to China, India, Persia, and Europe, were centers of
prosperity, culture, and fabulous luxury. In the early 16th cent., the Uzbek, formerly
called Sarts, invaded the region from the northwest. A remnant of the empire of the
Golden Horde, they took their name from Uzbeg Khan (d. 1340), from whom their
dynasty claimed descent. Later in the 16th cent., the Uzbek leader Abdullah extended
his domain over parts of Persia, Afghanistan, and Chinese Turkistan; but the empire
soon broke up into separate principalities, notably Khiva, Kokand, and Bukhara.

Modern History:
 Weakened by internecine warfare, these states were conquered by Russian forces, who
took Tashkent in 1865, Samarkand and Bukhara in 1868, and Khiva in 1873. Kokand was
annexed outright to the Russian empire, but Khiva and Bukhara remained under their
native rulers as vassal states of Russia. Efforts by Uzbek leaders to establish a European-
style democratic republic in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution of 1917 were
unsuccessful.
 In 1918 the Turkistan Autonomous SSR was organized on Uzbek territory, in 1920 the
Khorezm and Bukhara People’s Republics were established, and finally, in 1924, the
Uzbek-populated areas were united in the Uzbek SSR. Tajikistan was part of the Uzbek
SSR until 1929, when it became a separate republic. In 1936 the Kara-Kalpak
Autonomous SSR was joined with Uzbekistan. In 1956 and 1963, the Mirzachul Steppe
(“Hungry Steppe”) was transferred from Kazakhstan to Uzbekistan. Some of the area
was returned in 1971.
 In June, 1990, the Uzbek parliament passed a resolution declaring the republic’s
sovereignty. Islam Karimov, who had been named Uzbekistan’s Communist party chief
in 1989 and given the new title of president earlier in 1990, initially did not oppose the
abortive coup of Aug., 1991, in Moscow, but he denounced it when it failed. On Aug. 31,
Uzbekistan was declared independent, and it joined the Commonwealth of Independent
States in December. During the same month, Karimov was elected president by popular
vote.
 Karimov began a crackdown against political opponents, some of whom were jailed; at
the same time, some free-market reforms were undertaken. Karimov also established
controls on devout Muslims, which grew increasing harsh and indiscriminate during the
late 1990s, when such Muslims were among the few remaining critics of his rule. In
1995, in a referendum in which voters’ preferences could be observed by election
officials, Karimov won an overwhelming endorsement to remain in office until the year
2000.
 Several people were killed by car bombs outside government offices in Tashkent in Feb.,
1999, in an apparent attempt on the president’s life; a number of radical Islamists were
held in connection with the bombings. In Jan., 2000, Karimov was reelected to the
presidency, again by a lopsided majority. In August there were clashes with Uzbek
 Islamic guerrillas who had crossed into Uzbekistan from bases in Tajikistan. The
following year, Uzbekistan allowed U.S. forces to use bases there in its campaign against
Osama bin Laden and Afghanistan’s Taliban; the U.S. campaign there also weakened
Uzbek Islamic guerrillas supported by the Taliban and Al Qaeda. In 2002, after a
referendum that was criticized by Western nations, Karimov’s term was extended to
Dec., 2007.
 In Mar., 2004, there was an outbreak of terrorist violence in Tashkent and Bukhara in
which several dozen people died, and in July there were suicide attacks in Tashkent.
Islamic groups were blamed for the attacks, but international rights groups said that
Karimov’s rigid authoritarian regime created a climate that fostered Islamic militancy
and antigovernment attacks. In November there protests in several cities against new
regulations on traders in the bazaars; the most serious one, in Kokand, involved attacks
on police and other officials. Despite Uzbekistan’s strategic alliance with the United
States, the country failed to win U.S. certification for aid in 2004. At the same time,
however, relations with Russia, which had been strained, improved. The Dec., 2004,
parliamentary elections were contested only by candidates from parties that supported
the president.
LANGUAGE

 T Uzbek language is a Turkic language and the only official state language, and since
1992 is officially written in the Latin alphabet. Karakalpak, is also a Turkic language but
close to Kazakh, is spoken in the Republic of Karakalpakstan and has an official status
there.
CULTURE

 Uzbekistan is home to many cultures. The majority group is the Uzbek, forming seventy-
one percent of the population, followed by Russians, Tajiks, Kazakhs, and other minority
groups. The population of Uzbekistan is predominantly Muslim, though this was
suppressed by the state during the Soviet era. The observance of Islam has gradually
increased since 1991.
 Music is an important part of Uzbek culture. Shashmaqam is a form of classical music
similar to classical Persian music. Folk music lives on in religious and family events such
as weddings as well as special events.

Cultural heritage sites in Uzbekistan inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List include: 

 Historic Centre of Bukhara (1993)

 Historic Centre of Shakhrisyabz (2000)
 Ichan Kala (1990)
  Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures (2001)
 Uzbekistan has a high literacy rate with about 98% of adults above the age of 15 being
able to read and write.
 Uzbeks celebrate the New Year in a celebration called Yangi Yil. They decorate a New
Year tree, They celebrate New Year's Eve, and give each other gifts. They sing and listen
to traditional Uzbek music while having dinner, and after dinner, a man dressed
as Santa and Father Time arrive and continue the celebration.
 The most popular holiday for Uzbeks is Nowruz, and it is deemed to be the most
historical one. Colourful traditional costumes and variety of meals on the laid table take
the main pattern of the holiday.
 During the month of Ramadan, observant Muslims fast from sunrise until sunset.

 Uzbekistan's signature dish is palov (plov or osh), a main course typically made with rice,

pieces of meat, and grated carrots and onions.
 Bread holds a special place in Uzbek culture. At mealtime, bread will be spread to cover
the entire dusterhon. Traditional Uzbek bread, tandir non,is flat and round.
 Uzbekistan is a male-dominated society,

 Women run the households and traditionally control the family budgets. When guests
are present they are expected to cloister themselves from view.
 In public women are expected to cover their bodies completely.
 Uzbek women usually marry by twenty-one; men not much later. Marriage is an
imperative for all, as families are the basic structure in society. A family's honor depends
on their daughters' virginity; this often leads families to encourage early marriage.
 Uzbekistan is home to former racing cyclist Djamolidine Abdoujaparov. Abdoujaparov
has won the points contest in the Tour de Francethree times, each time winning the
coveted green jersey.
 Ruslan Chagaev is a professional boxer representing Uzbekistan in the WBA. He won the
WBA champion title in 2007, after defeating Russian Nikolai Valuev. 

 Uzbekistan is the home of the International Kurash Association. Kurash is an

internationalized and modernized form of the traditional Uzbek fighting art of Kurash.
 Football is the most popular sport in Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan's premier football league is
the Uzbek League, which features 16 teams.

RELIGION

 The Uzbeks are Sunni Muslims, and they are considered to be among the most devout
Muslims in all of the Central Asia. Thus, about three-fourths of the population is Muslim.

GOVERNMENT
  The government of the Republic of Uzbekistan exercises executive power in the
Republic of Uzbekistan. The members of the government are the President of
Uzbekistan, Prime Minister of Uzbekistan, Ministers, and deputy ministers. It has its
legal basis in the Constitution of Uzbekistan.

BELIEFS

 Religious Beliefs. Uzbeks are Sunni Muslims. The territory of Uzbekistan has been a
center of Islam in the region for a thousand years, but under the Soviet Union the
religion was heavily controlled: mosques were closed and Muslim education was
banned. Beginning in 1988, Uzbeks have revived Islam, particularly in the Ferghana
Valley, where mosques have been renovated. The call to prayer was everywhere heard
five times a day before the government ordered the removal of the mosques'
loudspeakers in 1998.
 The state encourages a moderate form of Islam, but Kharimov fears the creation of an
Islamic state. Since the beginning of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan's terror
campaign in February 1999, he has cracked down even further on what he perceives as
extremists, raising claims of human rights abuses. The government is particularly
concerned about what it labels Wahhabism, a fundamentalist Sunni sect that took hold
in the Ferghana Valley following independence.
 Nine percent of the population is Russian Orthodox. Jews, Baptists, Roman Catholics,
Lutherans, Seventh-Day Adventists, evangelical and Pentecostal Christians, Buddhists,
Baha'is, and Hare Krishnas also are present.
 Religious Practitioners-.Most Sunni Uzbeks are led by a state-appointed mufti.
Independent imams are sometimes repressed, and in May 1998, a law requiring all
religious groups to register with the government was enacted. In addition to leading
worship, the Muslim clergy has led mosque restoration efforts and is playing an
increasing role in religious education.
 Death and the Afterlife. Uzbeks bury their deceased within twenty-four hours of death,
in above-ground tombs. At the funeral, women wail loudly and at specific times. The
mourning period lasts forty days. The first anniversary of the death is marked with a
gathering of the person's friends and relatives.
 Muslims believe that on Judgment Day, each soul's deeds will be weighed. They will
then walk across a hair-thin bridge spanning Hell, which leads to Paradise. The bridge
will broaden under the feet of the righteous, but the damned will lose their balance and
fall.

 LANDFORMS/GEOGRAPHY

 Uzbekistan's 174,330 square miles (451,515 square kilometers), an area slightly larger
than California, begin in the Karakum (Black Sand) and Kyzlkum (Red Sand) deserts of
Karakalpakistan. The arid land of this autonomous republic supports a nomadic lifestyle.
Recently, the drying up of the Aral Sea has devastated the environment, causing more
than 30 percent of the area's population to leave, from villages in the early 1980s and
then from cities. This will continue; the area was hit by a devastating drought in the
summer of 2000.
 Population increases to the east, centered around fertile oases and the valleys of the
Amu-Darya River, once known as the Oxus, and the Zeravshan River, which supports the
ancient city-states of Bokhara and Samarkand. The Ferghana Valley in the east is the
heart of Islam in Uzbekistan. Here, where the country is squeezed between Tajikistan
and Kyrgyzstan, the mountainous terrain supports a continuing nomadic lifestyle, and in
recent years has provided a venue for fundamentalist guerrillas. Kazakhstan,
Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan also border the country. In 1867 the Russian colonial
government moved the capital from Bokhara to Tashkent. With 2.1 million people, it is
the largest city in Central Asia.
 South Korea

 The capital city of South Korea is Seoul.

 A chronology of key events:

1945 - After World War II, Japanese occupation ends with Soviet troops occupying area
north of the 38th parallel, and US troops in the south.

1948 - Republic of Korea proclaimed. 

1950 - South declares independence, sparking North Korean invasion. 

1953 - Armistice ends Korean War, which has cost two million lives. 

1950s - South sustained by crucial US military, economic and political support. 

1960 - President Syngman Ree steps down after student protests against electoral fraud.
New constitution forms Second Republic, but political freedom remains limited. 

Coup

1961 - Military coup puts General Park Chung-hee in power. 

1963 - General Park restores some political freedom and proclaims Third Republic.
Major programme of industrial development begins. 

1972 - Martial law. Park increases his powers with constitutional changes. After secret
North-South talks, both sides seek to develop dialogue aimed at unification.

1979 - Park assassinated. General Chun Doo-hwan seizes power the following year. 

1980 - Martial law declared after student demonstrations. In the city of Gwangju army
kills at least 200 people. Fifth republic and new constitution. 

1981 - Chun indirectly elected to a seven year term. Martial law ends, but government
continues to have strong powers to prevent dissent. 

1986 - Constitution is changed to allow direct election of the president. 

Return to democracy

1980s - Increasing shift towards high-tech and computer industry. 

1987 - President Chun pushed out of office by student unrest and international pressure
in the build-up to the Sixth Constitution. General Roh Tae-woo succeeds President Chun,
grants greater degree of political liberalisation and launches anti-corruption drive.

1988 - Olympic games in Seoul. First free parliamentary elections. 

1991 - North and South Korea join United Nations. 

1993 - President Roh succeeded by Kim Young Sam, a former opponent of the regime
and the first freely-elected civilian president. 

1996 - South Korea admitted to Organisation for Economic Cooperation and

Development. 

Sunshine policy

1998 - Kim Dae-jung sworn in as president and pursues "sunshine policy" of offering
unconditional economic and humanitarian aid to North Korea. 

2000 June - Summit in Pyongyang between Kim Jong-il and South Korean President Kim
Dae-jung. North stops propaganda broadcasts against South. 

2000 August - Border liaison offices re-open at truce village of Panmunjom. South Korea
gives amnesty to more than 3,500 prisoners. One hundred North Koreans meet their
relatives in the South in a highly-charged, emotional reunion. Kim Dae-jung awarded
Nobel Peace Prize. 

2001 - Opening of Incheon International Airport, built on tidal land off port of Incheon. 

2002 March - Group of 25 North Koreans defect to South Korea through Spanish

embassy in Beijing, highlighting plight of tens of thousands hiding in China after fleeing
famine, repression in North. 

Naval battle

2002 June - Battle between South Korean and North Korean naval vessels along their
disputed sea border leaves four South Koreans dead and 19 wounded. Thirty North
Koreans are thought to have been killed.

2002 December - Roh Moo-hyun, from governing Millennium Democratic Party, wins

closely-fought presidential elections. 
2003 October - Biggest mass crossing of demilitarised zone since Korean War: Hundreds
of South Koreans travel to Pyongyang for opening of gymnasium funded by South's
Hyundai conglomerate. 

2004 February - Parliament approves controversial dispatch of 3,000 troops to Iraq. 

2004 June - US proposes to cut its troop presence by a third. Opposition raises security
fears over the plan. 

2005 June - Kim Woo-choong, the fugitive former head of Daewoo, returns and is
arrested for his role in the industrial giant's $70bn-plus collapse. In May 2006 he is
sentenced to 10 years in jail. 

2005 December - South Koreans are shocked by revelations that cloning scientist and
national hero Dr Hwang Woo-suk faked landmark research on stem cell research. 

2006 October - Foreign Minister Ban Ki-moon is appointed as the UN's new secretary-
general. He takes office in January 2007. 

2007 February - South and North Korea agree to restart high-level talks suspended since
July 2006 in wake of North's nuclear test. Head of the largest South Korean car maker,
Hyundai, is jailed for three years for embezzlement. 

2007 April - South Korea and the US agree on a free-trade deal after 10 months of talks,
although US Congress only ratifies it in 2011. 

2007 May - Passenger trains cross the North-South border for the first time in 56 years. 

2007 December - Conservative Lee Myung-bak wins landslide victory in presidential

election. 

2008 February - The country's greatest cultural treasure, the Namdaemun Gate, is

destroyed by fire. 

Financial crisis

2008 October - Government announces $130bn financial rescue package to shore up

banking system and stabilise markets amis global financial crisis. 

2009 January - North Korea says it is scrapping all military and political deals with the
South. 
2009 August - Former South Korean president Kim Dae-jung dies; North Korea sends a
senior delegation to Seoul to pay its respects. 

2009 October - North Korea expresses "regret" for unleashing dam water that drowned
six campers downstream in South Korea in September. The two sides hold talks aimed at
preventing flooding on the Imjin River which spans their militarised border. 

2009 November - South and North Korean warships exchange fire across a disputed sea
border, and again in January. 

2010 January - North accepts an offer of food aid from South, the first such aid in two
years. 

Sinking of warship

2010 May - South Korea breaks off all trade with the North after naval ship Cheonan was
sunk by a North Korean torpedo in March. Pyongyang describes the findings as a
"fabrication" and cuts all diplomatic ties with Seoul. 

2010 November - Cross-border clash near disputed maritime border results in death of

two South Korean marines. South Korea places its military on highest non-wartime alert
after shells land on Yeonpyeong island. Further exchange of fire in August.

2012 July - South Korea begins move of most ministries to "mini capital" at Sejong City,
120km south of Seoul. Key ministries will remain in Seoul.

2012 August - Lee Myung-bak becomes first president to visit the Liancourt Rocks, which
Japan also claims. Tokyo recalls its ambassador in protest. 

2012 October - South Korea strikes deal with the US to almost triple the range of its
ballistic missile system to 800km as a response to North Korea's test of a long-range
rocket in April. 

2012 December - South Korea elects its first female president, Park Geun-hye, of the
conservative Saenuri party. She takes office in February.

New spike in tensions

2013 January - South Korea launches a satellite into orbit for the first time using a rocket
launched from its own soil. Comes weeks after a North Korean rocket placed a satellite
in orbit. 
2013 March - South Korea accuses North of a cyber-attack that temporarily shuts down
the computer systems at banks and broadcasters. 

2013 September - North and South Korea reopen Kaesong joint industrial complex and
hotline. 

2013 December - South Korea announces expansion of air defense zone, two weeks
after China unilaterally announced its own extended air defense zone in East China Sea
to include disputed Socotra Rock.

2014 March - North and South Korea exchange fire into sea across the disputed western
maritime border during largest South-US military training exercise in region for 20
years. 

Ferry disaster

2014 April - Sewol ferry sinks off west coast, killing at least 281 people, mainly high-
school students. 

2014 October - North and South Korea engage in rare exchange fire across their land
border as South Korean activists launch balloons containing leaflets condemning North
Korean leader Kim Jong-un. Gun fire also exchanged when Northern patrol ship crossed
disputed western maritime border.

US and South Korea again postpone transfer of control over troops in South in event of
war with North, citing "intensifying threat" from Pyongyang. Transfer due in 2012, and
delayed until 2015. No new date set.

2014 December - Constitutional Court bans left-wing Unified Progressive Party, accused

of being pro-North Korean.

President Park calls for cyber security at key facilities to be strengthened after data on
its nuclear reactors is leaked.

2015 March - North Korea fires short-range surface-to-air missiles into the sea in an
apparent show of force against annual military drills between South Korea and the
United States. 

2015 November-December - Mass protests in Seoul against government's economic

policy and insistence on schools' using state-approved history books.

President impeached
 2016 October - President Park Geun-Hye is embroiled in a political crisis over revelations
that she allowed a personal friend, with no government position, to meddle in affairs of
state. She is later impeached.

2016 December - South Korea's military says its cyber command came under attack by
North Korean hackers.

2017 May - The centre-left candidate Moon Jae-in is elected president in a landslide,

and pledges to solve the North Korean crisis by diplomatic means.

2018 January - North and South Korea agree to march under the same flag at next
month's Winter Olympics in South Korea in a thaw in relations.

2018 April - Kim Jong-un becomes first North Korean leader to enter the South when he
meets President Moon Jae-in for talks at the Panmunjom border crossing. They agree to
end hostile actions and work towards reducing nuclear arms on the peninsula.

LANGUAGE

 They uses Korean as their primary language. Hangual is the name of their Korean
alphabet.

CULTURE

 Despite the political unrest that resulted the division of the region but still united by
culture and traditional values. Korea is greatly influenced by the Chinese and Japanese
cultures. There are two main national holidays; New Year’s Day( second full moon after
winter solstice) and Chuseok. These festival celebration are based around ancestors,
family, games, harvest festivals and food. Most people eat at low table while sitting on
the ondol floor, using a spoon and chopsticks. Kimchi is their national food.
The family unit is an integral part of customs and life. Arrange marriages are common.
Divorce was rare but has become more common in recent years. Patriarchal lineage is
ubiquitous and links ancestors through the husband’s life. The eldest son bears extra
responsibility to his family.
 Gender roles- Equality of the sexes is constitutional. Daily life is dominated by male
guidance within a primarily patriarchal society. Women are expected to be submissive in
public situations and at informal gatherings.
In South Korea music is very popular. Korean music and arts are linked to natural cycles
an religion, giving rise to folk culture in rural areas. In terms of traditional culture,
Pansori is a traditional musical art form within Korea that dates back to the Joseon
Dynasty, “pan” means an open space where individuals come to gather and “sori”
meaning sound. Another is, the Pop music, which is widely known as Kpop. It often
features young performers either individual or groups that are spreading throughout
East Asia and Southeast Asia.
Taboos in South Korean Culture
 Do not wear your shoes in places of worship or people’ homes.
 Do not put your feet on furniture
 Do not eat or drink in public places while eating.
 Do not used red ink. This is the symbol of death.
 Do not stand too close to the people you are meeting for the first time
 South Korea has a diverse religion. Majority of them or 56.1% of the total population are
irreligious or no religion as of 2015 national census. Confucianism, Christianity and
Buddhism are the dominant confessions among those who affiliate with a formal
religion. Protestantism 19.7% of the total population, Korean Buddhism 15.5% and
Catholicism 7.9%. A small percentage of South Koreans (0.8% in total) are members of
the other religions, including Won Buddhism, Confucianism, Cheondoism, Daesun
Jinrihoe, Islam, Daejongism, Jeungsanism and Orthodox Christianity.

GOVERNMENT

 Like Philippines, the government of South Korea is a centralized democratic republic

with the three primary branches of government; executive, legislative and judicial. The
election are held on national level to select the president and the National Assembly.
Local autonomy was established as a constitutional principle of South Korea beginning
with the First Republic. National Human Rights Commission of Korea, by law, is
 guaranteed an independent status regarding all human rights issues in Korea. The civil
service is managed by the Ministry of Personnel Management.
 Historically, Koreans lived under the influences of shamanism, Buddhism, Daoism or
Confucianism and in modern times, the Christian faith and has made strong in rods into
the country, bringing forth yet another important factor that may change the spiritual
landscape of the people.
Korean belief system that used to examine the confluence and their co-existence.
 Sermon on the Mount- was the largest public address made by Jesus, according
to Scripture. Christianity was more likely introduced to Korea by Jesuits who
accompanied Japanese troops during the Hideyoshi invasion in 1592.
 Four Noble Truths- Buddhism was introduced to Korea by a Chinese monk,
Sundo, during the third century CE of the Koguryo Kingdom. It was originated
with the enlightenment of an Indian prince, Siddhartha Gautama.
 The Eightfold Path
 Analects- King Sinmun of the Silla Kingdom first institutionalized Confucian
learning in Korea by establishing the Royal Confucian Academy in 682 CE.

LANDFORMS (GEOGRAPHY)

 South Korea is 70 percent hills and mountains cut by steep river valleys. Twenty percent
of the land is arable river bottoms. High mountains on the coast give rise to the rivers
that flow westward across the peninsula to reach small areas of coastal lowlands along
the west coast. In terms of Hills and Mountains, Korea’s Taebaek Mountains run parallel
to the east coast, spilling small rivers onto a narrow coastal plain that includes uplifted
terraces. The Sobaek Mountains arc from the Taebaeks into the central South Korea, it is
a great place for hiking. The yellow coast is the site of rias, ancient river valleys drowned
as sea levels rose and land subsided. Marine erosion of river sediments exposed a rocky
coastline, and ongoing sedimentation built mudflats along the shore. Daecheon Beach is
the largest beach on the west coast. Plains and lowland areas of South Korea are found
in the valleys of broad, shallow rivers as they near their mouths on the west coast. The
Han River Plain nears South Korea’s capital and the adjacent Pyongt’aek coastal plain
the major agricultural resources. The Kum River Basin includes two major dams
providing water for 5 million people, and the Naktong River basin provides a third of
South Korea’s agricultural produce. In terms or beaches, the east coast of South Korea
has small beaches. On Jeju or Cheju-do Islands, where Hallesan National Park, wide
beaches moderate climate, palm trees and citrus orchard attract tourist from the colder
mainland year round. South Korea has Karst Caves. The Taebaek Mountains are largely
granitic. The largest Hwanseongul Cave near the city of Samcheok, which is 4 miles long
and contains 10 lakes and waterfalls.
 SAUDI ARABIA

 The capital city of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh.

HISTORY

 Saudi Arabia in its current form as a nation state began with the emergence of the Al
Saud dynasty in central Arabia in 1744 and the subsequent establishment of
the Emirate of Diriyah. The territory that now constitutes Saudi Arabia was the site of
several ancient cultures and civilizations. The prehistory of Saudi Arabia shows some
of the earliest traces of human activity in the world.[1]The world's second-largest
religion,[2] Islam, emerged in modern-day Saudi Arabia. In the early 7th century,
the Islamic prophetMuhammad united the population of Arabiaand created a single
Islamic religious polity.[3]Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly expanded
the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering huge and unprecedented
swathes of territory (from the Iberian Peninsula in the West to modern-
day Pakistan in the East) in a matter of decades. Arab dynasties originating from
modern-day Saudi Arabia founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–
750), Abbasid (750–1517) and Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates as well as numerous
other dynasties in Asia, Africa and Europe.[4][5][6][7][8]
 The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of mainly four distinct
historical regions: Hejaz, Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia (Al-Ahsa) and Southern
Arabia ('Asir).[9]The modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn
Saud. He united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests
beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family. Saudi
Arabia has since been a absolute monarchy governed along Islamist lines. Saudi
Arabia is sometimes called "the Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-
Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca) and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi(in Medina), the two holiest
places in Islam.
 Petroleum was discovered on 3 March 1938 and followed up by several other finds in
the Eastern Province.[10] Saudi Arabia has since become the world's second largest
oil producer (behind the US) and the world's largest oil exporter, controlling the
world's second largest oil reserves and the sixth largest gas reserves.[11]
 From 1902 until his death in 1953, Saudi Arabia's founding father, Ibn Saud, ruled
the Emirate of Riyadh (1902-13), the Emirate of Nejd and Hasa (1913-21),
the Sultanate of Nejd(1921-26), the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd(1926-32) and finally
as King of Saudi Arabia(1932-1953). Thereafter six of his sons in succession have
reigned over the kingdom:
 Saud, the immediate successor of Abdulaziz, faced opposition from most in the royal
family and was eventually deposed.
 Faisal replaced Saud in 1964. Until his murder by a nephew in 1975, Faisal presided
over a period of growth and modernization fueled by oil wealth. Saudi Arabia's role in
the 1973 oil crisis and, the subsequent rise in the price of oil, dramatically increased
the country's political significance and wealth.
  Khalid, Faisal's successor, reigned during the first major signs of dissent: Islamist
extremists temporarily seized control of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979.
 Fahd became king in 1982. During his reign Saudi Arabia became the largest oil
producer in the world. However, internal tensions increased when the country allied
itself with the United States, and others, in the Gulf War of 1991. In the early 2000s,
the Islamist opposition to the regime carried out a series of terroristattacks.
 Abdullah succeeded Fahd in 2005. He instituted a number of mild reforms to
modernize many of the country's institutions and, to some extent, increased political
participation.
 Salman became king in 2015.

LANGUAGE

 Arabic is the official language of Saudi Arabia, but English is widely spoken. It used in
business and is compulsory second language in schools.
CULTURE

 Saudi Arabia defined by its Islamic heritage, its historical roles as an ancient trade
centre, and its Bedouin traditions.
 It was the land of many kingdoms and states that prevailed in the evolution of human
civilization
 One of the largest cultural institution is the Department of Culture at the Ministry of
Culture and Information.
 Saudi traditions are rooted in Islamic teachings and Arab customs. The highlights of the
year are the holy month of Ramadan and the Hajj (pilgrimage) season.
 Saudi Arabia’s cultural heritage is celebrated at the annual Jenadriyah National Culture
and Heritage Festival.
 One of the Saudi Arabia’s most compelling folk ritual is the “Al Ardha:, the country’s
national dance.
 Drum is also an important instrument according to traditional and tribal customs.
 Samri is a popular traditional form of music and dance in which poetry is sung.
 Poetry is especially important to Arab cultural life, and has long been considered one of
the highest expressions of literary art.
 Janadriya Festival- is a major cultural events amongst the Riyadh Festivals and Events.
Considered as the National Festival of Heritage and Culture. Usually held from 12 th to
the 26th of February each year.
 Greetings in Saudi Arabia have been called “formal and proscribed” and lengthy.
 The religion and customs dictate not only conservative dress for men and women but a
uniformity of dress unique to most of the Middle East.
 Traditionally social life in the kingdom has revolved around the home and family.
  Being part of a closed, family-oriented society, Saudis tend to prefer to do business with
family members rather than outsiders.
 Traditionally, in Saudi Arabia, families arrange marriages with the tribe or family’s
considerations in mind. Forced marriage has taken place. Sons and daughters have been
encouraged to marry cousins or other relatives in order to increase and strengthen the
extended family or tribe.
 A muslim man or woman cannot marry a non-muslim partner, although they can marry
any partner who has a belief other than Islam, according to Al-fiqah.
 Saudi is one of the ten countries where homosexuality is punished by death.
 Avoid exposing the soles of the feet or footwear to someone
 Use left hand while eating.
RELIGION

 According to the 1992 Basic Law of Governance, the country’s official religion is Islam.
GOVERNMENT

 The politics of Saudi Arabia takes place in the context of a totalitarian absolute
monarchy with Islamist lines, where the king is both the head of state and government.
The Qu’ran is declared to be the constitution of the country, which is governed on the
basis of Islamic law.
BELIEFS

 Saudi Arabia has been following a strict version of Islam where for example, men and
women are segregated in universities.
 Another example of the strict adherence to Islamic values can be seen in women who
are required to wear the traditional ”abaya” (long, fully covered dress).
 The kingdom uses not the international Gregorian calendar, but the lunar Islamic
calendar, with the start of each lunar month determined not ahead of time by
astronomical calculation, but only after the crescent moon is sighted by the proper
religious authorities.
 Friday is the holiest day for Muslims. Thus, the weekend in Saudi Arabia was Thursday-
Friday.
 Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, is a holy month for all Muslims. In
Saudi Arabia, this month is especially important and different as the lifestyle of the
people gets more spiritual.
 Saudi Arabia celebrates two public holidays, namely, ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā. Id al-Fitr
comes after the holy month of Ramadan and employees enjoy a customary 5 to 10 days
away from work. Id al-Adha comes by the end of Hajj -pilgrimage- and employees get
similar off days.
LANDFORMS/GEOGRAPHY
 The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a country situated in Southwest Asia, the largest country
of Arabia, by the Arabian Peninsula, bordering the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, north
of Yemen. Its extensive coastlines on the Persian Gulf and Red Sea provide great
leverage on shipping (especially crude oil) through the Persian Gulf and the Suez Canal.
The kingdom occupies 80% of the Arabian Peninsula. Most of the country's boundaries
with the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Oman, and the Republic of Yemen (formerly two
separate countries: the Yemen Arab Republic or North Yemen; and the People's
Democratic Republic of Yemen or South Yemen) are undefined, so the exact size of the
country remains unknown. The Saudi government estimate is at 2,217,949 square
kilometres, while other reputable estimates vary between 2,149,690 and 2,240,000 sq.
kilometres. Less than 7% of the total area is suitable for cultivation, and in the early
1960s, population distribution varied greatly among the towns of the eastern and
western coastal areas, the densely populated interior oases, and the vast, almost empty
deserts
 MALAYSIA

 The capital city of Malaysia is Kuala Lumpur.

HISTORY

 Malaysia is located on a strategic sea-lane that exposes it to global trade and various
cultures. Strictly, the name "Malaysia" is a modern concept, created in the second half
of the 20th century. However, contemporary Malaysia regards the entire history of
Malaya and Borneo, spanning thousands of years back to prehistoric times, as its own
history, and as such, it is treated on this page.
 An early western account of the area is seen in Ptolemy's book Geographia, which
mentions a "Golden Khersonese," now identified as the Malay Peninsula.
[1] Hinduism and Buddhism from India and China dominated early regional history,
reaching their peak during the reign of the Sumatra-based Srivijaya civilization, whose
influence extended through Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula and much
of Borneo from the 7th to the 13th centuries.
 Although Muslims had passed through the Malay Peninsula as early as the 10th century,
it was not until the 14th century that Islam first firmly established itself. The adoption of
Islam in the 14th century saw the rise of several sultanates, the most prominent were
the Sultanate of Malacca and the Sultanate of Brunei. Islam had a profound influence on
the Malay people but has also been influenced by them. The Portuguese were the first
European colonial powers to establish themselves on the Malay Peninsula and
Southeast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch in 1641. However, it
was the English who, after initially establishing bases at Jesselton, Kuching, Penang and
Singapore, ultimately secured their hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia.
The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824defined the boundaries between British Malayaand
the Dutch East Indies (which became Indonesia). On the other hand, the Anglo-Siamese
Treaty of 1909 defined the boundaries between British Malaya and Siam (which
became Thailand). The fourth phase of foreign influence was an immigration of Chinese
and Indian workers to meet the needs created by the colonial economy in the Malay
Peninsula and Borneo.

 Japanese invasion during World War II ended British rule in Malaya. The subsequent

occupation of Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak from 1942 to 1945 unleashed a wave
of nationalism. After the Japanese surrender from Malaya due to being defeated by
the Allies, Malayan Union was established in 1946 by the British administration but
following opposition by the ethnic Malays, the union was reorganized as the Federation
of Malaya in 1948 as a protectorate state until 1957. In the Peninsula, the Malayan
Communist Party took up arms against the British and the tension led to the declaration
of emergency rule for 12 years from 1948 to 1960. A serious military response to the
insurgency as well as the Baling Talks that were held in 1955 brought about the
 establishment of independence for Malaya on 31 August 1957 in a diplomatic manner
through talks with the British. Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of
Malaysia. In 1960, the emergency rule was terminated as the communist threat
decreased and their withdrawal to the borders between Malaya and Thailand. On 16
September 1963, The Federation of Malaysia was formed following the merger of the
Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo (Sabah). Approximately
two years later, the Malaysian parliament passed a bill without the consent of
signatories of the Malaysia Agreement 1963 to separate Singapore from the Federation.
[3] A confrontation with Indonesia occurred in the early-1960s. Race riots in 1969 led to
the imposition of emergency rule, the parliament suspension, the establishment of
the National Operations Council (NOC) and the proclamation of Rukun Negara by NOC in
1970 which became the national philosophy to promote unity among the citizens. New
Economic Policy was also adopted in 1971 that was used until 1991 which sought to
eradicate poverty and restructure society to eliminate the identification of race with
economic function.[4] This policy was continued with the National Development
Policy from 1991 to 2000. In the late 1990s, Malaysia was plagued by the Asian financial
crisis and political turmoil following the removal of Deputy Prime Minister Anwar
Ibrahim.
 Since 1970, the Barisan Nasional coalition headed by United Malays National
Organisation(UMNO) had governed Malaysia until the Pakatan Harapan coalition, which
was headed by ex-UMNO leader Mahathir Mohamad, defeated it in 2018 Malaysian
general election on 9 May 2018. In late 2018, there were massive protests against the
government’s plan to ratify the ICERD in Malaysia, especially from most Malays and
some other Bumiputras; hence pressuring the government to not ratify the convention
as it may jeopardise the constitution which resulting in the ratification's cancellation
itself. In February 2020, the recent political crisis in Malaysia started when the Pakatan
Harapan coalition fell as BERSATU, BN, PAS, GPS, and GBS party members come
together to form a government named Perikatan Nasional led by BERSATU
leader Muhyiddin Yassin.

LANGUAGE

 The official and national language in Malaysia is Malay or Bahasa Malaysia, and is the
basis for national integration. However, the Government of Malaysia recognized the
importance of English as an international language added that measures will be taken to
ensure that English is taught as strong second language.
CULTURE

 Malaysia is a multi-cultural society. The main ethnic groups are the native Malays as well
as large populations of Chinese and Indians.
  The most important festivals each group are public holidays.
 Malaysian observe a number of holidays and festivities throughout the year. The most
widespread holiday is the “Hari Merdeka” or the Independence Day on August 31.
 The family is considered the centre of the social structure.
 The family is the place where the individual can be guaranteed both emotional and
financial support.
 Face is considered as commodity that can be given, lost, taken away or earned.
 Most malays are aware of Western ways so handshake is normal but Malay women
may not handshakes with men.
 The general ways to introduce: the most important person to the lower ranking person;
the older person to the younger person and women to men.
 Many malays do not habe surnames. Instead, men add their father’s name to their own
name with the term “bin” meaning son of.
 In malays gift giving. Never give alcohol, do not give toy dogs or pigs to children. Do not
give anything made of pigskin, avoid white wrapping paper as it symbolizes death and
mourning, if you give food, it must be halal meaning permissible for Muslims.
 Muslim Malaysian women wear the tudung a type of hijab.
 Popular sports in Malaysia include badminton, bowling, football, squash and field
hockey.
 Malaysia has small-scale traditional sports. Wau is a traditional form of kite-flying
involving kites created with intricate designs.
 Traditional art was centered on fields such as carving, silversmithing and weaving.
RELIGION

 Islam, Malaysia’s official religion, is followed by about three-fifths of the population. As

of the 2010 population and housing census, 61.3% of the population practices Islam;
19.8 % Buddhism; 9.2% Christianity; 6.3% Hinduism.
 Islam in Malaysia is represented by the Shafi’I version of Sunni theology and the practice
of any other form of the religion such as Shia Islam is heavily restricted by the
government.
GOVERNMENT

 The government of Malaysia, officially the Federal Government of Malaysia, is based in

the Federal Territory of Putrajaya with the exception of the legislative branch.
 Malaysia is a federation of 13 states operating within a constitutional monarchy under
the Westminster parliamentary system and is categorized as a representative
democracy. The federal government of Malaysia adheres to and is created by the
federal constitution of Malaysia, the supreme law of the land.
BELIEFS
  Malaysia is a Muslim majority country with significant religious minority populations of
Buddhists, Christians, Hindus and traditional Chinese religion practitioners.
 The official religion in Malaysia is Sunni Islam, and the practice of any other versions of
Islam in the country is prohibited.
 Muslim believe in Allah and Muhammad as Allah’s last prophet. They believe that
Muhammad charged them to convert all people to Islam, and those who follow Islamic
teachings will inherit physical possessions in paradise.
 Hinduism is a dominant religion among the Tamils of Malaysia. They worship in temples
and pay reverence to all supreme being who is imminent and transcendent.
 Christianity came to Malaysia through traders from the Middle East in the 7 th century.
Christians believe in an all supreme God who created the who universe and in his son
Jesus Christ who died for the sin of humankind to reconcile humans to God. Most
Christians are in East Malaysia and states of Sabah and Sarawak.
 Buddhism began in Malaysia when Indian traders carried it with them during their travel
across maritime routes from the Indian subcontinent. A majority of Malaysia’s Buddhist
live in urban areas where they engage in business in many professions. Most Buddhist
approach the religion of ceremony and symbolism
LANDFORMS/GEOGRAPHY
 The geography of Malaysia deals with the physical and human geography of Malaysia,
a Southeast Asian country. There are two major parts to this country, Peninsular
Malaysia to the west and East Malaysia to the east. In addition, there are numerous
smaller islands surrounding both landmasses. Peninsular Malaysia is situated on the
southernmost section of the Malay Peninsula, south of Thailand, north of Singapore and
east of the Indonesian island of Sumatra; East Malaysia comprises most of the northern
part of Borneoisland, with land borders shared with Brunei to the north and Indonesian
Borneo which is to the south.

 Malaysia is located on the Sunda shelf, and is tectonically inactive. The oldest rocks in
the country date from 540 million years ago, and are mostly sedimentary. The most
common form of rock is limestone, formed during the Paleozoic Era. Limestone laid
down in East Malaysia during the Tertiary period has since eroded, and such erosion
forms basins of sedimentary rocks rich in oil and natural gas. The mountain ranges in
Malaysia were formed through orogenesis beginning in the Mesozoic era.[3]
 The total land area of Malaysia is 329,847 square kilometres (127,350 sq mi), the
66th largest country in the world in terms of area.[6]It is the only country to contain
land on both mainland Asia and the Malay archipelago.[3]Peninsular Malaysia makes up
132,090 square kilometres (51,000 sq mi),[1] or almost 40% of the country's land area,
while East Malaysia covers 198,847 square kilometres (76,780 sq mi), or 60%. From the
 total land area, 1,200 square kilometres (460 sq mi) or 0.37% is made up of water such
as lakes, rivers, or other internal waters. Malaysia has a total coastline of 4,675
kilometres (2,905 mi), and Peninsular Malaysia has 2,068 kilometres (1,285 mi), while
East Malaysia has 2,607 kilometres (1,620 mi) of coastline.[6]
 Malaysia has the 29th longest coastline in the world. The two distinct parts of Malaysia,
separated from each other by the South China Sea, share a largely similar landscape in
that both West (Peninsular) and East Malaysiafeature coastal plains rising to hills and
mountains.[6]
 The highest mountain range in Malaysia is the Crocker Range in Sabah, which divides the
state in half. This range includes Mount Kinabalu, the highest mountain in the country,
[8] as well as Mount Tambuyukon, the third highest in the country. 

IRAQ

 The capital city of Iraq is Baghdad.

Prehistoric era

 Between 65,000 BC and 35,000 BC, northern Iraq was home to a Neanderthal culture,
archaeological remains of which have been discovered at Shanidar Cave[25] This same
region is also the location of a number of pre-Neolithic cemeteries, dating from
approximately 11,000 BC, together with a large part of Fertile Crescent comprising Asia
Minor and the Levant was one of the centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture known as
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the
first time in the world.
 At time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum and
burnt lime.
Ancient Iraq

 The historical period in Iraq begin during the Uruk period (4000 BC to 3100 BC), with the
founding number of Sumerian cities, and the use of Pictographs, Cylinder seals and
mass-produced goods.

 The "Cradle of Civilization" is thus a common term for the area comprising modern Iraq
as it was home to the earliest known civilisation, the Sumerian civilisation, which arose
in the fertile Tigris-Euphrates river valley of southern Iraq in the Chalcolithic (Ubaid
period).
 In the late 4th millennium BC, that the world's first writing system and recorded history
itself were born. The Sumerians were also the first to harness the wheel and create City
States, and whose writings record the first evidence
of Mathematics, Astronomy, Astrology, Written Law, Medicine and Organised religion.
Bronze Age
 In the 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagashcreated what was perhaps the
first empire in history.
  Lugal-Zage-Si, the priest-king of Umma.

 It was during this period that the Epic of Gilgamesh originates, which includes the tale
of The Great Flood.
 During the 3rd millennium BC, a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians
and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.

 Between the 29th and 24th centuries BC, a number of kingdoms and city states within
Iraq began to have Akkadian speaking dynasties;
including Assyria, Ekallatum, Isin and Larsa.
 The rise of the Akkadian Empire(2335–2124 BC), based in the city of Akkad in central
Iraq. Sargon of Akkad, originally a Rabshakeh to a Sumerian king, founded the empire.
 After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire in the late 22nd century BC, the Gutians
occupied the south and followed by a Sumerian renaissance in the form of the Neo-
Sumerian Empire under king Shulgi.
 An Elamite invasion in 2004 BC brought the Sumerian revival to an end.
 During the 20th century BC, the Canaanitespeaking Amorites began to migrate into
southern Mesopotamia.
 In 1792 BC, an Amorite ruler named Hammurabi came to power in Babylon.
 The Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) saw Assyria rise to be the most powerful
nation in the known world.
 During the Bronze Age collapse (1200–900 BC), Babylonia was in a state of chaos,
dominated for long periods by Assyria and Elam.
Iron Age
 Neo Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC). This was to be the largest empire the region had yet
seen, and under rulers such as Adad-Nirari II, Ashurnasirpal, Shalmaneser
III, Semiramis, Tiglath-pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.
 In the late 7th century BC, the Assyrian Empire tore itself apart with a series of brutal
civil wars.
Babylonian and Persian periods
 The short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire (620–539 BC) succeeded that of Assyria. It failed
to attain the size, power or longevity of its predecessor; however, it came to
dominate The Levant, Canaan, Arabia, Israel and Judah, and to defeat Egypt.
  In the 6th century BC, Cyrus the Great of neighbouring Persia defeated the Neo-
Babylonian Empire at the Battle of Opis and Iraq was subsumed into the Achaemenid
Empire for nearly two centuries.
 The Achaemenids made Babylon their main capital.
 In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Greatconquered the region, putting it
under Hellenistic Seleucid rule for over two centuries.[39] The Seleucids introduced
the Indo-Anatolian and Greek term Syria to the region.
 The Parthians (247 BC – 224 AD) from Persia conquered the region during the reign
of Mithridates I of Parthia (r. 171–138 BC).
 Christianity began to take hold in Iraq (particularly in Assyria) between the 1st and 3rd
centuries, and Assyria became a centre of Syriac Christianity, the Church of the
East and Syriac literature.

Middle Ages

 The Arab Islamic conquest in the mid-7th century AD established Islam in Iraq and saw a
large influx of Arabs.
 Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali,
moved his capital to Kufa when he became the fourth caliph.
 The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad along the Tigris in the 8th century as its
capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for
five centuries.
 Baghdad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population
of more than a million,[43] and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden
Age.
Ottoman Iraq
 During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Black Sheep Turkmen ruled the area
now known as Iraq. In 1466, the White Sheep Turkmen defeated the Black Sheep and
took control.
 During the years 1747–1831, Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin
who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Porte.
 In 1916, the British and French made a plan for the post-war division of Western
Asiaunder the Sykes-Picot Agreement.
Contemporary Period
 The country today known as Iraq was a region of the Ottoman Empire until the partition
of the Ottoman Empire in the 20th century.
 . It was made up of three provinces, called vilayets in the Ottoman language: Mosul
Vilayet, Baghdad Vilayet, and Basra Vilayet.
  It joined into one Kingdom by the British after the region became a League of Nations
mandate, administered under British control, with the name "State of Iraq".
 Britain granted independence to the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932.
 On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup
d'état and overthrew the government of 'Abd al-Ilah.

LANGUAGE

 The official language of Iraq is Arabic, followed by Kurdish.

CULTURE

 Iraq has one of the world's oldest cultural histories and boasts a rich heritage.

 Iraq is a Muslim nation with Arabic and Kurdish as its official languages. As such, Islamic
holidays are celebrated.
 Newroz- the Iraqi Army Day, and the International Workers’ holiday.

 Weekends in Iraq are Friday and Saturday, as opposed to the Western version of
Saturday and Sunday.
 There are many values that are honored in the Iraqi culture, including generosity and
humility.
 Respect is given to the elderly and women, especially those with children.
 Al-Safafeer-market in Baghdad which is one of the oldest markets in the city established
during the Abbasid Caliphate.

 Cultural education is fostered through institutions such as the Academy of Music and
the Institute of Fine Arts.
 The flag of Iraq is an important national symbol. It is composed of three colored,
horizontal sections: red on the top, white in the middle, and black on the bottom. The
phrase Allahu Akbar “God is great” appears on the white band of the flag.

Sports

 Football (soccer) is the most common sport in Iraq. The Federation of Iraqi football was
officially established in 1948 and joined the International Federation of FIFA two years
later.
CUISINE
Iraqi cuisine mirrors that of Syria and Lebanon, with strong influences from the culinary
traditions of Turkey and Iran. Popular dishes include kebab (skewered meat, typically beef),
falafel (fried chickpea balls), kofta (Iraqi meatballs) and masgouf (open-air-grilled carp). Meals
typically begin with mezza, appetizers or salads similar to Spanish tapas.
Hospitality

 Hospitality is an Arab and Muslim tradition, deeply engrained in the culture. Visitors are
treated as kings and must always be fed and looked after. An Islamic tradition stipulates
that someone must be allowed to stay in your home for 3 days before you can question
why they are staying and when they will leave. 
 Invitations to a home must be seen as a great honour and you should only avoid turning
them down if absolutely necessary.

Family and Honour

 Iraqis consider family and honour to be of paramount importance.
 The value placed on the extended family, means that it is common for large extended
families to live in the same house, compound, or village.
Meeting People
 The most common greeting is the handshake coupled with eye contact and a smile. The
standard Arabic/Islamic greeting is "asalaamu alaikum" ("peace be with you"), to which
the response is "wa alaikum salaam" ("and peace be unto you").
 Handshakes do not typically happen across genders.
RELIGIONS
 The majority of Iraqis are Muslim, regardless of ethnicity. More than 95 percent of the
population is Muslim, but this total divided between Shiites/Shia who constitute about
55-60 percent and Sunnis who represent 35-40 percent.
 Shia Shaykhist community concentrated in Basra and Karbala.
GOVERNMENT

 The politics of Iraq take place in a framework of a federal parliamentary representative

democratic republic. It is a multi-party system whereby the executive power is exercised
by the Prime Minister of the Council of Ministers as the head of government.
 The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current constitution as an Islamic.
Democratic, federal parliamentary that compsed of executive, legislative and judicial
branches.
BELIEFS
  Religious Beliefs. Islam is the officially recognized religion of Iraq and is practiced by 95
percent of the population.

 There are two forms of Muslims in Iraq, the majority Shias (Shiites) and the minority
Sunnis. The Shias believe that the original twelve imams (Islamic leaders) were both
spiritual and temporal leaders and that the caliph, or successor of Muhammad and
leader of Islam
 The Sunnis believe that the imams were strictly temporal leaders and that the caliph
should be elected.
 Religious Practitioners. There are five pillars of Islam: praise of Allah as the only God,
with Muhammad as his prophet; prayer five times per day; almsgiving; fasting; and
pilgrimage to Mecca. Muezzinsinvoke a call to prayer, reminding everyone it is either
time to pray or to call them to the mosque, and imams lead the prayers.
 Rituals and Holy Places. Muslims gather at the mosque every Friday for afternoon
prayer. Ramadan falls in the ninth month of the Muslim calendar, which is on a lunar
cycle and thus falls during different times of the year. The month entails a period of
fasting from all food, drink, and activities such as smoking and sexual intercourse during
daylight hours. At night the fast is broken, and on the first day of the tenth month there
is a celebration, Id al Fitr, to acknowledge the end of the fast.

 During Id al Adha, on the tenth day of the twelfth month, there is a sacrificial festival.
Both this and the one following Ramadan last for three or four days, and people dress
up, visit each other, exchange gifts, and also visit cemeteries.
 Death and the Afterlife. Funerals are very simple and somber events. People are buried
on the day following their death, and are wrapped in a white cloth and placed in a plain
box, if available.
LANDFROMS AND GEOGRAPHY:

 Iraq, in the Middle East, is 168,754 square miles (437,073 square kilometers), which is
comparable to twice the size of Idaho. Iraq is bordered by Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia, Syria, Turkey and the Persian Gulf. Baghdad was the name of a village that the
Arabs chose to develop as their capital and is in the central plains. The northern border
areas near Iran and Turkey are mountainous and experience cold, harsh winters while
the west is mostly desert. The differences in climate have influenced the economies of
the various areas and the ethnic groups. Especially since the large part of the economy
used to be agriculturally based.
 Afghanistan

 The capital city of Afghanistan is Kabul.

History
25th century BCE
 2400-1900 BCE- The bronze age Oxus civilizationin present-day northern Afghanistan,
eastern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan
16th century BCE
 1500 BCE- The earliest textual mention of Gandhara civilization, in ancient Indian
manuscripts the Rig Vedaand the Zoroastrian Avesta.
7th century BCE
 678-549 BCE-Kabul valley becomes part of the Median empire.
6th century BCE
 550 BCE-Cyrus II captures Kabul, which becomes a center of learning
for Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
 516 BCE-Darius I invades Afghanistan, makes it part of the Achaemenid Empire.
4th century BCE
 330-327 BCE-Alexander III of Macedon conquers Afghanistan.
 312 BCE- Afghanistan becomes part of the Seleucid Empire after the death of Alexander
III and breakup of the Macedonian Empire.
 305-303 BCE- The Hindu Kush, Gandhara, Arachosia (centered around ancient Kandahar)
and areas south of Bagram become part of the Mauryan Empire after Chandragupta
Maurya defeats Seleucus I in the Mauryan-Seleucid war.
 Introduction of Buddhism to the region which becomes a major religion
alongside Zoroastrianismand ancient Hinduism.
1st century BCE
 15 BCE- Buddhist Apracharajas dynasty with territory covering Swat, Gandhāra, Taxila,
and parts of eastern Afghanistan. (till 50 CE)
1ST CENTURY CE
 19 CE-Suren kingdom founded by Gondophares with capitals in Kabul and Taxila, and
territory covering southern Afghanistan, eastern Iran and northwest regions of the
Indian subcontinent. (till 226 CE)
 30 CE JANUARY 27-Kushan Empire founded by Kujula Kadphises in the Arghandab
River valley.[3] (till 375 CE).
2ND century CE
 120 CE- Kanishka the Great becomes emperor of the Kushan Empire. He extends his
empire from present-day southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, north of the Amu
Darya(Oxus) in the north west to Northern India, as far as Pataliputra in the Gangetic
Plains. A follower of Buddhism, he encourages Buddhist teachings, art and architecture.
 151 CE- Kanishka Stupa is built. Reported by modern archeologists and ancient Chinese
pilgrim Xuanzangto have had a diameter of 87 metres, height of 180–210 metres and
covered with jewels.
4TH CENTURY
 320- Kidara Huns kingdom established, lasts till about 460.
5TH CNETURY
 440-Hephthalite (White Huns) empire established with its capital at Kunduz.
Buddhism, Manichaeismand Zoroastrianism were their major religions.
6TH CENTURY
 570- The smaller of the Buddhas of Bamiyan, known as the "Eastern Buddha" built
(approximate year based on carbon dating), during Hephthalite rule.
7TH CENTURY
 618- The larger of the Buddhas of Bamiyan, known as the "Western Buddha" built
(approximate year based on carbon dating) during Hephthalite rule.
 630- Chinese monk, scholar and traveler Xuanzang visits Balkh, reports about a 100
Buddhist convents, 30,000 monks, large number of stupas and other religious
monuments. The most remarkable stupa was the Navbahara, which possessed a gigantic
statue of the Buddha.
 665- Establishment of the Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty, with its capital in Kapisi near the
present-day town of Bagram.
 680- Establishment of the Zunbildynasty in present southern Afghanistan region, with its
capital in Ghazni.
 683- Turk Shahi king routs the Arab army of the Umayyad Caliphateled by Yazid ibn
Ziyad, who is killed in battle and an Arab invasion is decisively repulsed.
 698-Zunbil king defeats an Arab 'Army of Destruction' led by Ubayd Allah b. Abi Bakra,
who is forced to offer a large tribute, give hostages including three of his sons and take
an oath not to invade Zunbil again. Twenty five thousand of the thirty thousand strong
Arab army killed.
9TH CENTURY
 815- Defeat of the Turk Shahis by the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. The Turk Shah is forced to
convert to Islam and pay an annual tribute.
11TH CENTURY
 1001, 27 NOVEMBER-Mahmud of Ghazni's army defeats the Hindu Shahi army
of Jayapala in the Battle of Peshawar (1001).
13TH CENTURY
 1219-1221- Mongol invasion of Afghanistan as part of the Mongol conquest of the
Khwarazmian Empire, resulting in thousands killed in the cities of
Kabul, Kandahar, Jalalabad.
14TH CENTURY
 1383-1385- Invasion of Afghanistan by Timur, leader of
neighboring Transoxiana (roughly modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and adjacent
areas), becomes a part of the Timurid Empire.
16TH CENTURY
 1504- Babur, deposed ruler of Ferganaand Samarkand captures Kabul(Siege of Kabul
(1504)).
18TH CENTURY
 1709, 21 APRIL-Mirwais Hotak, an influential Afghan tribal chief, gained independence
at Kandaharafter a successful revolution against the Persian Safavid dynasty.
 1715- Mirwais died of a natural cause and his brother Abdul Aziz inherited the throne
until he was killed by Mahmud Hotaki, son of Mirwais.
 1722-Battle of Gulnabad: Led by Mahmud, the Afghan armycaptured the Safavid capital
of Isfahan and Mahmad was declared Shah of Persia.
 1725, 22 APRIL- Mahmud was murdered by his cousin Ashraf, son of Abdul Aziz, and
succeeded him as Shah of Persia.
 1729, 29 SEPTEMBER- Battle of Damghan: Afsharid forces led by Nader Shah defeated
Ashraf and his forces.
 1747, 19 JUNE- Ahmad Shah Durrani of the Abdali Pashtunconfederacy declared the
establishment of an independent Afghanistan, with its capital at Kandahar.
19TH CENTURY
 1809- Durrani signed a treaty of alliance with the United Kingdom.
 1819-Battle of Shopian:  Sikh Khalsa Army of Ranjit Singhdefeated the Durrani force lead
by governor Jabbar Khan, annexing Kashmir into the Sikh Empire.
 1823-Battle of Nowshera: Sikh Khalsa Army of Ranjit Singh defeated a Durrani force lead
by Azim Khan, capturing the Peshawar Valley.
 1839 MARCH-First Anglo-Afghan War: A British expeditionary force captured Quetta.
 1841 NOVEMBER- First Anglo-Afghan War: A mob killed the British envoy to
Afghanistan.
 1842 JANUARY-Massacre of Elphinstone's army: A retreating BritishWith
mostly Indian regiment force of sixteen thousand was massacred by the Afghans.
 1879- Second Anglo-Afghan War: To prevent Britishoccupation of a large part of the
country, the Afghan government ceded much power to the United Kingdom in
the Treaty of Gandamak
20TH CENTURY
 1901, 1 OCTOBER-Habibullah Khan, son of Abdur Rahman, became emir of Afghanistan.
 FEBRUARY 20,1919-Habibullah was assassinated. His son Amanullah Khan declared
himself King of Afghanistan.
 1919 MAY-Third Anglo-Afghan War: Amanullah led a surprise attack against the British.
 1922-Solar Hijri calendar officially adopted in Afghanistan.
 1929-Amanullah was forced to abdicate in favor of Habibullah Kalakani in the face of a
popular uprising. Former General Mohammed Nadir Shahtook control of Afghanistan.
  1933, 8 NOVEMBER-Nadir was assassinated. His son, Mohammed Zahir Shah, was
proclaimed King.
 1964-A new constitution was ratified which instituted a democratic legislature.
 1965, 1 JANUARY- The Marxist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) held its
first congress.
 1978, 27 APRIL-Saur Revolution: Military units loyal to the PDPAassaulted the Afghan
Presidential Palace, killing President Mohammed Daoud Khan and his family.
 DECEMBER 5- A treaty was signed which permitted deployment of the Soviet military at
the Afghan government's request
 DECEMBER 24-Soviet–Afghan War: Fearing the collapse of the Aminregime,
the Soviet army invaded Afghanistan.
 1992. 24 APRIL-Civil war in Afghanistan (1989–1992): Afghan political parties signed the
Peshawar Accord which created the Islamic State of Afghanistan and
proclaimed Sibghatullah Mojaddedi its interim President.
 1994 AUGUST- The Taliban governmentbegan to form in a small village between Lashkar
Gah and Kandahar.
21ST CENTURY
 2001. MARCH 2- Destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan by the Taliban with dynamite,
on orders from its leader Mullah Omar
 SEPTEMBER 9- Resistance leader Ahmad Shah Massoud was killed in a suicide bomb
attack by two Arabs who were disguised as French news reporters.
 SEPTEMBER 20- After the September 11 attacks in the United States, U.S.
PresidentGeorge W. Bush demanded the Taliban government to hand over al-
Qaeda head Osama bin Laden and close all terrorist training camps in the country.
 OCTOBER 7-Operation Enduring Freedom: The United States and the United
Kingdom began an aerial bombing campaign against al-Qaeda and the Taliban.
 DECEMBER 5- The United Nations Security Council authorized the creation of
the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to help maintain security in
Afghanistan and assist the Karzai administration
 2002 JULY-2002 loya jirga: Hamid Karzai appointed as President of the Afghan
Transitional Administrationin Kabul, Afghanistan.
 2004, OCTOBER 9-Hamid Karzai was elected President of the Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan after winning the Afghan presidential election.
 2007, MAY 13-Afghanistan–Pakistan Skirmishes: Skirmishes began with Pakistan
 2010- U.S. President Barack Obama sent additional 33,000 U.S. soldiers to Afghanistan,
with the total international troops reaching 150,000
 2011- After the death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan, many high-profile Afghan officials
were assassinated, including among them were Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmed Wali
Karzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi, and Burhanuddin Rabbani
LANGUAGE
  Afghanistan is a multilingual country in which two languages- Dari and Pashto- are both
official and most widely spoken.
CULTURE

 Hospitality is an integral part of Afghan culture, with the best possible foods being
served for guests.
 Tea is drank multiple times every day, is offered to all guests and most families have
their own recipe.
 Every day food consists of flat bread cooked on an iron plate.
 On special occasions, pilau rice is served with meat, carrots, raisin, pistachios or peas.
 Fresh fruits are eaten during the day or as dessert.
 In formal gatherings, men and women are separated.
 Marriage is considered an obligation, divorce is rare and stigmatized.
 Polygamy is allowed if all wives are treated equally.
 Young people address elders not by name but by a title. A husband will not his wife by
her name but will call her “mother of my son”.
 When meeting, two men shake hands and then place the right hand on the heart.
RELIGION

 Afghanistan is an Islamic republic, in which most citizens follow Islam. As much as 90%
follow Sunni Islam and Shia Muslims between 10-17%.
GOVERNMENT

 Afghanistan is an Islamic Republic consisting of three branches of power the executive,

legislative and judiciary
BELIEFS

 Religious Beliefs- Sunnis and Shiites recognize the authority of the Koran and respect
the five pillars of Islam. Sufism is an important expression of religiosity. Supernatural
creatures such as angels, genies, ghosts, and spirits, are believed to exist. Exorcism and
magic protect people from the evil eye. Although condemned by orthodox religious
authorities, these practices may be reinforced by the village mullah.
 Religious Practitioners- There are two kinds of religious practitioners: scholars, whose
power is based on knowledge, and saints, whose authority comes from their ability to
transmit God's blessing.

 Rituals and Holy Places- Throughout the year, people gather at noon on Fridays in the
mosque. The tombs of famous religious guides often become shrines visited by local
people. Pilgrimages allow women to get out of the home in groups to chat and
socialize. There are two main religious festivals. The Id al-Kabir or Id-e Qorban (the
Great Feast or Feast of the Victim) commemorates the sacrifice of Abraham at the end
 of the annual period of pilgrimage to Mecca. The Id al-Fitr or Id-e Ramazan (the Small
Feast or Feast of the Ramazan) marks the end of the fasting month and is a period of
cheer during which relatives and friends visit each other.
 Death and the Afterlife- The dead are buried rapidly in a shroud. In the countryside,
most graves are simple heaps of stones without a name. Wealthier persons may erect a
tombstone with a written prayer. For three days, the close relatives of the deceased
open their house to receive condolences. Forty days after the death, relatives and close
friends meet again, visit the grave, and pray. After one year, a ceremony takes place to
mark the end of the mourning period.
LANDFORMS/GEOGRAPHY

 Afghanistan is a land-locked Asian country of 251,825 square miles (652,225 square

kilometers) bordered by Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and
China. The topography is a mix of central highlands and peripheral foothills and
plains. The country has an arid continental climate. Summers are dry and hot, while
winters are cold with heavy snowfall in the highlands. Precipitation is low, although
some areas in the east are affected by the monsoon. Most of the country is covered
by steppes, with desert areas and some patches of cultivated land. Pastoral
nomadism, subsistence mountain agriculture, and irrigation are practiced. At the
end of the eighteenth century, Kabul became the capital. It is located in a wide basin
on the road linking India with Central Asia.

YEMEN

Capital:Sana'a

History:

1500s - Ottomans absorb part of Yemen into their empire, but are expelled in the 1600s.

1839 - Aden comes under British rule, and when the Suez Canal opens in 1869 serves as a major
refuelling port.

1849 - Ottomans return to north.

1918 - Ottoman Empire dissolves, North Yemen gains independence and is ruled by Imam Yahya.

1948 - Yahya assassinated, but his son Ahmad fights off opponents of feudal rule and succeeds his
father.
1962 - Imam Ahmad dies and is succeeded by his son, but army officers seize power and set up the
Yemen Arab Republic, sparking civil war between royalists supported by Saudi Arabia and republicans
backed by Egypt.

South Yemen formed

Image copyrightGETTY IMAGESBritish troops

Image captionBritish troops intervene in unrest leading up to independence in South Yemen

1967 - Britain withdraws from the south after years of a pro-independence insurgency, and its former
territories unite as the People's Republic of Yemen.

1969 - A communist coup renames the south the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and reorients
it towards the Soviet bloc.

1970 - Republican forces triumph in the North Yemen civil war.

1972 - Border clashes between two Yemens; ceasefire brokered by Arab League.

1978 - Ali Abdallah Saleh becomes president of North Yemen.

1979 - Fresh fighting between the two Yemens.

1986 - Thousands die in power struggle in south, which effectively drives the first generation of leaders
from office.

Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas takes over, and begins to work towards unification of the two states.

1990 May - The two Yemens unite as the Republic of Yemen with Ali Abdallah Saleh as president, as the
Soviet bloc implodes. Tension between former states endures.

1994 May-July - President Saleh declares a state of emergency and dismisses Vice-President Ali Salem al-
Beid and other southern officials, who declare the secession of the south before being defeated by the
national army.

1995 - Yemen and Eritrea clash over the disputed Hanish Islands in the Red Sea. International arbitration
awarded the bulk of the archipelago to Yemen in 1998.

Al-Qaeda attacks

2000 October - US naval vessel USS Cole damaged in al-Qaeda suicide attack in Aden. Seventeen US
personnel killed.

2001 February - Violence in run-up to disputed municipal polls and referendum, which backs extension
to presidential term and powers.

2002 February - Yemen expels more than 100 foreign Islamic clerics in crackdown on al-Qaeda.

2002 October - Al-Qaeda attacks and badly damages oil supertanker MV Limburg in Gulf of Aden, killing
one and injuring 12 crew members, and costing Yemen dear in lost port revenues.
Houthi insurgency

2004 June-August - Hundreds die as troops battle Shia insurgency led by Hussein al-Houthi in the north.

2005 March-April - More than 200 people are killed in a resurgence of fighting between government
forces and supporters of the slain rebel cleric Hussein al-Houthi.

2007 January-March - Scores are killed or wounded in clashes between security forces and al-Houthi
rebels in the north. Rebel leader Abdul-Malik al-Houthi accepts a ceasefire in the summer.

2008 September - Al-Qaeda attack on US embassy in Sanaa kills 12 people.

Demands for reform

2008 November - Police fire warning shots at opposition rally in Sanaa. Demonstrators demand electoral
reform and fresh polls.

2009 August - The Yemeni army launches a fresh offensive against Houthi rebels in the northern Saada
province. Tens of thousands of people are displaced by the fighting.

2010 September - Thousands flee government offensive against separatists in southern Shabwa
province.

2011 September - US-born al-Qaeda leader in Yemen, Anwar al-Awlaki, is killed by US forces.

Unity government

2011 November - President Saleh agrees to hand over power to his deputy, Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi,
after months of protests. A unity government including prime minister from opposition formed.

2012 February - Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi inaugurated as president after uncontested elections, but is
unable to counter al-Qaeda attacks in the capital as the year goes on.

2014 - Presidential panel approves draft federal constitution to accommodate Houthi and southern
grievances, but Houthis seize control of most of Sanaa in August and reject the deal.

Foreign intervention

2015 February - Houthis appoint presidential council to replace President Hadi, who flees to his
southern stronghold of Aden.

2015 March - Islamic State carries out its first major attacks in Yemen - two suicide bombings targeting
Shia mosques in Sanaa, in which 137 people are killed.

Civil war breaks out in earnest as Saudi-led coalition of mainly Gulf Arab states launches air strikes
against Houthi targets and imposes naval blockade, in order to halt their advance on Aden.

2015 June - Leader of al-Qaeda in Arabian Peninsula, Nasser al-Wuhayshi, is killed in a US drone strike in
Yemen.
2018 January - Southern Yemeni separatists - backed by the United Arab Emirates - seize control of
Aden, the main city in the south.

2019 November - Separatists and government sign power-sharing agreement to end conflict in southern
Yemen.

Language:Arabic

Culture:The Yemenite Jews left a strong influence on the music in Yemen, with many Yemenite Jews
becoming music stars. Yemenite music was traditionally performed in the home while under the
influence of qat, a psychoactive stimulant leaf with mild effects. This form of music is called homayni
and it can still be heard in Sana’a today.

The Ottoman Empire left its mark on the local food, with the Yemeni cuisine being most related to this
empire as opposed to the typical Middle Eastern cuisine that is popular in the rest of the Arabian
Peninsula.

Soccer (football) is extremely popular in Yemen, with the Yemen national football team competing in
famous leagues such as FIFA and AFC.

Religion:Yemen is an Islamic society. Nearly all Yemenis are Muslims, with approximately 56% belonging
to the Shafi'i Sunni school of thought and approximately 43.5% belonging to the Zaydi

Shia school of thought.

Government:United Yemen proclaimed itself a presidential republic and a multiparty parliamentary

democracy. The parliament consists of the House of Deputies and an appointed Upper Chamber, or
Senate. The constitution was approved by referendum in 1991 and was amended in 1994. The president
is elected for a five-year term; the last campaign for the presidency was won in 1999 by the general Ali
Abdullah Saleh. Executive authority is vested in the prime minister and the cabinet.

Beliefs:Sunni Islam of the Shafi'i school dominates in the south and many regions of the north; the Zaydi
Shi'a school with its center in Sa'da is practiced mainly among the tribes of central mountains and the
adjacent highlands. A much smaller Islamic group near Manakha is the Isma'ilis, who are divided into the
Sulaymani ( Makarima ) branch, which is connected with Najaran, and the Dawudi ( Boharas ) which is
linked with India.

Landforms(Geography)-Most of Yemen’s northern frontier with Saudi Arabia traverses the great desert
of the peninsula, the Rubʿ al-Khali (“Empty Quarter”), and until 2000 remained undemarcated, as did the
eastern frontier with Oman until 1992. Yemen is bounded to the south by the Gulf of Aden and the
Arabian Sea and to the west by the Red Sea. Yemen’s territory includes a number of islands as well,
including the Kamarān group, located in the Red Sea near Al-Ḥudaydah; the Ḥanīsh Islands, in the
southern Red Sea; Perim (Barīm) Island, in the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, which separates the Arabian
Peninsula from Africa; Socotra (Suquṭrā), Yemen’s most important and largest island, located in the
Arabian Sea nearly 620 miles (1,000 km) east of Aden; and the Brothers (Al-Ikhwān), a group of small
islets near Socotra
NEPAL

Capital:Kathmandu

History:

1768 - Gurkha ruler Prithvi Narayan Shah conquers Kathmandu and lays foundations for unified
kingdom.

1792 - Nepalese expansion halted by defeat at hands of Chinese in Tibet.

1814-16 - Anglo-Nepalese War; culminates in treaty which establishes Nepal's current boundaries.

1846 - Nepal falls under sway of hereditary chief ministers known as Ranas, who dominate the
monarchy and cut off country from outside world.

1923 - Treaty with Britain affirms Nepal's sovereignty.

Absolute monarchy

1950 - Anti-Rana forces based in India form alliance with monarch.

1951 - End of Rana rule. Sovereignty of crown restored and anti-Rana rebels in Nepalese Congress Party
form government.

1953 New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Nepal's Sherpa Tenzing Norgay become the first climbers to
reach the summit of Mount Everest.

1955 - Nepal joins the United Nations.

1955 - King Tribhuwan dies, King Mahendra ascends throne.

1959 - Multi-party constitution adopted.

1960 - King Mahendra seizes control and suspends parliament, constitution and party politics after
Nepali Congress Party (NCP) wins elections with B. P. Koirala as premier.

1962 - New constitution provides for non-party system of councils known as "panchayat" under which
king exercises sole power. First elections to Rastrya Panchayat held in 1963.

1972 - King Mahendra dies, succeeded by Birendra.

Multi-party politics

1980 - Constitutional referendum follows agitation for reform. Small majority favours keeping existing
panchayat system. King agrees to allow direct elections to national assembly - but on a non-party basis.
1985 - NCP begins civil disobedience campaign for restoration of multi-party system.

1986 - New elections boycotted by NCP.

1989 - Trade and transit dispute with India leads to border blockade by Delhi resulting in worsening
economic situation.

1990 - Pro-democracy agitation co-ordinated by NCP and leftist groups. Street protests suppressed by
security forces resulting in deaths and mass arrests. King Birendra eventually bows to pressure and
agrees to new democratic constitution.

1991 - Nepali Congress Party wins first democratic elections. Girija Prasad Koirala becomes prime
minister.

Political instability

1994 - Koirala's government defeated in no-confidence motion. New elections lead to formation of
Communist government.

1995 - Communist government dissolved.

1995 - Start of Maoist revolt which drags on for more than a decade and kills thousands. The rebels
want the monarchy to be abolished.

1997 - Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba loses no-confidence vote, ushering in period of increased
political instability, with frequent changes of prime minister.

2000 - GP Koirala returns as prime minister, heading the ninth government in 10 years.

Palace massacre

2001 1 June - Crown Prince Dipendra kills King Birendra, Queen Aishwarya and several members of the
royal family, before shooting himself. The king's brother, Gyanendra is crowned king.

2001 July - Maoist rebels step up campaign of violence. Prime Minister GP Koirala quits over the
violence; succeeded by Sher Bahadur Deuba.

2001 November - Maoists end four-month old truce with government, declare peace talks with
government failed. Launch coordinated attacks on army and police posts.

Emergency

2001 November - State of emergency declared after more than 100 people are killed in four days of
violence. King Gyanendra orders army to crush the Maoist rebels. Many hundreds are killed in rebel and
government operations in the following months.
2002 May - Parliament dissolved, fresh elections called amid political confrontation over extending the
state of emergency. Sher Bahadur Deuba heads interim government, renews emergency.

2002 October - King Gyanendra dismisses Deuba and indefinitely puts off elections set for November.

2003 January - Rebels, government declare ceasefire.

End of truce

2003 August - Rebels pull out of peace talks with government and end seven-month truce. The following
months see resurgence of violence and frequent clashes between students/activists and police.

2004 April - Nepal joins the World Trade Organisation (WTO).

2004 May - Street protests by opposition groups demanding a return to democracy. Royalist Prime
Minister Surya Bahadur Thapa quits.

Absolute monarchy restored

2005 February - King Gyanendra dismisses the government, restores an absolute monarchy and declares
a state of emergency, citing the need to defeat Maoist rebels.

2005 April - King Gyanendra bows to international pressure, lifts the state of emergency and reinstates
parliament.

2005 November - Maoist rebels and main opposition parties agree on a programme intended to restore
democracy.

2006 April - King Gyanendra agrees to reinstate parliament following weeks of violent strikes and
protests against direct royal rule. Maoist rebels call a three-month ceasefire.

2006 May - Parliament votes unanimously to curb the king's political powers. The government holds
peace talks with the Maoist rebels.
Peace deal

2006 November - The government sign a peace deal with the Maoists - the Comprehensive Peace
Agreement (CPA) - formally ending the decade-long insurgency.

2007 January - Maoist leaders enter parliament under the terms of a temporary constitution.

Maoists join government

2007 April - Maoists join an interim government, a move which brings them into the political
mainstream.

2007 September - Three bombs hit Kathmandu in the first attack in the capital since the end of the
Maoist insurgency.

Maoists quit the interim government, demanding the abolition of the monarchy. November's
constituent assembly elections are postponed.

End of monarchy

2007 December - Parliament approves the abolition of monarchy as part of peace deal with Maoists,
who agree to rejoin government.

2008 January - A series of bomb blasts kill and injure dozens in the southern Terai plains, where activists
have been demanding regional autonomy.

2008 April - Former Maoist rebels win the largest bloc of seats in elections to the new Constituent
Assembly (CA), but fail to achieve an outright majority.

2008 May - Nepal becomes a republic.

2008 June - Maoist ministers resign from the cabinet in a row over who should be the next head of
state.

2008 July - Ram Baran Yadav becomes Nepal's first president.

2008 August - Maoist leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal aka Prachanda forms coalition government, with
Nepali Congress going into opposition.

Maoists leave government

2009 May - Prime Minister Prachanda resigns following a row with President Yadav over the integration
of former rebel fighters into the military.

2009 May - Britain announces that Gurkha veterans with at least four years' service in the British army
will be allowed to settle in the UK.

2009 December - Four people are killed in clashes triggered by a Maoist-led land grab in the far west,
giving rise to fears for peace process.

Impasse over constitution

2010 May - The Constituent Assembly (CA) votes to extend the deadline for drafting the constitution,
the first of four extensions.

2011 January - UN ends its peace monitoring mission.

2012 May - The Constituent Assembly (CA) is dissolved after failing to produce a draft constitution.

2013 November - The left-wing Nepali Congress wins the second Constituent Assembly elections,
pushing the former ruling Maoists into third place and leaving no party with a majority.

2014 February -Nepali Congress leader Sushil Koirala is elected prime minister after securing
parliamentary support.

2014 April - Sixteen Nepalese sherpa guides die in an avalanche on Mount Everest in the worst recorded
accident in the mountain's history.

2014 November - Nepal and India sign a deal to build a $1bn hydropower plant on Nepal's Arun river to
counter crippling energy shortages.
2015 April - A 7.8-magnitude earthquake strikes Kathmandu and its surrounding areas killing more than
8,000 people, causing mass devastation and leaving millions homeless.

Landmark constitution

2015 September - Parliament passes a landmark constitution, which defines Nepal as a secular country,
despite calls to delay voting after more than 40 people are killed in protests.

2015 October - K.P. Prasad becomes the first prime minister to be elected under the new constitution.

2016 February - Government lifts fuel rationing after the ethnic minority Madhesi communities, partially
backed by India, end a six-month border blockade in protest over the new constitution which they say is
discriminatory.

2016 July - Maoist party pulls out of the governing coalition. Prime Minister K.P. Oli resigns ahead of a
no-confidence vote in parliament.

2016 August - Parliament elects former communist rebel leader and Maoist party leader Pushpa Kamal
Dahal aka Prachanda as prime minister for the second time.

2017 April - Three former soldiers are convicted over the murder of a 15-year-old girl during the civil
war, the first time serving or former members of the army have been found guilty of crimes linked to the
conflict.

China and Nepal hold their first ever joint military exercise.

2017 June - Pushpa Kamal Dahal replaced as prime minister by the Congress leader Sher Bahadur Deuba
under a rotation agreement reached the previous April and set to last until elections in February 2018.

Language:Nepali

Culture:Culture of Nepal Nepal was declared a secular country by the Parliament on May 18, 2006.
Religions practiced in Nepal are: Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Sikhism, Bon, ancestor
worship and animism. The majority of Nepalis are either Hindus or Buddhism. The two have co-existed
in harmony through centuries.

Customs and traditions differ from one part of Nepal to another. A conglomeration lies in capital city
Kathmandu where cultures are blending to form a national identity. Kathmandu Valley has served as the
country’s cultural metropolis since the unification of Nepal in the 18th Century. A prominent factor in a
Nepali’s everyday life is religion. Adding color to the lives of Nepalis are festivals the year round which
they celebrate with much pomp and joy. Food plays an important role in the celebration of these
festivals.

Religion:Nepal was declared a secular country by the Parliament on May 18, 2006. Religions practiced in
Nepal are: Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Sikhism, Bon, ancestor worship and
animism. The majority of Nepalis are either Hindus or Buddhism. The two have co-existed in harmony
through centuries.

Buddha is widely worshipped by both Buddhists and Hindus of Nepal. The five Dhyani Buddhas;
Vairochana, Akshobhaya, Rathasambhava, Amitabha and Amoghasiddhi, represent the five basic
elements: earth, fire, water, air and ether. Buddhist philosophy conceives these deities to be the
manifestations of Sunya or absolute void. Mahakaala and Bajrayogini are Vajrayana Buddhist deities
worshipped by Hindus as well. Culture of Nepal

Hindu Nepalis worship the ancient Vedic gods. Bramha the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver and Shiva the
Destroyer, are worshipped as the Supreme Hindu Trinity. People pray to the Shiva Linga or the phallic
symbol of Lord Shiva in most Shiva temples. Shakti, the dynamic element in e female counterpart of
Shiva, is highly revered and feared.

Mahadevi, Mahakali, Bhagabati, Ishwari are some of the names given. Kumari, the Virgin Goddess, also
represents Shakti.Other popular deities are Ganesh for luck, Saraswati for knowledge, Lakshmi for
wealth and Hanuman for protection. Krishna, believed to be the human incarnation of Lord Vishnu is
also worshipped widely. Hindu holy scripts Bhagawat Gita, Ramayan and Mahabharat are widely read in
Nepal. Vedas, Upanishads and other holy scriptures are read by well learned Brahmin Pundits during
special occasions.

Government:Nepal’s government became a federal democratic republic following the abolition of the
monarchy in 2008 and the passing of a new constitution in 2015. The South Asian country of Nepal
borders China and India. For most of its history, Nepal embraced a unitary form of government.
Federalism came up as a potential solution to the nation’s regional imbalance in regards to
development, unemployment, and poverty

Beliefs:

Eighty-six percent of Nepalis are Hindus, 8 percent are Buddhists, 4 percent are Muslims, and just over 1
percent are Christians. On a day-to-day level, Hindus practice their religion by "doing puja, " making
offerings and prayers to particular deities. While certain days and occasions are designated as
auspicious, this form of worship can be performed at any time.

Buddhism is practiced in the Theravadan form. There are two primary Buddhist traditions: the Buddhism
of Tibetan refugees and high-altitude ethnic groups with cultural roots in Tibet and the Tantric form
practiced by Newars.

There is a strong animistic and shamanic tradition. Belief in ghosts, spirits, and witchcraft is widespread,
especially in rural areas. Spiteful witches, hungry ghosts, and angry spirits are thought to inflict illness
and misfortune. Shamans mediate between the human and supernatural realms to discover the cause of
illness and recommend treatment.
The diversity in Nepal in terms of ethnicity again makes room for various sets of customs. Most of these
customs go back to the Hindu, Buddhist or other religious traditions. Among them, the rules of marriage
are particularly interesting. Traditional marriages call for deals arranged by parents after the boy or girl
come of age.

Nepalis do not eat beef. There are several reasons for this, one being that the Hindus worship cow. Cow
is also the national animal of Nepal. Another interesting concept among Nepalis is division of pure and
impure. “Jutho” referring to food or material touched by another’s mouth directly or indirectly, is
considered impure by Nepalis. Nepalis consider cow dung to be pure for cleansing purposes. During
menstruation women are considered impure and hence, are kept in seclusion until their fourth day
purification bath.Nepal is a patriarchal society. Men usually go out to work while women are
homemakers. However, in cities, roles can differ. Most Nepalis abide by the caste system in living habits
and marriage. Rural Nepal is mostly agrarian, while some aspects of urban life carry glitz and glamour of
the ultra-modern world.

Food:

Nepal does not have a distinct cooking style. However, food habits differ depending on the region.
Nepali food has been influenced by Indian and Tibetan styles of cooking. Authentic Nepali taste is found
in Newari and Thakai cuisines. Most Nepalis do not use cutlery but eat with their right hand.The regular
Nepali meal is dal (lentil soup), bhat (boiled rice) and tarkari (curried vegetables), often accompanied by
achar (pickle). Curried meat is very popular, but is saved for special occasions, as it is relatively more
expensive. Momos (steamed or fried dumplings) deserve a mention as one of the most popular snack
among Nepalis. Rotis (flat bread) and dhedo (boiled flour) also make meals in some homes and culture
of Nepal.

Landforms(Geography)

Nepal is a small land-locked nation in the middle of Asia. It straddles the Himalayas -- the highest
mountain chain in the world -- and is a zone of transition, both physically and culturally -- between the
high plateaus of Tibet and the flood plains of Northern India, and between Indian Hinduism and Tibetan
Buddhism. (Valley of Kaligandaki River north of Tatopani)

002. It is also positioned at the point where the two countries with the largest populations in the world
come together -- one a democracy (India), the other (China) a communist dictatorship. This unit will
focus in greatest detail on daily life at Ramja Thanti in the hill country and Bharatpur on the plains, and
on the life of a friend and his family who moved from one to the other.

003. Nepal is commonly divided into three landform types -- mountains, hills and plains -- and six
physiographic regions, all aligned from west to east in accordance with the orientation of the Himalayas.

004. The narrow alluvial lowland in the south, known as the Terai, is part of the northern rim of the
Indo-Gangetic Plain and it lies at an elevation of only 200 metres ASL (above sea level). It is nowhere
more than 45 kilometres in width.

005. The Terai is is bounded on the north by the Siwalik Hills which, rising to over 1000 metres, are the
southernmost extension of the Himalayan mountain system. On their north the Siwaliks, in turn, merge
with the Mahabharat Range which, rising to heights of 3000 metres, served in the past as a barrier to
invaders from the south.

006. North of the Mahabharat Range lies the hill country (the Pahar zone or Midlands). It is between 60
and 100 kilometres in width and ranges in altitude from 600 to 2000 metres ASL.

007. Bounded my mountain ranges on the north and south, it is the heartland of Nepal and half of the
nation’s population lives here.

008. The Himalayas, which tower over the Midlands, include 10 of the 14 peaks in the world which are
8000 metres or more in height -- and eight of them lie within Nepal or on its border with China.

009. Flowing from north to south across this range, the Kaligandaki River flows in a great gorge almost
7000 metres in depth. As such it has long functioned as a corridor for traders moving north to south.

010. The Trans-Himalaya zone to the north is like an extension of the Tibetan Plateau, high and dry with
rocky crags, steep cliffs, and scree-covered slopes, plus high mountain valleys at elevations of between
2400 and 5000 metres.

NORTH KOREA

Capital:Pyongyang

History:

1945 - After World War II, Japanese occupation of Korea ends with Soviet troops occupying the north,
and US troops the south.

1946 - North Korea's Communist Party, called the Korean Workers' Party, inaugurated. Soviet-backed
leadership installed, including Red Army-trained Kim Il-sung.

1948 - Democratic People's Republic of Korea proclaimed, with Kim Il-sung installed as leader. Soviet
troops withdraw.

1950 - South declares independence, sparking North Korean invasion and the Korean War.

1953 - Armistice ends Korean War.

1960s - Rapid industrial growth.

1968 January - North Korea captures USS Pueblo, a US naval intelligence ship.

1972 - North and South Korea issue joint statement on peaceful reunification.

1974 February - Kim Il-sung designates eldest son, Kim Jong-il as his successor.

1985 - North Korea joins the international Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, barring the country from
producing nuclear weapons.

1986 - Research nuclear reactor in Yongbyon becomes operational.

1991 - North and South Korea join the United Nations.

1993 - International Atomic Energy Agency accuses North Korea of violating the Nuclear Non-
Proliferation Treaty and demands inspectors be given access to nuclear waste storage sites. North Korea
threatens to quit Treaty.

1993 - North Korea test-fires a medium-range Rodong ballistic missile into the Sea of Japan.

1994 July - Death of Kim Il-sung. Kim Jong-il succeeds his father as leader.

1994 October - North Korea and the US sign an Agreed Framework under which Pyongyang commits to
freezing its nuclear programme in return for heavy fuel oil and two light-water nuclear reactors.

Flood and famine

1996 - Severe famine follows widespread floods; 3 million North Koreans reportedly die from starvation.

1996 April - North Korea announces it will no longer abide by the armistice that ended the Korean War,
and sends thousands of troops into the demilitarised zone.

1996 September - A North Korean submarine with 26 commandos and crew on board runs aground near
the South Korean town of Gangneung. All but one on board is killed along with 17 South Koreans
following several skirmishes.

1998 June - South Korea captures North Korean submarine in its waters. Crew found dead inside.

1998 August - North Korea fires a multistage long-range rocket which flies over Japan and lands in the
Pacific Ocean, well beyond North Korea's known capability.

Historic handshake

2000 June - Landmark inter-Korean summit takes place in Pyongyang between Kim Jong-il and South
Korean President Kim Dae-jung, paving the way for the reopening of border liaison offices and family
reunions. The South also grants amnesty to over 3,500 North Korean prisoners.

2002 January - US President George W Bush labels North Korea, Iraq and Iran an "axis of evil" for
continuing to build "weapons of mass destruction".

2002 June - North and South Korean naval vessels wage a gun battle in the Yellow Sea. Some 30 North
Korean and four South Korean sailors are killed.

2002 September - Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi makes historic visit during which North
Korea admits to having abducted 13 Japanese citizens in the 1970s and 1980s and that at least four are
still alive.

Nuclear brinkmanship

2002 October - US and its key Asian allies Japan and South Korea halt oil shipments following North
Korea's reported admission that it has secretly been developing a uranium-based nuclear programme.
2002 December - North Korea announces it is reactivating nuclear facilities at Yongbyon and expels UN
inspectors.

2003 January - North Korea withdraws from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, marking the beginning
of a series of six-party talks involving China, the Koreas, the US, Japan and Russia to try to resolve the
nuclear issue.

2003 May - North Korea withdraws from 1992 agreement with South Korea to keep the Korean
Peninsula free of nuclear weapons.

Six-party talks

2003 October - Pyongyang declares it has completed the reprocessing of 8,000 spent nuclear fuel rods.
Experts say this would give the North enough weapons-grade plutonium to develop up to six nuclear
bombs within months.

2005 February - North Korea admits publicly for the first time that it has produced nuclear weapons for
"self defence".

2006 July - North Korea test fires seven missiles including a long-range Taepodong-2 missile, which
crashes shortly after take-off despite it reportedly having the capability to hit the US.

2006 October - North Korea conducts its first nuclear weapons test at an underground facility. The UN
imposes economic and commercial sanctions on North Korea.

2007 July - North Korea shuts down it main Yongbyon reactor after receiving 50,000 tons of heavy fuel
oil as part of an aid package.

2007 August - South Korea announces it will send nearly 50m US dollars in aid to the North after
Pyongyang makes rare appeal for flood relief.

Nuclear declaration

2007 October - Second inter-Korean summit held in Pyongyang. President Roh Moo-hyun becomes the
first South Korean leader to walk across the Demilitarized Zone separating North and South.

2008 March - North-South relations deteriorate sharply after new South Korean President Lee Myung-
bak promises to take a harder line on North Korea.

2008 August - Kim Jong-il suffers a stroke

2008 October - North agrees to provide full access to Yongbyon nuclear site after US removes it from
terrorism blacklist.

Nuclear tensions rise

2009 January - North Korea says it is scrapping all military and political deals with the South, accusing it
of "hostile intent".
2009 April - North Korea launches a long-range rocket, carrying what it says is a communications
satellite; its neighbours accuse it of testing long-range missile technology. Condemnation from the UN
Security Council prompts North Korea to walk out of six-party talks and restart its nuclear facilities.

2009 May - North Korea carries out its second underground nuclear test. UN Security Council condemns
move in June.

2009 August - North Korea frees American journalists Laura Ling and Euna Lee after former US President
Bill Clinton facilitates their release. The pair was sentenced to 12 years hard labour for allegedly crossing
the border illegally.

North makes conciliatory gestures to South, sending delegation to funeral of former President Kim Dae-
jung, releasing four South Korean fishermen, and agreeing to resume family reunions.

2009 November - North Korea's state-run news agency reports the reprocessing of 8,000 spent fuel rods
is complete, garnering enough weapons-grade plutonium for one to two nuclear bombs.

2010 February - Increased social unrest reportedly leads the government to relax free market
restrictions after a 2009 currency revaluation wiped out many cash savings in the country.

Sinking of Cheonan

2010 March - North Korea sinks South Korean warship Cheonan near sea border.

2010 September - Kim Jong-il's youngest son Kim Jong-un is appointed to senior political and military
posts, fuelling speculation of a possible succession.

2010 November - North Korea reportedly shows an eminent visiting American nuclear scientist a new
secretly-built facility for enriching uranium at its Yongbyon complex. The revelation sparks alarm and
anger in US, South and Japan.

Cross-border clash near disputed maritime border results in the deaths of two South Korean marines.
North Korea's military insists it did not open fire first and blames the South for the incident.

Succession

2011 December - Death of Kim Jong-il. Kim Jong-un presides at funeral and takes over key posts by April.

2012 April - Rocket launch - viewed internationally as a banned test of long-range Taepodong-2 missile
technology - fails. North Korea says aim was to put a satellite into orbit to mark 100th birth anniversary
of Kim Il-sung

2012 October - North Korea claims it has missiles than can hit the US mainland after South Korea and
Washington announce a deal to extend the range of South Korea's ballistic missiles.

2012 December - North Korea successfully launches a "rocket-mounted satellite" into orbit following a
failed attempt in April.

Third nuclear test

2013 February - UN approves fresh sanctions after North Korea stages its third nuclear test, said to be
more powerful than the 2009 test.

2013 April - North Korea says it will restart all facilities at its main Yongbyon nuclear complex and briefly
withdraws its 53,000-strong workforce from the South-Korean-funded Kaesong joint industrial park
stalling operations at 123 South Korean factories.

2013 July - Panama impounds a North Korean ship carrying two MiG-21 jet fighters under bags of sugar.
The UN later blacklists the ship's operator.

2013 September - Sole ally China bans export to North Korea of items that could be used to make
missiles or nuclear, chemical and biological weapons.

2013 December - Kim Jong-un's uncle, Chang Song-thaek, is found guilty of attempting to overthrow the
state and is summarily executed - in a purge seen as the biggest shake-up since the death of Kim Jong-il
in 2011.

2014 March - North Korea test-fires two medium-range Rodong ballistic missiles for the first time since
2009, in violation of UN resolutions and just hours after the US, South Korea and Japan met in the
Netherlands for talks.

Two drones allegedly from North Korea are found in the south, sparking concerns about the north's
intelligence gathering capabilities.

execution

2014 October - Officials pay surprise visit to south, agree to resume formal talks that have been
suspended since February.

2014 December - North Korea and US exchange accusations of cyber-attacks over a Sony Pictures film
mocking Kim Jong-un, prompting new US sanctions the following month.

2015 August - South Korea halts loudspeaker propaganda broadcasts across the Demilitarised Zone after
the North fires on them during annual US/South-Korean military exercises.

Nuclear push

2015 September - North Korea confirms it has put its Yongbyon nuclear plant - mothballed in 2007 -
back into operation.

2015 December - US imposes new sanctions on North Korea over weapons proliferation, targeting the
army's Strategic Rocket Force, banks and shipping companies.

2016 January - Government announcement of first hydrogen bomb test met with widespread expert
scepticism.

2016 May - The ruling Workers Party holds its first congress in almost 40 years, during which Kim Jong-
un is elected leader of the party.
2016 November - UN Security Council further tightens sanctions by aiming to cut one of North Korea's
main exports, coal, by 60 per cent.

2017 January - Kim Jong-un says North Korea is in the final stages of developing long-range guided
missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads.

2017 February - Kim Jong-un's estranged half-brother Kim Jong-nam is killed by a highly toxic nerve
agent in Malaysia, with investigators suspecting North Korean involvement.

2017 July - Pyongyang test fires a long-range missile into the Sea of Japan, with some experts stating the
missile could potentially reach Alaska.

2017 August - Tension rises in war of words with US over North Korean threat to fire ballistic missiles
near US Pacific territory of Guam.

China announces it plans to implement the UN sanctions against North Korea agreed earlier in the
month, banning imports of coal, minerals and sea food.

Summit diplomacy

2018 January - First talks in two years between North and South Koreas begin thaw that leads to the
North sending a team to the Winter Olympics in the South.

2018 April - Kim Jong-un becomes first North Korean leader to enter the South when he meets South
Korean President Moon Jae-in for talks at the Panmunjom border crossing. They agree to end hostile
actions and work towards reducing nuclear arms on the peninsula.

2018 June - Kim Jong-un and US President Donald Trump's historic meeting in Singapore seeks to end a
tense decades-old nuclear stand-off. A follow-up meeting in Hanoi in February 2019 breaks down after
North Korea refuses nuclear disarmament in return for lifting economic sanctions.

2019 April - Kim Jong-un makes first visit to Russia, and receives support from President Vladimir Putin
over security guarantees ahead of nuclear disarmament at a meeting in the far-eastern city of
Vladivostok.

Language:Korean

Culture:

The compound religious strains of shamanism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism have deep roots in
Korean culture. Although the country has received continuous streams of foreign cultural influence
mainly from China, Koreans have kept their identity and maintained and developed their unique
language and customs. Westernization, begun in the late 19th century, was accomplished in harmony
with Korean tradition and slowly transformed the culture without much conflict until the 1940s—
notwithstanding Japanese attempts to obliterate Korean culture during its occupation of the peninsula.

North Korea: Arirang Festival

North Korea: Arirang Festival

Performers at the Arirang Festival in P'yŏngyang, North Korea.

After World War II the occupying Soviets did not recognize the Korean traditional family system or
Confucian philosophy; age-old lineage records were burned, and the kinship system was broken.
Through education, people were molded to fit the pattern of party idealism, and private life and
individual freedom became extremely limited. Development plans since the Korean War have
demanded much from the North Koreans in terms of patience and labour. As a result, the people have
had to lead an austere existence. The standard of living improved over time, but leisure and cultural
activities have continued to be regimented and geared toward organized group activities, such as rallies
and museum tours.

The arts

The government is heavily involved with maintaining and advancing the traditional fine arts and other
cultural features as an expression of nationalism. Statues of Kim Il-sung and public art commemorating
the revolution are ubiquitous. The selection of cultural items is based on communist ideology, and
writers and artists attempt to enhance class consciousness and propagate the superiority and
independence of Korean culture. All North Korean writers, artists, dancers, and musicians are assigned
to government institutions such as the National Theatre for the Arts and the State Symphony Orchestra
in P’yŏngyang and provincial organizations of music, ballet, and drama. The P’yŏngyang University of
Music and Dance provides arts education. Museums have been well supported by the government, and
many archaeological sites have been excavated to promote the growth of a strong nationalistic feeling.
Among the country’s most notable museums are the Korean Revolution Museum and the Korean Fine
Arts Museum in the capital. Archaeological sites include those located in the Nangnang district of
P’yŏngyang and at Kungsan, near Yonggang.

statue of Kim Il-Sung

statue of Kim Il-Sung

Statue of Kim Il-Sung at the Korean Revolution Museum, P'yŏngyang, North Korea.

Edoardo Fornaciari/Gamma–Liaison

Press and broadcasting

Of the daily newspapers, the Rodong (or Nodong) sinmun (“Labour News”), published by the KWP
Central Committee, and the government’s Minju Chosŏn (“Democratic Korea”) have the largest
circulations. The monthly Kŭlloja (“Workers”) of the KWP Central Committee is one of the most
influential periodicals. The Korean Central News Agency controls the dissemination of information, and
all papers are strictly censored. The government long has recognized the importance of radio and
television as mass media, and they have played a great role in ideological education. Radio broadcasts
reach all parts of the country. Almost all North Korean households have access to radio broadcasts as a
result of a government project to link household loudspeakers to village receivers. Television
broadcasting in North Korea also has been made available to all parts of the country, and the number of
television sets, both imported and domestically produced, has increased.

Chan Lee

Woo-ik Yu

History

The following is a treatment of North Korea since the Korean War. For a discussion of the earlier history
of the peninsula, see Korea.

demilitarized zone

demilitarized zone

Bridge crossing the military demarcation line between North and South Korea, P'anmunjŏm, central
Korea.

Filzstift

The Kim Il-Sung era

In 1948, when the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea was established, Kim Il-Sung became the first
premier of the North Korean communist regime. In 1949 he became chairman of the Korean Workers’
Party (KWP), created from communist parties founded earlier. Until his death in 1994, Kim ruled the
country with an iron hand by promoting a personality cult centred on himself as the “Great Leader” of
the Korean people.

The 1950s and ’60s

In the aftermath of the Korean War, Kim purged the so-called “domestic faction”—an indigenous
communist group that had remained in Korea during the colonial period—amid much scapegoating for
the disastrous war. After 1956, as the Sino-Soviet conflict intensified, Kim shifted his positions vis-à-vis
Moscow and Beijing no fewer than three times: from pro-Soviet to neutral, to pro-Chinese, and finally to
independent. During 1956–58, he carried out a purge against the pro-Chinese group known as the Yenan
faction and eliminated a pro-Soviet faction from the KWP Central Committee.
In 1966, after a visit to P’yŏngyang by Soviet Premier Aleksey N. Kosygin, Kim announced what became
known as the independent party line in North Korea, which stressed the principles of “complete
equality, sovereignty, mutual respect, and noninterference among the communist and workers’ parties.”
From this party line, KWP theoreticians developed four self-reliance (juche) principles: “autonomy in
ideology, independence in politics, self-sufficiency in economy, and self-reliance in defense.”

In the late 1960s the regime implemented a program for strengthening the armed forces. As part of the
effort to fortify the entire country, more military airfields were constructed and large underground
aircraft hangars were built. In addition, a large standing army and a strong militia were maintained.

North Korea’s emphasis on strengthening its military forces proceeded hand in hand with its continued
focus on the development of a self-reliant economy. With aid from the Soviet Union, China, and the
countries of eastern Europe, North Korea implemented a series of economic development plans and
made significant gains. But as external aid declined sharply—first from the Soviet Union beginning in the
late 1950s and then from China at the start of the Cultural Revolution in the mid-1960s—the seven-year
plan of 1961–67 was seriously affected, as indicated by the extension of the plan for another three
years.

Religion:

Officially North Korea is an atheist state, however according to most recent estimates, some religions do
exist. These are the Korean religions of Shamanism and Chondoism, as well as Christianity & Buddhism.

The North Korean constitution officially guarantees freedom of religion but in reality this is not the case.
The DPRK was born out of Marxist Leninist principles so like Marx himself, the basics of North Korean
socialism are strongly opposed to and incompatible with religious beliefs.

North Koreans are commonly tought from an early age about the dangers & negative effects of religion,
but some continue to practice their religion underground regardless of the dangers involved.

Korean Shamanism

Korean shamanism has been the ethnic religion of Koreans for centuries. After the division of Korea,
most shaman priests migrated to South Korea and little is known how many practice the religion in the
North today. Shamanism relies heavily on the human connection with spirits. We know from defector
reports that fortune tellers continue to be quite popular in North Korea today. Many people rely on
fortune tellers to guide them in life decisions such as marriage, moving house, jobs etc.

The government periodically release propaganda campaigns to discourage people visiting fortune
tellers, however rumour has it that Kim Jong Il himself would seek the advice of a fortune teller to tell
him how to schedule his on the spot guidance.
Pohyun temple, mount myohyang. Buddhism is a religion of north korea

Foreign group worshiping at Pohyon Temple

Chondoism

Somewhat embraced by the North Korean government over the years, Chondoism is seen as the
national religion of Korea. It even has political representation in Pyongyang in the form of the Chondoist
Chongu Party.

Literally meaning “religion of the Heavenly Way”, Chondoism traces its roots back to the 19th century
and Confucianism. It places an emphasis on personal cultivation and as one improves one’s innate
nature, one comes closer to heaven.

After the division of Korea, the majority of believers settled north and it is estimated that there are
about 2 million Chondoists remaining in North Korea today.

Buddhism

Buddhism has been present on the Korean peninsula since the 4th century, however it never really
gained a foothold. Today there are only about 50 Buddhist temples in North Korea. The vast majority are
historical relics and not used for active worship.

The government has actively sought to discourage Buddhist practices and only about 10,000 believers
remain. A recent revival however, seems to be taking place. A clergy training facility was opened which
provides 3 years Buddhism learning courses. Several temples are also open for tourists to visit. The
Pohyon Temple in the Mount Myohyang area is perhaps the finest preserved temple in the northern
Korea. It dates from the 11th century.

Changchun catholic catedral, Pyongyang. Visit it on a tour of north korea

Changchung Cathedral

Christianity

Christianity landed in Northern Korea from the late 18th Century with the arrival of catholic
missionaries. Protestants came later and between them, large numbers of Koreans were converted. By
the early 20th century, Pyongyang had become an important Christian center, even being referred to as
“the Jerusalem of the East”.
Kim Il Sung himself came from a strong Christian background. His mother was a Presbyterian deaconess.

After the founding of the DPRK in 1948, the government began to crackdown on Christians due to their
perceived ties to America & the west. Thousands are estimated to have disappeared and driven
underground.

Today there are only 4 churches left, all in Pyongyang. Nothing is known of the people who practice and
attend services at these churches or if they are genuine or not. Many of the churches were built in the
last 30 years are seen in some circles as an attempt to showcase religious freedom.

Bongu church, pyongyang. Christianity is a religion in North Korea

Bongsu Church. The largest of its kind in North Korea.

Juche

The DPRK began to introduce its very own Juche Ideology from the 1960s. It broadly states that man is
the master of his own destiny and that self reliance is key. It also states that humans should break free
of any dependency on spiritual ideas and realise that, working together, they can achieve all their goals
without supernatural assistance.

Moreover, due to the presence of a sacred leader, the North Korean system has been likened to a
religious cult on many levels. Eternal President Kim Il Sung and his successors of the same bloodline
have been portrayed as divine beings. The North Korean calendar even begins in 1912. The birth year of
Kim Il Sung.

The topic of religion in North Korea is clearly a complicated one. Religion does exist and religious
freedom is enshrined in the constitution. The reality on the ground however, is very different.

Government:

Dictatorship

Juche

Socialist state

One-party state

Beliefs:

What most characterizes North Korean socialism is its leadership, built on the basis of the cult of
personality of Kim Il Sung. Through the state-engineered education system, Kim and his family are
introduced as role models for men and women, young and old. By the time they are in kindergarten,
children can recite stories from Kim's childhood. Moral ideological education in North Korea is
allegorically organized, with Kim Il Sung and his pedigree as protagonists.

Kim Il Sung's name is ubiquitous in North Korea. For example, if one is asked how one is, the model
answer would be "thanks to the Great Leader Kim Il Sung, I am well," and the North Korean economy is
remarkably strong "thanks to the wise guidance of Marshal Kim Il Sung." The ideology that represents
the leader cult is called the Juche idea. Juche literally means "subject" and is often translated as self-
reliance. In North Korea, slogans such as "Let us model the whole society on the Juche idea!" are heard
daily. North Korea's official history claims that Kim Il Sung first established the Juche ideology in 1927
when he founded the Anti-imperialism Youth League in Jilin in northeastern China. The Juche idea is
quite unlike Marxist historical materialism. Rather, it is a sort of idealism, placing emphasis on human
belief; in this sense, it resembles a religion rather than a political ideology. Under the ideology of Juche,
North Korea achieved many remarkable goals, including the economic recovery from the ashes of the
Korean War. In the name of loyal dedication to Kim Il Sung, national unity was accomplished and
national pride instilled North Korean citizens.

Religion is theoretically permitted in North Korea, and a visitor may meet a Buddhist monk or nun. But
North Koreans hardly have freedom of religion. The monks and nuns that tourists meet may not have
any public followers; indeed, they themselves may be loyal followers of the leader. Traditionally,
northern Korea had strong centers of Christianity, and Christianity played an important role in organizing
anti-Japanese resistance during the colonial period. Similarly, the Ch'ondo religion that emerged in the
nineteenth century as an indigenous Korean religion was strengthened in the process of anti-Japanese
resistance. In fact, many Ch'ondo leaders were included in the initial state-building of North Korea.
Decades of Kim Il Sung worship transformed the religious plurality, though; with the leader's
ascendancy, non- Juche ideas came to be regarded as heterodox and dangerous, or as bourgeois and
capitalist.

Korean culture has an age-old Confucian tradition, although this heritage does not exist in today's North
Korea as it did in the past. Rather, its form and direction changed due to the intervention of leader-
focused socialism. Kim Il Sung often is depicted in a paternalistic manner, personified as a benevolent
father (and at times, father-mother, asexually or bisexually) who looks after the whole population as
children and disciples. Kim Il Sung created the notion of a family state with himself as the head of the
nation. Indeed, a popular North Korean children's song includes this refrain: "Our Father is Marshal Kim
Il Sung/ Our home is the bosom of the party/ We are one big family/ We have nothing to envy in the
whole wide world."

Landforms(Geography):

Most of North Korea is a series of medium-sized mountain ranges and large hills, separated by deep,
narrow valleys. The highest peak, Paektu-san on the volcanic Baekdu Mountain, is located on its
northern border with China, and rises 9,002 ft. (2,744 m).
Along the west coast there are wide coastal plains, while along the Sea of Japan (East Sea) coastline
(North Korea's lowest point at 0 m), narrow plains rise into mountains. Similar to South Korea, dozens of
small islands dot the western coastline.

North Korea's longest river is the Yalu (Yalu). Other large rivers include the Tumen, Taeyang and Imjin.

SRI LANKA

Capital:Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

History:

1505 - Portuguese arrive in Colombo, marking beginning of European interest.

1658 - Dutch force out Portuguese and establish control over whole island except central kingdom of
Kandy.

1796 - Britain begins to take over island.

1815 - Kingdom of Kandy conquered. Britain starts bringing in Tamil labourers from southern India to
work in tea, coffee and coconut plantations.

1833 - Whole island united under one British administration.

1931 - British grant the right to vote and introduce power sharing with Sinhalese-run cabinet.

1948 - Ceylon gains full independence.

Sinhala nationalism

1956 - Solomon Bandaranaike elected on wave of Sinhalese nationalism. Sinhala made sole official
language and other measures introduced to bolster Sinhalese and Buddhist sentiment.

More than 100 Tamils killed in widespread violence after parliamentarians protest at new laws.

1958 - Anti-Tamil riots leave more than 200 people dead. Thousands of Tamils displaced.

1959 - Prime Minister Bandaranaike assassinated by a Buddhist monk. Succeeded by widow, Srimavo,
who continues socialist policies.

1965 - Opposition United National Party wins elections and attempts to reverse socialism.

1970 - Srimavo Bandaranaike returns to power and extends nationalisation programme.

Ethnic tensions

1972 - Ceylon becomes a republic and changes its name to Sri Lanka. Buddhism is given primary place as
the country's religion, further antagonising Tamil minority.

1976 - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) formed as tensions increase in Tamil-dominated areas of
north and east.
1977 - Separatist Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) party wins all seats in Tamil areas. Anti-Tamil riots
leave more than 100 dead.

1983 - 13 soldiers killed in LTTE ambush, sparking anti-Tamil riots leading to the deaths of several
hundred Tamils. Start of what Tigers call "First Eelam War".

Civil war intensifies

1985 - First attempt at peace talks between government and LTTE fails.

1987 - Government forces push LTTE back into northern city of Jaffna. Government signs accords
creating new councils for Tamil areas in north and east and reaches agreement with India on
deployment of Indian peace-keeping force.

1990 - Indian troops leave after getting bogged down in fighting in north. Violence between Sri Lankan
army and separatists escalates. "Second Eelam War" begins.

Thousands of Muslims are expelled from northern areas by the LTTE.

1991 - LTTE implicated in assassination of Indian premier Rajiv Gandhi in southern India.

War and diplomacy

1993 - President Premadasa killed in LTTE bomb attack.

1994 - President Chandrika Kumaratunga comes to power pledging to end war. Peace talks opened with
LTTE.

1995 - "Third Eelam War" begins when rebels sink naval craft.

1995-2001 - War rages across north and east. Tigers bomb Sri Lanka's holiest Buddhist site. President
Kumaratunga is wounded in a bomb attack. Suicide attack on the international airport destroys half the
Sri Lankan Airlines fleet.

Peace moves

2002 February - Government and Tamil Tiger rebels sign a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire.

De-commissioning of weapons begins; the road linking the Jaffna peninsula with the rest of Sri Lanka
reopens after 12 years; passenger flights to Jaffna resume. Government lifts ban on Tamil Tigers. Rebels
drop demand for separate state.

2003 - Tigers pull out of talks. Ceasefire holds.

2003 May - Country's worst-ever floods leave more than 200 people dead and drive some 4,000 people
from their homes.

2004 March - Renegade Tamil Tiger commander, known as Karuna, leads split in rebel movement and
goes underground with his supporters. Tiger offensive regains control of the east.
2004 December - More than 30,000 people are killed when a tsunami, massive waves generated by a
powerful undersea earthquake, devastate coastal communities.

2005 June - Row over deal reached with Tamil Tiger rebels to share nearly $3bn in tsunami aid among
Sinhalas, Tamils and Muslims.

2005 August - State of emergency after foreign minister is killed by a suspected Tiger assassin.

2005 November - Mahinda Rajapaksa, prime minister at the time, wins presidential elections. Most
Tamils in areas controlled by the Tamil Tigers do not vote.

Mounting violence

2006 April - A suicide bomber attacks the main military compound in Colombo, killing at least eight
people. The military launch air strikes on Tamil Tiger targets.

2006 August - Tamil Tiger rebels and government forces resume fighting in the north-east in worst
clashes since 2002 ceasefire. Government steadily drives Tamil Tigers out of eastern strongholds over
following year.

2006 October - Peace talks fail in Geneva.

2008 January - Government pulls out of 2002 ceasefire agreement, launches massive offensive.

2008 July - Sri Lankan military says it has captured the important Tamil Tiger naval base of Vidattaltivu in
the north.

2009 January - Government troops capture the northern town of Kilinochchi, held for ten years by the
Tamil Tigers as their administrative headquarters. President Mahinda Rajapakse calls it an unparalleled
victory and urges the rebels to surrender.

Tamil Tigers defeated

2009 May - Government declares Tamil Tigers defeated after army forces overrun last patch of rebel-
held territory in the northeast. Military says rebel leader Velupillai Prabhakaran was killed in the
fighting. Tamil Tiger statement says the group will lay down its arms.

2009 August - New Tamil Tiger leader Selvarasa Pathmanathan captured overseas by Sri Lankan
authorities.

First post-war local elections in north. Governing coalition wins in Jaffna, but in Vavuniya voters back
candidates who supported Tamil Tigers.

Rajapaksa re-elected

2010 January - President Mahinda Rajapaksa re-elected by a large margin.

2010 April - President Rajapaksa's ruling coalition wins landslide victory in parliamentary elections.

2010 September - Parliament approves a constitutional change allowing President Rajapaksa to seek
unlimited number of terms.
2011 August - President Rajapaksa says his government will allow the expiry of state emergency laws
which have been in place for most of the past 40 years.

2012 March - UN Human Rights Council adopts a resolution urging Sri Lanka to investigate war crimes
allegedly committed during the final phase of the decades-long conflict with Tamil Tiger rebels. Sri Lanka
says the move usurps its sovereignty.

2012 May - Former army chief and opposition presidential candidate Sarath Fonseka is freed after two
and a half years in jail, under terms banning him from running for public office for seven years.

2013 September - Tamil National Alliance opposition party wins first elections to semi-autonomous
provincial council in the north, with 78% of the vote. Commonwealth observers say army intimidation
compromised the vote's environment.

President Sirisena elected

2015 January - Maithripala Sirisena defeats Mahinda Rajapaksa in presidential election, pledging
accountability over alleged atrocities during the civil war.

2015 September - Rajavarothiam Sampanthan becomes the first lawmaker from the ethnic Tamil
minority in 32 years to lead the opposition in parliament.

2016 June - Government acknowledges for the first time that some 65,000 people are missing from its
26-year war with the Tamil Tiger rebels and a Marxist insurrection in 1971.

2017 January - Police clash with protesters demonstrating against a plan to evict villagers to make way
for a mostly Chinese port and industrial zone near the port city of Hambantota.

2018 October - Constitutional crisis as President Sirisena replaces Prime Minister Ranil Wickramasinghe
with former president Mahinda Rajapaksa, and suspends parliament.

2018 November-December - Constitutional Court rules that dissolution of parliament was illegal.
Mahinda Rajapaksa fails to form a government that commands a parliamentary majority. Mr
Wickramasinghe resumes office.

2019 April - Jihadist suicide bombers attack churches and hotels on Easter Sunday, killing more than 350
people.

2019 November - Gotabaya Rajapaksa, the younger brother of former president Mahinda Rajapaksa,
wins the presidential election.

2020 August - President Rajapaksa's SLPP party wins large majority in parliamentary elections.

Language:Sinhala and Tamil

Culture:

The culture of Sri Lanka mixes modern elements with traditional aspects and is known for its regional
diversity. Sri Lankan culture has long been influenced by the heritage of Theravada Buddhism passed on
from India, and the religion's legacy is particularly strong in Sri Lanka's southern and central regions.
Religion:

Buddhism is the largest religion of Sri Lanka with 70.2% of the population practicing the religion; then,
there are Hindus with 12.6%; Muslims with 9.7% and Christians with 7.4%

Government:

Politics of Sri Lanka takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic

republic, whereby the President of Sri Lanka is both head of state and head of government, and of a
multi-party system.

Sri Lanka is governed by a democratically elected president and a 225-member parliament. The
president serves for a term of six years and has the power to dismiss the parliament, out of which the
president selects cabinet members, a prime minister, and a chief justice. Although regular elections at all
levels of government have been held since independence, there are increasing allegations of tampering
and violence. The current leadership is considering a new constitution in which greater powers would be
reserved for the provincial governments, a move calculated to address the ethnic conflicts and end the
nation's civil war.

Beliefs:

Buddhism, the religion of the majority of people in Sri Lanka, is given a place of preference in the
national constitution and public life, although Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity are also practiced by
significant portions of the population. Except in the case of Christians, who are drawn from a variety of
ethnic groups, these religious traditions map directly onto the three major ethnic groups:
Sinhala/Buddhist, Tamil/Hindu, and Muslims.

The 1981 census reported that 69 percent of the population considered themselves Buddhists, 15
percent Hindus, 8 percent Muslims, and 8 percent Christians. In practice, however, there is a degree of
blending between these practices as well as an incorporation of ancient indigenous and astrological
beliefs.

Sri Lankan Buddhists and Hindus, in particular, share a number of foundational beliefs and ritual
practices. The moral codes of both of these religious traditions recommend moderation and restraint,
Hindus stressing the discipline of one's behavior and Buddhists advocating "the middle path." In both,
the concept of karma and rebirth are central, ideas that posit that one's actions in this lifetime
determine the kind of life into which one will be reborn through the quantity of merit that one earns.
While both Buddhism and Hinduism also propose that one can escape the cycle of rebirth, a goal that is
highly elaborated within Buddhism, the acquisition of spiritual merit to gain a better rebirth either for
one's self or one's loved ones generates much of the religious activity of the laity. Among the
participants in both of these religions, there is also a belief in a broad pantheon of gods, spirits, and
demons, into which many local deities have been absorbed. These beings may be male or female,
benevolent or malevolent, moral or amoral, but they are all considered subject to the same laws of
death and rebirth as other beings. Devotees, including some Muslims and Christians, appeal to these
gods to assist them with a variety of (mostly worldly) concerns.

Landforms(Geography)

Sri Lanka is an island nation off the southeastern coast of India, once called Ceylon. The landmass rides
on the same tectonic plate as the Indian mainland, the northern margin of which is subducting beneath
the Eurasian Plate to form the massive crumple of the Himalayas. Its landforms range from significant
mountains to flat plains and seaside lagoons.

Central Highlands

Sri Lanka's most rugged terrain lies in its south-central tier, where a highland mass of plateaus, ridges
and peaks loom over the surrounding plains. High tablelands ring the main massif, the chief summit of
which is 8,281-foot Pidurutalagala, while another tract of gorge-cleft mountains, the Knuckles Range,
rises northward on the other side of lowland valleys. Above 3,280 feet in these highlands grows rich
montane rainforest of impressive biodiversity. They are also immensely significant as the source of Sri
Lanka's major rivers like the Mahaweli Ganga, which tumble off the massifs on waterfall-broken courses
in a radial-drainage pattern.

Plains

The Central Highlands swell from the extensive plains that comprise most of the rest of Sri Lanka, the
boundary between sheer and dramatic on the southeastern front and more gradual elsewhere, with
long ridges fingering down from the high country. These rolling lowlands typically rise around 100 to 650
feet above sea level and are laced with the floodplain meanders of the big rivers come down off the
highlands. Noncultivated or undeveloped areas support tropical evergreen dry forest, scrub and
savannas roamed by Asian elephants.

Coastal Landforms

Sand beaches and lagoons comprise much of the Sri Lankan margin along the Indian Ocean, with cliff-
edged coastline on the limestone Jaffna Peninsula and in the southwestern and northeastern parts of
the country. Natural harbors include Trincomalee and Galle. The Palk Strait separates the Jaffna
Peninsula from the southeastern coast of India, with the Gulf of Mannar to the south. The Palk and the
Gulf of Mannar are separated by a 30-mile belt of shoals called Adam's Bridge or Rama's Bridge that
connects Mannar Island on the Sri Lankan coast with the Indian island of Rameswaram. The "bridge"
figures in both Hindu and Muslim mythology.

Observing

A number of protected areas provide good opportunities for sampling the look and feel of Sri Lanka's
landforms. The Central Highlands, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, include several such areas,
including the Horton Plains National Park, the Peak Wilderness Protected Area and the Knuckles
Conservation Forest. Protected areas in the drier lowlands, such as Yala National Park, showcase that
unique ecology; visitors have the chance to see elephants, Sri Lankan leopards, sloth bears and other
rare species.

KAZAKSHSTAN

Capital:Nur-Sultan

History:

1st-8th centuries - Turkic-speaking and Mongol tribes invade and settle in what is now Kazakhstan and
Central Asia.

Tien Shan mountains Kazakhstan

Image captionThe Tien Shan mountains, Kazakhstan

8th century - Arab invaders introduce Islam.

1219-24 - Mongol tribes led by Genghis Khan invade Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Later they become
assimilated by Turkic tribes that make up the majority in their empire.

Late 15th century - With the formation of the Kazakh khanate, the Kazakhs emerge as a distinct ethnic
group.

Early 17th century - Kazakhs split into three tribal unions, the Elder, Middle and Lesser Zhuzes, or
Hordes, which were led by Khans.

Russian domination

1731-42 - The Khans of the three Zhuzes formally join Russia in pursuit of protection from invasions from
the east by the Mongols.

1822-68 - Despite many uprisings, Tsarist Russia retains control over the Kazakh tribes, deposing the
Khans.

1868-1916 - Thousands of Russian and Ukrainian peasants are brought in to settle Kazakh lands; first
industrial enterprises set up.
ADVERTISEMENT

1916 - A major anti-Russian rebellion is repressed, with about 150,000 people killed and more than
300,000 fleeing abroad.

1917 - Civil war breaks out following the Bolshevik revolution in Russia.

Soviet rule

1920 - Kazakhstan becomes an autonomous republic of the USSR. Until 1925 it is called the Kyrgyz
Autonomous Province to distinguish its people from the Cossacks.

Late 1920s-1930s - Intensive industrialisation and collectivisation of agriculture. More than 1 million
people die from starvation as a result of the campaign to settle nomadic Kazakhs and collectivise
agriculture.

1936 - Kazakhstan becomes a full union republic of the USSR.

A statue of a soldier raising his gun aloft in the town of Kurchatov, Kazakhstan

Image captionA statue in Kurchatov - hundreds of nuclear tests were carried out in the area during
Soviet times

1940s - Hundreds of thousands of Koreans, Crimean Tatars, Germans and others forcibly moved to
Kazakhstan.

1949 - The first nuclear test explosion is carried out at the Semipalatinsk nuclear test ground in eastern
Kazakhstan.

1954-62 - About two million people, mainly Russians, move to Kazakhstan during the campaign to
develop virgin lands launched by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev; the proportion of ethnic Kazakhs in
the republic drops to 30%.

1961 - The first manned spacecraft launched from the Baikonur space launch site in central Kazakhstan.
ADVERTISEMENT

Anti-Soviet stirrings

1986 - About 3,000 people take part in protests in Almaty after Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev
appoints Gennadiy Kolbin, an ethnic Russian, head of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan (CPK),
replacing Dinmukhamed Kunayev, an ethnic Kazakh.

1989 - Nursultan Nazarbayev, an ethnic Kazakh, becomes head of the CPK; parliament adopts a new law
on language, proclaiming Kazakh the state language and Russian a language of inter-ethnic
communication.

1990 - The Supreme Soviet elects Nursultan Nazarbayev first Kazakh president and on 25 October
declares state sovereignty.

1991 August - President Nazarbayev condemns the attempted anti-Gorbachev coup in Moscow; the CPK
withdraws from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union; Nazarbayev signs a decree on closing the
Semipalatinsk nuclear test ground.

Independence

1991 December - Nursultan Nazarbayev wins uncontested presidential elections; Kazakhstan declares
independence from the Soviet Union and joins the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

1992 - Kazakhstan admitted into the United Nations and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in
Europe, the predecessor of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

1993 - A new constitution increasing presidential powers is adopted; a major privatisation programme is
launched; Kazakhstan ratifies the first Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty and the Treaty on the Non-
Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

1995 - Kazakhstan signs economic and military cooperation pact with Russia; nuclear-free status is
obtained; President Nazarbayev's term in office is extended until December 2000 and a new constitution
adopted by national referendum.

Image copyrightGETTY IMAGESAerial view of the city of Astana

Image captionKazakhstan's new capital Astana was known as Akmola until 1998

1997 - Major oil agreements secured with China. The Kazakh capital is moved from Almaty in the south
to Akmola (formerly Tselinograd) in the north.

1998 - New capital is renamed Astana. Constitution amended, extending president's term in office from
five to seven years and removing upper age limit for president.

1999 - Nursultan Nazarbayev re-elected president after main rival, former PM Akezhan Kazhegeldin,
barred from standing. Subsequent parliamentary elections criticised by OSCE for irregularities.

Separatist plot by ethnic Russians in north east Kazakhstan fails.

2000 - Economic Security Strategy up to 2010 is adopted. World Bank praises economic reforms.
Kazakhstan beefs up security on all borders following incursions by Islamist militants in Kyrgyzstan and
Uzbekistan; clampdown on Uighurs after shoot-out in Almaty.

2001 - First major pipeline for transporting oil from Caspian to world markets opens in March, running
from huge Tengiz oil field in western Kazakhstan to Russian Black Sea port of Novorossiysk.

2001 June - Kazakhstan joins China, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in launching the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) which aims to fighting ethnic and religious militancy and to
promote trade.

2001 November - President Nazarbayev purges government of officials accused of joining newly-formed
Democratic Choice reform movement.

2001 December - President Nazarbayev, US President George W Bush meet, declare commitment to
long-term, strategic partnership.

Image copyrightGETTY IMAGESPresident Nazarbayev and former US President George W Bush in 2001

Image captionPresident Nazarbayev and former US President George W Bush in 2001

2002 January - President Nazarbayev appoints Imangali Tasmagambetov as prime minister to replace
Kasymzhomart Tokayev, who quit abruptly.
2002 July - Democratic Choice co-founder and ex-energy minister Mukhtar Ablyazov jailed for alleged
abuse of office.

2002 August - Opposition figure Galymzhan Zhakiyanov, co-founder of Democratic Choice movement
and critic of President Nazarbayev, is jailed for alleged abuse of office as regional governor.

2003 January - Journalist and Nazarbayev critic Sergey Duvanov found guilty of raping minor and jailed.
Rights groups say trial was flawed and an attempt to silence media criticism of president. He is later
released on probation after serving a year of his three and a half year sentence.

2003 May - Jailed opposition leader Mukhtar Ablyazov pardoned and released.

2003 June - Prime Minister Tasmagambetov resigns over proposed land reform bill. Daniyal Akhmetov
replaces him. Bill, allowing private ownership of land, is passed.

2003 December - President Nazarbayev announces moratorium on death penalty

Oil to China

2004 May - Deal signed with China on construction of oil pipeline to Chinese border.

2004 September/October - President Nazarbayev retains control over lower house of parliament as his
Otan party wins majority of seats in elections which international observers criticise as flawed.

Parliament speaker Zharmakhan Tuyakbay resigns in protest at conduct of voting.

2005 January - Court orders dissolution of Democratic Choice, one of the country's main opposition
parties. The party is accused of breaching state security by calling on supporters to protest against
parliamentary election results.

2005 March - Opposition groups join together to form For A Just Kazakhstan movement led by
Zharmakhan Tuyakbay.
2005 November - Opposition figure Zamanbek Nurkadilov, a vocal critic of President Nazarbayev, found
shot dead at his home.

2004 August - Jailed opposition figure Galymzhan Zhakiyanov released from prison two years into seven-
year sentence and sent into internal exile.

2005 December - Nursultan Nazarbayev returned for further term as president with more than 90% of
vote. Western observers say poll flawed.

President Nazarbayev inaugurates a 1,000-km (620 mile) pipeline to carry oil to western China.

2006 January - Opposition leader Galymzhan Zhakiyanov returns home to Almaty from internal exile
after being released on parole.

2006 February - Opposition figure Altynbek Sarsenbaiuly, his bodyguard and driver are found shot dead
outside Almaty.

2007 January - Prime Minister Daniyal Akhmetov resigns, giving no reason for his move. He is replaced
by former deputy premier Karim Masimov.

2007 May - Parliament votes to allow President Nazarbayev to stay in office for an unlimited number of
terms.

Mr Nazarbayev fires son-in-law Rakhat Aliyev in an apparent power struggle.

2007 August - Trial of 30 alleged Islamists accused of belonging to the banned group Hizb ut-Tahrir,
which advocates the setting up of an Islamic state across Central Asia.

2007 August - Elections hand President Nazarbayev's Nur-Otan party all seats in the lower house of
parliament. Observers say the conduct of the vote improved since the last election, but still did not meet
international standards of fairness.
2008 March - President Nazarbayev's exiled former son-in-law, Rakhat Aliyev, is sentenced to 20 years
imprisonment in absentia after being found guilty of plotting a coup. Aliyev denies the charges, saying
they are politically motivated.

2009 April - President Nazarbayev announces his readiness to build a nuclear fuel bank to ensure other
countries do not need to develop their own fuel. Idea first proposed by the International Atomic Energy
Agency in 2005, and supported by both the United States and Russia.

2009 June - A law tightens control over the internet by ruling that chat rooms, blogs and public forums
count as mass media. This means a blogger could break the law by expressing a view.

2009 October - A court rejects an appeal by prominent human rights activist Yevgeny Zhovtis against a
manslaughter conviction stemming from a car accident. Mr Zhovtis and rights groups said he had not
been given a fair trial.

France and Kazakhstan sign energy and business deals worth $6bn during a visit by President Nicolas
Sarkozy. Kazakhstan also agreed to allow French military supplies to pass through on their way to
Afghanistan.

Image copyrightGETTY IMAGESChinese President Hu Jintao (L) and Kazakh President Nursultan
Nazarbayev (R) at a pipeline opening ceremony in Astana in 2009

Image captionChina and Kazakhstan cooperated over a natural gas pipeline which opened in 2009

2009 December - Chinese President Hu Jintao and President Nazarbayev unveil the Kazakh section of a
natural gas pipeline joining Central Asia to China.

2010 January - Kazakhstan becomes the first former Soviet state to chair the Organisation of Security
and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) security and rights group, despite criticism of its own democratic
credentials. President Nazarbayev signals a change in emphasis from rights to security.

2010 February - A court overturns an earlier ruling that banned the media from publishing criticism of
President Nazarbayev's son-in-law Timur Kulibayev. The OSCE had criticised the ban.

More powers for president

2010 May - Parliament approves a bill granting more powers to President Nazarbayev, granting him the
title of "leader of the nation" and immunity from prosecution.

2010 July - A customs union between Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan comes into force after Belarus
ratifies a key customs code.

2011 February - President Nazarbayev calls early presidential election, after a planned referendum on
allowing him to stay on unopposed until 2020 is ruled unconstitutional.

Image copyrightAFPRiot police patrolling the Kazakh town of Zhanaozen following riots in December
2011

Image captionZhanaozen, site of clashes between striking workers and police in 2011, is an oil-rich town

2011 April - President Nazarbayev wins re-election in a poll boycotted by the opposition.

2011 December - Clashes between striking workers and police in western oil town of Zhanaozen leave
16 people dead. The government declares a state of emergency.

2012 January - Parliamentary elections, which international monitors say fail to meet basic democratic
principles.

2012 October - Vladimir Kozlov, leader of an unofficial Alga opposition party, is jailed for seven and a
half years after being found guilty of "attempting to overthrow the government" in an alleged plot with
exiled politician and businessman Mukhtar Ablyazov. The authorities accuse Mr Kozlov of inciting
violence during the Zhanaozen protests in December. Mr Kozlov says the sentence is politically
motivated.

2013 June - David Cameron becomes the first serving British Prime Minister to pay an official visit to
Kazakhstan. The UK is the third largest investor in the oil-rich central Asian nation.

2013 July - Amnesty International accuses President Nazarbeyev of making false promises to the
international community about eradicating torture, and says the Kazakh security services carry out
torture with impunity.
2014 January - A French court approves the extradition of Kazakh tycoon and dissident Mukhtar
Ablyazov, accused of massive fraud, to Russia or Ukraine. Ablyazov is accused of stealing billions of
dollars from the Kazakh BTA Bank, which also operates in Russia and Ukraine. He denies the charges and
says he will appeal.

2014 May - Russia, Kazahkstan and Belarus sign an agreement creating an economic union. The Eurasian
Economic Union aims to create a shared market and integrate economic policy across the three former
Soviet countries.

2015 January - Eurasian Economic Union between Russia, Kazahkstan and Belarus comes into force.

2015 February - Kazakhstan's former ambassador to Austria, Rakhat Aliyev, is found dead in a prison cell
in Vienna.

2015 April - President Nazarbayev is re-elected with 97.7 per cent of votes cast. Opposition parties did
not field any candidates and the two other contenders were widely seen as pro-government.

2015 May - Authorities say about one-third of the endangered saiga antelope population - as many as
85,000 animals - has mysteriously died over the space of a several days possibly by a bacterial infection.

2015 August - Kazakhstan's currency, the Tenge, plunges in value by more than a third in one day
precipitated by the government floating the currency after spending 28 billion US dollars propping it up.

An agreement is signed to create the world's first bank of low-enriched uranium in the northeast of
Kazakhstan. The bank will be managed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

2015 September - President Nazarbayev appoints his daughter, Dariga, as deputy prime minister in a
move linked to possible succession planning.

2015 December - Former Prime Minister Serik Akhmetov is sentenced to 10 years in prison for
corruption including abuse of office and embezzlement of state funds.
2016 March - The government bans the use of mobile devices in government buildings - including
smartphones, tablets and smart watches following cases of confidential information being leaked
through the mobile messenger WhatsApp.

2016 April - Kazakhstan enacts a law allowing for the use of chemical castration on convicted
paedophiles, after authorities report a 50 per cent on 2015.

2016 May - Police arrest dozens of anti-government protesters after they hold rallies against
controversial land reforms.

2016 August - Vladimir Kozlov, the leader of an unofficial opposition party, is released four years into a
seven and half-year prison sentence on charges of attempting to overthrow the government.

2016 December - France blocks the extradition to Russia of Kazakh banker, former energy minister and
opposition figure Mukhtar Ablyazov, who is accused of embezzling up to six billion dollars.

Nazarbayev era ends

2017 March - Parliament approves constitutional reforms that will reduce the president's powers in
favour of lawmakers and the cabinet.

2018 May - Parliament appoints President Nazarbayev chairman for life of a newly-strengthened
Security Council, preparing the stage for his post-presidential role.

2019 March - President Nazarbayev announces his resignation.

2019 April - President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, the former Senate chairman, announces snap
presidential elections for 9 June.

Language:Kazakh language, also spelled Kazak, member of the Turkic language family within the Altaic
language group, belonging to the northwestern, or Kipchak, branch. The Kazakh language is spoken
primarily in Kazakhstan and in the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang in China but is also found in
Uzbekistan, Mongolia, and Afghanistan. The so-called Kipchak-Uzbek dialect is closely related to Kazakh
and is considered by some to be a Kazakh dialect (its speakers, however, use the Uzbek literary
language). See also Turkic languages.

Culture:

Kazakh culture is largely influenced by the Turkic nomadic lifestyle. Kazakh culture seems also to be
strongly influenced by the nomadic Scythians. Because animal husbandry was central to the Kazakhs'
traditional lifestyle, most of their nomadic practices and customs relate in some way to livestock.

Religion:
Islam is the most commonly practiced religion in Kazakhstan; it was introduced to the region during the
8th century by the Arabs. Traditionally ethnic Kazakhs are Sunni Muslims who mainly follow the Hanafi
school. Kazakhs including other ethnic groups of Muslim background make up over 90 per cent of all
Muslims.

Government:

Republic under Authoritarian

Beliefs:

Religion in Kazakhstan is in a time of change. Arabs brought Islam to the region in the ninth century, and
more than a thousand years later, Russian Orthodoxy was introduced by Russian settlers from the north.
For all intents and purposes no religion was practiced for the seventy years of Soviet influence over the
region; religious participation was banned, and many churches and mosques were destroyed—religious
traditions were lost in the name of Soviet atheism. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, 47
percent of the people profess to be Muslim (mainly Sunni branch) and 44 percent Russian Orthodox.
However, few people practice religion in any formal way, but Kazakhs have incorporated religion into
some parts of their everyday life; for example, they cover their faces in a short prayer when they pass
graveyards where someone they know is buried, and they often say prayers after meals. Sayings such as
"God willing" and "this is from God" are very common in everyday speech.

There are virtually no visible tensions between Muslims and Christians in Kazakhstan. Religion was such
a nonfactor for so many years, and continues to occupy so little of everyday life, that it is simply not an
issue of importance between Russians and Kazakhs.

Landforms(Geography)

Kazakhstan, a large, ethnically diverse country, shares major borders with Russia and China. The
landscapes in Kazakhstan range from high mountainous regions to lowland plains. The country was once
a part of the Soviet Union and still retains a large Russian population of about one-fourth of its people.
Kazakhstan’s largest city, Almaty, and the surrounding area are home to many tourist attractions.

Tien Shan and Tengri Tag Mountains

The Tien Shan mountain range, which includes the Tengri Tag subrange, runs along the country’s
southeastern border with China. The name translates in both Kazakh and Chinese to “heavenly
mountains.” The mountain ranges were formed as a result of a geologic folding during the Paleozoic
Period. Those geological processes are still present, resulting in severe earthquakes in the area. The
range’s highest peak, Victory Peak, stands at the Kazakhstan-China border and reaches a height of
24,406 feet
SYRIA

Capital:Damascus

History:

1918 October - Arab troops led by Emir Feisal, and supported by British forces, capture Damascus,
ending 400 years of Ottoman rule.

1919 - Emir Feisal backs Arab self-rule at the Versailles peace conference, following the defeat of
Germany and the Ottoman Empire in World War I.

1920 March - National Congress elected the previous year proclaims Emir Feisal King of Syria from the
Taurus mountains of Turkey to the Sinai desert in Egypt.

French control

1920 June - San Remo conference puts Syria-Lebanon under a French mandate and Palestine under
British control. King Feisal flees abroad ahead of French occupation forces the following month.

1920-21 - Syria is divided into three autonomous regions by the French, with separate areas for the
Alawis on the coast and the Druze in the south. Lebanon is separated off entirely.

Uprising

1925-6 - Nationalist agitation against French rule develops into uprising. French forces bombard
Damascus.

1928 - Elections held for a constituent assembly, which drafts a constitution for Syria. French High
Commissioner rejects the proposals, sparking nationalist protests.

1936 - France agrees to work towards Syrian independence and dissolves the autonomous regions, but
maintains military and economic dominance and keeps Lebanon as a separate state.

1941 - British and Free French troops occupy Syria. General De Gaulle promises to end the French
mandate.
1943 - Veteran nationalist Shukri al-Kuwatli is elected first president of Syria, leads the country to full
independence three years later.

Baath Party founded

1947 - Michel Aflaq and Salah-al-Din al-Bitar found the Arab Socialist Baath Party.

1949-1954 - Civilian government disrupted by repeated coups.

1955 - Shukri al-Kuwatli returns to power, seeks closer ties with Egypt.

1958 February - Syria and Egypt form the United Arab Republic. Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser
heads the new state. He orders the dissolution of Syrian political parties, to the dismay of the Baath
party, which had campaigned for union.

1961 September - Discontent with Egyptian domination prompts a group of Syrian army officers to seize
power in Damascus and dissolve the union.

Rise of Assad

1963 March - Baathist army officers seize power.

1966 February - Salah Jadid leads an internal coup against the civilian Baath leadership. Hafez al-Assad
becomes defence minister.

1967 June - Israeli forces seize the Golan Heights from Syria and destroy much of Syria's air force in the
Six Day War with Egypt, Jordan and Syria.

1970 November - Hafez al-Assad overthrows president Nur al-Din al-Atasi and imprisons Salah Jadid.

1973 - Rioting breaks out after President Assad drops the constitutional requirement that the president
must be a Muslim. Suppressed by the army.
War with Israel

1973 October - Syria and Egypt go to war with Israel, but fail to retake the Golan Heights seized in 1967.

1975 February - President Assad says he's prepared to make peace with Israel in return for an Israeli
withdrawal from "all occupied Arab land".

1976 June - Syrian army intervenes in the Lebanese civil war to ensure that the status quo is maintained,
keeping its Maronite Christian allies in a position of strength.

Muslim Brotherhood rises

1980 - After the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Muslim groups instigate uprisings and riots in Aleppo, Homs
and Hama.

1980 September - Start of Iran-Iraq war. Syria backs Iran, in keeping with the traditional rivalry between
Baathist leaderships in Iraq and Syria.

1981 December - Israel formally annexes the Golan Heights.

Uprising in Hama

1982 February - Muslim Brotherhood uprising in the city of Hama suppressed by army, tens of
thousands of civilians killed.

1982 June - Israel invades Lebanon and attacks the Syrian army, forcing it to withdraw from several
areas. Israel attacks the PLO base in Beirut.

1983 May - Lebanon and Israel announce the end of hostilities. Syrian forces remain in Lebanon.

1984 - President's brother Rifaat promoted to vice-president.

Return to Lebanon
1987 February - President Assad sends troops into Lebanon for a second time to enforce a ceasefire in
Beirut.

1990 - Iraq invades Kuwait; Syria joins the US-led coalition against Iraq. This leads to improved relations
with Egypt and the US.

1991 October - Syria participates in the Middle East peace conference in Madrid and holds talks with
Israel that founder over the Golan Heights issue.

1994 - President Assad's son Basil, who was likely to succeed his father, is killed in a car accident.

1998 - President Assad's brother Rifaat is dismissed as vice-president.

1999 December - Further talks with Israel over the Golan Heights begin in the US, but are indefinitely
postponed the following month.

Assad succession

2000 June - President Assad dies and is succeeded by his second son, Bashar.

2000 November - The new president orders the release of 600 political prisoners.

2001 April - Outlawed Muslim Brotherhood says it will resume political activity, 20 years after its leaders
were forced to flee.

2001 June - Syrian troops evacuate Beirut, redeploy in other parts of Lebanon, following pressure from
Lebanese critics of Syria's presence.

2001 September - Detention of MPs and other pro-reform activists, crushing hopes of a break with the
authoritarian past of Hafez al-Assad. Arrest continue, punctuated by occasional amnesties, over the
following decade.

Tensions with US
2002 May - Senior US official includes Syria in a list of states that make-up an "axis of evil", first listed by
President Bush in January. Undersecretary for State John Bolton says Damascus is acquiring weapons of
mass destruction.

2004 January - President Assad visits Turkey, the first Syrian leader to do so. The trip marks the end of
decades of frosty relations, although ties sour again after the popular uprising in 2011.

2004 May - US imposes economic sanctions on Syria over what it calls its support for terrorism and
failure to stop militants entering Iraq.

2005 February-April- Tensions with the US escalate after the killing of former Lebanese PM Hariri in
Beirut. Washington cites Syrian influence in Lebanon. Damascus is urged to withdraw its forces from
Lebanon, which it does by April.

Diplomatic overtures

2006 November - Iraq and Syria restore diplomatic relations after nearly a quarter century.

2007 March - European Union relaunches dialogue with Syria.

2007 April - US House of Representatives Speaker Nancy Pelosi meets President Assad in Damascus. She
is the highest-placed US politician to visit Syria in recent years. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice
meets Foreign Minister Walid Muallem the following month in the first contact at this level for two
years.

2007 September - Israel carries out an aerial strike against a nuclear facility under construction in
northern Syria.

2008 July - President Assad meets French President Nicolas Sarkozy in Paris. The visit signals the end of
the diplomatic isolation by the West that followed the assassination of former Lebanese PM Rafik Hariri
in 2005.

2008 October - Syria establishes diplomatic relations with Lebanon for first time since both countries
established independence in 1940s.
2009 March - Jeffrey Feltman, acting assistant US secretary of state for the Near East, visits Damascus
with White House national security aide Daniel Shapiro in first high-level US diplomatic mission for
nearly four years. Meets Foreign Minister Walid Muallem.

Trading launches on Syria's stock exchange in a gesture towards liberalising the state-controlled
economy.

2010 May - US renews sanctions against Syria, saying that it supports terrorist groups, seeks weapons of
mass destruction and has provided Lebanon's Hezbollah with Scud missiles in violation of UN
resolutions.

Nationwide uprising

2011 March - Security forces shoot dead protestors in southern city of Deraa demanding release of
political prisoners, triggering violent unrest that steadily spread nationwide over the following months.

President Assad announces conciliatory measures, releasing dozens of political prisoners, dismissing
government, lifting 48-year-old state of emergency.

2011 May - Army tanks enter Deraa, Banyas, Homs and suburbs of Damascus in an effort to crush anti-
regime protests. US and European Union tighten sanctions.

2011 June - The IAEA nuclear watchdog decides to report Syria to the UN Security Council over its
alleged covert nuclear programme reactor programme. The structure housing the alleged reactor was
destroyed in an Israeli air raid in 2007.

Opposition organises

2011 July - President Assad sacks the governor of the northern province of Hama after mass
demonstration there, eventually sending in troops to restore order at the cost of scores of lives.

2011 October - New Syrian National Council says it has forged a common front of internal and exiled
opposition activists.
2011 November - Arab League votes to suspend Syria, accusing it of failing to implement an Arab peace
plan, and imposes sanctions.

2012 February - Government steps up the bombardment of Homs and other cities.

2012 March - UN Security Council endorses non-binding peace plan drafted by UN envoy Kofi Annan.
China and Russia agree to support the plan after an earlier, tougher draft is modified.

2012 June - Turkey changes rules of engagement after Syria shoots down a Turkish plane, declaring that
if Syrian troops approach Turkey's borders they will be seen as a military threat.

2012 July - Free Syria Army blows up three security chiefs in Damascus and seizes parts of the city of
Aleppo in the north.

2012 August - Prime Minister Riad Hijab defects, US President Obama warns that use of chemical
weapons would tilt the US towards intervention.

2012 October - Fire in Aleppo destroys much of the historic market as fighting and bomb attacks
continue in various cities.

2012 November - National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces formed in Qatar,
excludes Islamist militias. Arab League stops short of full recognition.

2012 December - US, Britain, France, Turkey and Gulf states formally recognise opposition National
Coalition as "legitimate representative" of Syrian people.

2013 January - Syria accuses Israel of bombing military base near Damascus, where Hezbollah was
suspected of assembling a convoy of anti-aircraft missiles bound for Lebanon.

Rise of Islamists

2013 September - UN weapons inspectors conclude that chemical weapons were used in an attack on
the Ghouta area of Damascus in August that killed about 300 people, but do not allocate responsibility.
Government allows UN to destroy chemical weapons stocks, process complete by June 2014.
2013 December - US and Britain suspend "non-lethal" support for rebels in northern Syria after reports
that Islamist rebels seized bases of Western-backed Free Syrian Army.

2014 January-February - UN-brokered peace talks in Geneva fail, largely because Syrian authorities
refuse to discuss a transitional government.

2014 March - Syrian Army and Hezbollah forces recapture Yabroud, the last rebel stronghold near the
Lebanese border.

2014 June - Islamic State of Iraq and Syria militants declare "caliphate" in territory from Aleppo to
eastern Iraqi province of Diyala.

2014 September - US and five Arab countries launch air strikes against Islamic State around Aleppo and
Raqqa.

2015 January - Kurdish forces push Islamic State out of Kobane on Turkish border after four months of
fighting.

2015 May - Islamic State fighters seize the ancient city of Palmyra in central Syria and proceed to destroy
many monuments at pre-Islamic World Heritage site.

Jaish al-Fatah (Army of Conquest) Islamist rebel alliance takes control of Idlib Province, putting pressure
on government's coastal stronghold of Latakia.

Russian intervention

2015 September - Russia carries out its first air strikes in Syria, saying they target the Islamic State group,
but the West and Syrian opposition say it overwhelmingly targets anti-Assad rebels.

2015 December - Syrian Army allows rebels to evacuate remaining area of Homs, returning Syria's third-
largest city to government control after four years.
2016 March - Syrian government forces retake Palmyra from Islamic State with Russian air assistance,
only to be driven out again in December.

2016 August - Turkish troops cross into Syria to help rebel groups push back so-called Islamic State
militants and Kurdish-led rebels from a section of the two countries' border.

2016 December - Government troops, backed by Russian air power and Iranian-sponsored militias,
recapture Aleppo, the country's largest city, depriving the rebels of their last major urban stronghold.

2017 January - Russia, Iran and Turkey agree to enforce a ceasefire between the government and non-
Islamist rebels, after talks between the two sides in Kazakhstan.

US intervenes

2017 April - US President Donald Trump orders a missile attack on an airbase from which Syrian
government planes allegedly staged a chemical weapons attack on the rebel-held town of Khan
Sheikhoun.

2017 May - US decides to arm the YPG Kurdish Popular Protection Units. These fight alongside the main
opposition Syrian Democratic Forces, which captures the important Tabqa dam from Islamic State.

2017 June - US shoots down Syrian fighter jet near Raqqa after it allegedly dropped bombs near US-
backed rebel Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF).

2017 July - The Lebanese militant group Hezbollah and the Syrian army launch a military operation to
dislodge jihadist groups from the Arsal area, near the Lebanese-Syrian border.

Islamic State retreats

2017 October-November - The Islamic State group is driven from Raqqa, its de-facto capital in Syria, and
Deir al-Zour.

2018 January - Turkey launches an assault on northern Syria to oust Kurdish rebels controlling the area
around Afrin.
2018 April - Claims of a new chemical attack in Eastern Ghouta's main town of Douma prompt

the US, Britain and France to carry out a wave of punitive strikes on Syrian targets.

2018 July - Syrian army recaptures almost all of the south of the country, up to the borders with Jordan
and Israeli-held territory.

2018 September-December - Kurdish-led SDF forces launch offensive that reduces Islamic State territory
to a tiny enclave on the Iraqi border.

2019 October - US withdraws troops from northern Syria, prompting Turkey to attack US Kurdish allies in
the area.

Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi dies in US raid on his hideout in Idlib Province.

2020 March - Turkey sends thousands of troops across the border to stop a Syrian offensive to retake
Idlib, the last province still in opposition hands.

2020 June - Protests in southern Syria at growing economic hardship prompt President Assad to dismiss
Prime Minister Imad Khamis.

Language:Arabic

Culture:

Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history. Importance is placed on family, religion,
education and self-discipline and respect. The Syrian's taste for the traditional arts is expressed in
dances such as the al-Samah, the Dabkeh in all their variations and the sword dance.

Religion:

According to CIA World Factbook, 87% of Syrians are Muslim, the majority being Sunni Muslims (74%).1
A further 13% are Shi’a Muslims, following the Alawite (11%), Ismaili (1%) or Twelver Imami (0.5%) sects.
Christians make up an additional 10% of the population with the remaining 3% being a combination of
Druze, Jews and atheists.

Government:

Syria is considered a unitary republic with a semi-presidential style of government

Beliefs:
Approximately 74% of the total population are Sunni and 16% are Shia (namely Alawite and Ismaili)9.
Minority religious groups include Arab Christians (Greek Orthodox and Catholic), Syriac Christians (also
known as Chaldeans), Aramaic-speaking Christians, and Armenian Orthodox and Catholics9.

Landforms(Geography)

Syria boasts a broad spectrum of Middle Eastern landforms, from a coastal plain made fertile by a rich
Mediterranean climate to snow-dusted mountains to broad flat deserts. As anywhere, its topography --
interacting with climatic factors -- exerts a major influence on the human population.

Coastal Plain

Syria's most benevolent region from a climatic perspective is the relatively narrow plain along the
eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea, stretching from the Turkish to the Lebanese borders. That great
body of water gives its name to a climate classification -- the Mediterranean climate -- exceedingly rare
on a global scale, found most extensively in its namesake region but also in small parts of California,
South Africa, Chile and southern Australia. Influenced by marine waters and prevailing winds, such
places are unusually mild for their latitude. Most of the annual rainfall -- about 38 inches -- falls in winter
and spring. Cities on the coastal plain include the major port of Latakia.

Mountains

Several mountain ranges run partly within Syria's borders. The Anti-Lebanon Mountains straddle the
Syria-Lebanon border and include Syria's loftiest summit, 9,323-foot Mount Hermon. This formidable
spine casts a rain shadow, creating semi-arid and arid country in its lee. The Anti-Lebanon Mountains
track northeastward into the plateau of central Syria, ultimately ending to the east of Palmyra. Syria's
coastal plain is bound at its eastern edge by the Jabal an Nusayriyah, a range averaging close to 4,000
feet in elevation. The western slopes are well-watered by Mediterranean winds; the eastern slopes are
drier. The plateaus east of the coastal range are broken by mountains like the Jabal ar Ruwaq.

Steppe and Desert

Much of Syria, set in the rain shadow of coastal mountains and in the subtropical zone of prevailing dry
high-pressure systems, is semi-arid steppe and true desert. The Syrian Desert sprawls across portions of
Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Smaller designations of drylands in the country include the Hamad
Desert, south of the plateau ranges, and the Homs Desert, east of the city of the same name. Southern
Syria includes the high lava plains of the Jabal ad Druze, which includes many volcanic cones active
during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Some of Syria's great cities, such as Aleppo in the
northwest and Damascus in the lee of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, lie on the steppes east of the
coastal country.

Rivers
Syria's most important river is the Euphrates, which rises in the highlands of Turkey and drains
southeastward into Iraq to its great confluence with the Tigris above the Persian Gulf. Ephemeral
streams called wadis drain into the Euphrates off the dry steppe and deserts of central and southern
Syria, while more substantial rivers like the Khabur, rising in Turkey, feed it from the east. Oases in the
Syrian drylands -- places where springs or other water sources nourish groves of palms and greenery in
the sere environment -- have long been important to nomadic herders and sedentary inhabitants alike.
Damascus marks the site of the Al Ghutah Oasis, formed by the Barada River that drops from the Anti-
Lebanon Mountains into the desert eastward.
CAMBODIA
Capital- Phnom Penh
History-. Cambodia's culture has its roots in the 1st to 6th centuries, in a state called Funan,
which is also the oldest Indianised state in Southeast Asia. Funan gave way to the Angkor
Empire with the rise to power of King Jayavarman II in AD802. The following 600 years saw
powerful Khmer kings dominate much of present-day Southeast Asia, from the borders of
Myanmar east to the South China Sea and north to Laos.
Cambodia's language, part of the Mon-Khmer family, evolved during this period. It contains
elements of Sanskrit, the classical language of Hinduism and Buddhism. Historians have noted
that Cambodians can be distinguished from their neighbours by their clothing – checkered
scarves known as karmas are worn instead of straw hats.
It was during this period that the Khmer kings built the most extensive concentration of
religious temples in the world – the Angkor temple complex. This complex covers an area of 400
sq km in the province of Siem Reap. The area contains more than 100 temples and there are
more than 1,080 temples across the country.
The most successful of the Angkorian kings, Jayavarman II and Jayavarman I, Suryavarman II
and Jayavarman VII, also devised a masterpiece of ancient engineering: a sophisticated
irrigation system that includes a number of baray (gigantic manmade lakes) and canals that
ensured as many as 3 rice crops a year. Part of this system is still in use today.

As the Angkor period ended, Cambodia's capital moved south to Longvek, then to Oudong, and
finally to the present-day capital of Phnom Penh. Among the main features of the post-
Angkorean era, besides the movement of the capital, was a widespread conversion to
Theravada Buddhism, illustrated in temple carvings, where Buddhist features gradually
replaced Hindu features.
The 15th to 17th centuries represented a time of foreign influence, when expansionist Siam and
Vietnam fought over Cambodia. By the mid-1800s, Cambodia, like most other countries in Asia,
came under increasing pressure from European colonial powers. In 1863, King Norodom signed
a Protectorate Treaty with France.

In 1945, the Japanese briefly ousted the French. Encouraged, King Sihanouk campaigned
tirelessly and in 1953 he succeeded in winning independence for Cambodia, effectively ending
90 years under French protectorate. King Sihanouk abdicated the throne to his father and took
the reins of government himself as head of state.
Throughout the 1950s and '60s, Cambodia was self-sufficient and prospered in many areas.
However, the quagmire of a growing war in Vietnam spread relentlessly and in 1970, as war
spilt over into Cambodia, Prince Sihanouk was overthrown by General Lon Nol.

On 17 April 1975, Lon Nol's weak-ended government was itself overthrown by the Khmer
Rouge. They immediately emptied the capital of its residents and brought Prince Sihanouk back,
only to hold him under house arrest. The ensuing four years "Reign of Terror" under Pol Pot's
Democratic Kampuchea resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.7 million people.
In 1979, the Khmer Rouge was overthrown and the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of
Kampuchea was established. In 1989 the Vietnamese withdrew the last of their troops and the
government renamed the country State of Cambodia (SOC).
The SOC ruled independently until the Paris Peace Agreement of 1991 created the United
Nations Transitional Authority (UNTAC). Supported by the presence of some 22,000 UN troops,
UNTAC supervised general elections in Cambodia in May 1993. A second general election was
held in 1998.
Cambodia today enjoys a parliamentary system with one prime minister. A constitution was
adopted in 1993, the same year King Norodom Sihanouk returned to the throne. His Majesty
remains a symbol of national unity to his people.
Languange-Khmer language, also called Cambodian, Mon-Khmer language spoken by most of
the population of Cambodia, where it is the official language, and by some 1.3 million people in
southeastern Thailand, and also by more than a million people in southern Vietnam.
Culture-Before 1970, Cambodian culture and artistic expression were informed by the
greatness of the past. The Khmer empire owed much to Indian influence, but its achievements
also represented original contributions to Asian civilization. The magnificent architecture and
sculpture of the Angkor period (802–1432), as seen in the temple complexes at Angkor Wat and
Angkor Thom, marked a high point of Khmer creativity. Following the capture of Angkor by the
Tai (15th century) and the crumbling of the empire, the region underwent four centuries of
foreign invasions, civil war, and widespread depopulation. It was not until the establishment of
the French protectorate in 1863 that internal security was restored, the country’s borders
stabilized, and efforts undertaken to revive traditional Khmer art forms. After Cambodia gained
independence from France in 1953, the government placed particular emphasis on accelerating
that revival. This coincided with the rapid expansion of primary and secondary school facilities
and the emergence of education as the most important factor of social mobility.
Religion-Thearavada Buddhism is the official religion in Cambodia which is practiced by 95
percent of the population-- just like that of Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka.
Government-. constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [621]; National
Assembly [125])
Beliefs-Theravada Buddhism is the religion of virtually all of the ethnic Khmers, who constitute
about 90% or more of the Cambodian population. Buddhism originated in what are now north
India and Nepal during the sixth century B.C. Theravada Buddhism is a tolerant, non-
prescriptive religion that does not require belief in a supreme being.
Its precepts require that each individual take each individual take full responsibility for his own
actions and omissions.
Buddha
Buddhism is based on three concepts: dharma (the doctrine of the Buddha, his guide to right
actions and belief); karma (the belief that one's life now and in future lives depends upon one's
own deeds and misdeeds and that as an individual one is responsible for, and rewarded on the
basis of, the sum total of one's acts and act's incarnations past and present); and sangha, the
ascetic community within which man can improve his karma. The Buddhist salvation is nirvana,
a final extinction of one's self. Nirvana may be attained by achieving good karma through
earning much merit and avoiding misdeeds.
A Buddhist's pilgrimage through existence is a constant attempt to distance himself or herself
from the world and finally to achieve complete detachment, or nirvana. The fundamentals of
Buddhist doctrine are the Four Noble Truths: suffering exits; craving (or desire) is the cause of
suffering; release from suffering can be achieved by stopping all desire; and enlightenment

Buddha hood – can be attained by following the Noble Eightfold Path (right views, right
intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration), which constitutes a middle way between sensuality and ascetism.
Enlightenment consists of knowing these truths. The average layperson cannot hope for nirvana
after the end of this life, but can by complying, as best he or she is able to, with the doctrine's
rules of moral conduct-hope to improve his or her karma and thereby better his condition in
the next incarnation.
Landforms (Geography)-
Cambodia, country on the Indochinese mainland of Southeast Asia. Cambodia is largely a land
of plains and great rivers and lies amid important overland and river trade routes linking China
to India and Southeast Asia. The influences of many Asian cultures, alongside those of France
and the United States, can be seen in the capital, Phnom Penh, one of a handful of urban
centres in the largely rural country.
JORDAN
Capital-Amman
History-1922 - The Council of the League of Nations recognizes Transjordan as a state under
British supervision.

Image copyrightGETTY IMAGESRefugee camp for Palestinians in Jordan

Image captionShortly after gaining independence Jordan became home to hundreds of
thousands of Palestinian refugees
1946 - The United Nations recognizes Jordan as an independent sovereign kingdom.

1948 - State of Israel created in British-mandate Palestine. Thousands of Palestinians flee Arab-
Israeli fighting to West Bank and Jordan.

1950 - Jordan annexes West Bank.

1951 July - King Abdullah assassinated by Palestinian gunman angry at his apparent collusion
with Israel in the division of Palestine.

Image copyrightGETTY IMAGESKing Abdullah of Jordan pictured in 1948

Image captionKing Abdullah - Jordan's first monarch - was assassinated in 1951
1952 August - Hussein proclaimed king after his father, Talal, is declared mentally unfit to rule.

1957 - British troops complete their withdrawal from Jordan.

1967 - Israel takes control of Jerusalem and West Bank during Six-Day War, major influx of
refugees into Jordan.

1970 - Major clashes break out between government forces and Palestinian guerrillas resulting
in thousands of casualties in civil war remembered as Black September.
1972 - Attempted military coup thwarted.

1986 - Hussein severs political links with the PLO and orders its main offices to shut.

1989 - Rioting in several cities over price increases.

1989 - First general election since 1967, contested only by independent candidates because of
the 1963 ban on political parties.

Peace deal signed

1994 - Jordan signs peace treaty with Israel, ending 46-year official state of war.

1996 - Food price riots after subsidies removed under economic plan supervised by the
International Monetary Fund.

King Hussein dies

1999 February - King Hussein dies, his eldest son Crown Prince Abdullah succeeds to the throne.

2000 September - A military court sentences six men to death for plotting attacks against Israeli
and US targets.

2001 March - King Abdullah and presidents Bashar al-Assad of Syria and Hosni Mubarak of
Egypt inaugurate a $300m (£207m) electricity line linking the grids of the three countries.

2002 January - Riots erupt in the southern town of Maan, the worst public disturbances in more
than three years, following the death of a youth in custody.
2002 September - Jordan and Israel agree on a plan to pipe water from the Red Sea to the
shrinking Dead Sea. The project, costing $800m, is the two nations' biggest joint venture to
date.

2002 October - Senior US diplomat Laurence Foley is gunned down outside his home in Amman
by al-Qaeda fighters, in the first assassination of a Western diplomat in Jordan. Scores of
political activists are rounded up.

2003 June - First parliamentary elections under King Abdullah II. Independent candidates loyal
to the king win two-thirds of the seats.

2004 February - King Abdullah and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad launch the Wahdah Dam
project at a ceremony on the River Yarmuk.

Terror
2004 April - Authorities seize cars filled with explosives and arrest several suspects said to be
linked to al-Qaeda and planning chemical bomb attack on intelligence services HQ in Amman.

2005 March - Jordan returns its ambassador to Israel after a four-year absence. Amman
recalled its envoy in 2000 after the outbreak of the Palestinian uprising.

2005 April - A new cabinet is sworn in, led by Prime Minister Adnan Badran, after the previous
government resigns amid reports of the king's unhappiness over the pace of reforms.

2005 August - Al-Qaeda fires three missiles from inside Jordan, two of which narrowly miss US
naval vessels at the port of Aqaba while the third lands near Eilat airport in Israel. A Jordanian
soldier is killed.

2005 November - Sixty people are killed in suicide bombings at three international hotels in
Amman. Al-Qaeda in Iraq claims responsibility. Most of the victims are Jordanians. A day of
mourning is declared.
2006 June - Iraq's prime minister announces that Jordanian-born Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the
leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq, has been killed in an air strike.

2007 July - First local elections since 1999. The main opposition party, the Islamist Action Front,
withdraws after accusing the government of vote-rigging.

2007 November - Parliamentary elections strengthen position of tribal leaders and other pro-
government candidates. Fortunes of the opposition Islamic Action Front decline. Political
moderate Nader Dahabi appointed prime minister.

2008 August - King Abdullah visits Iraq. He is the first Arab leader to visit the country since the
US invasion in 2003.

Reform and protests

2009 November - King dissolves parliament half-way through its four-year term

2009 December - King Abdullah appoints new premier to push through economic reform.

2010 May - New electoral law introduced. Pro-reform campaigners say it does little to make
system more representational.

2010 October - Leader of Islamist militant group jailed for plotting attacks on the army.

2010 November - Parliamentary elections, boycotted by the opposition Islamic Action Front.
Riots break out after it is announced that pro-government candidates have won a sweeping
victory.

2011 January - Tunisian street protests which unseat the president encourage similar
demonstrations in other countries, including Jordan.
2011 February - Against a background of large-scale street protests, King Abdullah appoints a
new prime minister, former army general Marouf Bakhit, and charges him with carrying out
political reforms.

2011 October - Protests continue through the summer, albeit on a smaller scale, prompting
King Abdullah to replace Prime Minister Bakhit with Awn al-Khasawneh, a judge at the
International Court of Justice.

2012 April - Prime Minister Awn al-Khasawneh resigns abruptly, have been unable to satisfy
either demands for reform or establishment fears of empowering the Islamist opposition. King
Abdullah appoints former prime minister Fayez al-Tarawneh to succeed him.

2012 October - King Abdullah calls early parliamentary elections for January. The Muslim
Brotherhood's political wing, the Islamic Action Front, decides to continue to boycott them in
protest at unequal constituency sizes and lack of real parliamentary power. The King appoints
Abdullah Ensour, a former minister and vocal advocate of democratic reform, as prime minister.

2012 November - Clashes between protesters and supporters of the king follow mass
demonstrations in Amman against the lifting of fuel subsidies, at which calls for the end of the
monarchy are heard. Three people are killed.

2013 January - Pro-government candidates victorious in parliamentary elections which are

boycotted by the main opposition Islamic Action Front.

2013 March - New government sworn in, with incumbent Abdullah Ensour reinstalled as prime
minister following unprecedented consultation between the king and parliament.

2014 June - Radical Muslim preacher Abu Qatada, deported from the UK after a long legal
battle, is found not guilty of terrorism offences by a court in Jordan over an alleged plot in 1998.

Fighting Islamic State

2014 September - Jordan is one of four Arab states to take part, together with the US, in air
strikes on Islamic State militants in Syria.

2014 November - Jordanian authorities arrest the deputy head of the country's Muslim
Brotherhood organisation, in the first arrest of a major opposition figure in Jordan for several
years.

2015 February - Islamic State publishes a video purporting to show captured Jordanian pilot
Muath Kasasbeh being burned alive. Jordan responds by stepping up its anti-Islamic-State air
campaign and executing prisoners.

European Union says it is providing 100 million euros ($113 million) in loans to Jordan to help it
deal with the fallout from crises in Syria and Iraq.

2015 March - Jordan takes part in Saudi-led air strikes on Houthi rebels in Yemen.

2016 September - First parliamentary elections under proportional representation since 1989.

2016 December - Ten people, including a tourist, are killed in an attack claimed by the Islamic
State group at a Crusader castle in the town of Karak.

2017 August - Jordan and Iraq reopen their main border crossing for the first time in two years
after Islamic State militants were driven from the main highway to Baghdad.

2018 June - Street protests against tax hikes and other measures being introduced as part of an
austerity programme lead to the fall of Prime Minister Hani Mulki and his replacement with the
education minister and economist, Omar al-Razzaz.
Laguage - Arabic
Culture-The culture of Jordan is based in Arabic and Islamic elements. Jordan stands at the
intersection of the three continents of the ancient world, lending it geographic and population
diversity. Notable aspects of the culture include traditional music and clothing of Jordan, and
interest in sports. These include football and basketball as well as other imported sports, mainly
from western Europe and the United States.
Religion-Islam
Government-constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [751]; House of
Representatives [1302])
Beliefs-The state religion is Muslim, as indicated in the constitution. Ninety percent of the
population adheres to the Sunni branch. About 6 percent of the people are Christian.

Landforms (Geography)-Jordan has an area of about 35,475 square miles (91,900 square
kilometers). It lies in the center of the Middle East, sharing its northern border with Syria,
eastern border with Iraq, it's southern and eastern borders with Saudi Arabia, and western
border with the Jordan River, the Dead Sea, and Israel. Its only seaport is the port of Aqaba.
Jordan has barren deserts, fertile valleys, and colorful rock and sand mountains. It contains the
lowest point on earth, the Dead Sea, and the Great Rift Valley, which was created twenty
million years ago when tectonic plates shifted, stretching from Lake Tiberius south through
Jordan and into eastern Africa.

AZERBAIJAN
Capital-Baku
History-Some key dates in Azerbaijan's history:

1828 - Turkmanchay treaty between Russia, Persia divides Azerbaijan. Territory of present-day
Azerbaijan becomes part of Russian empire while southern Azerbaijan is part of Persia. Twenty
years later, the world's first oil well is drilled south of Baku.

1918 - Independent Azerbaijani Republic declared but the country becomes a Soviet Socialist
Republic two years later after the Red Army invades.

1988 - Nagorno-Karabakh region seeks to become part of Armenia. Ethnic Azeris begin to leave
Karabakh and Armenia and ethnic Armenians leave Azerbaijan. Ethnic strife between Armenia
and Azerbaijan will boil over into a full blown war by 1992.
1991 - Azerbaijani parliament votes to restore independence.

1994 - Armenia, Azerbaijan and Nagorno-Karabakh sign a ceasefire accord. Ethnic Armenians
remain in control of Karabakh and a swathe of Azerbaijani territory around it.

Azerbaijan signs what it calls the "contract of the century" with a consortium of international oil
companies for the exploration and exploitation of three offshore oil fields.

2020 - Azerbaijan scores a major military success when it recaptures territory in and around
Nagorno-Karabakh.
Languange-Azerbaijani
Culture-Azerbaijan culture combines the historical, religious and traditional evolving and
moulding over centuries to create the modern-day Azerbaijani. Some traits may be familiar and
others foreign and contradictory, but this is what makes the country special. Embrace the
following quirks, and immerse yourself in the culture and traditions of Azerbaijan.
Traditional Tea Culture
One of the striking parts of Azerbaijan culture is the tea drinking rituals. Tea is almost sacred.
The brightly coloured drink gets poured into a pear-shaped glass called an armuda, served
without milk. A cube of sugar accompanies, and then locals take a bite before sipping the tea.
The reason behind this quirky style dates back to medieval times when paranoid rulers were
afraid of assassination by poison. Apparently, the sugar reacts to the toxin when dipped into
the tea.

Azerbaijan tea served in a traditional Samovar | © Chinara Rasulova/Shutterstock

Unparalleled Hospitality
Visit Azerbaijan, and experience some of the world’s best hospitality. Locals go to great lengths
to help, and guests are a valued commodity. Stay in a homestay, and hosts treat guests with
endless cups (or armuda) of tea, snacks and anything else. Ask for directions, and they might
show rather than tell. The younger ones who speak some English are often happy to chat about
their country. Giving good hospitality is deeply ingrained in Azerbaijani culture.
Enjoy endless Azeri tea with sweets when in Azerbaijan | © Alex Marakhovets/Shutterstock
Contrasting Personalities
Not everyone has a polite and helpful mindset, after being part of the Russian Empire and the
Soviet Union. A few decades ago, those in higher positions liked to flaunt their power. Today
Azerbaijan has a minority who still have the old views and a Soviet mentality. An example of
this might be someone who shouts at tourists who are taking photographs near a monument,
which he or she perceives to be disrespectful. Old habits die hard.

Girl Power
A positive legacy of almost two centuries of Russian rule is the way men respect women. Men
give their seat on the bus, insist on paying and hold doors open. In 1918, Azerbaijan became
one the first countries to give women the right to vote — the first in the Islamic world. Women
also hold high positions in government and serve in the military.

Traditional Society
Despite the liberal appearance of this secular, post-Soviet nation in the Caucasus, tradition
remains vital in Azerbaijani culture. Outside of the capital, Baku, locals still live a rural lifestyle.
Many grow fruit and vegetables in plots and often live in modest houses. The communities in
the Caucasus Mountains have rich traditions dating back thousands of years.

Out from Baku and you'll get to see a more traditional way of life | Sam Bedford
A more traditional way of life a short distance from Baku | Sam Bedford
Don’t Say the Name Armenia
The relationship between Azerbaijan and Armenia is like Israel and the Middle East. They have
been engaged in conflict since 1988 over the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region. Even saying
the name evokes suspicion and raises eyebrows. Hundreds of thousands of Azerbaijani refugees
were forced out of their villages in the Karabakh a generation ago. People are still bitter.
Tensions run deep. Ceasefires are regularly ignored.

Azerbaijan’s Relationship with Oil

Oil stimulated Baku’s boom in the late 19th century, funding most of the elegant architecture,
mansions and palaces in modern Baku. The second oil boom saw the nation’s wealth hit the
roof. The black gold funded Baku’s skyline. Oil was also the culprit behind why the value of
manats almost halved against the US dollar as oil prices plummeted in 2015.
The relationship is complex. Many younger Azerbaijanis aspire to work in the petroleum
industry. Others despise how the country’s wealth funded Baku’s opulence rather than
developing rural infrastructure. In Naftalan, 50 kilometres (31 miles) from Ganja in Central
Azerbaijan, spas offer a strange type of therapy: bathing in crude oil.
Azerbaijan’s Relationship with Fire
Fire symbolises Azerbaijan. From Baku’s Flame Towers to Zoroastrian fire temples and burning
water, infernos have deep ties to Azerbaijan culture. Scientifically, the vast quantities of
subterranean gas are responsible. Culturally, fire gave light and was mystical to the early
inhabitants.
Cultural Diversity
Not only is the ‘Land of Fire’ varied in landscapes featuring 75% of the world’s climatic zones,
Azerbaijan culture is just as diverse. From early Zoroastrians and Islamic influences to more
recent Orthodox Christians and ancient communities of Caucasus Jews, a melange of religions
exist today. Combine this with each region having their own traditions, food and style of carpet
weaving. Also factor in influences from Iran, Turkey, Russia and more recently, the West, and
Azerbaijan culture has an intriguing appeal.
Religion-Azerbaijan is a predominantly Muslim country; more than three-fifths of the
population is Shiʿi, and about one-third is Sunni. Members of the Russian Orthodox or Armenian
Orthodox Church constitute a very small percentage of the population.

Government-unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative house (National Assembly

[125])
Beliefs-
Shia Islam is the leading religious belief with 80% of the country’s population adhering to the
faith, making it the second largest Shia population in the world. The strongholds for Shia Islam
were mainly in the areas around Lenkoran and Baku. Some the Azerbaijanis were converted
into Shia Islam during the 16th century. During the same period, Shia was declared a state
religion by Ismail I of the Safavid Dynasty. The enforcement of the state religion created conflict
between Shia and Sunni eventually leading to the migration of the Sunni Muslims in the 19th
century, leaving Shia as the largest Muslim belief in the country.
Sunni Islam
Sunni Islam is the second leading religious belief in Azerbaijan with a following of 13% of the
total population. The Islam group differs from Shia in that they believe Prophet Mohammed did
not appoint a successor. The Sunni and Shia Muslims have been in constant conflict in various
Islamic countries based on their beliefs and practices leading to migration of the Sunni from
Azerbaijan. Sunni Muslims are mainly found in the northern parts of the country. Conversion
into Sunni Islam took place around the 16th century.
Orthodox Christianity
Orthodox Christianity is the third largest religious belief and a minority religion, with a following
of a total of 3% of the population. The Russian Orthodox Church was the first to be established
after the Russo-Persian War of the 19th century. The Georgian Orthodox is the other Orthodox
Christian community in the country. Most of the adherents were converted from Islam and
were persecuted during the Soviet period during which the religions were suppressed.
Atheism Or Agnosticism
Azerbaijan is considered one of the most irreligious Muslim countries with most of the people
attaching no direct importance to religion. Approximately1% of the population is atheist or
agnostic practicing no form of worship. Atheism and agnosticism in Azerbaijan have been
attributed to the secular nature of the country.
Other Christian Religious Beliefs
Azerbaijan also has some other minor Christian denominations including Apostolic, Roman
Catholic, and Protestant which together constitute about 1% of the whole population in the
country. The apostolic community is the largest with various establishments including the
Armenian Apostolic Church. Roman Catholicism has less than 1000 adherents mainly in the
areas surrounding Baku.

Religious Intolerance In Azerbaijan

Although Azerbaijan is a secular country with high religious intolerance, the government has
been accused of denying some religious groups the rights to operate within the country
including Jehovah Witnesses, Baptists, and the Assemblies of God members. Hinduism,
Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Baha’i are other minor religions in Azerbaijan making up about 1%
of the population in the country.
Landforms (Geography)-Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan: the Caspian Sea, whose
shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the
north; and the extensive flatlands at the country's center.
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Capital-Abu Dhabi
History-
1963
The University of East Anglia opens
The first Vice-Chancellor, Frank Thistlethwaite opened the University Village in 1963, with many
of the existing buildings being built on a converted golf course. The university itself was
designed by English Architect Sir Denys Lasdun, who also designed the Royal National Theatre.
Biological Sciences and English Studies welcome the first student cohort to UEA.

The Village
1967
Ziggurats Completed
Ziggurats – the iconic student residences, ingeniously designed by Denys Lasdun to recall,
"vineyards in France…or a rocky outcrop on a slope" are completed. Architecturally unique, the
Grade II listed terraced student residences have attracted widespread interest over the years
and have led to the UEA winning a number of awards. They earned the eighth spot in the top 10
of best UK university architecture by the Architect's Journal.

Ziggurats
1968
Library moves to the plain
With a wealth of resources available, the UEA Library contains over 800,000 books and is
spread over 6 floors. The building also houses several important collections of archives, and the
Special Collections section contains almost 9,000 titles of rare, valuable or illustrated
monographs and pamphlets in all subject areas.

The Square looking to Library

1971
The Creative Writing MA is founded
The first degree of its kind in the country, the Creative Writing programme was founded in 1971
by Sir Angus Wilson and Professor Malcolm Bradbury. Notable Alumni include Trezza Azzopardi,
Tracy Chevalier, Ian McEwan and Kazuo Ishiguro.

Malcolm Bradbury

1973
Construction of University House
Union House and the Street open, along with the SU bar and LCR. Until the LCR was launched,
students had enjoyed spending their evenings in ‘The Barn', by the University Village. The first
shops on campus include a SPAR supermarket and Bowes & Bowes bookshop.

As well as these campus staples being established in 1973, the careers centre was launched, the
university held a 10th anniversary celebration with its 3,245 students, and excavation began on
the Broad.

Students Union

1978
Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts opens
Sir Robert and Lady Sainsbury donated their collection of world art to the University of East
Anglia in 1973 and the Sainsbury Centre first opened its doors to visitors in 1978. It was
designed by world famous architect Norman Foster, who is best known for The Gherkin and
Wembley Stadium, and was his first major public building.

Lord and Lady Sainsbury with Norman Foster

1984
Law moves to Earlham Hall
The family home of famous Humanitarian Elizabeth Fry, Earlham Hall is an elegant Grade II
listed building, which encapsulates the university's rich heritage, whilst providing a striking
architectural contrast to the 60s concrete.

Earlham Hall

1986
The Centre for Climatic Research opens
The Centre for Climatic Research is founded by climatologist Hubert Lamb. Lamb gained
attention during the 1970s, initially for his theories on world cooling and a future ice age and -
after the heat wave of 1975-76 - for his warnings about global warming and climate change.
The Hubert Lamb (CRU) building is opened in 1986.

Hubert Lamb Building

1989
The Arthur Miller Centre opens
The Arthur Miller Centre was an initiative designed to promote further study of the United
States by offering scholarships and prizes to American Studies students. The Centre hosts UEA's
Literary Festival, which has welcomed writers such as Salman Rushdie, Ted Hughes, Hilary
Mantel, Iris Murdoch and Alan Bennett.

Arthur Miller

1992
Concrete re-launched
Concrete, the current student newspaper, was re-launched in 1992 having made its first
appearance at UEA in 1973. The newspaper now has a circulation of 4,500 copies. Previous
issues have included interviews with Nick Clegg, Charles Clarke, Harrison Ford, Stephen Fry and
Greg James, amongst others.
Concrete magazine cover

1993
Union starts managing The Waterfront
The Waterfront is a live music venue and nightclub in Norwich, which has been managed by the
Union of UEA Students since 1993. The Waterfront, has hosted bands including Pulp,
Radiohead, Nirvana, The Verve, Arctic Monkeys, The Prodigy, Plan B, Amy Winehouse,
Stereophonics, Buzzcocks, MGMT, Travis, and Moby.

The Waterfront Venue

1995
Official opening of Elizabeth Fry building
UEA adopted several novel techniques to achieve the environmental and energy performance
of the Elizabeth Fry Building, while also ensuring that benefits in terms of occupant comfort
levels, increased productivity, low carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and energy cost savings
were delivered.

Elizabeth Fry building

2000
Sportspark opens
The Sportspark opens its doors to the public on 1 September 2000. The building is formally
opened by Princess Anne, bringing international sporting facilities to Norwich.

UEA's £30 million Sportspark boasts a state-of-the-art Olympic-sized swimming pool, floodlit
astro-pitches, athletics track and gym, as well as an extensive range of activities including
archery, athletics, badminton, basketball, climbing, hockey, martial arts, squash, and
trampolining.

Sportspark exterior
2007
INTO opens
INTO is a study centre offering new and high quality preparation for undergraduate and
postgraduate degrees in the UK. Combining UEA resources with major independent investment,
INTO Centres deliver a world-class educational and cultural experience for international
students, with fast, effective and assured progression to university degree courses.

INTO building

2009
Queen's Anniversary Prize
UEA's School of International Development is awarded the Queen's Anniversary Prize in a
ceremony at Buckingham Palace in recognition of 40 years' sustained responses to
environmental change and world poverty.

2009
UEA London opens
UEA's new London centre was established to enhance the employability of UEA graduates, raise
the university's international profile and foster links with influential government and business
communities in the capital.

2011
Queen's Anniversary Prize
UEA is awarded the prestigious Queens Anniversary Prize for its contribution to creative writing.
A year later, bolstered by the University's reputation in this field, Norwich wins the bid to
become England's first UNESCO City of Literature.

Languange-Arabic
Culture-Emirati culture is based on Arabian culture, with influences from the cultures of East
Africa and Indian Subcontinent. The religion of Islam has had a prominent influence on local
architecture, music, attire, cuisine, and lifestyle.
Religion-The constitution designates Islam as the official religion. It guarantees freedom of
worship as long as it does not conflict with public policy or morals.
Government-The United Arab Emirates has a presidential, federal, and despotic monarchy. The
UAE is a federation of 7 different constituent monarchies, which include the Emirates of Dubai,
Abu Dhabi, Ras al-Khaimah, Umm al-Quwain, Ajman, and Fujairah. The President who is also the
UAE’s head of state is the ruler of Abu Dhabi while the Prime Minister is the ruler of Dubai and
the head of government of the UAE.
Beliefs-UAE Emiratis are predominantly Sunni Muslims and all social and political matters are
driven by Sharia (Islamic) law. However, the UAE is tolerant of other religions and accords
religious freedom to the expatriate population. These religions primarily include Hinduism,
Christianity, Sikhism and Buddhism
Landforms (Geography)-Modern images of the United Arab Emirates, particularly the bustling
cities of Dubai and Abu Dhabi, usually feature gravity-defying skyscrapers and artificial
landforms, but the country is still home to some of the natural wonders that paved the way for
its settlement. Wildlife nests in wetlands and uninhabited islands, towering mountains in the
east contrast with the flat western coastal landscape and water-enriched oases form a respite
in the country's unforgiving desert wasteland.

Islands
Many of the United Arab Emirates' most iconic islands, including the Palm Islands archipelago in
Dubai, are man-made, but the country includes some natural islands as well. Bu Tinah, for
example, is a small archipelago near Abu Dhabi, surrounded by coral reefs that is closed to
visitors, as it is home to rare marine life and birds. Also off Abu Dhabi is the larger Saadiyat
Island, which is about 10 square miles and is connected to the mainland via two bridges. Real
estate developers, as of May 2012, are heavily targeting the island for resorts and golf courses.
A few other small islands off the country's coast now serve largely industrial purposes.

Mountains
While most of the United Arab Emirates is largely desert and coastal plains, one emirate, Al
Fujairah, is in a mountainous region on the Gulf of Oman. The limestone Al-Hajar mountains
surround Al Fujairah and stretch down into Oman, along the coast, and the make the emirate
rainier and cooler than the desert emirates. The best-known mountain is Jebel Hefeet, a 4,100-
foot peak with a vast cave system and surrounding hot springs. It's popular with cyclists and
outdoor adventurers and is home to a Mercure Grand hotel at its top. Jebel Yibir is an even
taller peak near the Oman border, but it is much less developed.

Oases
The United Arab Emirates is home to a few notable oases, critical landforms in the development
of desert peoples. Al Ain in Abu Dhabi has seven oases, and its largest was once a critical hub
along ancient trading routes. Today, the oasis remains a center for date farming as well as a
tourist attraction featuring Bedouin houses and simple architecture. The Liwa Oasis, to the
south of Abu Dhabi in the Rub al Khali desert, also is home to a few villages. The surrounding
desert is vast and imposing, with massive sand dunes and sweltering temperatures.

Wetlands
A short distance from the sprawling developments in Dubai, the Ras Al Khor wetlands remain as
a critical natural habitat for local wildlife, including a few rare species. It's one of the few
wetlands left along Dubai Creek after development in the 1970s and the 1980s, and it now is
protected by Dubai's government. Its flora and fauna include mangroves, wading birds and fish.
You may visit only with a permit from Dubai's Environmental Department.

TAJIKISTAN
Capital-Dushanbe
History-
8th century - Tajiks emerge as distinct ethnic group; Arab invaders conquer Central Asia,
including what is now Tajikistan, and introduce Islam.

9th/10th century - Persian Samanid dynasty gains control of Central Asia and, in alliance with
the caliph of Baghdad, develops Bukhara as centre of Muslim culture.

13th century - Genghis Khan conquers Tajikistan and the rest of Central Asia, which becomes
part of the Mongol Empire.
14th century - Tajikistan becomes part of Turkic ruler Tamerlane's empire.

1860-1900 - Tajikistan divided, with the north coming under Tsarist Russian rule while the south
is annexed by the Emirate of Bukhara.

1917-18 - Armed Central Asian groups exploit the upheaval in Russia following the Bolshevik
revolution to mount an insurrection, but eventually fail.

Soviet rule
1921 - Northern Tajikistan becomes part of the Bolshevik-designated Turkestan Autonomous
Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR), which also included Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, part of northern
Turkmenistan and southern Kazakhstan.

1924 - Tajik ASSR set up by Soviets and becomes part of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic
(SSR).

1929 - Tajik ASSR upgraded to the status of an SSR and becomes distinct from the Uzbek SSR;
acquires territory of Khujand from Uzbek SSR.

1930s - The collectivisation of agriculture completed despite widespread resistance.

1960s - Tajikistan becomes the third largest cotton-producing republic in the Soviet Union;
heavy industries, notably aluminium, introduced.

1970s - Increased Islamic influence, violence towards non-indigenous nationalities.

1978 - Some 13,000 people take part in anti-Russian riots.

Late 1980s - Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost, or openness, leads to the
formation of unofficial political groups and a renewed interest in Tajik culture.
1989 - Tajik Supreme Soviet (legislature) declares Tajik to be official state language; Rastokhez
People's Front established.

Independence and civil war

Image copyrightAFPRussian armoured personnel carrier guarding Dushanbe airport in 1992
Image captionRussian troops intervened in Tajikistan's bloody civil war in the early 1990s
1990 - State of emergency declared and some 5,000 Soviet troops sent to the capital,
Dushanbe, to suppress pro-democracy protests, which are also fuelled by rumours that
Armenian refugees are to be settled in Dushanbe; Supreme Soviet declares state sovereignty.

1991 - Tajik Communist leader Qahhor Makhkamov forced to resign after supporting the failed
anti-Gorbachev coup in Moscow.

Supreme Soviet declares Tajikistan independent from the Soviet Union; Rahmon Nabiyev,
Communist leader during 1982-85, wins Tajikistan's first direct presidential election with 57% of
the vote.

Tajikistan joins the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) following the collapse of the
Soviet Union in December.

1992 - Anti-government demonstrations in Dushanbe escalate into civil war between pro-
government forces and Islamist and pro-democracy groups which eventually claims 20,000
lives, displaces 600,000 and devastates the economy.

Violent demonstrations force Nabiyev to resign in September; Emomali Rahmonov, a pro-

Nabiyev communist, takes over as head of state in November.

1993 - Government re-establishes control, suppresses political opposition and imposes strict
media controls; Supreme Court bans all opposition parties, leaving the Communist Party of
Tajikistan as the only legal party.
1994 - Ceasefire between government and rebels agreed; Rahmonov announces willingness to
negotiate with opposition; referendum approves draft constitution reinstituting presidential
system; Rahmonov elected president in ballot deemed by international observers as neither
free nor fair.

1995 - Rahmonov supporters win parliamentary elections; fighting on Afghan border erupts.

1996 - Islamist rebels capture towns in southwestern Tajikistan; UN-sponsored cease-fire

between government and rebels comes into effect.

Peace accord
1997 - Government and rebel United Tajik Opposition (UTO) sign peace accord; National
Reconciliation Commission, comprising government and opposition members, created to
supervise implementation of accord; Rahmonov injured in grenade attack.

1998 - Rahmonov pardons all opposition leaders in exile and agrees to appoint one of the
Islamist opposition's leaders as first deputy prime minister. Rebel uprising in north is crushed
with the help of former opposition groups.

1999 - Rahmonov re-elected for second term with 96 % of the vote; UTO armed forces
integrated into state army; Rahmonov awarded order of Hero of Tajikistan.

2000 - Last meeting of the National Reconciliation Commission held and a new bicameral
parliament set up in March; a new national currency, the somoni, introduced; visas introduced
for travel between Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

2001 August - Renegade warlord and former opposition commander Rahmon Sanginov,
regarded by the government as one of its most wanted criminals, is killed in a gun battle with
security forces.
2001 September - Tajikistan is quick to offer support to the US-led anti-terror coalition, set up
after the 11 September attacks on the US.

War in Afghanistan
2002 July - Tajikistan doubles the number of border guards along its 1,300-km (800-mi) frontier
with Afghanistan to prevent al-Qaeda members from entering the country to escape US forces.

2003 April - Russian President Vladimir Putin visits and announces plans to boost Russian
military presence.

2003 June - Referendum vote goes in favour of allowing President Rahmonov to run for a
further two consecutive seven-year terms when his current one ends in 2006. The opposition
describes the referendum as a travesty of democracy.

2003 July - Parliament approves a draft law abolishing the death penalty for women and
reducing the number of crimes for which men can face punishment.

Supreme Court sentences Shamsiddin Shamsiddinov, deputy leader of opposition Islamic

Rebirth Party, to 16 years in jail on charges with murder. His party says the case is politically
motivated.

2004 July - Parliament approves moratorium on death penalty.

2004 October - Russia formally opens military base and takes back control over former Soviet
space monitoring centre.

Opposition leader arrested

2004 December - Opposition Democratic Party leader Mahmadruzi Iskandarov arrested in
Moscow at the request of Tajik prosecutors, who seek his extradition on terrorism and
corruption charges. His supporters say the move is politically motivated.
2005 February - Ruling party wins overwhelming victory in parliamentary elections.
International observers say poll fails to meet acceptable standards.

2005 April - Opposition leader Mahmadruzi Iskandarov is released in Moscow after the Tajik
authorities' extradition request is turned down, but he is later kidnapped and rearrested in
Tajikistan.

2005 June - Russian border guards complete withdrawal, handing the task over to Tajik forces.

2005 October - Opposition leader Mahmadruzi Iskandarov sentenced in Dushanbe to 23 years

in jail on terrorism and corruption charges

2006 August - Gaffor Mirzoyev, former top military commander, imprisoned for life on charges
of terrorism and plotting to overthrow the government. His supporters say the trial was
politically motivated.

2006 November - President Rahmonov wins a third term, in an election which international
observers say is neither free nor fair.

2007 March - President Rahmonov orders that babies no longer be registered under Russian-
style surnames, and himself drops the Russian ending -ov from his own name.

2008 April - International Monetary Fund (IMF) orders the return of loan of $47m after it finds
Tajikistan submitted false data.

Agreements with Russia, US

2008 July - Russia agrees to write off Tajikistan's $240m debt in return for cession of a Soviet-
designed space tracking station.

2009 January - Agreement signed with US military allowing it to transport non-military supplies
to Afghanistan over Tajik territory.
2010 February - President Rakhmon's People's Democratic Party wins an overwhelming
majority in parliamentary elections. International monitors say widespread fraud took place.

2011 January - Tajikistan settles a century-old border dispute with China by agreeing to cede
some land.

2012 April - Tajikistan accuses Uzbekistan of an economic blockade, citing gas supply cuts and
rail freight curbs. Tensions are high over a Tajik dam that Uzbekistan fears will restrict irrigation
water supplies.

2012 October - Tajikistan grants Russia 30-year extension on Soviet-era military base seen as
bulwark against Islamist militancy and drug-trafficking. The lease on the base had been due to
expire in 2014.

2013 November - President Rakhmon wins another seven years in office.

2015 May - The head of Tajikistan's Special Forces, Gulmurod Khalimov, claims in a newly
released video that he has joined the jihadist group Islamic State in protest at what he calls the
government's anti-Islamic policies.

Main opposition party banned

2015 September - Eight policemen are killed after gunmen attack a government building and
police state in and around the capital Dushanbe. The government says the gunmen were led by
a deputy minister.

Government bans the country's leading opposition party, the Islamic Renaissance Party of
Tajikistan, accusing it of fomenting armed protests which leave dozens of people dead.

2016 May - Referendum supports constitutional changes which scrap presidential term limits.
2016 October - Work begins on the controversial Rogun hydroelectric dam on the Vakhsh river.
Downstream neighbour Uzbekistan has strongly opposed the dam, fearing the impact on its
agriculture.
2017 April - Official media required to refer to President Rahmon by his elaborate full title of
"Founder of Peace and National Unity, Leader of the Nation, President of the Republic of
Tajikistan, His Excellency Emomali Rahmon".

2018 July - Four tourists on bicycles are killed in what the authorities describe as a terror attack
Languange-Tajiki
Culture-The Tajik identity and culture dates back several thousand years, and is very similar to
that of Afghanistan and Iran in terms of language, beliefs, and habits. The vast majority of the
population is Muslim, which had shaped the culture, particularly the art, food, music, and
festivals. The Tajik people are family-oriented, sincere, and known for friendliness and
hospitality. Decades of conflict have left deep scars on the national consciousness, although the
mood in recent times has been cautiously optimistic. Tajiks tend to be conservative; gender
roles remain very traditional and women do not generally wear shorts.
There remains a strong folk art tradition across the nation, particularly with the creation of
textiles, embroidery, and other practical decorative arts such as carving, furniture, and jewelry
making. The art tends to be based on nature. A little-known fact about Tajikistan is that the
asymmetrical ‘Black Prince’s Ruby’ in the Imperial Crown of England originally came from here,
as did the tulips for which Holland became famous.
Religion-Sunni Islam is, by far, the most widely practiced religion in Tajikistan. According to a
2009 U.S. State Department release, the population of Tajikistan is 98% Muslim (approximately
95% Sunni and 3% Shia).
Government- parliamentary republic
Beliefs-The Muslim communities are divided into two primary sects: Hanafi Sunnis and Ismaili
Shiites. The Hanafi Sunnis are the largest group, with about 90 percent of the Islamic
population.
The Zorastrian religion has influenced the traditions and superstitions of the people. Many
people believe that supernatural forces affect their daily lives, and they wear amulets to protect
themselves from evil. They may seek out fortune-tellers, or consult a witch to ward off illness or
cast a spell on a potential lover.
Bukharan and Ashkenazi minorities constitute the tiny Jewish community. Bukharan Jews have
lived in the country since the Middle Ages; Ashkenazi Jews arrived after World War II, and
worked mainly as engineers and in specialized occupations. In 1989, there were approximately
twenty thousand Jews; after the civil war, all but two thousand emigrated. Other religious
groups include Russian Orthodox, Seventh Day Adventists, Catholics, and Baptists.

Landforms (Geography)-Located in southeastern Central Asia and bordered by Kyrgyzstan to

the north, the Xinjiang region of China to the east, Afghanistan to the south, and Uzbekistan to
the west, Tajikistan covers 144,100 square kilometers (55,251 square miles), which is roughly
the same size as Illinois, Wisconsin or Virginia, West Virginia and Maryland combined. Because
Tajikistan lies in an active seismic belt, severe earthquakes are common.

The smallest nation in Central Asia and once the southernmost extension of the Soviet empire,
Tajikistan stretches for about 800 kilometers (500 miles) from east to west and 350 kilometers
from north to south. Landlocked and strategically located between Central Asia, China and
Afghanistan, Tajikistan shares an 800 mile border with Afghanistan through rugged,
mountainous terrain. Some of the borders were worked out by Russia and Britain as a
settlement to bring an end to the Great Game. Major land features in Tajikistan include the
Pamirs and the Fergana Valley, which Tajikistan shares with Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.

About 6 percent of the country is good for agriculture (compared to 21 percent in the United
States). About 75 percent of this is in the Fergana Valley. The remainder is in the mountain
valleys, the western plains around Dushanbe and irrigated areas near the major rivers. Forests
are found mostly in the mountains. Most people live around Dushanbe and in valleys with
arable land.

The valleys where people live tend to be very narrow. Agriculture is nourished by silt and
irrigation waters delivered by fast-flowing rivers and streams fed by melting snow. As one
moves from west to east the landscapes gets progressively greener. This is result of the rain
blocking effect of mountains in the west and the moist winds and rain catching effect of the
Tien Shan and Pamir mountains in the east. Along the Tajikistan and China border mountains
are broken up by gaps and passes used by Silk Road traders.

Tajikstan is effectively divided into three regions divided by mountains whose roads become
impassable in the winter. They are: 1) the northern portions, dominated by the town of
Khojand; 2) Dushanbe is in the south. 3) To east is the Badakhshan Autonomous Region, Still a
part of Tajikistan, it is a sparely populated area inhabited mostly by small valley-based ethnic
groups including the Pamiri Tajiks and Kyrgyz. The most developed town in this area is Khorog.
 The isolation of the Pamiri Tajiks has kept them close to their ancient traditions. Although the
people of the Khojand region also are isolated, they are more accessible to the other republics.
They were the ruling clan in the Soviet era. Dushanbe (Stalinobod from 1929 to 1961), the
capital, is in the west-central region and is the largest city. In 1924, it was chosen to be the
capital of the new autonomous republic because of its low population and central location.
[Source: Everyculture.com]

Basic Geographical Facts for Tajikistan

Total area of Tajikistan: 144,100 square kilometers, country comparison to the world: 96; land:
141,510 square kilometers; water: 2,590 square kilometers. [Source: CIA World Factbook =]

Land boundaries: total: 4,130 kilometers: borders four countries: Afghanistan: 1,357
kilometers; China: 477 kilometers; Kyrgyzstan: 984 kilometers; Uzbekistan: 1,312 kilometers.
Coastline: 0 kilometers (landlocked); Maritime claims: none (landlocked). =

Terrain: Pamir and Alay Mountains dominate landscape; western Fergana Valley in north,
Kofarnihon and Vakhsh Valleys in southwest. Elevation extremes: lowest point: Syr Darya
(Sirdaryo) 300 meters; highest point: Qullai Ismoili Somoni 7,495 meters. =

Natural resources: hydropower, some petroleum, uranium, mercury, brown coal, lead, zinc,
antimony, tungsten, silver, gold.

Some six to seven percent of Tajikistan is classified as arable land, 5 percent is forested, and 0.9
percent is devoted to permanent crops. The remainder is mountains, valleys, glaciers, and
desert. Land use: agricultural land: 34.7 percent; arable land 6.1 percent; permanent crops 0.9
percent; permanent pasture 27.7 percent; forest: 2.9 percent; other: 62.4 percent (2011 est.).
Irrigated land: 7,421 square kilometers (2009). Total renewable water resources: 21.91 cubic
kilometers (2011); Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 11.49 cubic
kilometers a year (6 percent/4 percent/91 percent); per capita: 1,740 cubic meters a year
(2006). = *
Disputed Territory: Tajikistan has a territorial dispute with Kyrgyzstan over land in the Isfara
Valley in the far northeast, and full demarcation of the border with Uzbekistan has been
delayed by Uzbekistan’s mining of its borders. [Source: Library of Congress, January 2007 **]
ISRAEL
Capital-Jerusalem
History-Israel history timeline
10000 BC–6000 BC
Some of the world’s first human settlements are established in the Jordan Valley, Judean
Desert, and Mediterranean coast.

3000 BC
Canaanite city kingdoms develop based on Mesopotamia–Egypt trade.

The Biblical Period

c.2000 BC
Abraham settles in Be’er Sheva.

c.1280 BC
Moses leads Israelites out of Egypt.

c.1225 BC

Joshua captures Jericho.

c.1000 BC

King David declares that Jerusalem will become his capital.

c.950 BC

King Solomon builds the First Temple.

586 BC

The First Temple is destroyed after the Babylonians conquer Jerusalem and send the Jews into
exile.

546 BC

The Jews return to Jerusalem after the Persians defeat the Babylonians.

520 BC

The Second Temple is built.

63 BC

The Romans conquer Judea.

37 BC

King Herod assumes the throne, founds Caesarea, and rebuilds the Second Temple.

The Christian Era

c. AD 30
The crucifixion of Christ.

66

The Jews revolt against Rome; the Romans recapture Jerusalem after a long siege and destroy
the Temple.

132

Bar Kochba’s revolt against the Romans fails, and most of the Jews go into exile.

325

Constantine, the Byzantine emperor, converts to Christianity. Palestine is recognized as the

Holy Land, and Constantine’s mother Helena arrives a year later to identify the sacred sites.

The Muslim Conquest

637

Fired by the new religion of Islam, Muslim armies conquer Jerusalem.

691

The Dome of the Rock is built on the Temple Mount.

1009
Fatimids destroy the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.

Crusaders, Mamelukes, and Ottomans

1099

The Crusaders establish the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

1149

The current Church of the Holy Sepulcher is consecrated.

1260

Mamelukes take control of the Holy Land.

1291

The last Crusader stronghold in Akko falls to the Mamelukes.

1492

Many Jews return to the Holy Land after expulsion from Spain.

1516

The Ottoman Turks capture Palestine.

1541

Suleiman the Magnificent completes the construction of Jerusalem’s walls.

1799

Napoleon occupies parts of the Holy Land.

The Birth of Zionism

1878

The first Zionist settlements are established.

1897

Theodor Herzl convenes the first-ever Zionist Congress in Switzerland.

1917–18

The British capture Palestine and publish the Balfour Declaration favouring “the establishment
in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people.”

1925

Large-scale Jewish immigration from Europe.

1945
The full horrors of the Holocaust become known. Survivors emigrate to Palestine but many are
imprisoned by the British in Cyprus.

1947

The UN votes for the partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states.

The Establishment of Israel

1948
David Ben Gurion proclaims the State of Israel and becomes first prime minister.

1950

The Law of Return guarantees the free immigration of world Jewry. The Jordanians formally
annex East Jerusalem and the West Bank, and Egypt takes the Gaza Strip.

1956

Israel captures and returns the Sinai following Suez campaign.

1967

Israel captures East Jerusalem, the West Bank, Gaza, the Sinai, and the Golan Heights during the
Six Day War.

1973
The Yom Kippur War.

1978

Egyptian President Anwar Sadat visits Jerusalem. An Israel–Egypt peace treaty is signed the
following year.

1982

The First Lebanon War expels the PLO leadership from Beirut but leaves Israel mired in
Southern Lebanon for nearly 20 years.

1987

The first Intifada begins.

1993

Prime Minister Rabin and PLO chief Yasser Arafat shake hands at the White House.

1995

Rabin is assassinated.

2000

Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat rejects Prime Minister Ehud Barak’s offer of most of the West
Bank and Gaza and East Jerusalem. The second Intifada starts in September.
2005

Israel withdraws all Jewish settlements from the Gaza Strip.

2006

Prime Minister Ehud Olmert launches the Second Lebanon War against Hizbullah militants.

2007

The Palestinians are left divided after the West Bank is taken over by Arafat’s successor,
President Abu Mazen, the head of Fatah, and Hamas stages a military coup in Gaza.

2008

Israel launches a brief war against Hamas in Gaza in an attempt to stop missiles being fired into
Israel.

2011

Israel frees more than 1,000 Palestinian prisoners in return for the release of captured Israeli
soldier Gilad Shalit. Middle-class protests for social justice and affordable housing rock the
right-wing government of Benjamin Netanyahu.
Languange-Arabic is used daily by Israeli Muslims, Christians and Druze, as well as by Jews who
originate from Arab countries. It is an official language in the State of Israel, alongside Hebrew
Culture-Israel is the birthplace of the Jewish culture and its culture encompasses the
foundations of many Jewish cultural characteristics, including philosophy, literature, poetry, art,
mythology, folklore, mysticism and festivals; as well as Judaism, which was also fundamental to
the creation of Christianity and Islam.
Religion-Religion in Israel is manifested primarily in Judaism. Israel is the world's only Jewish-
majority state. Smaller faiths include Sunni Islam, Christianity — mostly Melkite and Orthodox
— and the Druze.
Government-Israel is a parliamentary democracy, consisting of legislative, executive and
judicial branches .Multiparty republic with one legislative house (Knesset [120])
Beliefs-About eight-in-ten (81%) Israeli adults are Jewish, while the remainder are mostly
ethnically Arab and religiously Muslim (14%), Christian (2%) or Druze (2%). Overall, the Arab
religious minorities in Israel are more religiously observant than Jews
Landforms (Geography)-Israel also has four major land regions. The Coastal Plains, The Rift
Valley, Judeo-Galilean Highlands, and the Negev Desert.
Most of the Israeli's live in the Coastal Plains area, and most of the lands agriculture and
industries are located in this land-form. The Negev Desert is the driest place in the country of
Israel. The desert is mostly used for grazing because it rarely rains so it cannot support crops.
Israel is a small country with a relatively diverse topography, consisting of a lengthy coastal
plain, highlands in the north and central regions, and the Negev desert in the south. Running
the length of the country from north to south along its eastern border is the northern terminus
of the great Rift Valley.

LAOS

COUNTRY CAPITAL:
Vientiane
national capital, Laos

Vientiane, also spelled Viangchan, largest city and capital of Laos, situated on a plain just
northeast of the Mekong River. The city’s central river port location in a country relying heavily
on its rivers for transportation and its surrounding hinterland of intensive rice cultivation have
made Vientiane the major economic centre of Laos. The city has a tropical monsoon climate,
every month having an average daytime temperature above 80 °F (27 °C) and more than 80
percent of Vientiane’s annual precipitation on the average falling in the five months May–
September.

The town was founded during the late 13th century, and in the mid-16th century the capital of
the Lao kingdom (a state known as Lan Xang) was moved to Vientiane from its previous
traditional location at Luang Prabang (now Louangphrabang). In 1778 Vientiane came under
Siamese control; in 1828 it was sacked and destroyed when the subject Laotian king revolted
against Siamese hegemony. From 1899 to 1953, with the exception of the Japanese occupation
(1945), Vientiane was in succession the seat of the French governor and the French
administrative capital.

Vientiane still has some of its older wooden structures, despite its government offices, foreign
embassies, and schools. Its modern industries include brewing, lumber processing, and the
manufacture of brick, tile, textiles, cigarettes, matches, detergents, plastic bags, rubber sandals,
and iron and steel. The Lao farmers of the surrounding area tend rice, corn (maize), and
livestock in some of the best alluvial lowlands of Laos. Before 1975 the city was the principal
stock shipping and slaughtering centre of the country. Since the shift in the country’s import
trade from Vietnam to Thailand, Vientiane has replaced Pakxé to the southeast as Laos’s
principal port of entry.

The National University of Laos (founded 1995) in Vientiane has faculties of agriculture,
architecture, education, and forestry, among others. Ho Phakeo, the national museum, is
located in the city, as are the Dongsaphangmeuk Library and the National Library.

At Vientiane the Mekong River is navigable only by small craft; passage to the right bank and
the Thai railhead of Nong Khai was solely by ferry until 1994, when a highway bridge was
opened. Vientiane has an international airport, and highways link the city with Louangphrabang
and Savannakhet in Laos and with Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam. The Nam Ngum Dam north of
Vientiane provides enough hydroelectric power for the surrounding areas and for export to
Thailand as well. Vientiane’s outstanding building is the That Luang, a stupa (temple), dating
from about 1566 and restored by Lao civil servants under Prince Phetsarath during the French
colonial period. Pop. (2003 est.) city, 194,200; (2005 est.) urban agglom., 702,000.

History of Laos

Part of a series on the

History of Laos

Muang city-stats Era

Lan Xang 1353–1707

 Lan Xang Era

Lan Xang 1353–1707

Regional Kingdoms Era

Kingdom of Vientiane 1707–1828

Kingdom of Luang Phrabang 1707–1893
Muang Phuan 1707–1899
Kingdom of Champasak 1713–1904

Colonial Era

Lao rebellion 1826–

1828
Haw wars 1865–
1890
Franco-Siamese War 1893
French Protectorate of Laos 1893–
1953
Franco-Thai War 1940–
1941
Free Lao Movement (Lao 1945–
Issara) 1949

Modern Era

Kingdom of Laos 1946–1975

Laotian Civil War 1953–1975
North Vietnamese invasion 1958–1959
of Laos
Anti-Communist Insurgency 1975–2007
Lao People's Democratic 1975–1991
Republic
Laos after Soviet 1991–
dominance present

See also

 History of Laos
 History of Isan
  v
 t
 e
Evidence for modern human presence in the northern and central highlands of Indochina, that
constitute the territories of the modern Laotian nation-state dates back to the Lower
Paleolithic.[1] These earliest human migrants are Australo-Melanesians — associated with
the Hoabinhian culture and have populated the highlands and the interior, less accessible
regions of Laos and all of South-east Asia to this day. The
subsequent Austroasiatic and Austronesian marine migration waves affected landlocked Laos
only marginally and direct Chinese and Indian cultural contact had a greater impact on the
country.[2][3]
The modern nation-state Laos emerged from the French Colonial Empire as an independent
country in 1953. Laos exists in truncated form from the thirteenth century Lao kingdom of Lan
Xang. Lan Xang existed as a unified kingdom from 1357 to 1707, divided into the three rival
kingdoms of Luang Prabang, Vientiane, and Champasak from 1707 to 1779, fell
to Siamese suzerainty from 1779 to 1893, and was reunified under the French Protectorate of
Laos in 1893. The borders of the modern state of Laos were established by the French colonial
government in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [4][5][6]

Lao language
Lao, sometimes referred to as Laotian (ລາວ, [láːw] 'Lao' or ພາສາລາວ, [pʰáːsǎːláːw] 'Lao
language'), is a Kra–Dai language of the Lao people. It is spoken in Laos, where it is the official
language, as well as northeast Thailand, where it is usually referred to as Isan. Lao serves as
a lingua franca among the citizens of Laos, who also speak approximately 90 other languages,
many of which are unrelated to Lao.[3]
It is a tonal and analytic language, similar to other Kra-Dai languages, along
with Chinese and Vietnamese.[4] Spoken Lao is mutually intelligible with Thai and Isan,
fellow Southwestern Tai languages, to such a degree that their speakers are able to effectively
communicate with one another speaking their respective languages. These languages are
written with slightly different scripts but are linguistically similar and effectively form a dialect
continuum.[5]
Although there is no official standard, the Vientiane dialect became the de facto standard
language in the second half of the 20th century.[6]

Language[edit]
Further information: Lao language
There are over 90 distinct native languages spoken by the different ethnic populations of
Laos. Lao, the official language of Laos, is a monosyllabic tone based language from the Tai-
Kadai family as spoken in Vientiane. There are 19 million Lao speakers in Thailand and 3 million
in Laos, a reflection of geopolitical history. Lao can be further divided according to regional
dialects including Vientiane, northern, northeastern, central and southern. Northern dialects
are spoken in Sainyabuli, Bokeo, Phongsali, Luang Nam Tha, Udomxai, and Luang Prabang.
Northeastern Lao is spoken mainly in Xiang Khoang and Houa Phan. Central Lao is found
in Khammuan and Bolikhamsai. The Southern dialect is used
in Champasak, Salavan, Savannakhet, Attapeu, and Sekong.
As part of the Tai-Kadai language family spoken Thai is similar to Lao, with some distinctions.
Lao has six tones, whereas Bangkok Thai has five, the standard lexicon, grammar, usage and
pronunciations are also different. The two languages are not mutually intelligible,
although Lao speakers tend to have an easier time understanding Thai because of the
prevalence of Thai radio and media in and around Laos. (cf. Asymmetric intelligibility)
Other major Language families include Austro-Asiatic languages spoken by the Mon-Khmer (Lao
Theung) peoples, Hmong-Mien and Burmo-Tibetan (Lao Sung). Chinese and Vietnamese is
spoken within their respective ethnic communities.
Among Western languages French is commonly understood among the older (post-colonial)
generation, and is still used in limited application for academic and official
correspondence. English is quickly being adopted as the language of business and tourism, and
is supplanting French among younger generations as the unofficial second language.

Culture of Laos
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Monks gathering morning alms

Lao women in traditional Luang Prabang sinh

Morning on the Mekong River

Ornate lintel Wat Phu, Champasak

Laos developed its culture and customs as the inland crossroads of trade and migration
in Southeast Asia over millennia. As of 2012 Laos has a population of roughly 6.4 million spread
over 236,800 km2 (91,400 sq miles), yielding one of the lowest population densities in Asia. Yet
the country of Laos has an official count of over forty-seven ethnicities divided into 149 sub-
groups and 80 different languages. The Lao Loum have throughout the country's history
comprised the ethnic and linguistic majority. In Southeast Asia, traditional Lao culture is
considered one of the Indic cultures (along with Burma, Thailand and Cambodia).
Laos is geographically isolated and mountainous, bounded by the Annamite Range in the east,
forming a traditional political and cultural boundary with Vietnam (a
more Chinese influenced Sinitic culture). Much of the western borders of Laos are formed by
the Mekong River which provided the major means of inland trade despite limited navigability
along the river's length. Prior to the 20th century Lao principalities and the Kingdom of Lan
Xang extended to the Sipsong Panna (China), Sipsong Chau Tai (Vietnam), and Khorat
Plateau (today the northeast of Thailand) where the river was used as a transportation artery to
connect Lao peoples on both the right and left banks. However, the political history of Laos has
been complicated by frequent warfare and colonial conquests by European and regional rivals.
As a result, Laos today has cultural influence
from France, Thailand, China, Vietnam, Burma and Cambodia. The history of Laos is unique with
a national character defined by its diversity in both culture and customs.

Religion[edit]
Further information: Religion in Laos

Monks gathered at evening prayer

Laos is approximately 66% Theravada Buddhist,[1] which roughly falls along ethnic lines with the
majority of practitioners being Lao Loum. The remainder is largely animist, following their
unique ethnic traditions and practices. Even among the Lao Loum there is a high degree
of syncretism with most Lao acknowledging the traditional animist traditions known collectively
as satsana phi. Other religions are in the minority including Islam and Christianity and represent
a combined total of less than 2% of the population.
Buddhism[edit]
Further information: Buddhism in Laos
Theravada Buddhism is central to Lao cultural identity. The national symbol of Laos is the That
Luang stupa, a stupa with a pyramidal base capped by the representation of a closed lotus
blossom which was built to protect relics of the Buddha. The shrine has been rebuilt several
times since being created in the thirteenth century by the Khmer, with the largest expansions
by King Setthathirath in the 1500s as part of a nationwide building campaign.
Traditionally in Laos males would become novice monks at some point in their lives, giving
them the opportunity to gain both an education and religious merit (boun). Laos also has a
somewhat unusual belief among Buddhist countries that merit is transferable among people,
thus a son or daughter may make merit for a parent by temporarily entering a monastery. Lay
persons are expected to feed and care for the monks of their local community, with the
morning processions of monks (tak bat) who walk to collect offerings. Monks renounce material
possessions and labor, thus the community and the monastery (wat) are bound in a mutually
reinforcing relationship.
Government and politics[edit]
Main articles: Politics of Laos and Foreign relations of Laos

Thongloun Sisoulith
General Secretary and Prime Minister

Bounnhang Vorachith
President
The Lao People's Democratic Republic is one of the world's only socialist states openly
endorsing communism. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary
Party (LPRP). With one-party state status of Laos, the General Secretary (party leader) holds
ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the supreme leader.
[46]
 The head of state is President Bounnhang Vorachith. The General Secretary of the Lao
People's Revolutionary Party is Thongloun Sisoulith, who is serving as the supreme leader.[64]
The head of government is Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith, who is also the head of the Lao
People's Revolutionary Party's Politburo. Government policies are determined by the party
through the all-powerful eleven-member Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party and
the 61-member Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party.
Laos's first French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on 11 May 1947, and
declared Laos an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of 11
May 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and
technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated in
December 1975, when a communist people's republic was proclaimed. A new constitution was
adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP. [46]

Flag of the ruling Lao People's Revolutionary Party

The National Assembly, which essentially acts as a rubber stamp for the LPRP, approves all new
laws, although the executive branch retains authority to issue binding decrees.

Laos Belief And Value

Every culture has its own belief and values. Being an Asian country, Laos shares some similar
believes and values with other country regions. However, Laos has some typical ones of its own.
These value form and direct Laos’ politics, economy and society.

Collectivism versus individualism

In Laos, people prefer collectivism to individualism. They share equal responsibility in
community tasks. Building the local school or someone's house generates the enthusiastic
contribution of the whole neighborhood. In some ways, the Lao people are not as collectivist as
other East Asian neighbors because Laos has up to 65 ethnic minorities, each ethnic has their
own identity and language. In addition, Buddhism philosophy of “each individual is responsible
for his own actions” also make the Lao people are not really collectivism. This philosophy leads
people go their own way and not interfere the others.
Authority
Authority goes with age or seniority, position or status.  Lao people highly hierarchy in society.
As a result, junior always show respect and obedient to senior. Such behavior is considered
upright, prudent and a benefit to society.  Control is normally from the top down.

Responsibility and Decision-making

Much of social, economic and political activity in Laos is organized around groups.  Even
though decision-making is hierarchical and authority centralized, the process is consensual.  
Many people are consulted before a decision is ratified and implemented.  The process is
deliberate, time consuming, and what most Westerners might consider excessively cautious. 
On the other hand, once decisions are taken, implementation moves ahead steadily since the
decision-making process has already built consensus.

Face is the accumulated personal capital or indebtedness between individuals, and is a

fundamental feature of Lao culture.  It is at the core of the system of interpersonal relationships
and often the key to making a hierarchical and bureaucratic system work. It is important for a
Lao person to build and maintain face in order to shape a powerful and influential image.  The
more important one appears to be, the more likely one's requests will be granted.  On the other
hand, people go to elaborate lengths to give face to others and prevent them from losing it.
GEOGRAPHY  

Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) is located in the heart of the Indochinese
peninsular, in Southeast Asia, at a latitude of 14 to 23 degrees north and longitude 100 to 108
degrees east.

Lao PDR shares a 505 km border with China to the north, 435 km of border with Cambodia to
the south, 2,069 km of border with Vietnam to the east, 1,835 km of border with Thailand to
the west, and a 236 km border with Myanmar to the northwest. The country stretches 1,700
km from north to South, with an east-west width of over-500 km at its widest, and only 140 km
at the narrowest point.

Lao PDR covers a total of 236,800 square kilometres, three-quarters of which is mountains and
plateaux. The country has three distinct regions.

The north is dominated by mountains that average 1,500 metres above sea level. The highest
peak is the 2,800 metre Phou Bia in Xieng Khouang province. The Phou Luang (Annamite Chain)
stretches from the southeast of the Phouane Plateau down to the Cambodian border. It has
three large plateaux: Phouane Plateau in Xieng Khouang province, Nakai Plateau in
Khammouane province, and Boloven Plateau in southern Laos, 1,000 m above sea level.
The plains region comprises large and small plains along the Mekong River. The largest of these
is the Vientiane Plain, on the lower reaches of the Nam Ngum River. Also significant are the
Savannakhet plain, on the lower reaches of the Se Bang Fai and Se Bang Hieng rivers, and the
Champassak plain, which is on the Mekong River, stretching between the Thai and Cambodian
borders. Blessed with fertile soil, these plains represent one quarter of the total area and are
the "granaries" of the country.

The Lao PDR is criss-crossed by many rivers and streams. The Mekong River flows through
1,835 km of the country from north to south. Rivers and streams provide great potential for
hydropower development. Over half of the power potential in the lower Mekong Basin is
contained within Laos.
The Nam Ou river flows from Phonsaly to Luang Prabang for 448 km; the Nam Ngum runs 354
km from Xieng Khouang to Vientiane province; the Se Bang Hieng of Savannakhet province is
338 km long; the Nam Tha runs from Luang Namtha to Bokeo for 325 km; the Nam Sekong runs
320 km from Saravane and Sekong to Attopeu province; the Se Bang Fai runs between
Khammouane and Savannakhet for 239 km; Oudomsay province's Nam Beng covers 215 km;
the Nam Sedong flows for 192 km between Saravane and Champassak; the Nam Selanong in
Savannakhet runs for 115 km; the Nam Kading of Borikhamsay province is 103 km long; the
Nam Khanh runs for 90 km between Huaphanh and Luang Prabang.

Being a tropical country, the weather in Laos is influenced by monsoons. The weather in the
mountains in the north and in the high range of the Annamite Chain bordering Vietnam in the
east is semi-tropical. The difference in day and night temperatures is about 10 deg C.

Laos has around 2,300-2,400 hours of sunlight per year. The atmospheric humidity is usually 70-
80%, and 75-90% of the precipitation is recorded in the rainy season, May to October. Rainfall
in the dry season, November to April, accounts for only 10-25%. There is a sharp difference in
rainfall between regions. For instance, in the Phou Luang (Annamite Chain), the annual average
rainfall is around 300 millimetres. In Xieng Khouang, Luang Prabang and Sayaboury provinces,
annual rainfall is 100-150 millimetres; in Vientiane and Savannakhet 150-200 millimetres of
rainfalls every year.
Geography of Laos
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Detailed map of Laos
Laos is an independent republic, and a landlocked nation in Southeast Asia, northeast
of Thailand, west of Vietnam. It covers 236,800 square kilometers in the center of the
Southeast Asian peninsula and it is surrounded by Myanmar (Burma), Cambodia, the People's
Republic of China, Thailand, and Vietnam. About seventy percent of its geographic area is made
up of mountain ranges, highlands, plateaux, and rivers cut through.
Its location has often made it a buffer state between more powerful neighboring states, as well
as a crossroads for trade and communication. Migration and international conflict have
contributed to the present ethnic composition of the country and to the geographic distribution
of its ethnic groups.

Category:Landforms of Laos
Houaphanh Province
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Annam Highlands)
Houaphanh Province (Laotian: ຫ ົ ວພັນ [kʰwɛ̌ːŋ hwǎː pʰán]; Romanization of Lao: Houaphan) is
a province in eastern Laos. Its capital is Xam Neua.
Houaphanh Province covers an area of 16,500 square kilometres (6,400 sq mi). The province is
bordered by Vietnam to the north, east, and southeast, Xiangkhouang Province to the south
and southwest, and Luang Prabang Province to the west. The terrain is rugged, with dense,
forested mountains forming much of the province, particularly on the western side. The main
road running through the province is Route 6. The principal rivers are the Nam Ma, which flows
from and into Vietnam, passing the village of Ban Muang-Et, and the Nam Sam, which the
towns of Sam Neua and Sam Tai lie on.
The province is the home to the Viengxay caves, an extensive network of caves used by
the Pathet Lao, and the Hintang Archaeological Park, one of the most important pre-
historic sites in northern Laos, dotted with standing megaliths.
Houaphanh is one of the poorest areas of Laos, but has dramatic scenery and fine textile
traditions.
Literature of Laos
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The people of Laos have a rich literary tradition dating back at least six hundred years, with the
oral and storytelling traditions of its peoples dating back much earlier. [1] Lao literature refers to
the written productions of Laotian peoples, its émigrés, and to Lao-language works. In Laos
today there are over forty-seven recognized ethnic groups, with the Lao Loum comprising the
majority group.[2] Lao (part of the Lao-Tai family) is officially recognized as the national
language, but owing to the ethnic diversity of the country the literature of Laos can generally
be grouped according to four ethnolinguistic families: Lao-Tai (Tai-Kadai); Mon-
Khmer (Austroasiatic); Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao), and Sino-Tibetan (primarily Tibeto-Burman).
[3]
 As an inland crossroads of Southeast Asia the political history of Laos has been complicated
by frequent warfare and colonial conquests by European and regional rivals. As a result, Laos
today has cultural influence from France, Thailand, China, Vietnam, Burma, and Cambodia.
Literature in Lao society[edit]

Novice monks practicing the art of making palm-leaf folios at Wat Manolom, Luang Prabang,
Laos
Traditionally literature is held high regard in Lao society. Lao literature spans a wide range
of genres including religious, philosophy, prose, epic or lyric poetry, histories, traditional law
and customs, folklore, astrology, rituals, grammar and lexicography, dramas, romances,
comedies, and non-fiction.[4][5] Lao thematic elements frequently combine the religious and
philosophical with secular works and folklore. It is important to appreciate that for the Lao, to
engage in study or writing was in essence to pursue a deeper philosophical or religious
meaning.[6] Equally important is that oral traditions continue to exist along with written literary
forms, and there is difficult to distinguish the two as separate traditions they are essentially
coexisting and complementary.[7] Written texts, in particular classical or religious, frequently do
not have individual authorship nor do they have a fixed form, they are subject to continual
retelling, reinterpretation and elaboration. [8]
Most works of Lao literature have been handed down through continuous copying and have
survived in the form of palm-leaf manuscripts, which were traditionally stored in wooden
caskets and kept in the libraries of Buddhist monasteries. [9] The act of copying a book or text
held deep religious significance as a meritorious act. The emphasis in writing was to
convey Theravada Buddhist thought, although syncretism with animist beliefs is also common,
religious and philosophical teachings. Individual authorship is not important; works were simply
attributed with a perceived religious origin raising its status in the eyes of the audience. [8] Owing
to the religious and societal importance of most literature, the written word is generally kept in
high regard and stored according to specific cultural taboos (i.e. never on the ground, and must
be stored in a way that demonstrates respect).
Laos takes most of its traditional literature from sixteenth and seventeenth century Lan Xang.
The most notable genre is the epic poetry of which several masterpieces have survived despite
Laos’ tropical climate and history of conflict and warfare.
The Sin Xay follows the mythological tale of a king and his kidnapped sister by the Lord of
the Nyak. The Thao Hung Thao Cheuang recounts the struggles of the Khmmu and indigenous
peoples of Laos at the time of the Tai migrations as told by their mythical king, and is one of the
most important works of literature in Southeast Asia for its depiction of life among its
indigenous societies. Other notable works of Lao epic poetry include the rain legends of the
Toad King (Phya Khankhaak) which are retold during the annual Rocket Festival, and the story
of Phadaeng Nang Ai which is an epic love poem set across multiple reincarnations.
The Lao also have a number of origin legends including the Nithan Khun Borom (Story of Khun
Borom) which recounts the creation of the world, and the Nithan Khun Lo which tells how the
descendants of Khun Borom settled the lands of mainland Southeast Asia. Reflecting
Laos’ Theravada Buddhist heritage a number of religious and morality stories are among the
most popular in Laos. The national epic of Laos is the Phra Lak Phra Lam and retells the Lao
version of the Ramayana as a previous life of the Buddha. Also, the Vessantara Jataka is
generally considered one of the greatest masterpieces of Lao literature. The story recalls the
past life of a compassionate prince, Vessantara, who gives away everything he owns, including
his children, thereby displaying the virtue of perfect charity.
Laos has a strong tradition of folklore. Ghost stories, place legends, stories of naga and trickster
tales of Xieng Mieng are quite popular and are the dominant forms of oral tradition.

Five Asian authors you should know: the Man Asian Literary Prize shortlist
Five writers from China, Japan, and India made the Man Asian Literary Prize shortlist for its
2010 award for the best novel by an Asian writer, either written in English or translated into
English last year.
By Marjorie Kehe, Christian Science Monitor
Feb. 23, 2011





Five writers from China, Japan, and India made the Man Asian Literary Prize shortlist for its
2010 award for the best novel by an Asian writer, either written in English or translated into
English last year. The winner will be announced at a dinner in Hong Kong on March
17. – Marjorie Kehe, Monitor book editor
Bi Feiyu
1. Bi Feiyu, nominated for “Three Sisters”

Bi Feiyu is well known in China as a novelist and screenwriter. He grew up in the Chinese
countryside during the Cultural Revolution. He once told an interviewer that as a child he had
no toys — only nature. When he entered college, he says, and began reading, he was shocked
by the difference between books and real life and that is what pushed him to become a
novelist.
“Three Sisters” tells the stories of three daughters of a lecherous Communist Party secretary as
a vehicle for exploring the difficult lives of women in Communist China in the 1970s and 80s.

Manu Joseph
2. Manu Joseph, nominated for “Serious Men”

Manu Joseph, deputy editor and Mumbai bureau chief of Open magazine, has been a journalist
for 14 years.

“Serious Men,” his debut novel, is an exploration of questions of class in India. This novel tells
the story of a Dalit (untouchable) secretary who works for a high-class Brahmin at Bombay’s
Institute of Theory and Research and invents stories about his disabled son in a desperate effort
to advance socially.
Tabish Khair
3. Tabish Khair, nominated for “The Thing About Thugs”

The Indian poet-novelist Tabish Khair was born and educated in Bihar, India, but now lives
mostly in Aarhus, Denmark where he is a professor of English at the University of Aarhus. His
books include “Babu Fictions” (2001) and “The Bus Stopped” (2004).

A lyrical writer whose prose is often called “poetic,” Khair is also known for his reluctance to
allow his work to be categorized as representative of any kind of post-colonial Indian literary
tradition. (“Can I represent anyone other than myself?” he once asked an interviewer. “On
what grounds can I speak for someone else?”)

“The Thing About Thugs” is set in Victorian England and tells the story of an Indian villager who
travels to London with an English captain and fascinates him with the story of his life as a
murderous thug.

Kenzaburō Ōe
4. Kenzaburō Ōe, nominated for “The Changeling”

Japanese Nobel laureate (1994) Kenzaburō Ōe has always credited French and American
literature as important influences in his creative development. (He says that he “willl carry to
the grave” the impact of the copy of “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” given to him by his
grandmother when he was a boy.) Another major influence in Ōe’s life has been his oldest son,
Hikari, who was brain-damaged during his 1963 birth. Several of Ōe’s books feature characters
based on his son.

“The Changeling” takes the real-life suicide of film director Juzo Itami (who was also Ōe’s close
friend and brother-in-law) and spins around it a roman à clef that takes the main characters
back to their past and their previous entanglement with a right-wing paramilitary group.

Yoko Ogawa

5. Yoko Ogawa, nominated for “Hotel Iris”

Yoko Ogawa is no stranger to Western readers. Her 1990 novella collection “The Diving Pool”
was published in English in 2008 to strong reviews. Her charming 2003 novel “The Professor
and the Housekeeper” — an unusual love story involving a brilliant former professor of
mathematics, his housekeeper, and her 10-year-old son — also received much acclaim when
released in the US in 2009. Ogawa’s fiction has been published in The New Yorker, A Public
Space, and Zoetrope.

A highly prolific writer, Ogawa has published more than 20 works of fiction and nonfiction since
1988 and has won every major Japanese literary award. She is known for her precise,
economical language and her fascination with mathematics. Her fiction is sometimes described
as “eerie” or mysterious.

“Hotel Iris” — in which Ogawa explores questions of obsession and insecurity — is a darker,
more sexually explicit book than some of her earlier work. It tells the story of 17-year-old Mari,
a 17-year-old who works in a rundown seaside hotel, and who is drawn into a frightening affair
with a middle-aged male guest.
THE UNIVERSAL THEME, ISSUES AND SUBJECT MATTER THAT DOMINATE ASIAN LITERATURE:

1. Point out the universal themes, issues, and subject matter that dominate Afro-Asian
literature

Between 751 and 664 B.C., the kingdom of Kush at the southern end of the Nile River gained
strength and prominence succeeding the New Kingdom of Egyptian Civilization. Smaller
civilization around the edges of the Sahara also existed among them the Fasa of northern
Sudan, whose deeds are recalled by the Soninka oral epic, The Daust.

 Aksum (3rd century A.D.), a rich kingdom in eastern Africa arose in what is now
Ethiopia. It served as the center of a trade route and developed its own writing
system.
 The Kingdom of Old Ghana (A.D. 300) the first of great civilization in western Africa
succeeded by the empires of Old Mali and Songhai.  The legendary city of Timbuktu
was a center of trade in both the Mali and Songhai empires.
 New cultures sprung up throughout the South: Luba and Malawi empires in central
Africa, the two Congo kingdoms, the Swahili culture of eastern Africa, the kingdom of
Old Zimbabwe, and the Zulu nation near the southern tip of the continent.
 Africa’s Golden Age (between A.D. 300 and A.D. 1600) marked the time when
sculpture, music, metalwork, textiles, and oral literature flourished.
 Foreign influences came in the 4thcentury.
1. The Roman Empire had proclaimed Christianity as its state religion and
taken control of the entire northern coast of Africa including Egypt.
2. Around 700 A.D. Islam, the religion of Mohammed, was introduced into
Africa as well as the Arabic writing system. Old mali, Somali and other
eastern African nations were largely Muslim.
3. European powers created colonized countries in the late 1800s. Social and
political chaos reigned as traditional African nations were either split apart
by European colonizers or joined with incompatible neighbors.
4. The mid-1900s marked the independence and rebirth of traditional
cultures written in African languages.
Negritude, which means literally ‘blackness,’ is the literary movement of the 1030s-1950s that
began among French-speaking African and Caribbean writers living in Paris as a protest against
French colonial rule and the policy of assimilation. Its leading figure was Leopold Sedar Senghor
(1stpresident of the republic of Senegal in 1960), who along with Aime Cesaire from Martinique
and Leo Damas from French Guina, began to examine Western values critically and to reassess
African culture. The movement largely faded in the early 1960s when its political and cultural
objectives had been achieved in most African countries. The basic ideas behind Negritude
include:

 Africans must look to their own cultural heritage to determine the values and
traditions that are most useful in the modern world.
 Committed writers should use African subject matter and poetic traditions and
should excite a desire for political freedom.
 Negritude itself encompasses the whole of African cultural, economic, social, and
political values.
 The value and dignity of African traditions and peoples must be asserted.
 Leopold Sedar Senghor (1960) is a poet and statesman who was a confounder of the
Negritude movement in African art and literature. His works include Songs of Shadow,
Black Offerings, Major Elegies, Poetical Work. He became president of Senegal in 1960.
 Okot P’Bitek (1930-1982) was born in Uganda during the British domination and was
embodied in contrast of cultures. Among his works are Song of Lawino, Song of Ocol,
African Religions and Western Scholarship, Religion of the Central Luo, Horn of My Love.
 Wole Soyinka (1934) is a Nigerian Playwright, poet, novelist, and critic who was the first
black African to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986. Among his works:
plays- A Dance of the Forests, The Lion and the Jewel, The Trials of Brother Jero; novels
– The Interpreters, Season of Anomy; poems – Idanre and Other Poems, Poems from
Prison, A Shuttle in the Crypt, Mandela’s Earth and Other Poems.
 Chinua Achebe (1930) is a prominent Igbo novelist acclaimed for his unsentimental
depictions of the social and psychological disorientation accompanying the imposition of
Western customs and values upon traditional African society. His particular concern was
with emergent Africa at its moments of crisis. His works include, Things Fall Apart, Arrow
of God, No Longer at ease, A Man of the People, Anthills of Savanah.
 Nadine Gordimer (1923) is a South African novelist and short story writer whose major
theme was exile and alienation. She received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. Her
works include The Soft Voice of the Serpent, Burger’s Daughter, July’s People, A Sport of
Nature, My Son’s Story.
 Bessie Head (1937-1986) described the contradictions and shortcomings of pre- and
postcolonial African society in morally didactic novels and stories. She suffered rejection
and alienation from an early age being born of an illegal union between her white
mother and a black father. Her works include, When Rain Clouds Gather, A Question of
Power, The Collector of treasures, Serowe.
  Barbara Kimenye (1940) wrote twelve books on children’s stories known as the Moses
series which are now standard reading fare for African school children. Among her
works are Kalasandra Revisited, The Smugglers, The money game.
INTERPRET THE SIGNIFICANCE AND MEANING OF SELECTED LITERACY PIECES:
Course Descriptions
ENG 2225
Literary Interpretation

April Middeljans

TuTh 9:00-11:00 a.m.

English 2225 is a required writing-intensive (“W”) course designed to prepare English majors
for literary study and critical writing at the college level.

It explores the foundational questions of the discipline of English: why do we read, write and
argue about literature (theoretical), and how do we read, write and argue about literature
(practical). The department strongly recommends taking 2225 early in your college career; it
provides a good foundation for writing and researching at the 3000 and 4000 levels, and it
provides creative writers with an invaluable tool box of literary devices.

In the first three units of the course, we will work on the skills of close reading and
interpretation, studying how literary devices work in three major genres of literature—fiction,
drama, and poetry:

Close reading intensively examines a text’s language and literary devices, creating a

detailed map of the text’s possible connotations and implications. Close reading is the
primary tool used in interpretation.
Interpretation is an explicit argument about a text’s deeper meanings—its implied
themes, values, and assumptions. It pays special attention to the text’s contradictions,
tensions, and ambiguities. Interpretation also recognizes how the cultural context of
the text and the reader might influence our interpretive conclusions.

After we have developed our own interpretive skills, we will enter a conversation with the
broader community of scholars—peers and professional critics. The final unit focuses on the
skills of criticism, research, and revision:

Criticism is the art of analyzing and questioning a text’s themes, values, and

assumptions (identified in the process of interpretation). A good literary critic resists
the tendency to automatically “buy into” the text’s world view, considering what the
 text doesn’t say and critiquing its arguments from a distance. Literary critics use
different theoretical approaches when interpreting texts, and the priorities of literary
criticism have shifted over time. While this is not a critical theory course, it will briefly
introduce some major schools so you can recognize them and perhaps experiment
with one or more of them in your own work.
Research. Literary critics do research in order to participate in the conversation scholars
are having about a certain text. This course trains you to find scholarly articles and to
integrate scholarly viewpoints into your own interpretation productively and
responsibly.
Revision. We will write regularly throughout the entire course, but Unit IV will
COUNTRY CAPITAL:
Ashgabat
Ashgabat (Turkmen: Aşgabat; Ашгабат, pronounced [ɑʃʁɑˈbɑt],[3] Persian:  ‫عشق‬
‫;آباد‬ Russian: Ашхабад), formerly named Poltoratsk (Russian: Полтора́цк, IPA: [pəltɐˈratsk])
between 1919 and 1927, is the capital and the largest city of Turkmenistan. It is situated
between the Karakum Desert and the Kopet Dag mountain range in Central Asia. It is also near
the Iran-Turkmenistan border.
The city was founded in 1881 on the basis of an Ahal Teke tribal village, and made the capital of
the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924. Much of the city was destroyed by the 1948
Ashgabat earthquake but has since been extensively rebuilt under the rule of Saparmurat
Niyazov’s "White City" urban renewal project,[4] resulting in monumental projects sheathed in
costly white marble.[5] The Soviet-era Karakum Canal runs through the city, carrying waters from
the Amu Darya from east to west.[6] Since 2019, the city has been recognized as having one of
the highest costs of living in the world largely due to Turkmenistan's inflation and import issues.
[7][8]

Names[edit]

View of Ashgabat centre

Ashgabat is called Aşgabat in Turkmen, (Russian: Ашхабад, romanized: Ashkhabad)
in Russian from 1925 to 1991, and Ešq-ābād (‫ )عشق‌آباد‬in Persian. Before 1991, the city was
usually spelled Ashkhabad in English, a transliteration of the Russian form. It has also been
variously spelled Ashkhabat and Ashgabad. From 1919 until 1927, the city was renamed
Poltoratsk after a local revolutionary, Pavel Gerasimovich Poltoratskiy.[9]
Although the name literally means "city of love" or "city of devotion" in modern Persian, the
name might be modified through folk etymology. Turkmen historian Ovez Gundogdiyev
believes that the name goes back to the Parthian era, 3rd century BC, deriving from the name
of the founder of the Parthian Empire, Arsaces I of Parthia, in Persian Ashk-Abad (the city
of Ashk/Arsaces).[10]

History of Turkmenistan
The history of Turkmenistan is largely shrouded in mystery, its past since the arrival of Indo-
European Iranian tribes around 2000 BC is often the starting point of the area's discernible
history. Early tribes were nomadic or semi-nomadic due to the arid conditions of the region as
the steppe culture in Central Asia was an extension of a larger Eurasian series of horse cultures
which spanned the entire spectrum of language families including the Indo-
Europeans and Turko-Mongol groups. Some of the known early Iranian tribes included
the Massagatae, Scythians/Sakas, and early Soghdians (most likely precursors of
the Khwarezmians). Turkmenistan was a passing point for numerous migrations and invasions
by tribes which gravitated towards the settled regions of the south including
ancient Mesopotamia, Elam, and the Indus Valley Civilization.
The region's written history begins with the region's conquest by the Achaemenid
Empire of ancient Iran, as the region was divided between
the satraps of Margiana, Chorasmia and Parthia. Later conquerors included Alexander the
Great, the Parni, Ephthalites, Iranian Huns, Göktürks, Sarmatians, and Sassanid Iranians. During
this early phase of history, the majority of Turkmenistan's inhabitants were either adherents
of Zoroastrianism or Buddhism and the region was largely dominated by Iranian peoples. These
incursions and epochs, though pivotal, did not shape the region's history as the invasions of two
later invading groups: Arabs and the Oghuz Turks. The vast majority of inhabitants were
converted to Hanifism, while the Oghuz brought the beginnings of the Turkic Turkmen
language that came to dominate the area. The Turkic period was a time of cultural fusion as
Islamic traditions brought by the Arabs merged with local Iranian cultures and then were
further altered by Turkic invaders and rulers such as the Seljuks. Genghis
Khan and Mongol invasions devastated the region during the late Middle Ages, but their hold
upon the area was transitional as later Timur Leng and Uzbeks contested the land.
Modern Turkmenistan was radically transformed by the invasion of the Russian Empire, which
conquered the region in the late 19th century. Later, the Russian Revolution of 1917 would
ultimately transform Turkmenistan from an Islamic tribal society to a totalitarian Leninist one
during the Soviet era. Independence came in 1991, as Saparmurat Niyazov, a former local
communist party boss, declared himself absolute ruler for life as Turkmenbashi or Leader of the
Turkmen and transitioned the newly independent Turkmenistan into an authoritarian state
under his absolute control and has thus far resisted the democratization that has influenced
many of the other former Soviet Republics. Niyazov ruled until his death on December 21, 2006.

Ancient history[edit]
Female figurine of the "Bactrian princess" type, 2500-1500 BCE, chlorite (dress and hat)
and limestone (head, hands and a leg), height: 13.33 cm, Los Angeles County Museum of
Art (USA)
Scant remains point to early human settlements east of the Caspian Sea, possibly
including Neanderthals, although the archaeology of the region as a whole is underresearched.
[1]

Bronze Age and Iron Age finds support the probability of advanced civilizations in the area
including finds associated with a society known to scholars as the Bactria-Margiana
Archaeological Complex (BMAC) – near the modern cities
of Mary (previously Merv), Djeitun and Gonur Tepe.[2][3]
By 2000 BCE, Indo-European peoples had settled throughout the region. Most of the present-
day Turkmenistan was occupied by BMAC-related societies and the Dahae (also known as the
Daae, Dahā, Daoi and similar names) – a tribal confederation located immediately east of the
Caspian. The Massagetae and Scythians were also present, immediately north of BMAC and the
Dahae.

The Persian Empire around 500 BC

Alexander the Great conquered the territory in the 4th century BC on his way to South Asia. In
330 BC, Alexander marched northward into Central Asia and founded the city of Alexandria
near the Murgab River. Located on an important trade route, Alexandria later became the city
of Merv. The ruins of Alexander's ancient city are still to be found and have been extensively
researched. After Alexander's death his empire quickly fell apart. It was ruled
by Seleucids before the satrap of Parthia declared independence. The Parthians – fierce,
nomadic warriors from the north of Iran – then established the kingdom of Parthia, which
covered present-day Turkmenistan and Iran. The Parthian kings ruled their domain from the
city of Nisa – an area now located near the modern-day capital of Ashgabat – founded
by Arsaces I (reigned c. 250–211 BC), and was reputedly the royal necropolis of the Parthian
kings, although it has neither been established that the fortress at Nisa was a royal residence
nor a mausoleum.
Excavations at Nisa have revealed substantial buildings, mausoleums and shrines, many
inscribed documents, and a looted treasury. Many Hellenistic art works have been uncovered,
as well as a large number of ivory rhytons, the outer rims decorated with Iranian subjects or
classical mythological scenes.
During the 4th to early 7th century CE, much of the population was already in settlements
around the fertile river valleys along the Amu Darya, and Merv and Nisa became centers
of sericulture (the raising of silkworms). A busy caravan route, connecting Tang Dynasty China
and the city of Baghdad (in modern Iraq), passed through Merv. Thus, the city of Merv
constituted an important prize for any conqueror.

Arab conquests and Islamization[edit]

Central Asia came under Arab control after a series of invasions in the late 7th and early 8th
centuries and was incorporated into Islamic Caliphate divided between provinces
of Mawara'un Nahr and Khorasan. The Arab conquest brought the religion of Islam to all of the
peoples of central Asia. The city of Merv was occupied by the lieutenants of the caliph Uthman
ibn Affan, and was constituted as the capital of Khorasan. Using this city as their base, the
Arabs, led by their commander Qutayba ibn Muslim, brought under
subjection Balkh, Bokhara, Fergana and Kashgaria, and penetrated into China as far as the
province of Kan-suh early in the 8th century.
Merv achieved some political spotlight in February 748 when Abu Muslim (d. 750) declared a
new Abbasid dynasty at Merv, and set out from the city to conquer Iran and Iraq and establish a
new capital at Baghdad. Abu Muslim was famously challenged by the goldsmith of Merv to do
the right thing and not make war on fellow Muslims. The goldsmith was put to death.
In the latter part of the 8th century Merv became obnoxious to Islam as the centre of heretical
propaganda preached by al-Muqanna "The Veiled Prophet of Khorasan". Present Turkmenistan
was ruled by Tahirids between 821 and 873. In 873, Arab rule in Central Asia came to an end as
a result of the Saffarid conquest. During their dominion Merv, like Samarkand and Bokhara, was
one of the great schools of learning, and the celebrated historian Yaqut studied in its libraries.
Merv produced a number of scholars in various branches of knowledge, such as Islamic
law, Hadith, history, literature, and the like. Several scholars have the name: Marwazi (‫)المروزي‬
designating them as hailing from Merv. But Saffarid rule was brief and they were defeated
by Samanids in 901. The Samanid dynasty weakened after second half of 10th century
and Ghaznavids took present Turkmenistan in 990s. But, they challenged with Seljuks,
newcomers from north. Seljuks' decisive victory against them, present Turkmenistan was
passed to them in 1041.
LANGUAGE OF TURKMRNISTAN

Turkmen language
Turkmen (türkmençe, түркменче, ‫تۆرکمنچه‬, [tʏɾkmøntʃø][5] or türkmen dili, түркмен дили, ‫تۆرکمن‬
‫ديلی‬, [tʏɾkmøn dɪlɪ][5]), also referred to as Turkmen Turkic or Turkmen Turkish,[6][7][8][9] is a Turkic
language spoken by the Turkmens of Central Asia, mainly
of Turkmenistan, Iran and Afghanistan. It has an estimated five million native speakers in
Turkmenistan, a further 719,000 speakers in Northeastern Iran[10] and 1.5 million people in
Northwestern Afghanistan.[11] Turkmen has official status in Turkmenistan, but it does not have
official status in Iran or Afghanistan, where big communities of ethnic Turkmens live. Turkmen
is also spoken to lesser varying degrees in Turkmen communities
of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan and by diaspora communities, primarily in Turkey and Russia.[12]
Turkmen is a member of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages. The standardized form of
Turkmen (spoken in Turkmenistan) is based on the Teke dialect, while Iranian Turkmen uses
mostly the Yomud dialect, and Afghan Turkmen uses Ersary variety.[13] Turkmen is closely
related to Gagauz, Qashqai, Crimean Tatar, Turkish and Azerbaijani, sharing varying degrees
of mutual intelligibility with each of those languages.[14] According to linguistic comparative
studies, the closest relative of Turkmen is the Azerbaijani language.[15]
Elsewhere in Iran, the Turkmen language comes second after the Azerbaijani language in terms
of the number of speakers of Turkic languages of Iran.[16]
Iraqi and Syrian "Turkmen" speak dialects that form
a continuum between Turkish and Azerbaijani, in both cases heavily influenced by Arabic. These
varieties are not Turkmen in the sense of this article.
The Turkmen language, unlike other languages of the Oghuz branch, preserved most of the
unique and archaic features of the language spoken by the early Oghuz Turks, such as
pronouncing vowels longer or shorter according to corresponding words or word
characteristics.[17]

Classification[edit]

Areas where modern Oghuz languages are spoken

Turkmen is a member of the East Oghuz branch of the Turkic family of languages; its closest
relatives being Turkish and Azerbaijani, with which it shares a relatively high degree of mutual
intelligibility.
Turkmen has vowel harmony, is agglutinative and has no grammatical gender. Word order
is subject–object–verb.
Written Turkmen today is based on the Teke (Tekke) dialect. The other dialects are Nohurly,
Ýomud, Änewli, Hasarly, Nerezim, Gökleň, Salyr, Saryk, Ärsary and Çowdur. The Russian dialect
is Trukhmen. The Teke dialect is sometimes (especially in Afghanistan) referred to as
"Chagatai", but like all Turkmen dialects it reflects only a limited influence from
classical Chagatai.

Culture of Turkmenistan

The Turkmen people have traditionally been nomads and equestrians, and even today after the

fall of the USSR attempts to urbanize the Turkmens have not been very successful. They never
really formed a coherent nation or ethnic group until they were forged into one by Joseph
Stalin in the 1930s. Rather they are divided into clans, and each clan has its own dialect and
style of dress. Turkmens are famous for making Turkmen rugs, often mistakenly called Bukhara
rugs in the West. These are elaborate and colorful rugs, and these too help indicate the
distinction between the various Turkmen clans.
The Turkmens are Sunni Muslims but they, like most of the region's nomads, adhere
to Islam rather loosely and combine Islam with pre-Islamic animist spirituality. The Turkmens do
indeed tend to be spiritual but are by no means militantly religious.
A Turkmen can be identified anywhere by the traditional "telpek" hats, which are large
black sheepskin hats that resemble afros. Traditional dressing for men usually consists of high,
shaggy sheepskin hats and red robes over white shirts. Women wear long sack-dresses over
narrow trousers (the pants are trimmed with a band of embroidery at the ankle). Female
headdresses usually consist of silver jewelry. Bracelets and brooches are set with semi-precious
stones.

Language[edit]
Outside the capital, the national language of Turkmen is the most widely encountered.
In Ashgabat, it would be hard to find a person who did not speak Russian, however with recent
efforts to revive the ancient culture of Turkmenistan, Turkmen is quickly regaining its place as
the chief language of the state.

Literature[edit]
Two significant figures in Turkmen literature are the poets Magtymguly
Pyragy and Mämmetweli Kemine.

Music[edit]
Main article: Music of Turkmenistan
Turkmen music is very similar to Khorasani music.
Religion in Turkmenistan
The Turkmen of Turkmenistan, like their kin in Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Iran are
predominantly Muslims. According to the CIA World Factbook, Turkmenistan is
93% Muslim and 6% Eastern Orthodox. Most ethnic Russians are Orthodox Christians. The
remaining 1% is unknown.[2] A 2009 Pew Research Center report indicates a higher percentage
of Muslims with 93.1% of Turkmenistan's population adhering to Islam. [3]
The great majority of Turkmen readily identify themselves as Muslims and
acknowledge Islam as an integral part of their cultural heritage. However, there are some who
only support a revival of the religion's status merely as an element of national revival.

Religious demography[edit]
The country has an area of 488,100 square kilometres (188,457 sq mi) and a population of 5.5-6
million. Statistics regarding religious affiliation were not available. According to the
Government's most recent census (1995), ethnic Turkmen constitute 77 percent of the
population. Minority ethnic populations include Uzbeks (9.2 percent), Russians (6.7 percent),
and Kazakhs (2 percent). Armenians, Azeris, and other ethnic groups comprise the remaining
5.1 percent. The majority religion is Sunni Muslim, and Russian Orthodox Christians constitute
the largest religious minority. The level of active religious observance is unknown.
Since independence there has been a tightly controlled revival of Islam. During the Soviet era,
there were only four mosques operating; now there are 698. Ethnic Turkmens, Uzbeks,
Kazakhs, Balochs and Pashtuns living in Mary Province are predominantly Sunni Muslim. There
are small pockets of Shi'a Muslims, many of whom are ethnic Iranians, Azeris, or Kurds living
along the border with Iran and in Turkmenbashy (Krasnovodsk).
While the 1995 census indicated that ethnic Russians comprised almost 7 percent of the
population, subsequent emigration to Russia and elsewhere has reduced considerably this
proportion. Most ethnic Russians and Armenians are Orthodox Christians. There are 13 Russian
Orthodox churches, 3 of which are in Ashgabat. A priest resident in Ashgabat leads the
Orthodox Church within the country, serving under the religious jurisdiction of the Russian
Orthodox Archbishop in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. There are no Russian Orthodox seminaries.
Ethnic Russians and Armenians also comprise a significant percentage of members of
unregistered religious congregations; ethnic Turkmen appear to be increasingly represented
among these groups as well. There are small communities of the following unregistered
denominations: the Roman Catholic Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, and several evangelical
Christian groups including "Separate" Baptists, charismatic groups, and an unaffiliated,
nondenominational group.
Small communities of Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, the Society for Krishna
Consciousness and the Baháʼí Faith were registered with the Government. In May 2005
the Greater Grace World Outreach Church of Turkmenistan, the International Church of Christ,
the New Apostolic Church of Turkmenistan, and two groups of Pentecostal Christians were able
to register. Overthere existst the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Greater Grace World
Outreach Church, the Protestant Word of Life Church.
A very small community of ethnic Germans, most of whom live in and around the city
of Serakhs, reportedly included practicing Lutherans. Approximately one thousand
ethnic Poles live in the country; they have been largely absorbed into the Russian community
and consider themselves Russian Orthodox. The Catholic community in Ashgabat, which
included both citizens and foreigners, met in the chapel of the Apostolic Nunciature. There
were some foreign missionaries, although the extent of their activities was unknown.
An estimated one thousand Jews live in the country. Most are members of families who came
from Ukraine during World War II. There are some Jewish families living in Turkmenabat, on the
border with Uzbekistan, who are known as Bukharan Jews, referring to the Uzbek city
of Bukhara. There were no synagogues or rabbis, and Jews continue to emigrate to Israel,
Russia, and Germany; however, the Jewish population remained relatively constant. The
community gathered for religious observances but did not opt to register as a religious group;
nor were there reports of harassment.

GOVERNMENT OF TURKMENISTAN

Politics of Turkmenistan
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The politics of Turkmenistan takes place in the framework of a presidential republic, whereby
the President of Turkmenistan is both head of state and head of government. No true
opposition parties are allowed; every registered political party supports the second and current
President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow.[1]

Political background[edit]
After 69 years as part of the Soviet Union (including 67 years as a union republic), Turkmenistan
declared its independence on 27 October 1991.
President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov, a former bureaucrat of the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union, ruled Turkmenistan from 1985, when he became head of the Communist Party of
the Turkmen SSR, until his death in 2006. He ruled with totalitarian control over the country
after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. On 28 December 1999 the Mejlis (parliament)
declared Niyazov President for Life. (The Mejlis itself had taken office only a week earlier in
elections that included only candidates hand-picked by President Niyazov; no opposition
candidates were allowed.)
Prior to 2008 the authorities permitted only a single political party, the Democratic Party of
Turkmenistan. Political gatherings are illegal unless government sanctioned.
All citizens must carry internal passports, noting place of residence—a practice carried over
from the Soviet era. Movement into and out of the country, as well as within its borders, is
difficult. Turkmenistan is dominated by a pervasive cult of personality extolling the late
president Niyazov as Türkmenbaşy ("Leader of all Turkmen"), a title he assumed in 1993. His
face adorned many everyday objects, from banknotes to bottles of vodka. The logo of Turkmen
national television was his profile. The two books he wrote were mandatory reading in schools,
and public servants were quizzed yearly about their knowledge of their contents. They were
also common in shops and homes. Many institutions were named after Niyazov's mother. All
watches and clocks made had to bear his portrait printed on the dial-face. A giant 15-meter
(50 ft) tall gold-plated statue of Niyazov stood on a rotating pedestal in Ashgabat, so it would
always face into the sun and shine light onto the city.
A slogan popular in Turkmen propaganda is "Halk! Watan! Türkmenbashi!" ("People!
Motherland! Leader!") Niyazov renamed the days of the week after members of his family and
wrote the new Turkmen national anthem/oath himself.
Foreign companies seeking to exploit Turkmenistan's vast natural gas resources cooperated
with Niyazov since he also controlled access to the natural resources. His
book, Ruhnama (or Rukhnama, 2001 and 2004), which was revered in Turkmenistan almost like
a holy text, has been translated into 41 languages [2] as of 2008 and distributed for free among
major international libraries.[3] Niyazov once proclaimed that anyone who reads this book three
times will "become more intelligent, will recognise the divine being and will go straight to
heaven".[4]
After Niyazov's death, deputy prime minister Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow became acting-
president, and was elected president in his own right on 11 February 2007 in elections
condemned by international observers as fraudulent. On 20 March, in a decision of significant
symbolical weight in the ongoing rejection of Niyazov's personality cult, he abolished the power
of the president to rename any landmarks, institutions, or cities.
After the death of Saparmurat Niyazov Turkmenistan's leadership made tentative moves to
open up the country. Berdimuhamedow repealed some of Niyazov's most idiosyncratic policies,
including banning opera and the circus for being "insufficiently Turkmen". In education, his
government increased basic education from 9 years to 10 years, and extended higher education
from two years to five. He has also increased contacts with the West, which is eager for access
to the country's natural gas riches - but fears were mounting that the government would revert
to Niyazov's draconian style of rule.
The constitution provides for freedom of the press, but the government does not practice it.
The government controls all media outlets. Only two newspapers, Adalat [tk] and Galkynyş [tk],
are nominally independent, but they were created by presidential decree. Cable television,
which existed in the late 1980s, was shut down.
Turkmen authorities restrict the activities of all but the officially recognized Russian
Orthodox and Sunni Muslim faiths. Religious congregations must register with the government,
and individual parishes must have at least 500 members to register. Severe measures deal with
religious sects that have not been able to establish official ties of state recognition,
especially Baptists, Pentecostals, Seventh-day Adventists, Hare Krishna, Jehovah's Witnesses,
and Baháʼís. Practitioners of these sects have allegedly been harassed, imprisoned, and/or
tortured, according to some[which?] foreign human-rights advocacy groups.
Corruption continues to be pervasive. Power is concentrated in the presidency; the judiciary is
wholly subservient to the régime, with all judges appointed for five-year terms by the president
without legislative review. Little has been done to prosecute corrupt officials. With regard to
the legal profession, while law practice may be conducted in Turkmenistan in assorted ways
(collegium of lawyers, lawyers' association, private practice, etc.), [5] there is no clear indication
as to how certain demographic groups, such as women, have fared in the field.

BELIEF OF TURKMENISTAN
Traditionally, the Turkmen of Turkmenistan, like their kin in Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Iran,
are Sunni Muslims (see Glossary). Shia Muslims (see Glossary), the other main branch of Islam,
are not numerous in Turkmenistan, and the Shia religious practices of the Azerbaijani and
Kurdish (see Glossary) minorities are not politicized. Although the great majority of Turkmen
readily identify themselves as Muslims and acknowledge Islam as an integral part of their
cultural heritage, many are non-believers and support a revival of the religion's status only as
an element of national revival. They do not attend mosque services or demonstrate their
adherence publicly, except through participation in officially sanctioned national traditions
associated with Islam on a popular level, including life-cycle events such as weddings, burials,
and pilgrimages.

Islam came to the Turkmen primarily through the activities of Sufi (see Glossary) shaykhs rather
than through the mosque and the "high" written tradition of sedentary culture. These shaykhs
were holy men critical in the process of reconciling Islamic beliefs with pre-Islamic belief
systems; they often were adopted as "patron saints" of particular clans or tribal groups, thereby
becoming their "founders." Reformulation of communal identity around such figures accounts
for one of the highly localized developments of Islamic practice in Turkmenistan.

Integrated within the Turkmen tribal structure is the "holy" tribe called övlat . Ethnographers
consider the övlat, of which six are active, as a revitalized form of the ancestor cult injected
with Sufism. According to their genealogies, each tribe descends from the Prophet Muhammad
through one of the Four Caliphs. Because of their belief in the sacred origin and spiritual powers
of the övlat representatives, Turkmen accord these tribes a special, holy status. In the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the övlat tribes became dispersed in small, compact
groups in Turkmenistan. They attended and conferred blessings on all important communal and
life-cycle events, and also acted as mediators between clans and tribes. The institution of
the övlat retains some authority today. Many of the Turkmen who are revered for their
spiritual powers trace their lineage to an övlat, and it is not uncommon, especially in rural
areas, for such individuals to be present at life-cycle and other communal celebrations.

In the Soviet era, all religious beliefs were attacked by the communist authorities as
superstition and "vestiges of the past." Most religious schooling and religious observance were
banned, and the vast majority of mosques were closed. An official Muslim Board of Central Asia
with a headquarters in Tashkent was established during World War II to supervise Islam in
Central Asia. For the most part, the Muslim Board functioned as an instrument of propaganda
whose activities did little to enhance the Muslim cause. Atheist indoctrination stifled religious
development and contributed to the isolation of the Turkmen from the international Muslim
community. Some religious customs, such as Muslim burial and male circumcision, continued to
be practiced throughout the Soviet period, but most religious belief, knowledge, and customs
were preserved only in rural areas in "folk form" as a kind of unofficial Islam not sanctioned by
the state-run Spiritual Directorate.

Category:Lists of landforms of Turkmenistan

Mount Arlan
Mount Arlan (Uly Balkan Gerşi) is an 1,880-metre (6,168 ft) peak in the western plains
of Turkmenistan in Balkan Province. Mount Arlan stands about 2,000 metres above the shore of
the below-sea level Caspian Sea. It is the highest point of the Balkan Daglary range. The town
of Balkanabat, the capital of Balkan Province, lies 25 km to the southwest.
Uly Balkan
Countrys capital
Bishkek
Bishkek (Kyrgyz: Бишкек, Bişkek, ‫بىشکەک‬, IPA: [biʃˈkek]),
formerly Pishpek and Frunze (Russian: Фрунзе), is the capital and largest city
of Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz Republic). Bishkek is also the administrative centre of the Chuy Region.
The province surrounds the city, although the city itself is not part of the province, but rather a
province-level unit of Kyrgyzstan. It is also near the Kazakhstan-Kyrgyzstan border.
In 1825, the Khanate of Kokand established the fortress of "Pishpek" to control local caravan
routes and to collect tribute from Kyrgyz tribes. On 4 September 1860, with the approval of the
Kyrgyz, Russian forces led by Colonel Apollon Zimmermann destroyed the fortress. In 1868, a
Russian settlement was established on the site of the fortress under its original name,
"Pishpek". It lay within the General Governorship of Russian Turkestan and its Semirechye
Oblast.
In 1925, the Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast was established in Russian Turkestan, promoting
Pishpek to its capital. In 1926, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union renamed the city
as Frunze, after the Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze (1885–1925), who was born there.
In 1936, the city of Frunze became the capital of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic, during the
final stages of the national delimitation in the Soviet Union. In 1991, the Kyrgyz parliament
changed the capital's name to "Bishkek".
Bishkek is situated at an altitude of about 800 metres (2,600 ft), just off the northern fringe of
the Kyrgyz Ala-Too Range, an extension of the Tian Shan mountain range. These mountains rise
to a height of 4,895 metres (16,060 ft). North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe
extends far north into neighbouring Kazakhstan. The Chui River drains most of the area. Bishkek
is connected to the Turkestan–Siberia Railway by a spur line.
Bishkek is a city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings combined with
numerous Soviet-style apartment blocks surrounding interior courtyards. There are also
thousands of smaller privately built houses, mostly outside the city centre. Streets follow a grid
pattern, with most flanked on both sides by narrow irrigation channels, watering innumerable
trees to provide shade in the hot summer.
History of Kyrgyzstan
The history of the Kyrgyz people and the land now called Kyrgyzstan goes back more than 3,000
years. Although geographically isolated by its mountainous location, it had an important role as
part of the historical Silk Road trade route. In between periods of self-government it was ruled
by Göktürks, the Uyghur Empire, and the Khitan people, before being conquered by
the Mongols in the 13th century; subsequently it regained independence but was invaded
by Kalmyks, Manchus and Uzbeks. In 1876 it became part of the Russian Empire, remaining in
the USSR as the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic after the Russian Revolution. Following Mikhael
Gorbachev's democratic reforms in the USSR, in 1990 pro-independence candidate Askar
Akayev was elected president of the SSR. On 31 August 1991, Kyrgyzstan declared
independence from Moscow, and a democratic government was subsequently established
Early history[edit]
Stone implements found in the Tian Shan mountains indicate the presence of early humans in
what is now Kyrgyzstan as many as 200,000 to 300,000 years ago. The first written records of a
civilization in the area occupied by Kyrgyzstan appear in Chinese chronicles beginning about
2000 BCE.

Origins of the Kyrgyz people[edit]

Further information: Kyrgyz people
The Yenisei Kirghiz lived in the upper Yenisey River valley, central Siberia. Chinese sources of
the 2nd century BCE and Muslim sources of the 7th–12th centuries CE describe the Kyrgyz as
red-haired with fair complexion and green (blue) eyes. First appearing in Chinese Records of the
Grand Historian as Gekun or Jiankun (鬲昆 or 隔昆), and later as part of the Tiele tribes, they
came under the rule of the Göktürks and Uyghurs. Later Kyrgyzstan it was part of the Kushan
empire during Buddhism. The early Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating
the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 CE. Then Kyrgyz quickly moved as far as the Tian Shan range and
maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years. In the 12th century,
however, the Kyrgyz domination had shrunk to the Altay Range and the Sayan Mountains as a
result of the rising Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century,
the Kyrgyz migrated south. Plano Carpin, an envoy of the Papal states, and William Rubruck, an
envoy of France, all wrote about their life under the Mongols. Various Turkic peoples ruled
them until 1685, when they came under the control of the Oirats (Dzungars).
63% of the modern Kyrgyz men carry Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA), comparable to the prevalence
of the haplogroup among the Tajiks (64%).[1][2]

Languages of Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan is one of three former Soviet republics in Central Asia to have Russian as an official
language, Kazakhstan (de jure) and Uzbekistan (de facto) being the others. The Kyrgyz
language was adopted as the official language in 1991. After pressure from the Russian and
other minorities in the country, the republic adopted Russian as an official language as well in
1997, to become an officially bilingual country.

Languages[edit]
Kyrgyz is a Turkic language of the Kipchak branch, closely related to Kazakh, Karakalpak,
and Nogay Tatar. It was written in the Arabic alphabet until the twentieth century. Latin
script was introduced and adopted in 1928, and was subsequently replaced on Stalin's orders
by Cyrillic script in 1941.
According to the 2009 census,[2] 4.1 million people spoke Kyrgyz as native or second language
and 2.5 million spoke Russian as native or second language. Uzbek is the second most widely
spoken native language, followed by Russian. Russian is the most widely spoken second
language, followed by Kyrgyz and Uzbek.
Many business and political affairs are carried out in Russian. Until recently, Kyrgyz remained a
language spoken at home and was rarely used during meetings or other events. However, most
parliamentary meetings today are conducted in Kyrgyz, with simultaneous interpretation
available for those not speaking Kyrgyz.

Language Second-language
Native speakers Total speakers
name speakers

Kyrgyz 3,830,556 271,187 4,121,743

Russian 482,243 2,109,393 2,591,636

Uzbek 772,561 97,753 870,314

English 28,416 28,416

French 641 641

German 10 10

Other 277,433 31,411

Culture of Kyrgyzstan

The culture of Kyrgyzstan has a wide mix of ethnic groups and cultures, with the Kyrgyz being
the majority group. It is generally considered that there are 40 Kyrgyz clans, symbolized by the
40-rayed yellow sun in the center of the flag. The lines inside the sun are said to represent
a yurt. The dominant religion of Kyrgyzstan is Sunni Islam (91%). The Russian population
is Russian Orthodox.
 Cuisine[edit]
Main article: Kyrgyz cuisine
The cuisine of Kyrgyzstan is similar in many respects to that of its neighbors. Traditional Kyrgyz
food revolves around mutton and horse meat, as well as various dairy products. The cooking
techniques and major ingredients have been strongly influenced by the nation's nomadic way
of life. Thus, most cooking techniques are conducive to the long-term preservation of
food. Mutton (lamb) is the favorite meat, although many Kyrgyz are unable to afford it
regularly.

Kyrgyzstan is home to many different nationalities and their various cuisines. In larger cities,
such as Bishkek, Osh, Jalal-Abad, and Karakol, various national and international cuisines can be
found. On the road and in the villages, the cuisine tends to be standard Kyrgyz dishes, liberally
flavored with oil or sheep fat, which are considered both delicious and healthy by the local
population.

Pilaf (paloo) is the national dish in Kyrgyzstan. Green tea is considered the national beverage.

Religion in Kyrgyzstan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Islam is the main religion in Kyrgyzstan, and the constitution guarantees freedom of religion.
Kyrgyzstan is a multi ethnic and multi religious country with Islam
(including Sunni and Shia), Buddhism, Baháʼí, Christianity (including Russian Orthodox
Church, Roman Catholicism, and Seventh-day Adventist Church), Judaism, and other religions all
having a presence in the country. Muslims constitute the main religious group in Kyrgyzstan
with about 90% of the population as of 2017.

Religious demography[edit]
See also: Islam in Kyrgyzstan and Christianity in Kyrgyzstan

Dungan Mosque in Karakol. Dungans are ethnic Chinese Muslim group.

Islam is the most widely held faith. The CIA World Factbook estimates that as of 2017, 90% of
the population is Muslim, with the majority being Sunni.[2] There are few Shia in the country
(approximately one thousand).[citation needed].[3] According to SARA, as of May 2007 there were
1,650 mosques, of which 1,623 were registered. There also were seven institutes for higher
Islamic teaching.
The CIA Factbook estimates 7 percent of the population are Christian, including 3 percent
Russian Orthodox.[2] The country has 44 Russian Orthodox churches, 1 Russian
Orthodox monastery for women, and 1 parochial school.

Russian Orthodox cathedral in Bishkek

Other religious groups account for a very small percentage of the population. The Seventh-day
Adventist Church operates 30 churches throughout the country. The Roman Catholics hold
services in three churches, located in Jalalabad, Talas, and Bishkek. The small Jewish
community operates one synagogue in Bishkek, and it organizes internal cultural studies and
humanitarian services, chiefly food assistance for the elderly and persons with disabilities
regardless of faith. One Buddhist temple serves the small Buddhist community. There are 12
registered houses of worship for the Baháʼí Faith. In addition, there are 240
registered Protestant houses of worship. The Church of Jesus Christ is the country's largest
Protestant church with approximately 10 affiliates and an estimated 11 thousand members, of
whom approximately 40 percent are ethnic Kyrgyz. Other Protestant congregations
include Baptists, Pentecostals, Lutherans, nondenominational Protestants, Presbyterians,
and Charismatics. There also are syncretistic religious practices. There is no official estimate of
the number of atheists.
Islam is practiced widely throughout the country in both urban and rural areas. Russian
Orthodoxy typically is concentrated in cities with a larger ethnic Russian population. Other
religious groups more commonly practice in the cities where their smaller communities tend to
be concentrated. There is a correlation between ethnicity and religion; primarily Muslim ethnic
groups are Kyrgyz (73.5% of the whole population); Uzbeks (14.7%) ;
and Dungans (ethnic Chinese Muslims) (1.1%); with Uighurs (ethnic Turkic Muslims) and others
in the remaining 5.2%.[2] Ethnic Russians usually belong to either the Russian Orthodox Church
or one of the Protestant denominations. However, some Christian pastors noted that the
number of ethnic Kyrgyz converts to Christianity grew significantly during the year covered by
this report. Religious practice in the south of the country is more traditional and devout than in
the north part. Some scholars estimated the total number of Muslim Kyrgyz converts to
Christianity between 25,000[4] to 50,000.[5]
Missionary groups operate freely in the country. SARA has registered missionaries from all over
the world representing an estimated 20 religious groups and denominations. According to
SARA, since 1996 it has registered 1,133 missionaries, of whom 263 were Muslim and the rest
represented other, mostly Christian, religious groups. During the period covered by this report,
there were 111 registered missionaries, of whom 80 were Christian and 31 were Muslim.
Missionaries disseminating dogma inconsistent with the traditional customs of local Muslims
are subject to expulsion. According to SARA, of the approximately 20 missionaries expelled
since 1991, all represented various "totalitarian sects," groups the SCRA considered
incompatible with the standard principles of traditional world religious groups.
According to a recent survey by World Values Survey, in 2019, 85,7% of the population is
Muslim, 7,1% is Christian, 0,3% believes in other religions, 6% has no religious affiliation, and
1,1% refused to answer or doesn't know.[1
Government of Kyrgyzstan
The Government of Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz: Кыргыз Республикасынын Өкмөтү,Qırğız
Respubliqasının Ökmötü) is an executive body which exercises its authority and power through
the Cabinet of Ministers led by Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan as head of government. The status
and provisions of the government are determined by Section V of the Constitution of
Kyrgyzstan.[1] The cabinet consists of the deputy prime ministers, ministers and the chairmen of
state committees.[1](art. 84

Current Cabinet of Ministers[edit]

Below are the 16 members of the Cabinet of Ministers as of 3 February 2021: [2]
The Kyrgyzstan Parliament approved a smaller executive cabinet, consolidating several
ministeries and reducing their number from 22 to 16 on 3 February 2021; this was partially in
response to the political unrest which swept the nation in October 2020. President Sadyr
Japarov has stated he would like to see further reductions.[3]

 Prime Minister – Ulukbek Maripov; Head of Government.

o First Deputy Prime Minister – Artyom Novikov
o Deputy Prime Minister — Ulukbek Karymshakov
 Minister of Economy and Finance – Ulukbek Karymshakov
 Minister of Defense – Taalaibek Omuraliev
 Minister of Foreign Affairs – Ruslan Kazakbayev
 Minister of Justice – Asel Chinbayeva
 Minister of Internal Affairs – Ulan Niyazbekov
 Minister of Education and Science – Almazbek Beyshenaliev
 Minister of Health and Social Development – Alymkadyr Beyshenaliev
 Minister of Transportation, Architecture, Construction and Communication –
Gulmira Abdralieva
 Minister of Energy and Industry – Kubanychbek Turdubayev
  Minister of Agriculture, Water Resources and Regional Development  – Askarbek
Janybekov
 Minister of Emergency Situations – Boobek Ajikeev
 Minister of Culture, Information, Sports and Youth Policy  – Kayrat Iymanaliev
 Chairman of the State Committee for National Security – Kamchybek Tashiev
Head of the Government Office — Jenishbek Asankulov, Minister of Economy and Finance.

BELIEF OF KYRGYSTAN:
Islam is the most widely held faith. The CIA World Factbook estimates that as of 2017, 90% of
the population is Muslim, with the majority being Sunni.[2] There are few Shia in the country
(approximately one thousand).[citation needed].[3] According to SARA, as of May 2007 there were
1,650 mosques, of which 1,623 were registered. There also were seven institutes for higher
Islamic teaching.
The CIA Factbook estimates 7 percent of the population are Christian, including 3 percent
Russian Orthodox.[2] The country has 44 Russian Orthodox churches, 1 Russian
Orthodox monastery for women, and 1 parochial school.
Other religious groups account for a very small percentage of the population. The Seventh-day
Adventist Church operates 30 churches throughout the country. The Roman Catholics hold
services in three churches, located in Jalalabad, Talas, and Bishkek. The small Jewish
community operates one synagogue in Bishkek, and it organizes internal cultural studies and
humanitarian services, chiefly food assistance for the elderly and persons with disabilities
regardless of faith. One Buddhist temple serves the small Buddhist community. There are 12
registered houses of worship for the Baháʼí Faith. In addition, there are 240
registered Protestant houses of worship. The Church of Jesus Christ is the country's largest
Protestant church with approximately 10 affiliates and an estimated 11 thousand members, of
whom approximately 40 percent are ethnic Kyrgyz. Other Protestant congregations
include Baptists, Pentecostals, Lutherans, nondenominational Protestants, Presbyterians,
and Charismatics. There also are syncretistic religious practices. There is no official estimate of
the number of atheists.
Islam is practiced widely throughout the country in both urban and rural areas. Russian
Orthodoxy typically is concentrated in cities with a larger ethnic Russian population. Other
religious groups more commonly practice in the cities where their smaller communities tend to
be concentrated. There is a correlation between ethnicity and religion; primarily Muslim ethnic
groups are Kyrgyz (73.5% of the whole population); Uzbeks (14.7%) ;
and Dungans (ethnic Chinese Muslims) (1.1%); with Uighurs (ethnic Turkic Muslims) and others
in the remaining 5.2%.[2] Ethnic Russians usually belong to either the Russian Orthodox Church
or one of the Protestant denominations. However, some Christian pastors noted that the
number of ethnic Kyrgyz converts to Christianity grew significantly during the year covered by
this report. Religious practice in the south of the country is more traditional and devout than in
the north part. Some scholars estimated the total number of Muslim Kyrgyz converts to
Christianity between 25,000[4] to 50,000.[5]
Category:Landforms of Kyrgyzstan

Ak-Beyit Pass
Ak-Beyit Pass is a pass that links At-Bashi Valley and Arpa Valley in Naryn
Province of Kyrgyzstan. The road from Bishkek to Torugart (European route E125) runs over the
pass.

Bedel Pass
Bedel Pass (Kyrgyz: Бедел ашуусу; Chinese: 别迭里山口[1]) is a mountain pass in the Tian Shan
Mountains range between Kyrgyzstan and China's Xinjiang. It has an elevation of 4,284 meters
(14,055 ft).[1] The pass linked China to Barskon, a settlement on the southern shore of lake Issyk-
kul.

History[edit]
Historically, the Bedel Pass served as a Silk Road trade route between China and Central Asia.
On the Chinese side, the Bedel Beacon Tower (別迭里烽燧) is located on the foothills along the
path. It was built during the Han dynasty as part of the Han Great Wall. The beacon was reused
and renovated during the Tang dynasty.[2] During the Sui and Tang dynasties, the pass was the
main trade route linking Tarim Basin and Western Turks in Central Asia.
A number of scholars argue that Chinese explorer Xuanzang who inspired the Chinese
classic Journey to the West used this pass in the 7th century on his journey to India.[3][4] The
name Xuanzang used for the passage was "凌山", it was said to be northwest of "Kingdom of
Baluka",[5] modern day city of Aksu.[6] However, others argue that was Muzart Pass.[4]
The pass was surveyed in 1881 by both Chinese and Russian counterparts as part of Protocol of
Chuguchak of 1864 demarcating the border in the region between the Russian Empire and
the Qing Dynasty.[7] During the Urkun incident of 1916, over 100,000 Kyrgyz reportedly died
fleeing from Tsarist forces they attempted to reach China through the Bedel Pass.[8]
The pass is currently closed to traffic.[9] Kumtor Gold Mine is located down the road on the
Kyrgyz side.[10] Along the path on the Chinese side is also the ruins of a KMT era sentry post
which is a local cultural heritage site.[11][12]
Jump to navigationJump to search
The Uly Balkan, also known as the Great Balkan Range is a mountain range in Turkmenistan.
[1]
 The highest summit is Mount Arlan at 1,880 metres (6,170 ft).
Lebanon

Lebanon (/ˈlɛbənɒn, -nən/ ( listen);[9] officially known as the Lebanese Republic[nb 3] is a country

in the Levant region of Western Asia, and the transcontinental region of the Middle East.[10][11][12]
[13]
 It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, while Cyprus lies west
across the Mediterranean Sea. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean
Basin and the Arabian hinterland has contributed to its rich history and shaped a cultural
identity of religious and ethnic diversity.[14] At just 10,452 km2 (4,036 mi2), it is the smallest
recognized sovereign state on the mainland Asian continent.[nb 4][15][16] The official
language, Arabic, is the most common language spoken by the citizens of Lebanon. [nb 5]
The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years,
predating recorded history.[17] Lebanon was home to the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that
flourished for almost three thousand years (c. 3200–539 BC). In 64 BC, the Roman
Empire conquered the region, and eventually became one of its leading centers of Christianity.
The Mount Lebanon range saw the emergence of a monastic tradition known as the Maronite
Church. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion
and identity. However, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount
Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades,
the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church and asserted their
communion with Rome. These ties have influenced the region into the modern era.
Lebanon was conquered by the Ottomans in the 16th century and remained under their rule for
the next 400 years. Following the empire's collapse after World War I, the five provinces
constituting modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate. The French expanded the
borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was predominately Maronite and Druze, to
include more Muslims. Upon independence in 1943, Lebanon established a
unique confessionalist form of government, with the major religious sects apportioned specific
political powers. Lebanon initially enjoyed political and economic stability, which was shattered
by the bloody Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) between various political and sectarian factions.
The war partially led to military occupations by Syria (1975 to 2005) and Israel (1985 to 2000).
Despite Lebanon's small size,[18] Lebanese culture is renowned both in the Arab world and
globally, powered by its large and influential diaspora. Prior to the civil war, the country
enjoyed a diversified economy that included tourism, agriculture, commerce, and banking. [19] Its
financial power and stability through the 1950s and 1960s earned Lebanon the name of
"Switzerland of the East",[20] while its capital, Beirut, attracted so many tourists that it was
known as "the Paris of the Middle East".[21] Since the end of the war, there have been extensive
efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.[22] While still recovering from
the political and economic effects of the conflict, Lebanon remains a cosmopolitan and
developing country, with the highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the
Arab world outside of the oil-rich economies of the Persian Gulf.[23]
Lebanon was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and is a member of the Arab
League (1945), the Non-Aligned Movement (1961), Organisation of the Islamic
Cooperation (1969), and the Organisation internationale de la francophonie (1973).
COUNTRY CAPITAL:
Beirut
.
Beirut (/beɪˈruːt/ bay-ROOT;[4] Arabic: ‫بيروت‬, romanized:  Bayrūt) is the capital and largest city
of Lebanon. As of 2014, Greater Beirut has a population of 2.2 million,[5] which makes it
the third-largest city in the Levant region and the thirteenth-largest in the Arab world. The city
is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast. Beirut has been
inhabited for more than 5,000 years, making it one of the oldest cities in the world. The first
historical mention of Beirut is found in the Amarna letters from the New Kingdom of Egypt,
which date to the 15th century BC.
Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with
many banks and corporations based in the city. Beirut is an important seaport for the country
and region, and rated a Beta + World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research
Network.[6] Beirut was severely damaged by the Lebanese Civil War, and its cultural landscape
underwent major reconstruction.[7][8][9]

Names[edit]
The English name Beirut is an early transcription of the Arabic name Bayrūt (‫)بيروت‬. The same
name's transcription into French is Beyrouth, which was sometimes used during Lebanon's
French occupation. The Arabic name derives from Phoenician Berot or Birut (𐤕𐤓𐤁 Brt). This was
a modification of the Canaanite and Phoenician word be'rot, meaning "the wells", in reference
to the site's accessible water table.[10][11] The name is first attested in the 15th century BC, when
it was mentioned in three Akkadian cuneiform[11] tablets of the Amarna letters,[12] letters sent
by King Ammunira of Biruta[13] to Amenhotep III or Amenhotep IV of Egypt.[14] Biruta was also
mentioned in the Amarna letters from King Rib-Hadda of Byblos.[15]
The Greeks hellenised the name as Bērytós (Ancient Greek: Βηρυτός), which
[a]
the Romans latinised as Berytus.  When it attained the status of a Roman colony, it was
notionally refounded and its official name was emended to Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix
Berytus to include its imperial sponsors.

History of Lebanon
The history of Lebanon covers the history of the modern Republic of Lebanon and the earlier
emergence of Greater Lebanon under the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, as well as
the previous history of the region, covered by the modern state.

Prehistory[edit]
Ksar Akil, 10 km northeast of Beirut, is a large rock shelter below a steep limestone cliff where
excavations have shown occupational deposits reaching down to a depth of 23.6 metres (77 ft)
with one of the longest sequences of Paleolithic flint archaeological industry is a very well
tained Upper Levalloiso-Mousterian remains with long and triangular Lithic flakes. The level
above this showed industries accounting for all six stages of the Upper Paleolithic. An Emireh
point was found at the first stage of this level (XXIV), at around 15.2 metres (50 ft) below datum
with a complete skeleton of an eight-year-old Homo sapiens (called Egbert, now in the National
Museum of Beirut after being studied in America) was discovered at 11.6 metres (38 ft),
cemented into breccia. A fragment of a Neanderthal maxilla was also discovered in material
from level XXVI or XXV, at around 15 metres (49 ft). Studies by Hooijer
showed Capra and Dama were dominant in the fauna along with Stephanorhinus in later
Levalloiso-Mousterian levels.[1]
It is believed to be one of the earliest known sites containing Upper Paleolithic technologies.
Artifacts recovered from the site include Ksar Akil flakes, the main type of tool found at the site,
along with shells with holes and chipped edge modifications that are suggested to have been
used as pendants or beads. These indicate that the inhabitants were among the first in Western
Eurasia to use personal ornaments. Results from radiocarbon dating indicate that the early
humans may have lived at the site approximately 45,000 years ago or earlier. The presence of
personal ornaments at Ksar Akil is suggestive of modern human behavior. The findings of
ornaments at the site are contemporaneous with ornaments found at Late Stone Age sites such
as Enkapune Ya Muto.

Ancient Near East[edit]

Further information: Phoenicia, Canaan, and Phoenicia under Assyrian rule
The earliest prehistoric cultures of Lebanon, such as the Qaraoun culture gave rise to
the civilization of the Canaanite period, when the region was populated by ancient peoples,
cultivating land and living in sophisticated societies during the 2nd millennium BC. Northern
Canaanites are mentioned in the Bible as well as in other Semitic records from that period.
Canaanites were the creators of the oldest known 24-letter alphabet, a shortening of earlier 30-
letter alphabets such as Proto-Sinaitic and Ugaritic. The Canaanite alphabet later developed
into the Phoenician one (with sister alphabets of Hebrew, Aramaic and Moabite), influencing
the entire Mediterranean region.

Approximate territory of "Phoenicia" (northern Canaan, Syro-Phoenicia) in the Late Bronze Age,
before Phoenician colonisation in the Mediterranean
The coastal plain of Lebanon is the historic home of a string of coastal trading cities of Semitic
culture, which the Greeks termed Phoenicia, whose maritime culture flourished there for more
than 1,000 years. Ancient ruins in Byblos, Berytus (Beirut), Sidon, Sarepta (Sarafand),
and Tyre show a civilized nation, with urban centres and sophisticated arts.
Phoenicia was a cosmopolitan centre for many nations and cultures. Phoenician art, customs
and religion reveal considerable Mesopotamian and Egyptian influence. The sarcophagi of
Sidonian kings Eshmunazzar II and Tabnit reveal that Phoenician royalty adopted Egyptian burial
customs.
Phoenician traders exported spices from Arabia, such as cinnamon and frankincense, to
the Greeks.[5] This trade likely led to the transmission of the Phoenician alphabet to
Greece. Herodotus attests that the Phoenicians

Middle Ages[edit]
Arab rule[edit]
Main articles: Bilad al-Sham and Muslim conquest of the Levant
During the 7th century AD the Muslim Arabs conquered Syria soon after the death
of Muhammad, establishing a new regime to replace the Romans (or Byzantines as the Eastern
Romans are sometimes called). Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant
under this new regime, the general populace still took time to convert from Christianity and the
Syriac language. In particular, the Maronite community clung to its faith and managed to
maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Syria. Muslim
influence increased greatly in the seventh century, when the Umayyad capital was established
at nearby Damascus.
During the 11th century the Druze faith emerged from a branch of Islam. The new faith gained
followers in the southern portion of Lebanon. The Maronites and the Druze divided Lebanon
until the modern era. The major cities on the coast, Acre, Beirut, and others, were directly
administered by Muslim Caliphs. As a result, the people became increasingly absorbed by
Arabic culture.
Mamluk rule[edit]
Muslim control of Lebanon was reestablished in the late 13th century under
the Mamluk sultans of Egypt. Lebanon was later contested between Muslim rulers until the
Turkish Ottoman Empire solidified authority over the eastern Mediterranean.
Ottoman control was uncontested during the early modern period, but the Lebanese coast
became important for its contacts and trades with the maritime republics
of Venice, Genoa other Italian city-states. (See also Levantines)
The mountainous territory of Mount Lebanon has long been a shelter for minority and
persecuted groups, including its historic Maronite Christian majority and Druze communities. It
was an autonomous region of the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman rule[edit]
Main articles: History of Lebanon under Ottoman rule and Ottoman Syria
Starting from the 13th century, the Ottoman Turks formed an empire which came to
encompass the Balkans, Middle East and North Africa. The Ottoman sultan Selim I (1516–20),
after defeating the Persians, conquered the Mamluks. His troops, invading Syria, destroyed
Mamluk resistance in 1516 at Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo.[18]
During the conflict between the Mamluks and the Ottomans, the amirs of Lebanon linked their
fate to that of Ghazali, governor (pasha) of Damascus. He won the confidence of the Ottomans
by fighting on their side at Marj Dabiq and, apparently pleased with the behavior of the
Lebanese amirs, introduced them to Salim I when he entered Damascus. Salim I, whose
treasury was depleted by the wars, decided to grant the Lebanese amirs a semiautonomous
status in exchange for their acting as "tax farmers". The Ottomans, through the two main feudal
families, the Maans who were Druze and the Chehabs who were Sunni Muslim Arab converts to
Maronite Christianity, ruled Lebanon until the middle of the nineteenth century. During
Ottoman rule the term Syria was used to designate the approximate area including present-day
Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel/Palestine.[18]
The Maans, 1517–1697[edit]
The Maans came to Lebanon from Yemen sometime in the 11th or 12th centuries. They were a
tribe and dynasty of Qahtani Arabs who settled on the southwestern slopes of the Lebanon
Mountains and soon adopted the Druze religion. Their authority began to rise with Fakhr ad-Din
I, who was permitted by Ottoman authorities to organize his own army, and reached its peak
with Fakhr ad-Din II (1570–1635). (The existence of "Fakhr ad-Din I" has been questioned by
some scholars.)[18][

World War II and independence[edit]

During World War II when the Vichy government assumed power over French territory in 1940,
General Henri Fernand Dentz was appointed as high commissioner of Lebanon. This new
turning point led to the resignation of Lebanese president Émile Eddé on April 4, 1941. After
five days, Dentz appointed Alfred Naqqache for a presidency period that lasted only three
months. The Vichy authorities allowed Nazi Germany to move aircraft and supplies through
Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. Britain, fearing that Nazi Germany
would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent
its army into Syria and Lebanon.
After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various
political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the
independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941, General Georges Catroux announced that
Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government.

Flag as drawn and approved by the members of the Lebanese parliament during the declaration
of independence in 1943
Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government
unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into
prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on
November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon.

LANGUAGE OF LEBANON:

Lebanese Arabic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Lebanese Arabic (Arabic:  ّ‫ع َر ِبيّ لُ ْب َنانِي‬, romanized: ʿarabiyy
َ lubnāniyy, Lebanese: ʿarabe libnēne),
or simply Lebanese (Arabic:  ّ‫لُ ْب َنانِي‬, romanized: lubnāniyy, Lebanese: libnēne), is a variety of North
Levantine Arabic, indigenous to and spoken primarily in Lebanon, with significant linguistic
influences borrowed from other Middle Eastern and European languages and is in some ways
unique from other varieties of Arabic. Due to multilingualism and pervasive diglossia among
Lebanese people (a majority of the Lebanese people are bilingual or trilingual), it is not
uncommon for Lebanese people to code-switch between or mix Lebanese Arabic, English,
and French in their daily speech.
Lebanese Arabic is believed to be a descendant of the Arabic dialects introduced to
the Levant in the 7th century CE, which gradually supplanted various indigenous Northwest
Semitic languages to become the regional lingua franca. As a result of this prolonged process
of language shift, Lebanese Arabic possesses a significant Aramaic substratum, along with later
non-Semitic adstrate influences from Ottoman Turkish, English, and French. As a variety
of Levantine Arabic, Lebanese Arabic is most closely related to Syrian Arabic and shares
many innovations with Palestinian and Jordanian Arabic. However some modern researchers
have opposed the idea of descendence from Peninsular Arabic dialects, such as Ahmad Al-Jallad
and others[who?].[2][irrelevant citation] These hold that the vernaculars languages went through a parallel
evolution.

Differences from Standard Arabic[edit]

Lebanese Arabic shares many features with other modern varieties of Arabic. Lebanese Arabic,
like many other spoken Levantine Arabic varieties, has a syllable structure very different from
that of Modern Standard Arabic. While Standard Arabic can have only one consonant at the
beginning of a syllable, after which a vowel must follow, Lebanese Arabic commonly has two
consonants in the onset.

 Morphology: no mood or grammatical case markings.

 Number: verbal agreement regarding number and gender is required for all
subjects, whether already mentioned or not.
  Vocabulary: many borrowings from other languages; most prominently Syriac-
Aramaic, Western-Aramaic, Persian, Phoenician, Ottoman Turkish, French, as well
as, less significantly, from English.[3]
 Some authors, such as the statistician Nassim Nicholas Taleb, believe that a
significant part of the Lebanese grammatical structure is due to Aramaic influences.
[4][5]

Culture of Lebanon

Aerial photo of Beirut, Lebanon's capital

Rue Maarad is a main street in the central district

Palm trees at the seafront in Corniche Beirut

Sidewalk Cafes are a trademark of the BCD

A selection of Lebanese dishes from Cafe Nouf Restaurant in London

City of Zahlé at the eastern edge of the Mount Lebanon Range in eastern Lebanon

The culture of Lebanon and the Lebanese people emerged from various civilizations over
thousands of years. It was home to the Phoenicians and was subsequently conquered and
occupied by the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Persians, the Arabs, the Crusaders,
the Ottoman Turks and the French. This variety is reflected in Lebanon's diverse population,
composed of different religious groups, and features in the country's festivals, musical styles,
literature, cuisine of Lebanon and architecture of Lebanon. Tourism in Lebanon is popular with
periods of interruption during conflict.
Despite the religious and denominational diversity of the Lebanese, they “share an almost
common culture”.[1] Based on Article 11 of the Constitution of Lebanon states: "Arabic is the
official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be
used." The spoken Lebanese is the language used in public which is a hybrid of the languages of
the above-mentioned cultures, Food, music, and literature are deep-rooted “in wider
Mediterranean and Levantine norms”.[1]
The hilly Mediterranean Geography of Lebanon has played a role in shaping the history of
Lebanon and its culture. Archaeology of Lebanon is conducted to explore the area's past.

Arts[edit]
By the turn of the 20th century, Beirut was vying with Cairo to be the major centre for Near
Eastern and Middle Eastern thought, with many newspapers, magazines and literary societies.
Additionally, Beirut became a thriving epicenter of Armenian culture with varied
productions[2] that was exported to the Armenian diaspora.
Visual arts[edit]
Daoud Corm (1852-1930), Habib Serour (1860-1938) and Khalil Saleeby (1870-1928) are
considered the first successful professional studio artists in Lebanon, with careers extending to
Europe. All were trained outside Lebanon, with Corm and Serour attending Roman academies
and Saleeby British and American ones. They were known for portraiture of Lebanese high
society and men of religion, as well as Christian sacred art in the case of Corm and Serour. [3][4]
Mustafa Farroukh (1901-1957) was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters between the
1920s and the 1950s. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to
New York to Beirut over his career.[5]
Farid Mansour (1929-2010) was a Lebanese multi-talented painter and sculptor . Being trained
in Italy and England, Mansour mastered several painting and sculpting techniques. His works
were exhibited in London, Paris, New York as well as Lebanon and Syria.
Contemporary art[edit]
Contemporary art started in Beirut immediately after the end of the civil war (1975-1991).
Many contemporary artists are currently active, such as Walid Raad, a contemporary media
artist currently residing in New York.[6]
Two contemporary art exhibition centers, the Beirut Art Center and the Beirut Exhibition Center
(does not exist anymore) in the BIEL area reflect the vibrant Lebanese contemporary art scene.
These two centers are intended to host exhibitions and are a must in the world of international
as well as local contemporary art. Many art galleries also add to the local art scene, exhibiting
the works of artists such as Ayman Baalbaki,[7] Akram Zaatari,[8] Marwan Sahmarani,[9] Nadim
Asfar,[10] Lamia Joreige,[11] Jean Marc Nahas,[12][13] Ricardo Mbarkho,[14] Mansour El-Habre,
[15]
 Anita Toutikian and many others. These galleries are run by gallerists such as Saleh
Barakat[16] (Agial), Galerie Mark Hachem,[17] Fadi Mogabgab,[18] Nadine Begdache (Galerie Janine
Rubeiz),[19] Odile Mazloum (Galerie Alwane).[20]
Located in Foch Street in the Solidere area, FFA Private Bank is home to many temporary
exhibitions of contemporary local artists as well as to a permanent display of paintings by
Lebanese artists (Sahmarani, Baalbaki, Hanibal Srouji ... ) or foreign artists such as Fabienne
Arietti's "Nasdaq".[21] A Jean Dubuffet's huge sculpture can also be seen when visiting the atrium
of Bank Audi Plaza, located in a beautiful contemporary building designed by Kevin Dash. By
Strolling through the streets of the city one can find some interesting works such as sculptures
of Michel Basbous in the Bank of Lebanon street.

Religion in Lebanon
Home to 18 religions, Lebanon is the most religiously diverse country in the Middle East. Its
main religions are Christianity (about 40%), Islam (about 60%) and Druze (about 5%).
Sunnis and Shi’ites
Very soon after Islam became an official religion - founded by the Prophet Mohammed in 610
asserting “there is no God but God and Mohammed is His messenger” - a conflict arose about
the succession of caliphs, causing a rift between the sects currently known as Sunnis and
Shi’ites. According to the Sunnis, caliphs should be chosen among the most virtuous of
Muslims. Accordingly, the caliphate of the Prophet Mohammed was succeeded by Abu Bakr
and then followed by Umar and Uthmar. After the latter was killed, the Shi’ites claimed that
only descendants of Mohammed could become caliph, thereby rejecting the legitimacy of the
first three caliphs. The fourth caliph, Ali, was the cousin of Mohammed and husband to his
daughter Fatima, and therefore became the first and last caliph recognized by Shi’ites. In 680,
Hussein, the son of Ali, revolted but was slain on the 10th day of the battle of Karbala. The day
of his martyrdom is still celebrated by 10 days of mourning during the Ashura. The Shi’ites are
still waiting for a descendent of Ali to emerge as the next prophet (Mahdi). There is a 10th-
century offshoot of the Shi’ites called the Alawi’ites (followers of Ali) who worship Ali to this
day. In Lebanon, about 60% of the Islamic population is Sunni, while 40% consider themselves
Shi’ite.

Maronites
In the fifth century, after a period of religious strife, a group of Christians separated from
Orthodox Christianity and called themselves Maronites. The name comes from St Maroun, a
fourth-century hermit who lived in what is now Syria. The Maronites believe that their heritage
dates back to the time of Jesus. In 687, they appointed their own patriarch and since 1180, their
religion is officially recognized as a branch of the Roman Catholic Church. Upon the arrival of
the Muslim Arabs in the seventh century, the Maronites welcomed them as saviors from the
hated Orthodox Byzantine rulers. However, when the Maronites started to support the
Crusaders, the Muslims began to question their loyalty and punished them along with the rest
of the Christians. To escape their suppression, the Maronites fled to the north of Mount
Lebanon. In the 15th century, more Maronites, including the Maronite Patriarch, settled there,
this time escaping from the Ottomans. In the 17th century, Maronites from the north of Mount
Lebanon moved to the predominantly Druze south and settled there under the protection of
the Maan and Shehab Emirs. As early as the 16th century, the French considered themselves
the protector of the Maronites, with whom they formed an alliance between 1920 and 1943.
Maronite affinity for French identity and the West can be tied to this history, although they
slowly integrated their Lebanese identity as well. The Monastery of Saint Maroun in
Annaya (www.saintcharbel-annaya.com) holds the tomb of St Charbel and is a popular place for
Pilgrimage .
Druze
Founded in Egypt in the 10th and 11th centuries as a splinter group from Shi’ite Islam, the
Druze have eliminated all elements of ritual and ceremony; they reject the five pillars of the
Islam, do not visit mosques and have no defined holy days. Druze believe in reincarnation and
one can only a Druze by birth. Convertion to the Druze religion is therefore impossible. Actual
religious practice is limited to a very small elite group of people (‘initiates’ or ‘uqqal’), who are
also the only ones having access to the seven religious books (‘hikmeh’). In Lebanon, Druze are
mainly found in the south of Mount Lebanon, where the elite men can be recognized by their
moustaches, low-hanging trousers and white caps. Druze women mostly wear white veils and
long black dresses. The local heroes of the Druze are Fakhr el-Dine Maan II and their current
leader Walid Jumblatt.

GOVERNMENT OF LEBANON
Politics of Lebanon
Lebanon is a parliamentary democratic republic within the overall framework
of confessionalism, a form of consociationalism in which the highest offices are proportionately
reserved for representatives from certain religious communities. The constitution of
Lebanon grants the people the right to change their government. However, from the mid-1970s
until the parliamentary elections in 1992, the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) precluded the
exercise of political rights.
According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every 4 years but
after the parliamentary election in 2009[1] another election was not held until 2018.
The Parliament, in turn, elects a President every 6 years to a single term. The President is not
eligible for re-election. The last presidential election was in 2016. The president and parliament
choose the Prime Minister. Political parties may be formed; most are based on sectarian
interests. 2008 saw a new twist to Lebanese politics when the Doha Agreement set a new trend
where the opposition is allowed a veto power in the Lebanese Council of Ministers and
confirmed religious Confessionalism in the distribution of political power. The Economist
Intelligence Unit classified Lebanon as a "hybrid regime" in 2016.[2]
Since the emergence of the post-1943 state and after the destruction of the Ottoman Caliphate,
national policy has been determined largely by a relatively restricted group of traditional
regional and sectarian leaders. The 1943 National Pact, an unwritten agreement that
established the political foundations of modern Lebanon, allocated political power on an
essentially confessional system based on the 1932 census. Seats in parliament were divided on
a 6-to-5 ratio of Christians to Muslims, until 1990 when the ratio changed to half and half.
Positions in the government bureaucracy are allocated on a similar basis. The pact also by
custom allocated public offices along religious lines, with the top three positions in the ruling
"troika" distributed as follows: the President, a Maronite Christian; the Speaker of the
Parliament, a Shi'a Muslim; and the Prime Minister, a Sunni Muslim.
Efforts to alter or abolish the confessional system of allocating power have been at the centre
of Lebanese politics for decades. Those religious groups most favoured by the 1943 formula
sought to preserve it, while those who saw themselves at a disadvantage sought either to
revise it after updating key demographic data or to abolish it entirely. Nonetheless, many of the
provisions of the national pact were codified in the 1989 Taif Agreement, perpetuating
sectarianism as a key element of Lebanese political life.
Although moderated somewhat under Ta'if, the Constitution gives the President a strong and
influential position. The President has the authority to promulgate laws passed by the
Parliament, form the government to issue supplementary regulations to ensure the execution
of laws, and to negotiate and ratify treaties.
The Parliament is elected by adult suffrage (majority age for election is 21)[3] based on a system
of majority or "winner-take-all" for the various confessional groups. There has been a recent
effort to switch to proportional representation which many argue will provide a more accurate
assessment of the size of political groups and allow minorities to be heard. Most deputies do
not represent political parties as they are known in the West, and rarely form Western-style
groups in the assembly. Political blocs are usually based on confessional and local interests or
on personal/family allegiance rather than on political affinities.
The parliament traditionally has played a significant role in financial affairs, since it has the
responsibility for levying taxes and passing the budget. It also exercises political control over
the cabinet through formal questioning of ministers on policy issues and by requesting a
confidence debate.
Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The
Lebanese court system has three levels—courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court
of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status
matters within their own communities, e.g., rules on such matters as marriage, divorce, and
inheritance.
Lebanese political institutions often play a secondary role to highly confessionalized
personality-based politics. Powerful families also still play an independent role in mobilizing
votes for both local and parliamentary elections. Nonetheless, a lively panoply of
domestic political parties, some even predating independence, exists. The largest are all
confessional based. The Free Patriotic Movement, The Kataeb Party, also known as the
Phalange Party, the National Bloc, National Liberal Party, Lebanese Forces and the Guardians of
the Cedars (now outlawed) each have their own base among Christians. Amal and Hezbollah are
the main rivals for the organized Shi'a vote, and the PSP (Progressive Socialist Party) is the
leading Druze party. While Shi'a and Druze parties command fierce loyalty to their leaderships,
there is more factional infighting among many of the Christian parties. Sunni parties have not
been the standard vehicle for launching political candidates, and tend to focus across Lebanon's
borders on issues that are important to the community at large. Lebanon's Sunni parties
include Hizb ut-Tahrir, Future Movement, Independent Nasserist Organization (INO), the Al-
Tawhid, and Ahbash. Besides the traditional confessional parties above, new secular parties
have emerged amongst which Sabaa and the Party of Lebanon [4] representing a new trend in
Lebanese politics towards secularism and a truly democratic society. In addition to domestic
parties, there are branches of pan-Arab secular parties
(Ba'ath parties, socialist and communist parties) that were active in the 1960s and throughout
the period of civil war.
There are differences both between and among Muslim and Christian parties regarding the role
of religion in state affairs. There is a very high degree of political activism among religious
leaders across the sectarian spectrum. The interplay for position and power among the
religious, political, and party leaders and groups produces a political tapestry of extraordinary
complexity.
In the past, the system worked to produce a viable democracy. Events over the last decade and
long-term demographic trends, however, have upset the delicate Muslim-Christian-
Druze balance and resulted in greater segregation across the social spectrum. Whether in
political parties, places of residence, schools, media outlets, even workplaces, there is a lack of
regular interaction across sectarian lines to facilitate the exchange of views and promote
understanding. All factions have called for a reform of the political system.
Some Christians favor political and administrative decentralization of the government, with
separate Muslim and Christian sectors operating within the framework of a confederation.
Muslims, for the most part, prefer a unified, central government with an enhanced share of
power commensurate with their larger share of the population. The reforms of the Ta'if
agreement moved in this direction but have not been fully realized.
Palestinian refugees, predominantly Sunni Muslims, whose numbers are estimated at between
160,000–225,000, are not active on the domestic political scene.
On 3 September 2004, the Lebanese Parliament voted 96–29 to amend the constitution to
extend President Émile Lahoud's six-year term (which was about to expire) by another three
years. The move was supported by Syria, which maintained a large military presence in
Lebanon.
Former Prime Minister Rafic Hariri was assassinated in February 2005.[5] Following the
withdrawal of Syrian troops in April 2005, Lebanon held parliamentary elections in four rounds,
from 29 May to 19 June. The elections, the first for 33 years without the presence of Syrian
military forces, were won by the Quadripartite alliance, which was part the Rafik Hariri Martyr
List, a coalition of several parties and organizations newly opposed to Syrian domination of
Lebanese politics.
In January 2015, the Economist Intelligence Unit released a report stating that Lebanon ranked
the second in Middle East and 98th out of 167 countries worldwide for Democracy Index 2014.
The index ranks countries according to election processes, pluralism, government functions,
political participation, political cultures and fundamental freedoms.
From October 2019, there have been mass protests against the government. In August 2020, a
large explosion in Beirut killed at least 204 people and caused at least US$3 billion in property
damage. Following the explosion and protests against the government, the Prime Minister and
his cabinet resigned.[6]
Government And Society

Constitutional framework

Modern Lebanon is a unitary multiparty republic with a parliamentary system of government.

Its constitution, promulgated in 1926 during the French mandate and modified by several
subsequent amendments, provides for a unicameral Chamber of Deputies (renamed
the National Assembly in 1979) elected for a term of four years by universal adult suffrage
(women attained the right to vote and eligibility to run for office in 1953). According to the
1989 Ṭāʾif Accord, parliamentary seats are apportioned equally between Christian and Muslim
groups, thereby replacing an earlier ratio that had favoured Christians. This sectarian
distribution is also to be observed in appointments to public office.

The head of state is the president, who is elected by a two-thirds majority of the National
Assembly for a term of six years and is eligible to serve consecutive terms. By an unwritten
convention, the president must be a Maronite Christian, the premier a Sunni Muslim, and the
speaker of the National Assembly a Shiʿi Muslim. The president, in consultation with the
speaker of the National Assembly and the parliamentary deputies, invites a Sunni Muslim to
form a cabinet, and the cabinet members’ portfolios are organized to reflect the sectarian
balance. The cabinet, which holds more executive power than the president, requires a vote of
confidence from the Assembly in order to remain in power. A vote of no confidence, however,
is rarely exercised in practice. A cabinet usually falls because of internal dissension, societal
strife, or pressure exerted by foreign states.

Local government

Lebanon is divided into muḥāfaẓāt (governorates) administered by the muḥāfiẓ (governor), who

represents the central government. The governorates are further divided
into aqḍiyyah (districts), each of which is presided over by a qāʾim-maqām (district chief), who,
along with the governor, supervises local government. Municipalities (communities with at
least 500 inhabitants) elect their own councils, which in turn elect mayors and vice-mayors.
Villages and towns (more than 50 and fewer than 500 inhabitants) elect a mukhtār (headman)
and a council of elders, who serve on an honorary basis. Officers of local governments serve
four-year terms.

BELIEF OF LEBANON
The Western Asian country of Lebanon occupies an area of 10,452 square km and hosts a
population of 6,006,668 people. The country’s strategic location on the Mediterranean Sea
coast has influenced its religious demographics and culture since the ancient times. Islam is the
dominant religion in Lebanon. 54% of the population is represented by followers of Islam.
Christianity is the second largest religion, accounting for about 40.5% of the total population of
Lebanon. The remaining population adheres to the Druze religion or other religions like
Hinduism, Buddhism, the Baha’i faith, etc.
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Lebanon’s social structure is its varied
religious composition. Since the 7th century, Lebanon has served as a refuge for persecuted
Christian and Muslim groups. As religion and government in Lebanon are deeply and formally
intertwined, the relative proportions of the country’s religious communities is a highly sensitive
matter. There has not been an official census since 1932, however, and the data depicting
Lebanon’s confessional composition are variable. In general terms, the two largest groups are
the Shiʿi Muslims and the Sunni Muslims, each comprising more than one-fourth of the
population. Maronites, a Roman Catholic Eastern rite group that originated in the region, make
up more than one-fifth of the population. A number of other Christian communities are also
present, including the Greek Orthodox and the Greek Catholics. The Druze constitute a small
percentage of the population but play an influential role in Lebanese society. There is also a
very small Jewish minority
LAND FORM (GEOGRAPHY)
Category:Landforms of Lebanon
Aaiha
Aaiha (or Aiha) (Arabic: ‫ )عيحا‬is a village, plain, lake, and temporary wetland situated in
the Rashaya District and south of the Beqaa Governorate in Lebanon.[1][2] It is located in an
intermontane basin near Mount Hermon and the Syrian border, approximately halfway
between Rashaya and Kfar Qouq.[3]
The village sits c. 3,750 feet (1,140 m) above sea level and the small population is
predominantly Druze.[3][4] Wild wheats Triticum boeoticum and T. urartu grow in this area, also
used for farming goats.[5][6] There is a nearby tomb of a Muslim saint and a Roman ruins thought
to be a temple or citadel that is now totally destroyed[3][7][8][9]

Raouché (Arabic: ‫الروشة‬, romanized: ar-Rawše) is a residential and commercial neighborhood

in Beirut, Lebanon. It is known for its upscale apartment buildings, numerous restaurants, and
cliff-side cafés that line Avenue de Paris, which forms part of the Corniche Beirut.
The corniche or the wide, seaside sidewalk of Avenue de Paris is popular on weekends and
evenings where strollers and joggers crowd the pavements.
Pigeon Rock at sunset
Off the coast of Raouché, there is a natural landmark called the Pigeons' Rock (also known as
the Rock of Raouché). Located at Beirut's westernmost tip, the two huge rock formations,
which stand like gigantic sentinels, are a popular destination for locals and visitors alike. [1]
Raouché also is claimed to be the remains of a sea monster the Greek hero Perseus killed to
save Andromeda. The stone is rock as Perseus used Medusa’s head on the monster to turn it
into stone.
Great Rift Valley
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Map of the Great Rift Valley
The Great Rift Valley is a series of contiguous geographic trenches, approximately 7,000
kilometres (4,300 mi) in total length, that runs from the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon which is in
Asia to Mozambique in Southeast Africa.[1] While the name continues in some usages, it is rarely
used in geology as it is considered an imprecise merging of separate though
related rift and fault systems.
Today, the term is most often used to refer to the valley of the East African Rift, the divergent
plate boundary which extends from the Afar Triple Junction southward across eastern Africa,
and is in the process of splitting the African Plate into two new separate plates. Geologists
generally refer to these incipient plates as the Nubian Plate and the Somali Plate.

LITERACY WORKS PRODUCE:

The engagement of Lebanese writers with the everyday realities of the ‘Lebanese wars’ is of
crucial relevance to research involving the geography and spatiality of the wars. Often seen as a
form of place-writing, the Lebanese war novel records a certain character of space in a
particular moment of history. With the vague boundaries between reality and fiction and the
common tendency of Lebanese writers to provide names of actual places in the city to mark the
background and spatial settings of their works, these works can be looked at through the lens
of Ed Soja’s third space – his proposal of a space that extends beyond the binary of real and
imagined, bringing a blended form and introducing a possibility of an active relationship and
productive exchange between architecture and literature.
The Lebanese war novel has been studied through different categorizations, according to the
origin of the writer, their age during the conflict, date of publication, language of publication,
ideology, genre and format of the works. For this analysis, a selection of six different works has
been made which represent many of these categories. This selection features works that were
published between 1976 and 2008. The novels in the selection are authored by both male and
female writers and were originally published in Arabic or French. One novel, Beirut Nightmares,
originally in Arabic, is authored by Ghada Samman, who is of Syrian origin. Two works in the
selection, I Remember Beirut and A Game for Swallows, both written in French by Zeina
Abirached, belong to the graphic novel format. These two works also represent what has been
called “generation 1.5 works”, whose authors were of a young age during the war period.
While the major part of the Lebanese war novel addresses neighborhood scale and relations,
this selection was made due to the centrality of neighborhood relations to the storyline. Three
of these works narrate stories from al-Qantari (Beirut Nightmares), Ras al-Nabaa (The Story of
Zahra, written in Arabic by Hanan al-Shaykh) and Sanayeh (The House of Mathilde, written in
Arabic by Hassan Daoud), West Beirut neighborhoods. One work (The Stone of Laughter,
written in Arabic by Hoda Barakat) recounts a story from West Beirut without specifying the
neighborhood. The last two novels (I Remember Beirut and A Game for Swallows) take place in
al-Yasoueia/Mar Maroun district on the east side of the city.
In most of these novels, the neighborhood (often reduced to the scale of a building) and its
social relations are the main setting of the novel. These novels provide detailed information
about living spaces, such as how the apartments are divided, where the safe corridors are, and
who is allowed where? They similarly provide extensive descriptions of the neighbors and their
backgrounds. Who are they? What do they do? And, equally important, when did they move to
the building?

This analysis focuses on the common spatial elements that appear in the discussed novels.
These spatial elements are seen to play an important role in shaping neighborhood relations
during the violence of the war.
COUNTRY CAPITAL:
Singapore is a City State so the country does not have a capital city because it is already only
one big city, similar to HK.

In Singapore the central area where the government offices, parliament, the bank head offices
and so on all are is called the Central Business District (“CBD”). Similarly in HK it is called
“Central”

Why is it called Singapore ? According to the founding myth a Malay Prince saw a lion on the
coastline from his ship and decided to found a City where he had seen the lion, so the City was
called “Lion City” (in Sanskrit language Singha = Lion, Pura = City). This is why Singapore is
sometimes called “The Lion City” and why Singapore has the iconic Merlion (Sea Lion) at Marina
Bay …

An alternative explanation is the name comes from “Sin” “Gopura”, also Sanskrit but meaning
“Gateway to China”. This is intriguing and possible as for the early Indian and Arab traders
coming from the West, even in ancient times, Singapore with its strategic position in the Straits
of Malacca was a kind of Gateway to China… As you sail up the eastern side of the Malay
Peninsula, Thailand and Vietnam you begin to leave the world of Indian cultural influence and
enter the sphere of Chinese influence…
It is country name (not a city name as to a large country that has many cities) when Singapore
became independent in 9/Aug/1965 after separated from Malaysia due to political ideology
differance. During colonalism period, Singapore was used as a port between the East and West.

In short Singapore is a translation from 新加坡 and Singapore to Malay, Singapura. It has a
meaning to call Singapore - New Home Port.

Oxford dictionary has not added into it yet. New Home Port is 新加坡, Singapore, Singapura.
Singapore is a sovereignty, independence country that adopted democratic political ideology,
adopted capitalist which transformed the fishing islands from a village port to city port after
separated from Malaysia, to having one of world strongest army in the full protection of SAF
and is also one of member of United Nations that pays the membership promptly.

Asides, Singapore do not have capital yet. Maybe sooner our new capital is at Oxley Road
where the late founding father, PM LKY of modern Singapore lived.😁

HISTORY OF SINGAPORE
The history of the modern state of Singapore dates back to its founding in the early nineteenth
century, but evidence suggests that a significant trading settlement existed on the Island of
Singapore in the 14th century. At the time, the Kingdom of Singapura was under the rule
of Parameswara, who killed the previous ruler before he was expelled by the Majapahit or
the Siamese. It then came under the Malacca Sultanate and then the Johor Sultanate. In 1819,
British statesman Stamford Raffles negotiated a treaty whereby Johor allowed the British to
locate a trading port on the island, leading to the establishment of the crown colony of
Singapore in 1819.
During World War II, Singapore was conquered and occupied by the Japanese Empire from
1942 to 1945. When the war ended, Singapore reverted to British control, with increasing levels
of self-government being granted, culminating in Singapore's merger with the Federation of
Malaya to form Malaysia in 1963. However, social unrest and disputes between Singapore's
ruling People's Action Party and Malaysia's Alliance Party resulted in Singapore's expulsion from
Malaysia. Singapore became an independent republic on 9 August 1965.
Facing severe unemployment and a housing crisis, Singapore embarked on an aggressive
modernisation programme beginning in the late 1960s through the 1970s that focused on
establishing a manufacturing industry, developing large public housing estates, and investing
heavily in public education and infrastructure.
By the 1990s, the country had become one of the world's most prosperous nations, with a
highly developed free market economy and strong international trading links. It now has the
highest per capita gross domestic product in Asia, which is 2nd in the world, and it is ranked 9th
on the UN Human Development Index.[1][2][3]

Ancient Singapore[edit]
Main article: Early history of Singapore
See also: Timeline of Singaporean history and Kingdom of Singapura

An artist's impression of Parameswara, who ruled Singapore in the 1390s.

The Greco-Roman astronomer Ptolemy (90–168) identified a place called Sabana at the tip
of Golden Chersonese (believed to be the Malay Peninsula) in the second and third century.
[4]
 The earliest written record of Singapore may be in a Chinese account from the third century,
describing the island of Pu Luo Chung (蒲 羅 中). This is thought to be a transcription from
the Malay name "Pulau Ujong", or "island at the end" (of the Malay Peninsula).[5]
In 1025 CE, Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire led forces across the Indian Ocean and
invaded the Srivijayan empire, attacking several places in Malaysia and Indonesia.[6][7] The Chola
forces were said to have controlled Temasek (now Singapore) for a couple of decades.[8] The
name Temasek however did not appear in Chola records, but a tale involving a Raja Chulan
(assumed to be Rajendra Chola) and Temasek was mentioned in the semi-historical Malay
Annals.[9]
A fragment of the Singapore Stone, inscribed with an Indic script, c. 10th to 13th century.
The Nagarakretagama, a Javanese epic poem written in 1365, referred to a settlement on the
island called Tumasik (possibly meaning "Sea Town" or "Sea Port").[10] The name Temasek is also
given in Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals), which contains a tale of the founding of Temasek by a
prince of Srivijaya, Sri Tri Buana (also known as Sang Nila Utama) in the 13th century. Sri Tri
Buana landed on Temasek on a hunting trip, and saw a strange beast said to be a lion. The
prince took this as an auspicious sign and founded a settlement called Singapura, which means
"Lion City" in Sanskrit. The actual origin of the name Singapura however is unclear according to
scholars.[11]

Languages of Singapore
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A warning sign in the four official languages of Singapore that is found in all Mass Rapid
Transit (MRT) stations
A multitude of languages are used in Singapore. It consists of several varieties of languages
under the families of the Austronesian languages, Dravidian languages and Sino-Tibetan
languages. According to the Constitution of Singapore, the national language of Singapore
is Malay, which plays a symbolic role, as Malays are constitutionally recognised as
the indigenous peoples of Singapore, and it is the government's duty to protect their language
and heritage.[note 1] The constitution also states that the four official languages of Singapore
are English, Chinese, Malay and Tamil, with the lingua franca between Singaporeans of different
races being English, the de facto main language.
The three languages other than English were chosen to correspond with the major ethnic
groups present in Singapore at the time: Mandarin had gained status since the introduction of
Chinese-medium schools; Malay was deemed the "most obvious choice" for the Malay
community; and Tamil for the largest Indian ethnic group in Singapore, in addition to being "the
language with the longest history of education in Malaysia and Singapore". [1] In 2009, more
than 20 languages were identified as being spoken in Singapore, reflecting a rich linguistic
diversity in the city.[2][3] Singapore's historical roots as a trading settlement gave rise to an influx
of foreign traders,[4] and their languages were slowly embedded in Singapore's modern day
linguistic repertoire.

In the early years, the lingua franca of the island was Bazaar Malay (Melayu Pasar),
a creole of Malay and Chinese, the language of trade in the Malay Archipelago.[5] While it
continues to be used among many on the island, especially Singaporean Malays, Malay has now
been displaced by English. English became the lingua franca due to British rule of Singapore,
[4]
 and was made the main language upon Singaporean independence. Thus, English is
the medium of instruction in schools, and is also the main language used in formal settings such
as in government departments and the courts. As Singaporean President Halimah Yacob said
during her 2018 speech, “Through the education system, we adopted a common working
language in English.”[6]
Hokkien (Min Nan) briefly emerged as a lingua franca among the Chinese,[4] but by the late 20th
century they had been eclipsed by Mandarin. The Government promotes Mandarin
among Singaporean Chinese people, since it views the language as a bridge between
Singapore's diverse non-Mandarin speaking groups, and as a tool for forging a common Chinese
cultural identity.[7] China's economic rise in the 21st century has also encouraged a greater use
of Mandarin. Other Chinese varieties such as
Hokkien, Teochew, Hakka, Hainanese and Cantonese have been classified by the Government
as "dialects", and language policies and language attitudes based on this classification and
discouragement of usage in Non-Mandarin Chinese or "Chinese dialects" in official settings and
television media have led to a decrease in the number of speakers of these varieties. [8] In
particular, Singapore has its own lect of Mandarin; Singaporean Mandarin, itself with two
varieties, Standard and Colloquial or spoken. While Tamil is one of Singapore's official
languages, other Indian languages are also frequently used.[9]
Almost all Singaporeans are bilingual since Singapore's bilingual language education
policy promotes a dual-language learning system. Learning a second language has been
compulsory in primary schools since 1960 and secondary schools since 1966.[10] English is used
as the main medium of instruction. On top of this, most children learn one of the three official
languages (or, occasionally, another approved language) as a second language, according to
their official registered ethnic group. Since 1 January 2011, if a person is of more than one
ethnicity and their race is registered in the hyphenated format, the race chosen will be the one
that precedes the hyphen in their registered race.[11]

Culture of Singapore
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The culture of Singapore or Singaporean culture embodies

the artistic, culinary, literary, musical, political and social elements that are representative
of Singapore and Singaporeans. As the city-state lies at the crossroads of several major Asian
cultures, its core culture consists of a combination of East Asian, Austronesian Malay, South
Asian, and Eurasian influences. Contemporary Singapore was also influenced by European
culture, mainly by the British, leading it to been dubbed as a country where "East meets West",
the "Gateway to Asia" and a "Garden city".[1]
A multitude of languages are also used in Singapore, reflecting its rich linguistic diversity.[2] Two
of the region's major languages, Malay, the language of the indigenous peoples, and Mandarin
Chinese, are official languages of Singapore, along with Tamil, spoken by a minority of Indian
speakers. English, the de facto main language, was also chosen as a lingua
franca between Singaporeans of different backgrounds and races.[3] Historically, Hokkien was
widely used as the ethnic language among the different Chinese dialects as well as for the other
races to communicate with the Chinese, although Cantonese, Hainanese and Teochew was also
used to a lesser extent in Singapore. [4] However, such dialects were gradually replaced by
Mandarin, as it was seen by the government as a way to maintain a link to Chinese culture.[5] As
Singapore was under Japanese rule during World War II, some Singaporeans, especially of the
older generations, are able to natively communicate in Japanese, although such numbers are
dwindling.[6]
As a result, Singaporeans are at least bilingual or sometimes even trilingual, as
the government has also encouraged a language education policy that promotes a dual-
language learning system. Learning a second language has been compulsory in primary
schools[a] since 1960 and secondary schools[b] since 1966.[7] In addition, the widespread use
of Singlish in informal situations among Singaporeans, a variety of English spoken in Singapore
which consists of many of the different languages described above, is commonly associated
with the country and is considered a unique aspect of Singaporean culture.[8]
Singapore's indigenous culture originates primarily from the Austronesian peoples that arrived
from the island of Taiwan, settling between 1500 to 1000 BCE, and was then known
as Temasek. The legend of a Srivijayan prince named Sang Nila Utama, who is believed to have
founded the Kingdom of Singapore, has been considered the genesis of its modern history.
[9]
 Singapore was then influenced during the Middle Ages primarily by multiple Chinese
dynasties such as the Ming and Qing, as well as by other Asian countries such as the Ayutthaya
Kingdom, Majapahit Empire, Joseon dynasty, the Tokugawa shogunate and the
subsequent Japanese Empire, as well as the Ryukyu Kingdom. In the near-contemporary
history, Singapore was also influenced by western countries. Repeated influence, absorption
and selection in various ways have added to the development of a unique culture that are
distinct from its neighbouring countries.

Religion in Singapore
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Religion in Singapore is characterised by a wide variety of religious beliefs and practices due to
its diverse ethnic mix of peoples originating from various countries. This means
that Singapore is commonly termed as a "melting pot" of various religious practices originating
from different religious denominations around the world. Most practised religious
denominations are present in Singapore, with the Inter-Religious Organisation, Singapore (IRO)
recognising 10 major religions in the city state. [2] A 2014 analysis by the Pew Research
Center found Singapore to be the world's most religiously diverse nation. [3]
The most followed religion in Singapore is Buddhism, with 33.2% of the resident population
declaring themselves as adherents at the most recent census (2015). A large majority
of Buddhists in Singapore are Chinese, with 42.29% of the ethnic Chinese population in
Singapore declaring themselves as Buddhists at the most recent census (2015). [1] However,
there are also sizeable numbers of non-Chinese ethnic groups in Singapore that practice
Buddhism, such as the Sinhalese, Burmese and Thais.

Government of Singapore
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Government of the Republic of Singapore

Overview

Established 1965

State Singapore

Leader Prime Minister

Appointed by President

Main organ Cabinet of Singapore

Ministries 16

Responsible to Parliament of Singapore

Headquarters 1 Parliament Place, Singapore

178880

Website www.gov.sg
 Singapore

This article is part of a series on the

politics and government of
Singapore

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Government

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 Singapore portal

 Other countries

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Government of Singapore

Chinese name

Chinese 新加坡政府

showTranscriptions

Malay name

Malay Pemerintah Singapura

Tamil name

Tamil சிங்கப்பூர் அரசு

The Government of the Republic of Singapore is defined by the Constitution of the Republic of

Singapore to mean the Executive branch of government, which is made up of the President and
the Cabinet of Singapore. Although the President acts in his/her personal discretion in the
exercise of certain functions as a check on the Cabinet and Parliament of Singapore, his/her role
is largely ceremonial. It is the Cabinet, composed of the Prime Minister and other Ministers
appointed on his/her advice by the President, that generally directs and controls the
Government. The Cabinet is formed by the political party that gains a simple majority in
each general election.
A statutory board is an autonomous agency of the Government that is established by an Act of
Parliament and overseen by a government ministry. Unlike ministries and government
departments that are subdivisions of ministries, statutory boards are not staffed by civil
servants and have greater independence and flexibility in their operations. There are
five Community Development Councils (CDCs) appointed by the board of management of
the People's Association (PA) for districts in Singapore. Where there are not less than 150,000
residents in a district, the PA's board of management may designate the chairman of a CDC to
be the mayor for the district that the CDC is appointed for. As it is the practice for MPs to be
appointed as Chairmen of CDCs, these MPs have also been designated as mayors.
From 1819 until 1826, Singapore was headed by two residents in succession. Following
Singapore's amalgamation into the Straits Settlements in 1826, it was governed by
a governor together with a legislative council. An executive council of the Straits Settlements
was introduced in 1877 to advise the Governor but wielded no executive power. In 1955, a
Council of Ministers was created, appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the
Leader of the House. Constitutional talks between Legislative Assembly representatives and
the Colonial Office were held from 1956 to 1958, and Singapore gained full internal self-
government in 1959. The governor was replaced by the Yang di-Pertuan Negara, who had
power to appoint to the post of prime minister the person most likely to command the
authority of the assembly, and other ministers of the Cabinet on the prime minister's advice. In
the 1959 general elections, the People's Action Party (PAP) swept to power with 43 out of the
51 seats in the assembly, and Lee Kuan Yew became the first prime minister of Singapore. The
executive branch of the Singapore Government remained unchanged following
Singapore's merger with Malaysia in 1963, and subsequent independence in 1965. As of 2020,
the PAP has been returned to power in every general election and has thus formed the Cabinet
since 1959.
BELIEF OF SINGAPORE
eligious Beliefs. There is freedom of religion with some exceptions. Singapore has been
described as one of the most religious countries in the world. The major religions are Islam
(Malay), Hinduism (Indians), Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religion (Chinese), along with a
substantial number of Christians of various denominations.
Religious Practitioners. Religious experts vary from formally installed priests and teachers
representing the institutionalized religions to self-ordained shamans, healers, and sorcerers.
Rituals and Holy Places. The many Chinese and Indian temples, Malay mosques, and Christian
churches are the main public arenas for religious activities. Much religious activity is also carried
out in the home. There are different "street festivals" according to the ritual calendars of the
different ethnic groups
Death and the Afterlife. A funeral is a major ritual for all ethnic group. The idea of an afterlife is
generally shared.
Category:Landforms of Singapore

Cape Verde
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This article is about the African country. For other uses, see Cape Verde (disambiguation).
"Cabo Verde" redirects here. For other uses, see Cabo Verde (disambiguation).
Cape Verde (/ˈvɜːrd(i)/ ( listen)) or Cabo Verde (/ˌkɑːboʊ ˈvɜːrdeɪ/ ( listen), /ˌkæb-/)
(Portuguese: Cabo Verde, pronounced [ˈkabu ˈveɾdɨ]), officially the Republic of Cabo Verde,[11] is
an archipelago and island country in the central Atlantic Ocean, consisting of ten volcanic
islands with a combined land area of about 4,033 square kilometres (1,557 sq mi). These islands
lie about 600 to 850 kilometres (320 to 460 nautical miles) west of Cap-Vert situated at the
westernmost point of continental Africa. The Cape Verde islands form part of
the Macaronesia ecoregion, along with the Azores, the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Savage
Isles.
The Cape Verde archipelago appears not to have been inhabited by humans until the 15th
century, when Portuguese explorers discovered and colonized the islands, thus establishing the
first European settlement in the tropics. Because the Cape Verde islands were ideally located to
play a role in the Atlantic slave-trade, Cape Verde became economically prosperous during the
16th and 17th centuries, attracting merchants, privateers, and pirates. It declined economically
in the 19th century due to the suppression of the Atlantic slave-trade, and many of its
inhabitants emigrated during that period. However, Cape Verde gradually recovered
economically by becoming an important commercial center and useful stopover point along
major shipping routes. In 1951, Cape Verde was incorporated as an overseas department
of Portugal, but its inhabitants continued to campaign for independence, which they achieved
in 1975.

Ilhéus do Rombo
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The Ilhéus do Rombo, also known as the Ilhéus Secos (Portuguese for "Dry Islets", because of
their aridity and paucity of vegetation), are a group of small, uninhabited islands in the Cape
Verde archipelago, lying 600 km (370 mi) off the coast of north-west Africa in the Atlantic
Ocean. The islets form an integral nature reserve.[1][2] They are sited on
a volcanic seamount 7 km (4.3 mi) north of Brava and 15 km (9.3 mi) west of Fogo. The two
major islets of the chain are Ilhéu Grande (300 ha (740 acres)) and Ilhéu de Cima (150 ha (370
acres)). Administratively they are part of the municipality of Brava. They can be seen from
Brava and, sometimes, from Fogo.
COUNTRY CAPITAL:
Oman

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This article is about the Arabian sultanate. For the adjacent historical confederation named
Trucial Oman, see Trucial States. For other uses, see Oman (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Amman, which has the same spelling in Arabic as Oman.
Coordinates: 21°N 57°E
Oman (/oʊˈmɑːn/ ( listen) oh-MAHN; Arabic: ‫ ُع َمان‬ ʿUmān [ʕʊˈmaːn]), officially the Sultanate of
ْ
Oman (Arabic: ‫سلطن ُة عُمان‬ Salṭanat(u) ʻUmān), is a country on the southeastern coast of
the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia and the oldest independent state in the Arab world.[8]
[9]
 Located in a strategically important position at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, the country
shares land borders with the United Arab Emirates to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west,
and Yemen to the southwest, and shares marine borders with Iran and Pakistan. The coast is
formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast.
The Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders, with
the Strait of Hormuz (which it shares with Iran) and the Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's
coastal boundaries.
From the late 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was a powerful empire, vying with
the Portuguese Empire and the British Empire for influence in the Persian Gulf and Indian
Ocean. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence or control extended across the Strait of
Hormuz to modern-day Iran and Pakistan, and as far south as Zanzibar.[10] When its power
declined in the 20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the United Kingdom.
For over 300 years, the relations built between the two empires were based on mutual
benefits. The UK recognized Oman's geographical importance as a trading hub that secured
their trading lanes in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean and protected their empire in the
Indian sub-continent. Historically, Muscat was the principal trading port of the Persian Gulf
region. Muscat was also among the most important trading ports of the Indian Ocean.
Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said was the hereditary leader of the country, which is an absolute
monarchy, from 1970 until his death on 10 January 2020.[11] His cousin, Haitham bin Tariq, was
named as the country's new ruler following his death. [12]
Oman is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, the Gulf Cooperation Council,
the Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. It has sizeable oil
reserves, ranking 25th globally.[8][13] In 2010, the United Nations Development
Programme ranked Oman as the most improved nation in the world in terms of development
during the preceding 40 years.[14] A significant portion of its economy involves tourism and
trading fish, dates and other agricultural produce. Oman is categorized as a high-income
economy and ranks as the 69th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global
Peace Index.[15]
Muscat
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This article is about the capital and largest city of Oman. For the grape, see Muscat (grape). For
other uses, see Muscat (disambiguation).
Muscat (Arabic: ‫ َمسْ َقط‬, Masqaṭ pronounced [ˈmasqatˤ]) is the capital city and is the most
populated city in Oman. It is the seat of the Governorate of Muscat. According to the National
Centre for Statistics and Information (NCSI), the total population of Muscat Governorate was
1.4 million as of September 2018.[4] The metropolitan area spans approximately
3,500 km2 (1,400 sq mi)[5] and includes six provinces called wilayat.[citation needed] Known since the
early 1st century AD as an important trading port between the west and the east, Muscat was
ruled by various indigenous tribes as well as foreign powers such as the Persians,
the Portuguese Empire, the Iberian Union and the Ottoman Empire at various points in its
history. A regional military power in the 18th century, Muscat's influence extended as far
as East Africa and Zanzibar. As an important port-town in the Gulf of Oman, Muscat attracted
foreign tradesmen and settlers such as the Persians and the Balochis. Since the ascension
of Qaboos bin Said as Sultan of Oman in 1970, Muscat has experienced rapid infrastructural
development that has led to the growth of a vibrant economy and a multi-ethnic society.
Muscat is termed as a Beta - Global City by the Globalization and World Cities Research
Network.[6]
The rocky Western Al Hajar Mountains dominate the landscape of Muscat. The city lies on
the Arabian Sea along the Gulf of Oman and is in the proximity of the strategic Straits of
Hormuz. Low-lying white buildings typify most of Muscat's urban landscape, while the port-
district of Muttrah, with its corniche and harbour, form the north-eastern periphery of the city.
Muscat's economy is dominated by trade, petroleum, liquified natural gas and porting.

History of Oman
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Nakhal Fort, one of the best-preserved forts in Oman

Oman is the site of pre-historic human habitation, stretching back over 100,000 years. The
region was impacted by powerful invaders, including other Arab tribes, Portugal and Britain.
Oman once possessed the island of Zanzibar, on the east coast of Africa as a colony.[1]

Pre-historic record[edit]

Archaeologists excavating a Middle Stone Age complex in the Dhofar Mountains

In Oman, a site was discovered by Doctor Bien Joven in 2011 containing more than 100 surface
scatters of stone tools belonging to the late Nubian Complex, known previously only
from archaeological excavations in Sudan. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates
place the Arabian Nubian Complex at approximately 106,000 years old. This provides evidence
for a distinct Mobile Stone Age technocomplex in southern Arabia, around the earlier part of
the Marine Isotope Stage 5.[2]
The hypothesized departure of humankind from Africa to colonise the rest of the world
involved them crossing the Straits of Bab el Mandab in the southern Purple Sea and moving
along the green coastlines around Arabia and thence to the rest of Eurasia. Such crossing
became possible when sea level had fallen by more than 80 meters to expose much of the shelf
between southern Eritrea and Yemen; a level that was reached during a glacial stadial from 60
to 70 ka as climate cooled erratically to reach the last glacial maximum. From 135,000 to 90,000
years ago, tropical Africa had megadroughts which drove the humans from the land and
towards the sea shores, and forced them to cross over to other continents. The researchers
used radiocarbon dating techniques on pollen grains trapped in lake-bottom mud to establish
vegetation over the ages of the Malawi lake in Africa, taking samples at 300-year-intervals.
Samples from the megadrought times had little pollen or charcoal, suggesting sparse vegetation
with little to burn. The area around Lake Malawi, today heavily forested, was a desert
approximately 135,000 to 90,000 years ago. [3]
Luminescence dating is a technique that measures naturally occurring radiation stored in the
sand. Data culled via this methodology demonstrates that 130,000 years ago, the Arabian
Peninsula was relatively warmer which caused more rainfall, turning it into a series of lush
habitable land. During this period the southern Red Sea's levels dropped and was only 4
kilometres (2.5 mi) wide. This offered a brief window of time for humans to easily cross the sea
and cross the Peninsula to opposing sites like Jebel Faya. These early migrants running away
from the climate change in Africa, crossed the Red Sea into Yemen and Oman, trekked across
Arabia during favourable climate conditions.[3] 2,000 kilometres of inhospitable desert lie
between the Red Sea and Jebel Faya in UAE. But around 130,000 years ago the world was at the
end of an ice age. The Red Sea was shallow enough to be crossed on foot or on a small raft, and
the Arabian peninsula was being transformed from a parched desert into a green land.
There have been discoveries of Paleolithic stone tools in caves in southern and central Oman,
and in the United Arab Emirates close to the Straits of Hormuz at the outlet of the Persian Gulf
(UAE site (Jebel Faya).[4][5] The stone tools, some up to 125,000 years old, resemble those made
by humans in Africa around the same period.

LANGUAGE OF OMAN

Omani Arabic
Omani Arabic (also known as Omani Hadari Arabic) is a variety of Arabic spoken in the Al Hajar
Mountains of Oman and in a few neighboring coastal regions. It is the easternmost Arabic
dialect. It was formerly spoken by colonists in Kenya and Tanzania, but these days, it mainly
remains spoken on the island of Zanzibar.

Arabic is the national language of Oman and probably what you will hear spoken most often.
However, you might not need to learn any Arabic to get by when you’re a holiday. Because
many people who vacation in Oman are staying in luxury resorts, most vacationers don’t ever
need to use anything other than English.

But, if you’re feeling adventurous and want to camp or explore than many great cities of Oman,
you should learn a few common phrases to make your holiday easier and more enjoyable.
Unlike many other conservative countries, people in Oman are very understanding and don’t
take offence easily, especially from tourists. If you need help trying to communicate something,
do your best and be as friendly about the uncomfortable situation as possible. But, it’s unlikely
that you’ll be anywhere without an English speaker close by to help.
Culture of Oman
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The culture of Oman is steeped in the religion of Islam. Oman has developed its own subsect of
Islam, known as Ibadhism, however other strands of Islam such as Sunni and Shi'a are also
practiced. With this in mind, the Islamic month of fasting, Ramadan, and other Islamic festivities
are very important events in the Omani culture. Oman has the most diverse culture in the Gulf
Cooperation Council.

Dress[edit]

Omanis in Nizwa.
For men, the national dress is an ankle-length, collarless gown with long sleeves, called
a dishdasha. Usually, the clothing is white, although a few other colors such as brown, lilac, and
black are sometimes worn. There are many accessories men can wear, for example,
the muzzar (a type of turban), the assa (a cane or stick used mainly for formal occasions), and
the khanjar. The khanjar is a ceremonial curved dagger worn during formal occasions, often
described as "an important symbol of male elegance".
The national dress for Omani women includes a dress worn over trousers (sirwal) and a
headdress (lihaf). Usually, the materials used are of very colorful, vibrant colors. Traditionally,
Omani women would wear a kind of wooden platform shoe, but nowadays, most prefer to
wear sandals. The cut of the clothing differs in various regions, as do color, embroidery, and
materials. Women complete their outfit with gold jewelry and cosmetics, opting for either
brand-name or traditionally-made items. When in public, most women in cities wear the abaya,
a modest black dress or cloak worn over the clothes, and the hijab, the typical Muslim hair
covering.
Dhow[edit]
Being a seafaring nation, an important symbol in Oman is the dhow. These sailing ships have
been used for centuries along the Arabian Peninsula, India, and East Africa for the purpose of
trade. In fact, the earliest reported use of an Omani dhow was in the 8th century, arriving
in China. In modern-day use, the dhows operate for the purpose of trade, tourism, and fishing,
and they can be seen all along Oman's coastline. The main ports of a large fleet, while Sur
maintains an extensive dhow-building industry.

Cuisine[edit]
Main article: Omani cuisine
The cuisine of Oman is generally very simple, with the aid of many spices and marinades to
complete a dish, which usually consists of chicken, fish, and lamb. Unlike that of many other
Asian nations, Omani cuisine is not spicy, and varies regionally. Everyday meals generally have
components such as rice, a wide variety of soups, salad, curry, and fresh vegetables. For
dessert, many Omani people have a kind of sweet, known as Omani halwa. This is usually
served before the consumption of kahwa, a preparation of coffee with cardamom, which is very
popular and remains a symbol of hospitality. Other popular beverages include tea, laban (a kind
of salty buttermilk), yoghurt drinks, and soft drinks like mountain dew.
For festive occasions, special dishes are prepared, particularly for Islamic tradition. The range of
dishes is very diverse, and there are certain meals only prepared during Ramadan.

Religion in Oman
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Religion in Oman (2010)[1]
  Islam (85.9%)
  Christianity (6.5%)
  Hinduism (5.5%)
  Others (1%)
  Buddhism (0.8%)
  Unaffiliated (0.2%)
  Judaism (0.1%)
Even though the Oman government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation, statistics
from the US's Central Intelligence Agency state that adherents of Islam are in the majority at
85.9%, with Christians at 6.5%, Hindus at 5.5%, Buddhists at 0.8%, Jews less than 0.1%. Other
religious affiliations have a proportion of 1% and the unaffiliated only 0.2%.

Contents

 1Islam
 2Other religions
  3Freedom of religion
 4References

Islam[edit]
See also: List of mosques in Oman and Islam in Oman
Most Omanis are Muslims, most of whom follow the Ibadi[2] School of Islam, followed by
the Twelver school of Shia Islam, the Shafi`i school of Sunni Islam, and the Nizari Isma'ili school
of Shia Islam.[3] Virtually all non-Muslims in Oman are foreign workers. Non-Muslim religious
communities include various groups of Jains, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Jews, Hindus and
Christians. Christian communities are centred in the major urban areas
of Muscat, Sohar and Salalah. These include Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and
various Protestant congregations, organising along linguistic and ethnic lines. More than 50
different Christian groups, fellowships and assemblies are active in the Muscat metropolitan
area, formed by migrant workers from Southeast Asia.

Other religions
See also: Christianity in Oman, Hinduism in Oman, and History of the Jews in Oman

Shiva temple in Old Muscat is one of the oldest Hindu temple in Middle East
There are also communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians. Muscat has two Hindu
temples. One of them is over a hundred years old. There is a significant Sikh community in
Oman. Though there are no permanent gurdwaras, many smaller gurdwaras in makeshift
camps exist and are recognised by the government. The Government of India had signed an
accord in 2008 with the Omani government to build a permanent gurdwara but little progress
has been made on the matter.[4]

Politics of Oman
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Oman

This article is part of a series on the

politics and government of
Oman

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The Politics of Oman take place in a framework of an absolute monarchy. The Sultan of Oman is
not only the head of state, but also the head of government. The head of state and government
is the hereditary sultan, who appoints a cabinet to assist him. The sultan also serves as the
supreme commander of the armed forces, prime minister.

Monarchy[edit]
The Sultan is a direct descendant of Sayyid Sa'id bin Sultan, who first opened relations with
the United States in 1833. The Sultanate has neither political parties nor legislature, although
the bicameral representative bodies provide the government with advice. The present Sultan
has no direct heir, and has not publicly designated a successor. Instead, the ruling family should
unanimously designate a new Sultan after his death. If they do not designate a new ruler after
three days, then they open a letter left to them by the deceased Sultan, containing a
recommendation for a new Sultan.
The current sultan is Haitham bin Tariq, who was appointed on 11 January 2020.

Judicial system[edit]
The court system in Oman is regulated by Royal Decree 90/99. There are three court levels in
Oman, the Elementary Court is the lowest court, followed by the Court of Appeal, and then the
Supreme Court as the highest court in the country.
In addition to this there is an Administrative Court that looks into cases made against the
government.

BELIEF OF OMAN
Islam In Oman

Nearly three-quarters of Oman’s Muslims adhere to the Ibadi School of Islam. Sunnis and Shia
Muslims account for a significant part of the population of Oman. The Shia community is mainly
found along the coasts of Al Batinah and Muscat. The adherence to Ibadism is one of the main
reasons for the country’s historical isolation in a Sunni-dominated Arab world. Islam has been
practiced in the country since ages and was one of the first places in the world to have a
significant presence of the religion. Ibadism practiced in the country heavily influences the
culture of the nation.

Ibadism demands strict adherence to the Sharia law, both in private and public. These laws are
strictly implemented in Oman. Singing and dancing are frowned upon and discouraged. Oman’s
mosques are also simple and clean and lack minarets and ornate decorations that characterize
many mosques in other parts of Arabia.

Category:Landforms of Oman

Bimmah Sinkhole
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Coordinates:  23°02′10″N 59°04′19″E
Hawiyyat Najm (Arabic: ‫)هوية نجم‬, known as Bimmah Sinkhole in English, is a water-filled
depression, structurally a sinkhole, in the limestone of eastern Muscat Governorate in
the Sultanate of Oman, very close to the Al Sharqiyah region just off the highway to Sur, few
kilometers before Tiwi.

Geology[edit]
A lake of turquoise waters, it is 50 m by 70 m wide and approximately 20 m deep. It is only
about 600 m away from the sea, between the coastal towns of Ḑibāb and Bamah (Bimmah).
The sinkhole was formed by a collapse of the surface layer due to dissolution of the underlying
limestone.[2] However, locals used to believe this sinkhole in the shape of a water well was
created by a meteorite,[3][4] hence the Arabic name Hawiyyat Najm which means "the deep well
of the (falling) star".
Nekeds in depth from only a few feet to over 300+ feet in the deepest part. [5]

Umm al Samim
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The Umm al Samim (Arabic: ‫( )أم السّميم‬also known as the Umm as Samim) is a quicksand area[1]
[2]
 on the eastern edge of the Rub al'khali desert largely within Oman's borders.[3] The waters,
such as they are, drain into this brackish low-lying closed basin area off the Omani mountains
and the wadis of the Rub al'khali. The Al Samim (known locally as the 'Mother of Poisons' or the
'Mother of Worries') is a salt marsh with a solid-looking crust, but can be very treacherous
when broken through. There is little vegetation.
Sir Wilfred Thesiger was the first European to see the area in the late 1940s after his travels
from Salalah in Oman.[2]
 STATE OF PALESTINE

*COUNTRY'S CAPITAL

Proclaimed capital Jerusalem

*HISTORY

The entirety of territory claimed by the State of Palestine has been occupied by Israel since
the Six-Day War in 1967. After World War II, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition
Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish
states and an internationalized Jerusalem. After the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz
Israel, to be known as the State of Israel on 14 May 1948, neighboring Arab armies invaded
the former British mandate on the next day and fought the Israeli forces. Later, the All-
Palestine Government was established by the Arab League on 22 September 1948 to govern
the Egyptian-controlled enclave in Gaza. It was soon recognized by all Arab League members
except Transjordan.

Though jurisdiction of the Government was declared to cover the whole of the former
Mandatory Palestine, its effective jurisdiction was limited to the Gaza Strip. Israel later
captured the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank, including East
Jerusalem, from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria in June 1967 following the Six-Day
War.

On 15 November 1988, Yasser Arafat, Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, in

Algiers proclaimed the establishment of the State of Palestine. A year after the signing of the
Oslo Accords in 1993, the Palestinian National Authority was formed to govern the areas A
and B in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Gaza would later be ruled by Hamas in 2007, two
years after the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza.

The State of Palestine is recognized by 136 UN members and since 2012 has a status of a non-
member observer state in the United Nations which implies recognition of statehood.

*LANGUAGE
Arabic

*CULTURE

The Culture of Palestine is the culture of the Palestinian people, who are located in the State
of Palestine, and across the region historically known as Palestine, as well as in the Pal.
Palestinian culture is influenced by the many diverse cultures and religions which have
existed in historical Palestine, from the early Canaanite period onward. Cultural contributions
to the fields of art, literature, music, costume and cuisine express the Palestinian identity
despite the geographical separation between the Palestinian territories, Palestinian citizens
and the diaspora. Palestinian culture consists of food, dance, legends, oral history, proverbs,
jokes, popular beliefs, customs, and comprising the traditions (including oral traditions) of
Palestinian culture. The folklorist revival among Palestinian intellectuals such as Nimr Sirhan,
Musa Allush, Salim Mubayyid, and the emphasized pre-Islamic (and pre-Hebraic) cultural
roots, re-constructing Palestinian identity with a focus on Canaanite and Jebusite cultures.[3]
Such efforts seem to have borne fruit as evidenced in the organization of celebrations like the
Qabatiya Canaanite festival and the annual MusicFestival of Yabus by the Palestinian Ministry
of Culture.

*RELIGION

Islam (93%)

Christianity (6%)

Druze and Samaritans (1%)

*GOVERNMENT

Unitary semi-presidential republic

* RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Muslims are the predominant religious group in Palestine, comprising around three quarters
of the population, and Islamic practices prevail in the territories. Most Palestinian Muslims
belong to the Sunni sect.

The word Islam means "submission," to the will of Allah (God) and obedience to his
commands. Muslims believe that the prophet Muhammad (c. 570-632 C.E. ) received Allah's
commands from the angel Gabriel and that these revelations are recorded in the Koran (or
Quran), the Islamic holy book. The Koran sets forth rules for everyday behavior as well as
religious doctrine. Islam is inseparable from dayto-day life, so religion, politics, and culture
are all bound together in Muslim communities.

Rituals and Holy Places. Devout Muslims pray five times a day, bowing toward the city of
Mecca in Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of Muhammad. They are summoned to prayer by the
call of a muezzin (crier) issuing from the minarets of the many mosques that dot the
Palestinian skyline. Daily prayer is one of the "five pillars of Islam." The other four are the
testimony of faith ("there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is Allah's messenger"), giving
to the poor, making at least one hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca, and fasting during Ramadan and
other religious holidays. Palestine contains many sites that are holy to Muslims (as well as
many that are holy to Christians and Jews, hence much of the religious conflict in the region).
The most revered to Muslims are the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa mosques, built in
Jerusalem on the site at which Muhammad is believed to have ascended to heaven on a
night's journey known as al-Isra' wa al-Mi raj .

Death and the Afterlife. Palestinians observe a three-day mourning period when someone
dies. Family and friends offer condolences and recite the Koran. Neighbors serve meals to the
deceased's family and their guests throughout the three-day period. The deceased's death is
observed again at the forty-day anniversary.

*LANDFORMS (GEOGRAPHY)
Palestine's geographical area has varied greatly over the centuries, as the land was
conquered repeatedly by the great empires that came to power in the Mediterranean and the
Middle East. Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, and parts of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria
were once part of Palestine.

The Gaza Strip is a narrow sliver of land about eighteen miles long (twenty-nine
kilometers)and five miles wide (eight kilometers) on the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt
and Israel. It is mostly flat and sandy, with little fertile soil. The West Bank is about ninety
miles long (one-hundred-forty-five kilometers) and thirty miles wide (forty-eight kilometers)
and is surrounded on all sides by Israel except to the east, where it abuts the Jordan River
and the Dead Sea. The West Bank is fertile in the north and mostly barren in the south.

*LITERARY WORKS PRODUCED/OUTSTANDING WRITERS/ SIGNIFICANCE AND MEANING OF

SELECTED LITERARY PIECES.

Like most Arabs, Palestinians regard verse more highly than prose. The work of the highly
esteemed poet and writer Mahmoud Darwish, like that of many Palestinian writers and
artists, is highly political and deals with the Israeli occupation and the plight of the
Palestinians. Darwish's "Identity Card," which graphically paints the Palestinians' dilemma, is
one of the best-known works by a Palestinian. Darwish's work has been translated into the
major languages. He also composed Palestine's Declaration of Independence. In The Wind-
Driven Reed and Other Poems, Fouzi al-Asmar evokes the Palestinian longing for a homeland.

Palestinian-Israeli writer Emile Habibi, a longtime representative in the Israeli Knesset, began
writing in response to a leading Israeli politician's statements that the Palestinians did not
exist; otherwise, they would have produced their own literature. Habibi went on to write a
series of short stories and novels, one of which was translated into sixteen languages.

Many Palestinian writers and artists live outside Palestine as émigrés. Palestinian-American
Edward Said is a well-known historian and essayist. Said's Peace and Its Discontents and
other books explore Palestinians' problems and aspirations. Other highly regarded émigré
writers include Liana Badr and Hassan al-Kanafani.
One of the greatest Palestinian fiction writers is Ghassan Kanafani, whose short stories in All
That Remains: Palestine's Children depicts the aimlessness and desperation of Palestinian
refugees. The works of many leading Palestinian writers are translated in Salma Khadra
Jayyusi's Modern Palestinian Literature.

KUWAIT

*COUNTRY'S CAPITAL

Kuwait City is the capital and largest city of Kuwait.

*HISTORY

In 1613, the town of Kuwait was founded in modern-day Kuwait City. In 1716, the Bani Utubs
settled in Kuwait. At the time of the arrival of the Utubs, Kuwait was inhabited by a few
fishermen and primarily functioned as a fishing village. In the 18th century, Kuwait prospered
and rapidly became the principal commercial center for the transit of goods between India,
Muscat, Baghdad and Arabia. By the mid 1700s, Kuwait had already established itself as the
major trading route from the Persian Gulf to Aleppo.

During the Persian siege of Basra in 1775–1779, Iraqi merchants took refuge in Kuwait and
were partly instrumental in the expansion of Kuwait's boat-building and trading activities. As
a result, Kuwait's maritime commerce boomed.[5] Between the years 1775 and 1779, the
Indian trade routes with Baghdad, Aleppo, Smyrna and Constantinople were diverted to
Kuwait. The East India Company was diverted to Kuwait in 1792. The East India Company
secured the sea routes between Kuwait, India and the east coasts of Africa. After the Persian
Magii withdrew from Basra in 1779, Kuwait continued to attract trade away from Basra.

Kuwait was the center of boat building in the Persian Gulf region. During the late 18th and
19th centuries, ship vessels made in Kuwait carried the bulk of trade between the ports of
India, East Africa and the Red Sea. Kuwaiti ship vessels were renowned throughout the Indian
Ocean. Regional geopolitical turbulence helped foster economic prosperity in Kuwait in the
second half of the 18th century. Kuwait became prosperous due to Basra's instability in the
late 18th century. In the late 18th century, Kuwait partly functioned as a haven for Basra's
merchants fleeing Ottoman government persecution. According to Palgrave, Kuwaitis
developed a reputation as the best sailors in the Persian Gulf. During the reign of Mubarak Al-
Sabah, Kuwait was dubbed the "Marseilles of the Gulf" because its economic vitality
attracted a large variety of people. In the first decades of the twentieth century, Kuwait had a
well-established elite: wealthy trading families who were linked by marriage and shared
economic interests. The elite were long-settled, urban, Sunni and Shia families.the majority of
which claim descent from the original 30 Bani Utubi families. The wealthiest families were
trade merchants who acquired their wealth from long-distance commerce, shipbuilding and
pearling. They were a cosmopolitan elite, they traveled extensively to India, Africa and
Europe. The elite educated their sons abroad more than other Gulf Arab elite. Western
visitors noted that the Kuwaiti elite used European office systems, typewriters and followed
European culture with curiosity. The richest families were involved in general trade. The
merchant families of Al-Ghanim and Al-Hamad were estimated to be worth millions before
the 1940s.

*LANGUAGE

Arabic

*CULTURE

The Kuwaiti culture is based on Arab culture, traditions and practices that are generally
adhered to in the Arabian Peninsula or the Fertile Crescent. The Kuwaiti culture is both
Urbans and Bedaw (Bedouin). The Kuwaitis take great pride in their hospitality. Guests are
treated with great warmth and respect. While family elders enjoy the highest priority in
everything, guests are given precedence over the elders as is the custom. However, during
meal time, the host waits for the older most to finish his meal before getting up from the
table.

An important aspect of the Kuwaiti culture is the traditional greeting that is accompanied by
shaking hands and kissing cheeks. It is also customary for people greeting each other to
enquire about one's health and that of their family and their work. Usually, the person who
enters the room greets first, irrespective of his status, rank and relationship.

Hospitality in Kuwait is often portrayed through the serving of tea and coffee known as
Gahwa which has cardamom and cloves as essential ingredients. Nuts, dates and sweets are
served with the hot drink. The guest has to shake his gahwa cup two three times if he does
not want it to be refilled.

Another important aspect of the Kuwait tradition is the humanitarian quality. Imbued by
their religious belief, Kuwaitis are well known for the humanitarian services they render or
support. Kuwaiti cuisine plays an important part in the Kuwaiti culture. Food and beverages
are very important part of the Kuwait hospitality. Guests are invited to sumptuous lunch or
dinner of traditional Kuwaiti dishes. Kuwait cuisine is an infusion of Indian, Persian,
Mediterranean and Najdi cuisines. The national dish of Kuwait is known as Machboos. Food is
always prepared and served in large amount and it is customary to invite guests over to share
this large meal. Other popular dishes include Qouzi, Mutabbaq Samak, Jirish, Harees,
Margoog and Mumawwash. Traditional flat bread, known as Khubz which are baked in a
special oven, are often served with mahyawa fish sauce. The food is generally served in large
dishes around which the guests gather and eat out of the dish in the diwaniya. A Kuwaiti
meal is never complete unless it is accompanied by dates and some sweet dishes like Zalabia,
Khabees, Gaemat.

The Diwaniyas have existed in Kuwait since time immemorial. In a traditional Kuwaiti house,
it is the main reception area where the host receives and entertains his guests. Diwaniyas are
an indispensable feature of the Kuwaiti man's social life. Friends and business associates and
other guests gather at a Diwaniya after sun set and carry on social discourse right into the
late evening or early morning. For over two centuries, the diwaniyas have been serving as a
fundamental part of the Kuwait society. They facilitate quick communication and consensus
on matters both trivial and critical. They are the core of Kuwait's social, business and political
life. These are places where the Kuwaitis discuss matters of great interest. These are places
where friends get introduced to others. They serve as important platforms for debates,
arguments and election campaigns. Undoubtedly, diwaniyas are the root of Kuwait's
consensual political system.

Music is another important cultural component. Kuwaiti traditional music is accompanied by

simple percussion instruments like the small mirwas drums and clapping, along with the
traditional Arabic instruments such as Oud, the kanoon and the kaanaan. Other instruments
played are the rubabah, tanbarah (string instrument) and habban (bag pipe). Kuwait Sawt is a
popular music in Kuwait. Despite strong inroads made by Western culture in Kuwait, the
people of Kuwait take pride in their tradition, values and culture.

*RELIGION

Islam (73.99%)

Christianity (18.24%)

Hinduism (7.57%)

No religion (0.2%)

*GOVERNMENT

Constitutional Monarchy (Emirate)

* RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

The main religion in Kuwait is Islam: approximately 85 percent of the population is Muslim.
There are two main sub-sects of Islam in Kuwait, 45 percent of the population is Sunni
Muslim, while 40 percent of the population is Shi'a Muslim. The remaining 15 percent of the
population practices Christianity, Hinduism, Parsi, and other religions.
Rituals and Holy Places. For practitioners, the most essential tenet of Islam is the purification
of the soul through prayers, known as salat, five times each day. The purpose of this activity
is to strengthen one's commitment to god. Cleanliness and proper hygiene are prerequisites
for the ritual prayers—in Islam good physical health and good spiritual health are
intertwined.

*LANDFORMS (GEOGRAPHY)

Kuwait City is located on Kuwait Bay, a natural deep-water harbor. 90% of Kuwait's
population live within the Kuwait Bay coast. The country is generally low lying, with the
highest point being 306 m (1,004 ft) above sea level. It has nine islands, all of which, with the
exception of Failaka Island, are uninhabited. With an area of 860 km2 (330 sq mi), the
Bubiyan is the largest island in Kuwait and is connected to the rest of the country by a 2,380-
metre-long (7,808 ft) bridge. The land area is considered arable and sparse vegetation is
found along its 499-kilometre-long (310 mi) coastline. Kuwait's Burgan field has a total
capacity of approximately 70 billion barrels (1.1×1010 m3) of proven oil reserves. During the
1991 Kuwaiti oil fires, more than 500 oil lakes were created covering a combined surface area
of about 35.7 km2 (13.8 sq mi). The resulting soil contamination due to oil and soot
accumulation had made eastern and south-eastern parts of Kuwait uninhabitable. Sand and
oil residue had reduced large parts of the Kuwaiti desert to semi-asphalt surfaces. The oil
spills during the Gulf War also drastically affected Kuwait's marine resources.

*LITERARY WORKS PRODUCED/ OUTSTANDING WRITERS/ SIGNIFICANCE AND MEANING OF

SELECTED LITERARY PIECES.

A few notable writers include Fatimah Yousef al-Ali (journalist, short story writer; first
woman in Kuwait to publish a novel), Fatima Yousef al-Ali, a Kuwaiti author, was born in
1953. Her thesis at Cairo University dealt with Kuwaiti women and the short story. She has
published, in Arabic, a novel, Wujuh fi-l-Ziham [Faces in the Crowd] and several collections of
short stories, including Wajhuha Watan [Her Face is a Nation], Ta’ Marbuta [A Feminine
Ending], and Dima’ Ala-l-Qamar [Blood on the Moon], the last of which is devoted to the Iraqi
invasion of Kuwait. An English translation of her story “"To Sleep"” appeared in Shahrazad’s
Sisters; Shahrayar’s Brothers: An Anthology of Arabic Literature Since 1953 (Paintbrush,
2002). A collection of her short stories has appeared in Iran in Farsi as Asaye Abnus [The
Ebony Stick](Tehran: Nashr Thalath, 2003).

Ismail Fahd Ismail (novelist, short story writer; one of the first authors in Kuwait to make a
name for himself in the Arab world), one of his work is;

The Old Woman and the River- it is about the ceasefire in 1988, the devastation to the
landscape of Iraq wrought by the longest war of the twentieth century--the Iran-Iraq War--
becomes visible. Eight years of fighting have turned nature upside down, with vast
wastelands being left behind. Another literary works are; The Sky Was Blue, in 1970 ,The
Phoenix and the Faithful Friend, His novel “Malaf Al Hadetha 67” (File of Case 67), which
sheds light on aspects of a Palestinian’s life in Kuwait, was adapted into a play and performed
by the Tunisian National Theatre Troupe. The plat won the Carthage Festival Award. His novel
“Chiyah”, which revolves around the Lebanese Civil War, was also adapted into a play and
staged in Baghdad. Another outstanding writers are; Najma Idrees (poet, columnist), Taleb al-
Refai (journalist, writer; produced an art magazine called Jaridat al-Funun), Taibah al-Ibrahim
(wrote the first science fiction novel in Kuwait), Laila al-Othman (novelist, short story writer),
and A.H. Almaas (author, spiritual leader).

GEORGIA

*COUNTRY'S CAPITAL

Tbilisi is the present capital

*HISTORY

Georgia, or how we call it “Sakartvelo”, is located at the eastern shores of the Black Sea on
the southern flanks of the main crest of the Greater Caucasus Mountains. It is bordered by
Russia from the north and northeast, Azerbaijan from the east and southeast, Armenia and
Turkey from the south. The capital of Georgia is Tbilisi.
Georgia is a country of ancient civilization. Its territory was populated 1.7-1.8 million years
ago. The archaeological excavations in the south eastern Georgia resulted in a discovery of
the human remains the oldest inhabitant of Eurasia and referred to as the "First European".
Georgia has very old and rich culture, country has its own, unique alphabet and language,
spoken only in Georgia. Georgia is known to be the oldest wine region in the world. The
fertile valleys of the South Caucasus, are believed by many archaeologists to be the source of
the world's first cultivated grapevines and Neolithic wine production, over 8,000 years ago.

Famous trade route, "Silk Road", which connected India and mid Asia with Europe crossed
the territory of ancient Georgia, bringing contrasting civilizations and cultures in one place. At
the height of its power, Kingdom of Georgia, ruled by warrior Queen Tamar, stretched from
shores of Black Sea in the west to shores of Caspian Sea in the east and was one cultural and
economic hub of the region. Other notable Kings are David IV the Builder and Giorgi V the
Great.

The first republic of Georgia (1918-1921) was very progressive and in many way ahead of its
time. Georgia was one of the first states in the world which granted women the right to vote.
Georgia was occupied by Soviet Russia in 1921, becoming part of the Soviet Union as the
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic. The current republic of Georgia has been independent
since 1991. Since regaining independence the country suffered from the political and
economic crisis for a while, but since 2000s has been developing steadily.

Today, Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the World Trade
Organization, the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the Organization for
Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Community of Democratic Choice, the GUAM
Organization for Democracy and Economic Development, and the Asian Development Bank.

*LANGUAGE

Georgian

*CULTURE
Georgia’s culture has grown along with the country’s long history, giving it unique customs
and traditions. While some of those habits have been long forgotten, there are still a couple
left that Georgians cherish and transfer from generation to generation. Here are the following
Cultures of Georgia;

Georgia is known as a hospitable nation

Over the years Georgia has developed a reputation for being a friendly nation. There’s even a
monument, Mother of Georgia, dedicated to hospitality and friendship that overlooks the
capital, Tbilisi. Here, the guest is considered a gift from God, therefore locals treat all visitors
with respect and with as much sensitivity as possible. When a person, be it a local or
foreigner, visits a Georgian home, they are offered food and drink, and the hosts make sure
that guests feel as comfortable as they would be in their own home.

Georgian dinner lasts so long

Georgian’s have a tradition of hosting big dinners called supras, where a table is full of
different dishes and people sit around it for hours. The leader of the supra, called the Tamada
or the toastmaker, is in charge of keeping the audience at the table engaged. Supra revolves
around many toasts, where a tamada talks for several minutes. Each toast has it’s own theme
and the toastmaker must be very good at entertaining a crowd and holding his liquor. When a
tamadas proposes a toast, each male guest around the table is expected to follow the lead
and say an individual toast on the topic the tamada proposed. Needless to say, these dinners
can last several hours.

Georgians have two Christmases and two New Years

As Georgia is an Orthodox country, it follows the Julian calendar. Therefore, the nation
celebrates a New Year holiday twice in a year, on January 1, as the rest of the world, and on
January 13. According to the calendar, the New Year falls on the latter date, which locals call
the “Old New Year.” The most important New Year celebration comes on December 31, when
families sit around the table very late in the evening and have a proper meal. Everyone starts
congratulating each other at midnight, the time when it’s considered to be the “official” New
Year. Consequently, Christmas here is also celebrated on January 7th with a special meal
called Guruli Gvezeli, or Guruli pie, a type of khachapuri with boiled eggs inside.

Georgians bring food to a graveyard on Easter

After Easter Sunday, locals visit graveyards to pay respect to their dead relatives. This custom
has a sacred meaning for many Georgians. During Soviet rule, churches were closed,
therefore the only place people could light a candle for their loved ones would be at
graveyards. Even today, the tradition still remains. As Easter symbolizes eternal life,
Georgians do celebrate it with their entire families, dead or living. Visiting graveyards of
relatives is a way of letting them know they are remembered and that Christ has risen. It’s
habitual to give a toast in respect of those who have passed away. After drinking, locals pour
a small amount of wine on the grave, which is called “knocking over a goblet.” It’s a way of
expressing a hope that in the afterlife they will be remembered by their living relatives and
won’t be alone.

There is no tipping culture in Georgia

Georgian restaurants, cafes or bars do include a service fee on the final bill you get. The
percentage varies according to the venue and is between 10-18 percent. Budget-friendly bars
and cafes, though, don’t have it; therefore, tipping the waiter or bartender is up to you.
However, if you think the service you got is worth more than what they have included, feel
free to leave a tip for whatever amount you’d like.

Georgian weddings are so big

Georgians love celebrating different occasions by inviting many guests. Weddings are no
exception and tend to have more guests compared to other festivities; each side invites at
least one hundred people. Even distant relatives of the families, who the bride and groom
might not know, get an invitation. It is customary to attend a wedding when invited and
declining is considered to be offensive unless a person has a good reason for it. Therefore, a
wedding with 100-150 people is considered to be a small one.

Georgians rarely buy wine in stores

Georgia might just be the original birthplace of wine, and it is so ubiquitous that locals living
in houses with gardens have a couple vines planted. Therefore most of the country’s
population makes wine at home. Whether that wine is good or bad is another topic, but
everyone likes to brag about how great their wine is, and try to offer it as a gift if someone’s
throwing a party or hosts some kind of celebration.

*RELIGION

Orthodox Christian (official) 83.9%, Muslim 9.9%, Armenian-Gregorian 3.9%, Catholic 0.8%,
other 0.8%, none 0.7% (2002 census)

*GOVERNMENT

Unitary Multiparty Republic with one legislative house (Parliament)

* RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

The great majority of the population belongs to the Georgian Orthodox Church, an Eastern
(Greek) Orthodox church. Confessional identity is a strong cultural factor that defines the
prevailing system of social values. The majority of Georgians in Ajara are Sunni Muslims, as
are a few inhabitants of the Meskheti region. There are also Shiite Muslims among the Turkic
inhabitants in the southeast (Azeris) and Sunni Muslims among the Abkhaz, Ossetians, and
Greeks. Several Protestant churches are active, with the Baptists being the most successful.
Most ethnic Armenians belong to the Gregorian Christian Church. There are small groups of
Yezid Kurds, Russian Molokans and Dukhobors, and Jews; the population of the latter two
groups has diminished because of emigration. New emerging cults and sects, such as
Jehovah's Witnesses, meet with hostility and aggression from the established churches and
the population.

Rituals and Holy Places. The great majority of Orthodox religious ceremonies are carried out
by priests in churches. The most important ceremonies, especially those celebrating Easter
and Christmas, are carried out by the Patriarch in Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in the ancient
town of Mtskheta, or in the Zion Cathedral in Tbilisi. Daily services are held in churches, as
well as weddings and baptisms. In some cases priests are invited to other places to bless new
initiatives, buildings or organizations. Many people claim to be religious but seldom attend
religious ceremonies. In mountainous regions, people who self-identify as Christian continue
to follow rituals of pagan origin.

Death and the Afterlife. Many of popular beliefs and rituals regarding death and afterlife
stem from a mixture of Christian and pagan concepts, with many superstitions and cultural
borrowings. Respecting the deceased is a very important part of social life, and much time is
spent attending funerals and wakes and caring for graves. Although people believe in an
eternal afterlife, there is no clear understanding of its nature; people observe rules and try to
reduce their grief by ritualizing the mourning process.

*LANDFORMS (GEOGRAPHY)

Georgia is on the southern slopes of the Caucasus mountains, forming a natural border with
the north Caucasian republics of the Russian Federation. The country, occupying
approximately 27,000 square miles (69,900 square kilometers), stretches along the Greater
Caucasus ridge, bordered by the Black Sea to the west, the Armenian and Turkish highlands
to the South, and Azerbaijan to the east. The topography is varied. The northern region is
characterized by high mountains, and the central and southern parts, while mountainous, are
much lower and are covered with alpine fields and forests. In the east, the rivers all join the
Mtkvari (Kura), forming the Caspian basin, while in the west, the rivers, of which the Rioni
and Enguri are the largest, run into the Black Sea.

The climate is temperate and is more mild and humid along the western marine coast.
Mountains create temperature zones that vary with elevation. The eastern plains and
highlands, which are isolated from the sea, have a continental climate, while year-round
snow and glaciers are found in the highest mountains. Climatic zones range from moderately
humid Mediterranean, to dry-continental Arab-Caspian, and to cooler mountainous regions.
Almost half the land is in agricultural use, with much of the remainder consisting of forests
and high mountains. Land use varies with local climatic and soil patterns.

*LITERARY WORKS PRODUCED/ OUTSTANDING WRITERS/

SIGNIFICANCE AND MEANING OF SELECTED LITERARY PIECES.

Georgian writers have played an essential role in developing a rich culture full of traditions.
Some of the modern writers are the following;

Aka Morchiladze-Born in Tbilisi, Morchiladze now lives and works in London and is the
winner of several literary awards for best novel nomination in Georgia.

Dato Turashvili- Turashvili is a fiction writer whose first novels, published in 1988, were based
on the turmoil of the events taking place during the last years of Soviet Union rule in Georgia.
His most famous work is Jeans Generation; translated into English, its title is Flight From
USSR. In 2001 it was turned into a play.

Ana Kordzaia-Samadashvili- is a writer and literary journalist who has written some of the
best-selling prose of post-Soviet Georgian literature. She is a winner of several Georgian
literary awards, and her works have been translated into many languages, including German,
English, and Swedish.

Jemal Karchkhadze was the author of six novels, multiple essays and a few short stories. His
works were conceptual and most became popular after his death. Winner of three literary
awards, Karchkhadze published his short story Igi (He) in 1977, followed by his most
important novels, Caravan in 1984, Zabulon in 1988, and Antonio and David in 1987. The
latter was translated into English, Swedish and Arabic.

Otar Chiladze played a leading role in the restoration of the Georgian prose in the post-Soviet
era. His novels characteristically combine Hellenic and Sumerian mythology with the
predicaments of a contemporary Georgian academic. He became famous for his set of long
mysterious novels, such as A Man Was Going Down the Road, Avelum, and Everyone That
Findeth Me. Awarded with the Shota Rustaveli State Prize in 1983 and the State Prize of
Georgia in 1993, Chiladze was an honored author. He continued to published several
anthologies of plays and poems before his death in 2009.

Tamaz Chiladze- Elder brother of Otar Chiladze, Tamaz is a writer, dramatist, and poet.

Zurab Karumidze- A contemporary writer, researcher, and journalist, Karumidze has

published articles on social and political issues in various journals, newspapers, and websites.
Two of his short stories, Clockwatch Review and Bloomington, IL, were published in the
United States. One of this most famous books about the history of jazz (The Life of Jazz)
received a literary award.Karumidze wrote Dagny or a Love Feast in the Englilanguage.

MONGOLIA

*COUNTRY'S CAPITAL

Ulaanbaatar

*HISTORY

Mongolia was inhabited by warring nomadic tribes, who learned to ride horses and their
entire culture has been centered on the horse ever since. There have always been fierce
struggles between neighboring tribes in Mongolia. Occasionally all or large portions of the
region came under the control of a conqueror or a coalition of tribes. This led to the
extermination or expulsion of some tribes and the intermingling of tribes. During periods
when China was united and strong, they traded with Mongols and other Inner Asian peoples.

In repeated cycles the nomadic people of Mongolia either became vassals of the Chinese
emperor, or they retreated beyond his reach into the northern steppes. On the other hand,
when China appeared weak, Mongol tribes made raids into rich Chinese lands. On several
occasions, raids into northern China were so successful that the victorious nomads settled in
the conquered land, established dynasties, and eventually became absorbed by the more
numerous Chinese.
Genghis Khan's army although not particularly large for its day, was distinguished by its
superb horsemanship and expert archery, the discipline and control of its aristocratic leaders,
and Genghis’s own brilliant military strategy and tactics. The neighboring Chinese Empire and
the Central Asian states, both militarily weak and fragmented, inevitably surrendered to the
Mongol hordes racing over Asia, as did the decaying Arab-Turkish society of the Middle East.

The Yuan dynasty was a period of Mongol rule of China which lasted nearly one hundred
years, but after a century of Mongol dominance in China and the rest of Eurasia, the
traditional patterns of Mongolian history reasserted themselves. Mongols living outside
Mongolia were absorbed by the conquered populations, and Mongolia itself again became a
land of incessantly warring nomadic tribes. Following the Yuan dynasty, various Mongolian
khans attempted, but failed, to revive the great empire.

Tibetan Buddhism became the leading religious force among the Mongols in the 1500s. An
alliance of Buddhist theocracy and secular Mongol aristocracy ruled the country from the
seventeenth until the twentieth century.The Mongol leaders were, in fact, subordinate to
Tibetan Lamas, and to the Manchu emperors of China's Qing dynasty.

As Chinese power waned in the nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries, Russian
influence in Mongolia grew. After the Chinese revolution of 1911, Mongolia declared its
independence from China. The rule of the “Living Buddha” was maintained and the city was
renamed Niyslel Hüree. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was established. The
current constitution was adopted in 1992.

In the twentieth century, many aspects of Mongolia’s historic culture were also stifled or
destroyed. Family histories were destroyed and the people were forbidden to use their
ancient surnames. The ancient Mongolian script was forbidden and the Mongolian language
has been written in the Cyrillic alphabet since the 1940s.

*LANGUAGE

Mongolian

*CULTURE
Music is an integral part of Mongolian culture and the Mongolians are renowned for their
love for music and singing. Any Mongolian celebration always turns into a celebration of
singing. Mongolian music conveys the deep appreciation that Mongolians have for their
country, its natural beauty and the inspiring deep blue sky above the vast Mongolian
landscape. Mongolian songs are often about beloved horses and the beauty of the Mongolian
countryside. Herders sing while riding their horses and most Mongolians are expected to
know at least one song to be shared with others on special occasions or just to lighten the
heart.

Western classical music and ballet flourished during the communist era in the 20th century.
Unsurprisingly, modern music is very popular in Mongolia. New bands are popping up all over
the steppe, and just like America, the favorite music of choice for 16-20 year olds is hip-hop.
Among the most popular forms of modern music in Mongolia are Western Pop and Rock and
the mass songs, which are written by modern authors in a form of folk songs.

Morin khuur, a two-stringed fiddle figures prominently in the nomadic culture of Mongolia.
String instruments adorned with horse heads are referred to by written sources dating back
from the Mongol empire of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The fiddle’s significance
extends beyond its function as a musical instrument, for it was traditionally an integral part
of the rituals and everyday activities of the Mongolian nomads.

The instrument’s hollow trapezoid-shaped body is attached to a long fretless neck bearing a
carved horse head at its extremity. Just below the head, two tuning pegs jut out like ears
from either side of the neck. The soundboard is covered with animal skin, and the strings and
bow are made of horsehair. The instrument’s characteristic sound is produced by sliding or
stroking the bow against the two strings. Common techniques include multiple stroking by
the right hand and a variety of left-hand fingering. It is mainly played in solo fashion but
sometimes accompanies dances, long songs (urtiin duu), mythical tales, ceremonies and
everyday tasks related to horses. To this day, the Morin khuur repertoire has retained some
tunes (tatlaga) specifically intended to tame animals. Owing to the simultaneous presence of
a main tone and overtones, Morin khuur music has always been difficult to transcribe using
standard notation. It has been transmitted orally from master to apprentice for many
generations.

The Urtiin duu or “long song” is one of the two major forms of Mongolian singing. The other
one is called Bogino duu or “short song”. Urtiin duu as a ritual form of expression associated
with important celebrations and festivities. It holds a special place in the Mongolian society.
It is performed at weddings, house warming, celebration of a child’s birth, branding of foals
and other social events common to the life of a herder. Urtiin duu can also be heard at the
Naadam, annual celebration of the independence of Mongolia where the “Three manly
sports” featuring wrestling, archery and horseracing take place.

Mongolian khuumii or throat singing has 4 ranges. During singing two simultaneous tones, a
high and a low one are produced with the vocal cords. It is a rare skill that requires special
ways of breathing. Khumii is considered as an art form and not exactly a singing but using
one’s throat as an instrument.

*RELIGION

Buddhism (53%)

No religion (38.6%)

Islam (3%)

Shamanism (2.9%)

Christianity (2.2%)

Others (0.4%)[2]

*GOVERNMENT

Unitary semi-presidential republic[3][4][5]

* RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

The main religion is Lamaism, which is the Yellow Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. Until the 16th
century, shamanism was the dominant religion in Mongolia. Lamaism was introduced to the
populace by the leader Altan Khan (1507–83). In the 18th century, the Manchus further
encouraged Lamaism since they preferred Mongol males to become monks rather than
warriors. Paralleling the Stalinist period in the Soviet Union, communists held massive
religious purges in the 1930s. More than 700 monasteries were destroyed and thousands of
monks were killed. In the post-socialist period, Buddhism is experiencing a resurgence and
young people are again learning Buddhist practices from their elders who still remember
them from their own childhoods. Approximately 5 percent of the total Mongolian population
are Sunni Muslims, mainly ethnic Kazakhs in the western region. After 1990, Western
missionaries arrived in Mongolia and began to proselytize; there may be as many as several
thousand Mongolian Christians today.

Religious Practitioners. As the importance of Lamaist temples grew in the society, each
Mongol family was encouraged to provide one son to be raised in a temple and become a
lama. Fewer women became nuns although there were some who pursued this career.
Training for lamas focused on theological studies and learning to perform elaborate
ceremonies to be carried out for the people. Since many temples had extensive libraries,
some lamas were also trained in subjects including astronomy, astrology, mathematics, and
medicine. While a small percentage of temples were preserved intact under socialism, the
majority were dismantled and the lamas returned to the work force at large. In the post-
socialist era, those who are familiar with Lamaist traditions are now in great demand to
educate younger people who have received no formal religious training.

Rituals and Holy Places. For centuries, Lamaist temples played a central role in community life
and were a major gathering place for nomads living considerable distances apart. Although
many temples were destroyed under socialism, a number remained standing including three
major temples that were preserved as showcases of traditional culture: Gandan Monastery
(Ulaanbaatar), Erdene Zuu Monastery (Ovorkhangai), and Amarbayasgalant Monastery (near
Darkhan).

Death and the Afterlife. Funerals were traditionally an important and costly event for
Mongolian families. They would customarily give lamas substantial monetary gifts to pray for
the well-being of the spirit of the deceased. Receiving the lamas' consultation about the
handling and disposition of the body was considered very important to prevent future
misfortune from occurring to the family. Others in the community would typically provide
gifts of animals and money to assist the family at the time of the funeral.

*LANDFORMS (GEOGRAPHY)

Mongolia is a large landlocked country in Central Asia, and is bordered on the north by the
Russian Federation and on the south by the People's Republic of China. Measuring 604,100
square miles (1,565,000 square kilometers) in area, the country is larger than Western
Europe, encompassing several geographical zones: desert, steppe, and mountainous terrain.
Mongolia's climate is extreme, with low precipitation and long harsh winters where
temperatures can dip to -50 degrees centigrade. The capital city is Ulaanbaatar, meaning
"Red Hero."

*LITERARY WORKS PRODUCED/ OUTSTANDING WRITERS IN ASIAN LITERATURE/

SIGNIFICANCE AND MEANING OF SELECTED LITERARY PIECES.

Since the Mongols were always highly mobile, most art forms that became popular were
portable and involved little or no equipment, such as epic poetry, literature, music, and
dance. The most famous epic poem of all time is "The Secret History of the Mongols," a long
poem describing Genghis Khan's rise to power and the creation of the Mongol Empire. This
poem was written down in the mid- to late-13th century and was supposed to be hidden
from non-Mongols. Folktales also played a major role in oral literature and their subject
matter ranged from love to heroism to supernatural acts. Modern literature has been heavily
influenced by Western literary styles, especially Russian literature.
 ARMENIA

*COUNTRY'S CAPITAL

Yerevan

*HISTORY

One of the world's oldest civilizations, Armenia once included Mount Ararat, which biblical
tradition identifies as the mountain that Noah's ark rested on after the flood. It was the first
country in the world to officially embrace Christianity as its religion (c. A.D. 300).

In the 6th century B.C., Armenians settled in the kingdom of Urartu (the Assyrian name for
Ararat), which was in decline. Under Tigrane the Great (fl. 95–55 B.C.) the Armenian empire
reached its height and became one of the most powerful in Asia, stretching from the Caspian
to the Mediterranean seas. Throughout most of its long history, however, Armenia has been
invaded by a succession of empires. Under constant threat of domination by foreign forces,
Armenians became both cosmopolitan as well as fierce protectors of their culture and
tradition. Over the centuries Armenia was conquered by Greeks, Romans, Persians,
Byzantines, Mongols, Arabs, Ottoman Turks, and Russians. From the 16th century through
World War I, major portions of Armenia were controlled by their most brutal invader, the
Ottoman Turks, under whom the Armenians experienced discrimination, religious
persecution, heavy taxation, and armed attacks. In response to Armenian nationalist stirrings,
the Turks massacred thousands of Armenians in 1894 and 1896. The most horrific massacre
took place in April 1915 during World War I, when the Turks ordered the deportation of the
Armenian population to the deserts of Syria and Mesopotamia. According to the majority of
historians, between 600,000 and 1.5 million Armenians were murdered or died of starvation.
The Armenian massacre is considered the first genocide of the 20th century. Turkey denies
that a genocide took place and claims that a much smaller number died in a civil war.

Striving for Independence

After the Turkish defeat in World War I, the independent Republic of Armenia was
established on May 28, 1918, but survived only until Nov. 29, 1920, when it was annexed by
the Soviet army. On March 12, 1922, the Soviets joined Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan to
form the Transcaucasian Soviet Socialist Republic, which became part of the USSR. In 1936,
after a reorganization, Armenia became a separate constituent republic of the USSR. Armenia
declared its independence from the collapsing Soviet Union on Sept. 23, 1991. In 1988,
Armenia became involved in a territorial dispute with Azerbaijan over the enclave of
Nagorno-Karabakh. The majority of the enclave consisted of Armenian Christians who wanted
to secede from Azerbaijan and either become part of Armenia or gain full independence. War
ensued between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the region from 1992–1994, resulting in 30,000
casualties. Armenia effectively controls the region today, although no formal resolution
exists.

An Armenian diaspora has existed throughout the nation's history, and Armenian emigration
has been particularly heavy since independence from the Soviet Union. An estimated 60% of
the total 8 million Armenians worldwide live outside the country, with 1 million each in the
United States and Russia. Other significant Armenian communities are located in Georgia,
France, Iran, Lebanon, Syria, Argentina, and Canada.

The Death of Markarian Leads to Political Unrest

Prime Minister Andranik Markarian died suddenly in March 2007. He was replaced by
Defense Minister Serzh Sarkisyan.Sarkisyan won almost 53% of the vote and former president
Levon Ter-Petrosyan took 21.5% in February 2008 presidential elections. Ter-Petrosyan, who
was Armenia's first president after it gained independence in 1991, claimed the vote was
rigged. Tens of thousands of his supporters took to the streets in Yerevan to protest the
election. A 20-day state of emergency was declared on March 1 when the protests turned
violent and eight people were killed. On March 22, the state of emergency ended and troops
left the capital. On April 9, 2008, Serzh Sarkisyan was sworn in as president and named Tigran
Sarkisyan (no relation) as prime minister.

Rapprochement With Turkey Only Temporary

After nearly 100 years of hostility between Turkey and Armenia over the murder of between
600,000 and 1.5 million Armenians at the hands of Ottoman Turks during World War I, the
two countries agreed in Oct. 2009 to establish diplomatic relations and reopen the border
between them. However, both parliaments had to approve the agreement, which didn't
happen, and the deal was never implemented. In February 2015 Armenian president Serzh
Sarkisyan withdrew the agreement from parliament, citing Turkey's lack of commitment to
the agreement. Continuing trouble on the border between Armenia and Azerbaijan resulted
in the deaths of at least three Armenian and five Azerbaijani soldiers in early June 2012. The
eruption of violence coincided with Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's visit to the region; she
made a statement imploring both sides to honor a ceasefire for the area that was first
contested in the 1990s, Nagorno-Karabakh.

Safarov Pardon Increases Tension with Azerbaijan and Hungary

On August 31, 2012, Armenia ended diplomatic relations with Hungary over the return of
Ramil Safarov to Azerbaijan. Safarov was convicted of killing Armenian Lieutenant Gurgen
Margaryan in 2004 in Hungary. The Hungarian government released Safarov to Azerbaijan on
the assumption that he would serve at least 25 years of his life sentence. Upon his arrival in
Azerbaijan, Safarov was pardoned. Once news of the pardon hit, protestors in Armenia
burned Hungarian flags and threw eggs at the Hungarian Embassy. Demonstrations were also
held in Budapest. Safarov was welcomed back to Azerbaijan. A lieutenant at the time of the
murder, Safarov was promoted to rank of major, given eight years of back pay, and treated as
a national hero in September 2012. His pardon and warm welcome threatened to break up
the peace process between Azerbaijan and Armenia, a process that has kept the two
countries from backsliding into violent feud over the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh territory.

Sarkisyan Easily Wins Second Term

In February 2013, Serzh Sarkisyan was re-elected to a second five-year term as president.
Preliminary returns showed that Sarkisyan received 59 percent of the vote, enough of a
majority to avoid a runoff. Raffi Hovanessian, a former foreign minister, came in second, far
behind at 37 percent. Seen as a stable leader who had made economic improvements during
his first term, Sarkisyan had been favored to win for months. The election wasn't without
conflict. Paruir A. Airikyan, another candidate for president and former Soviet dissident, was
shot in late January 2013, as the election approached. Authorities ruled it as an assassination
attempt. Airikyan threatened to delay the election by using a provision in Armenia's
constitution due to his injury, but decided against it.

Pope Francis Creates Firestorm Over Genocide Comment

In April 2015, Pope Francis called the 1915 murder of between 600,000 and 1.5 million
Armenians at the hands of Ottoman Turks during World War I the first genocide of the 20th
century. He made the comment at a mass commemorating the 100th anniversary of the
massacre. Turkey responded by withdrawing its ambassador to the Vatican.

*LANGUAGE

Armenian

*CULTURE

Armenian religion, family life, and the rituals and traditions expressed in their culture have
played a powerful role in helping Armenians around the world hold on to a strong sense of
identity and heritage.

*RELIGION

Armenian Apostolic 92.6%, Evangelical 1%, other 2.4%, none 1.1%, unspecified 2.9% (2011
est.)

*GOVERNMENT
Unitary Multiparty Republic with a single legislative body (National Assembly

*RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Religious Beliefs. Christianity has been the state religion in Armenia since 301. During Soviet
rule, religious expression was not encouraged. The emphasis was on atheism. Armenians had
continued to attend church, however, in particular for life-crisis events and rites of passage.
The majority of Armenians adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church. There are also
adherents to Catholic, Evangelical, and Protestant denominations. The church has been a
symbol of national culture. It has been seen as the home of Armenians and the bearer of
Armenian culture.

Religious Practitioners. The Armenian Apostolic Church has two catholicosate sees: the
Catholicos of All Armenians at Etchmiadzin, Armenia, and Cilicia, in Antelias, Lebanon. The
two sees are organized differently. Each has its own educational system and hierarchy of
priests. Among the Armenians there are celibate and married priests. There are also two
patriarchates: one in Istanbul and another in Jerusalem. Women are not ordained into priest-
hood. There is only one women's order: the Kalfayian sisters.

Death and the Afterlife. Most Armenians believe in the Christian vision of death and afterlife.
The Apostolic Church, unlike some Christian institutions, does not put emphasis on sin and
redemption. Likewise the notion of purgatory is absent. Armenians pay special attention to
remembering the dead. After every mass, or badarak , there is a memorial service for the
dead. The seventh day after death, the fortieth day, and annual remembrance are the
accepted way of respecting the dead. Cemeteries are well kept. The communion between the
living and the dead is seen in the frequent visits to the graves of loved ones. Food and brandy
are served to the dead. The birthdays of dead loved ones are also celebrated.

*LANDFORMS (GEOGRAPHY)
Armenia has been identified with the mountainous Armenian plateau since pre-Roman times.
The plateau is bordered on the east by Iran, on the west by Asia Minor, on the north by the
Transcaucasian plains, and on the south by the Mesopotamian plains. The plateau consists of
a complex set of mountain ranges, volcanic peaks, valleys, lakes, and rivers. It is also the main
water reservoir of the Middle East, as two great rivers—the Euphrates and the Tigris—
originate in its high mountains. The mean altitude of the Armenian plateau is 5,600 feet
(1,700 meter) above sea level.

Present-day Armenia—the republic of Armenia—is a small mountainous republic that gained

its independence in 1991, after seven decades of Soviet rule. It constitutes one-tenth of the
historical Armenian plateau. Surrounding Lake Sevan, it has an area of approximately 11,600
square miles (30,000 square kilometers). Its border countries are Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan-
Naxçivan, the Republic of Georgia, Iran, and Turkey. Its climate is highland continental, with
hot summers and cold winters. Despite its small size, it was one of the most densely
populated republics of the Soviet Union. Half of its inhabitants live in the Ararat plain, which
constitutes only 10 percent of its territory and includes the capital city of Yerevan. Yerevan
houses one-third of the country's population.

Armenia is a rugged, volcanic country with rich mineral resources. It is highly prone to
earthquakes and occasional droughts.

*LITERARY WORKS PRODUCED/ OUTSTANDING WRITERS/SIGNIFICANCE AND MEANING OF

SELECTED LITERARY PIECES.

The Sandcastle Girls, by Chris Bohjalian

The Sandcastle Girls is a sweeping historical love story that probes the depths of love, family,
and secrets amid the Armenian Genocide during WWI.

The Cuisine of Armenia, by Sonia Uvezian

Traditional and improvised recipes reflecting the Armenian style of cooking are brought
together with a guide for locating ingredients.

Black Dog of Fate, by Peter Balakian

An essential American story of the author's upbringing as the child of Armenian immigrants—
and of his gradual discovery of an entire culture's genocide at the hands of the Ottoman Turks
in 1915. For poet Balakian (English/Colgate Univ.; Dyer's Thistle, etc.), a Tenafly, New Jersey,
childhood circa 1960 revolved around food-centered rituals with relatives, some vividly
characterized here, including his grandmother, Nafina Aroosian. While together they baked a
sweet bread called choereg, she told him odd, parable- like stories, including one involving
the black dog of the book's title. Similarly puzzling were his family's occasional references to
the ``old country.'' As a student and young poet the author began to glean bits of this past,
but his education in Armenia's sad history didn't really begin until after college, when, in a
watershed moment, he picked up the memoir of the USambassador to Turkey on the eve of
the Great War.

Rise the Euphrates, by Carol Edgarian

This is a contemporary woman's coming of age story, the novel reaches back to 1915
Armenia, when Seta Loon's family is fractured in the Armenian genocide at the hands of the
Turks. Two generations later, Seta, the novel's lyrical narrator, must alter her family's legacy.
"The daughter assumes what is unfinished in her mother's life," Seta learns. Caught between
the generations, between American and Armenian cultures in her Connecticut town, Seta
confronts an even fiercer division, the one within herself. The wisdom she gains frees the
next generation in Carol Edgarian's stunningly original and ground-breaking novel.

My Name is Aram, by William Saroyan

My Name is Aram is a book of short stories by William Saroyan first published in 1940. The
stories detail the exploits of Aram Garoghlanian, a boy of Armenian descent growing up in
Fresno, California, and the various members of his large family. This book is assigned reading
in some schools.

The Forty Days of Musa Dagh, by Franz Werfel

The Forty Days of Musa Dagh is a 1933 novel by Austrian-Bohemian writer Franz Werfel
based on events that took place in 1915, during the second year of World War I and at the
beginning of the Armenian Genocide.

QATAR

*COUNTRY'S CAPITAL

Doha

*HISTORY

Qatar was once controlled by the sheikhs of Bahrain, but in 1867, war broke out between the
people and their absentee rulers. To keep the peace in the Persian Gulf, the British installed
Muhammad ibn Thani al-Thani, head of a leading Qatari family, as the region's ruler. In 1893,
the Ottoman Turks made incursions into Qatar, but the emir successfully deflected them. In
1916, the emir agreed to allow Qatar to become a British protectorate.

Oil was discovered in the 1940s, bringing wealth to the country in the 1950s and 1960s. About
85% of Qatar's income from exports comes from oil. Its people have one of the highest per
capita incomes in the world. In 1971, Qatar was to join the other emirates of the Trucial Coast
to become part of the United Arab Emirates. But both Qatar and Bahrain decided against the
merger and instead formed independent nations.

Qatar permitted the international forces to use Qatar as a base during the 1991 Persian Gulf
War. A border dispute erupted with Saudi Arabia that was settled in Dec. 1992. A territorial
dispute with Bahrain over the Hawar Islands remains unresolved, however. In 1994, Qatar
signed a defense pact with the U.S., becoming the third Gulf state to do so.

In June 1995, Crown Prince Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani deposed his father, primarily because
the king was out of step with the country's economic reforms. The emir was not stripped of
his title, and much of the power was already in his son's hands. The new emir lifted press
censorship and instituted other liberal reforms, including democratic elections and women's
suffrage (1999). In 2003 Crown Prince Jassim, who declared he had never wanted to be king,
abdicated in favor of his younger brother, Prince Tamim.

Qatar is the home of Al Jazeera, the immensely popular and controversial Arabic satellite
television network. Qatar introduced its first constitution on June 9, 2005. It guarantees
freedom of expression, assembly, and religion and calls for a 45-seat parliament. Thirty of the
seats will be filled in democratic elections; the emir will appoint the remaining seats.

Sheik Abdullah bin Khalifa Al Thani resigned as prime minister in April 2007. The emir named
former foreign minister Sheik Hamad bin Jassem al Thani as his replacement.

On June 25, 2013, Emir Sheikh Hamad ibn Khalifah Al Thani abdicated the throne. His fourth
son, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, age 33, succeeded him as emir. Sheikh
Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani appointed his cabinet, including Sheikh Abdullah ibn
Nasser ibn Khalifah Al Thani as the new prime minster.

In June 2013, the Taliban opened an office in Doha, Qatar, and its representatives held a press
conference with an international media contingent. The U.S. said it would begin long-delayed
peace talks with the group. Afghanistan was expected to do the same, but instead said it
would not engage in any dialogue with the Taliban, saying such discussions lent the militants
credibility.

*LANGUAGE

Arabic is the official language of Qatar. English is commonly used as a second language and a
rising lingua franca, especially in commerce. As there is a large expatriate population in Doha,
languages such as Malayalam, Tamil, Bengali, Tagalog, Spanish, Sinhala, French, Urdu and
Hindi are widely spoken.

*CULTURE

The culture of Qatar is strongly influenced by traditional Bedouin culture, with less acute
influence deriving from India, East Africa and elsewhere in the Persian Gulf. The peninsula's
harsh climatic conditions compelled its inhabitants to turn to the sea for sustenance. Thus,
there is a distinct emphasis placed on the sea in local culture.[1] Literature and folklore
themes are often related to sea-based activities.

Oral arts such as poetry and singing were historically more prevalent than figurative art
because of the restrictions placed by Islam on depictions of sentient beings; however, certain
visual art disciplines such as calligraphy, architecture and textile arts were widely practiced.
Figurative arts were gradually assimilated into the country's culture during the oil era. Since
2016, Salah bin Ghanim Al Ali has been the Minister for Culture and Sports of Qatar.

*RELIGION

The majority of residents in Doha are Muslim. Catholics account for over 90% of the 150,000
Christian population in Doha. Following decrees by the Emir for the allocation of land to
churches, the first Catholic church, Our Lady of the Rosary, was opened in Doha in March
2008.

*GOVERNMENT

Constitutional Monarchy

*RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

The majority of the citizens and the ruling family are Sunni Muslims, specifically Wahhabis.
There is, however, a large minority of Shi'a Muslims. Recent events such as the Iranian
Revolution, the Iran-Iraq War, and alleged discrimination against Shi'a Muslims have
exacerbated sectarian tensions. These divisions are rarely discussed openly.

*LANDFORMS (GEOGRAPHY)
Qatar is a small peninsula on the western shore of the Arabian Gulf that covers
approximately 4,247 square miles (6,286 square kilometers). The landmass forms a rectangle
that local folklore describes as resembling the palm of a right hand extended in prayer.
Neighboring countries include Bahrain to the northwest, Iran to the northeast, and the
United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia to the south. Qatar and Bahrain both claim the
uninhabited Hawar Islands just west of Qatar. Until recently, only small semipermanent
seasonal encampments existed in the interior desert. Water resources near the coast
combined with opportunities for fishing, pearl diving, and seagoing trade have supported
larger, more permanent settlements. These settlement patterns have contributed to the
social differentiation between Bedouin and Hadar.

*LITERARY WORKS PRODUCED/ OUTSTANDING WRITERS/ SIGNIFICANCE AND MEANING OF

SELECTED LITERARY PIECES.

Abdullah Fakhro is a young novelist who graduated from Qatar University. He has four
published novels, namely, Aqni‘at al-bashar (The Masks of Humans, 2011), ‘Alamatni al-hayah
(Life Has Taught Me, 2012), Imbraturiyyat fa’ (The Empire of F, 2014), and Dumu‘ tatalasha fi
al-zalam (Tears That Disappear in the Dark, 2014).

Abdulaziz Al Mahmoud- In 2011, he published his first novel, Al Qursan (The Corsair), a
historical fiction tale about pirates in the Gulf, which enjoyed commercial success. His second
novel, The Holy Sail, also a maritime story, was published in 2014.

Dalal Khalifa, one of the pioneers of novels in Qatar, has four published novels, Usturat al-
insan wa-l-buhayra (The Myth of the Man and the Lake, 1993), Ashjar al-barari al-baida (The
Trees of the Distant Prairies, 1994), Min al-baḥḥar al-qadim ilayk (From the Old Sailor to You,
1995), and Dunyana maharajan al-ayyam wa-l-layali (Our World Is the Festival of Days and
Nights, 2000). In addition to novels, Khalifa has also written plays, and published three in one
volume, titled Insan fi hayz al-wujud (A Person in the Sphere of Existence) in 1995.

Kaltham Jaber
With her 1978 anthology, Ana wa Ghabat as-Samt wa at-Taraddud (I and the Forest are Exotic
and Haunted), Kaltham Jaber became the first Qatari woman to author a collection of short
stories. Her other works include The Face of An Arab Woman (1993) and The Life Cycle in the
Qatari Society Tradition (2015). Jaber served as a member of the first board of directors of
the National Council for Culture, Arts and Heritage in 1998. As of 2016, Jaber has also
contributed to the Qatari daily Al Raya.

Maryam Al Subaiey

Maryam Al Subaiey has penned several children’s books as of 2016. Besides being a writer, Al
Subaiey is also an entrepreneur. She founded the talent management company Q Talent and
also runs a consultancy firm.

Mouza Al Malki

The Qatari writer and psychologist’s anthology Promising Writers (2014) compiles work by
Arab female writers and explores forms ranging from poems and short stories to personal
experiences and articles. In 2005, Al Malki was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by Swiss
Parliament member Ruth-Gaby Vermot-Mangold.

Nasser Al Othman

Journalist and author, Nasser Al Othman is credited with launching Qatar's first radio station
in 1965. One of the co-founders of the Gulf Publishing & Printing Company (the parent
company of the Gulf Times and Al Raya newspapers), Al Othman went on to serve as Editor-
in-Chief of Al Raya in 1979. His book With Their Bare Hands: The Story of the Oil Industry in
Qatar (1984) explores the discovery of oil in Qatar, examines the oilfield workers and
considers the industry's future. Al-Othman is also a member of the Advisory Board of the
Doha Centre for Media Freedom.

Shu'a' Khalifa

Shu‘a’ Khalifa, along with her aforementioned sister, Dalal, has had a significant influence on
Qatari literature with her three novels, Al-‘Ubur ila al-haqiqa (Passage to Truth, 1993), Aḥlam
Al-Bahr Al-Qadima (The Old Dreams of the Sea, 1993), and Fi Intizar Al-Safira (Waiting for the
Whistle, 1994), which deal with modern life in Qatar and the modernization of the country.

Sophia Al-Maria

The Qatari-American artist, writer and filmmaker’s memoir The Girl Who Fell to Earth was
published by Harper Perennial, a subsidy of HarperCollins Publishers, in 2012. Al-Maria's 2014
novel Virgin with a Memory, is based on the script for her unfinished film Beretta. Her other
works include films The Watcher #1 (2014), The Magical Slate (2017) and Mirror Cookie
(2018).

Zakia Ali Malallah

Zakia Ali Malallah is a Qatari poet whose works have been translated into Spanish, Urdu, and
Turkish. A Cairo University graduate, Zakiya has a doctorate in pharmacy and has headed the
Quality Control Department in the Department of Pharmacy and Drug Control laboratory of
the Supreme Council of Health in Qatar. Her body of literary work includes nine collections of
poetry, among which is Hiya ta’ti (She Comes), a collection published in 2007. She has also
contributed to the newspapers Al Watan and Al Sharq.
 BAHRAIN
BAHRAIN History
Although historians can trace civilization back 5,000 years, there is evidence that the island was
inhabited much earlier, even 10,000 years BC. Archaeologists have confirmed that what is now
Bahrain was once the seat of the Dilmun Empire, which spread as far north as Kuwait and well
into Saudi Arabia between 3,200 and 330 BC.
This civilization is well-regarded for the way it approached commerce—shuttling across the Gulf
to modern-day Iran, Pakistan, and the UAE—and also for its humane treatment of people.
Grand burial sites (a measure of respect Dilmunis afforded their elders) cover five percent of
the island. Assisted by its regular supplies of sweet water back in the Stone Age, it has often
been suggested that Bahrain was home to the Garden of Eden. The island’s later history saw it
absorbed by the empire of Babylon and the Greek Empire under the strict rule of Alexander the
Great.
In the 16th century, pearl trade began as jewelers caught sight of the fact that Bahraini pearls
had a peculiar color and appearance that made them especially valuable. Resulting from sweet-
water springs under the sea merging with the mildly saline water of the oyster beds, it was
through this characteristic that Bahrain gained its commercial power and grew into a position of
regional importance.
With power came envy, and the island was taken over first by the Portuguese, then the
Persians and later the Omanis, who were also a major trading power at the time. In the 19th
century, the island became a British protectorate, which it remained until full independence in
1971. In 1932, the first oil field in the Arab world was found in the center of the island. A
museum now stands on the spot to mark this discovery. Fortuitously, it coincided with the
collapse of the world pearl market, and Bahrain, under its Al Khalifa rulers, moved towards
modernization, which has been successfully ongoing over the past few decades.
Bahrain Culture
Bahrain’s culture is very similar to that of its Arab neighbors in the Gulf, and is largely based
around its Islamic heritage. These days, though, it is very cosmopolitan as a result of the expat
population that heavily outnumbers the indigenous Bahrainis. In spite of having a strong
cultural, religious, and ethnic identity, the local population is very welcoming and tolerant of
other people and religions, which is evident from the Catholic and Orthodox churches, Hindu
temples, and even a Jewish synagogue on the island.
Bahrain’s Arab culture is displayed with pride through its architecture, mosques, and communal
entertainment locations like souks and cafés. While traditional pastimes like falconry, horse
riding, and poetry are still practiced, more modern activities like soccer and international travel
have taken over in popularity. Most locals still wear traditional dress that comprises a thobe, or
white robe, for men, and black abayas for women, which are both cool and comfortable. There
is no dress code for visitors as long as their clothing is modest—the rule of thumb is to cover
shoulders and knees, except within hotel grounds, where more casual clothing is accepted.
Relegion/Beliefs of Bahrain
According to the CIA World Factbook, Islam is the state religion of Bahrain and is followed by
around 70.3% of the population of the country. Most Bahraini citizens are Muslim and most
Muslims are Shiites. The country also has a small but significant Christian population. 14.5% of
the population of the country adhere to Christianity. Hindus, Buddhists, Jews, and folk religions
account for 9.8%, 2.5%, 0.6%, and less than 1% of the total population, and 1.9% of the
population is not affiliated to any religion.
Bahrain Government and politics
Government. Bahrain is a traditional monarchy in which the king is the chief of state. He
appoints a prime minister, who serves as the head of government, and a cabinet. The cabinet
has legislative powers with the assistance of an advisory (or Shura ) council, which was
established in 1992, whose members are appointed by the monarch. There is no suffrage, as
the monarchy is hereditary, passed down to the oldest son.
King: Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
Prime minister: Salman, Crown Prince of Bahrain
Government: Monarchy, Constitutional monarchy
Landforms (Geography)
Bahrain is an archipelago made up of Bahrain Island and thirty smaller islands. It is located in
the Persian Gulf near the Arabian Peninsula, 120 miles southwest of Iran, 14 miles to the east of
Saudi Arabia, and 17 miles to the west of the Qatar Peninsula. The main island, which accounts
for seven-eighths of the country's area, is thirty miles from north to south and ten miles from
east to west. The total area of the country is 240 square miles (620 square kilometers).
Bahrain Language
Arabic is the official language and the language of daily life. English is understood in many
places and Farsi and Urdu also are spoken by the large numbers of Indian and Persian residents.
Outsanding writers in Bahrain Literature
Ali Abdullah Khalifa – a founding member of the Union of Bahraini Writers and has released 3
collections of poetry.
Ali Al Jallawi – political poet and writer.
Ali al-Saeed – author of 3 national best-selling, critically acclaimed books and the recipient of
the Bahraini Outstanding Book of the Year Award.
Ali Al Shargawi – veteran poet and author, with his poetry translated into several languages.
Ahmad Muhammed Al Khalifa – born in 1930, he has written poetry about nationalism and
romance, with a total of five collections of poetry published.
Attiya al-Jamri - Famous for his religious poetry about Imam Hussain during Muharram.
Ebrahim Al-Arrayedh – Dubbed as one of Bahrain's greatest poets, with his poetry being
popular throughout the Arab world.
Ebrahim bin Mohammed Al Khalifa – born in the middle of the 19th century, he was a well-
known poet in early 20th century Bahrain and was commended by Charles Belgrave during his
tenure in the country. His majlis in Muharraq is currently used as a centre for culture and
research.
Hamda Khamis - Widely recognised as the first female Bahraini poet, having published her first
collection in 1969.
Qassim Haddad – he is the head of the Union of Bahraini Writers and one of the most famous
poets of Bahrain. He rose to prominence for his revolutionary poetry.
M.G. Darwish - An award nominated novelist who writes fantasy pulp novels and series.
Bahrain Literary work produced/Significance and meaning of selected Literature pieces
The Epistle of Forgiveness by Abu Al Alaa Al Maarri- This celebrated freethinker, ascetic,
humanist and committed vegetarian lived in Syria during the 11th century. The head of his
statue in his home town of Ma’arrat al Numan was recently chopped off, possibly because he
challenged accepted doctrine with a passion. He was the Voltaire of his time.
The Golden Ode of Imrul Qays- Widely accepted as the finest Arab poet of all, Imrul Qays lived
in Najd in the century before the arrival of Islam. His Golden Ode is considered the most
brilliant example of the vibrant oral poetry of the desert Arabs – the Arabic at that time
unadulterated by outside influence. (For comparison, consider the English of Beowulf in its
pagan pre-Christian purity).

The Prophet by Kahlil Gibran- This work is actually written in English but it is Arabic literature.
Gibran, who came from a poor Lebanese-Christian family, moved to the United States in the
19th century. He and his contemporaries formed what became known as the Exile School, and
wrote their works in both English and Arabic.
Zaat by Sonallah Ibrahim- Sonallah was born in Cairo, became a Marxist in his youth, and spent
several years in prison during the 1960s for his views. His novel Zaat tells the tale of modern
Egypt though the eyes of its heroine, Zaat, during the periods of the three presidents Nasser,
Sadat and Mubarak. It goes from the optimism of the early years following the revolution to the
full-blown capitalisation and corruption of Egypt in the 1980s and 1990s of the last century.
The Chronicles of Majnun Layla by Qassim Haddad- Widely acknowledged as the greatest living
Gulf poet, Qassim Haddad did not finish secondary school. Born in Bahrain in 1948, he left
formal education early to contribute to his family’s income. Like Sonallah Ibrahim, he is a
revolutionary as well as a writer, and was jailed for his political beliefs in the 1950s.
Bahrain Capital
Manama, Arabic Al-Manāmah, capital and largest city of the state and emirate of Bahrain. It lies
at the northeast tip of Bahrain island, in the Persian Gulf. About one-fifth of the emirate’s
population lives in the city. First mentioned in Islamic chronicles about AD 1345, it was taken by
the Portuguese (1521) and by the Persians (1602). It has been held, with brief interruptions, by
the ruling Āl Khalīfah dynasty since 1783. Because Bahrain concluded a series of treaties (1861–
1914) placing the country under increasing British protection, there was a British political agent
stationed at Manama from 1900, subject to the political resident for the Persian Gulf, whose
headquarters were long at Bushire, Iran. In 1946 the residency was moved to Manama, where it
remained until the city became the capital of independent Bahrain in 1971.
Timor-Leste Religion/Beliefs
According to the 2015 census, 97.6 percent of the population is Catholic, 1.96 percent
Protestant, and less than 1 percent Muslim. Protestant denominations include the Assemblies
of God, Baptists, Presbyterians, Methodists, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostals, Jehovah's
Witnesses, and the Christian Vision Church.
East Timor has been nominally Catholic since early in the Portuguese colonial period. The
Catholic faith became a central part of East Timorese culture during the Indonesian occupation
between 1975 and 1999. While under Portuguese rule, the East Timorese had mostly been
animist, sometimes integrated with minimal Catholic ritual, the number of Catholics
dramatically increased under Indonesian rule. This was for several reasons: Indonesia was
predominantly Muslim; the Indonesian state required adherence to one of five officially
recognised religions and did not recognise traditional beliefs; and because the Catholic church,
which remained directly responsible to the Vatican throughout Indonesian rule, became a
refuge for East Timorese seeking sanctuary from persecution.
Timor-Leste Language
Portuguese & Tetum
Timor-Leste Capital
The nation has a population of 1.2 million people (in 2015), capital and largest city is Dili,
spoken languages are Tetuma and Portuguese (both official), Indonesian, English.
Timor-Leste Culture
Timor-Leste culture is strong, unique and reflects many different influences: traditional animist
beliefs; a former Portuguese colony; the impact of WWII; the more recent Indonesian invasion
and spirited Timorese resistance; the role of the Catholic Church and the effects of other
minority groups such as Chinese
Timor-Leste Government
Government Name: Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste
Constitution: Adopted: 2002; Recognizes Timor-Leste as an independent republic after
centuries of Portuguese colonization from the 16th century. The Constitution contains
provisions regarding intellectual property.
Government Type: Semi-Presidential Republic
History Timor-Leste
The first people in East Timor was believed to have migrated almost 42000 years ago.In the
1600’s, the first European colonisation of East Timor occured. This was done by the Portugese.
In 1749, the island of Timor was split into two sectors; the Dutch took the West and the
Portuguese took the East. During WW2, Timor became occupied by the Japanese until Japan
was defeated. It fell, again, under the ownership of Portugal.
After the Carnation Revolution of Portugal, East Timor aimed to become independent. FRETILIN
announced the independence of East Timor on November 28, 1975. In less than than two
weeks, Indonesia invaded and occupied East Timor. This lead to a conflict both by local and
international forces in support of the Timorese. East Timor became officially independent in
2002 on Sepember 27th, supported by the U.N.
When it comes to Literature, East Timor is definitely not the first country that comes to mind. In
fact, most people don’t even know about the country. I chose Timor Leste because I wanted to
expose people to the culture of East Timor, and I wanted to learn more about the literature of
my ‘people’.
Overview and Demographics/Landform(Geography)
Timor-Leste, known as East Timor in foreign countries and officially as the Democratic Republic
of Timor Leste, is a country located in South East Asia. It shares half of the island of Timor with
Indonesia. It’s capital city is Dili. The country is made up of a diverse selection of different
landscapes; its highest point belongs to the mountain Gunung Tata Mai Lau (Mt. Tatatmailau)
standing at 2963 metres. The national languages of Timor Leste are Tetum and Portuguese;
however languages such as English, Indonesian and Hakka and 50 others are spoken.
The current population of Timor-Leste is 1,328,233 (as of 24/08/18). The official currency of
Timor Leste is the United States Dollar, but the Australian Dollar, the Portuguese Escudo
(Portugal’s currency before the introduction of the Euro) and the Indonesian Rupiah are also
accepted.
Literature History/Literary work produced/Significance and meaning of selected Literature
pieces/Oustanding writers in Timor-Leste Literatur
Perhaps the most lacking part of East Timor’s literature is the number of it. This means it was
incredibly difficult to find anything for the literature, let alone the history of it.
Due to the Indonesian, Portuguese and Dutch influence on the country, which can be seen in
the culture, it could be plausible to say that the literature of East Timor could overlap from this
culture. The Bible, which came from the religion of Catholicism, is read in East Timor, after
Catholicism was mostly brought in by the Portuguese.
Of the authors and poets whom identify as (and pieces which are indentified as) East Timorese,
the most famous is Xanana Gusmão. He was the first president of East Timor, and one of the
people most dedicated to the independence of East Timor. Both domestically, by the
Government and the people, as well internationally, he is referred to as the most literary
important person in the history of East Timor . Xanana Gusmão is recognised for his poetry, and
is often called the Poet Warrior. Some of his most famous poetry include Grandfather
Crocodile.The most famous book published by East Timor would belong to Luís Cardoso. The
book is called The Crossing.
Other famous writers is Jose Ramos-Horta and Bishop Carlos FX Belo, a Nobel Peace Prize
Laureate who wrote numerous peaces demanding the independence of East Timor.
Antara Jalan Jaksa dan Lovina by Sunaryono Basuki Ks -Antara Jalan Jaksa dan Lovina (Between
Jalan Jaksa and Lovina) is a romance story studied in the East Timorese equivalent of a English
class. The story is written in Indonesian due to how Timor Leste was forced to study Indonesian,
and also in how they lacked writers in its rural communities.
The Diary of Amandio Gomes from From Timor-Leste to Australia by Jan Trezise -The Diary of
Amandio Gomes tells the story of political target Amandio Gomes and his journey from East
Timor to his eventual home in Melbourne. From this story, it can be learnt that the refugees
from East Timor were not just people escaping from the Indonesian army, but also people who
were the political targets from the previous Portuguese governments.
“Grandfather Crocodile” by Xanana Gusmão -This is a poetic retelling of the Timorese Legend
“The Crocodile Story”. To the East Timorese, the crocodile is a significant creature. In their
culture, the crocodile is a relative of theirs and nothing to fear. This is due to how they believe,
in “The Crocodile Story”, that a crocodile sacrificed himself to form the island of Timor. Gusmao
used this poem to show the independence of the Timorese.
“Inan” by AVCAT-The basic point of this poem is to tell of how the land of Timor takes care of
its people, and also how its children will support it. It states how Timor is the one love of their
people.
“Viva Timor Leste!” by AVCAT- is a poem written in Portuguese that salutes and celebrates the
liberation of East Timor. Each stanza talks about a different sub-group within the victims of East
Timor. It talks about how the wildlands of Timor Leste are covered in flora only because of the
fertiliser from the dead bodies.
“Don’t!” by Santina -This is a poem discussing whether peace and reconciliation is worth more
than the justice the East Timorese people deserve. An analysis by Nathan A. Thompson
discusses how the poem is specifically structured to imitate the conflict behind its context (with
its lack of a pattern in both rhyme, word count and general structure), and the massacre. From
this poem, it can be learnt that some of the Timorese people do not believe that there was
enough justice for them, as they believed that those who were sacrificed for justice are simply
being ‘destroyed’ and turned into real estate.
“One Minute Silence” by Borja da Costa -is a poem dedicated to giving one minute of silence
regarding the violence experienced by the Timorese. It tells everyone to be silent and to respect
the people who gave their lives for the liberation of Timor Leste. What is specifically shown in
this poem is that the Timorese will never forget the sacrifices made by their people for the
liberation and formation of the country.
“East Timor Lament “ by AMVB - The “East Timor Lament” is a poem describing East Timor and
its history. It goes through its numeral occupations, such as discussing the discrimination done
by the Portuguese towards segregation. It also tells of the slaughter done by the Indonesian
towards the Timorese people, with the numerous descriptions of death and murder. This poem
is really telling of the Timorese experiences felt during these events and shows how the
Timorese longed to be freed. ‘Mundo Perdido’ means ‘lost world’, and in this context it is
believable to state that they are discussing the world that they had before the events such as
the Santa Cruz massacre.
Cyprus History
In 1960, the island emerged as an independent state after almost a century of British colonial
rule. At that time, the demographics were as follows: Greek Cypriots, 77 percent (441,656);
Turkish Cypriots, 18.3 percent (104,942); Armenians–Gregorians, 0.6 percent (3,378); and
Roman Catholics and Maronites, 0.5 percent (2,752); with a total population of 573,566. Since
the 1974 division, the population statistics have been disputed. Many Turkish Cypriots left
because of declining economic conditions on their side of the island, while many Turkish
settlers moved in because they viewed northern Cyprus as being better off than Turkey. Greek
Cypriot official sources provided the following breakdown for the island as a whole in 1977:
735,900 total, of whom 623,200 are Greek (84.7 percent), 90,600 are Turkish (12.3 percent),
and 22,100 (3 percent) are foreigners. Those sources claim that there are now 85,000 Turkish
settlers on the Turkish Cypriot side and that around 45,000 Turkish Cypriots have
emigrated.Cyprus is an island in the eastern Mediterranean that was divided into a Greek
southern side and a Turkish northern side after a coup instigated by the dictatorship ruling
Greece in 1974 and a subsequent Turkish military offensive. Interethnic violence had earlier
caused the partial separation of the two communities. With a Greek majority of around 77
percent of the population at the time of independence in 1960, many people regard Cyprus as
part of the wider Greek culture. Although the island became part of the Byzantine Empire in the
fourth century, it was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1571 to 1878 and had an 18.3 percent
Turkish minority in 1960. Greek Cypriots are Christian Orthodox, while Turkish Cypriots are
Sunni Muslim.
Cyprus Capital
Nicosia, Greek Lefkosía, Turkish Lefkoşa, city and capital of the Republic of Cyprus. It lies along
the Pedieos River, in the centre of the Mesaoria Plain between the Kyrenia Mountains (north)
and the Troodos range (south). The city is also the archiepiscopal seat of the autocephalous
(having the right to elect its own archbishop and bishops) Church of Cyprus.
Cyprus Government
Government. The Republic of Cyprus is a democracy with a presidential system of government.
On some issues, notably defense and international politics it may act in cooperation or in
consultation with Greece. The Turkish Cypriot regime is a parliamentary democracy with a
marked political, military, and economic dependence on Turkey.
Cyprus Religion/Beliefs
Religious Beliefs. The vast majority of Greek Cypriots are Greek Orthodox, while most Turkish
Cypriots are Sunni Muslim.Secular celebrations are mostly national commemorations of
historical events, including those of Cyprus itself and those from Greece (for the Greek Cypriots)
or Turkey (for the Turkish Cypriots).
Cyprus Language
Linguistic Affiliation. Greek Cypriots are taught at schools and employ in writing and orally, on
formal and public occasions, standard modern Greek (SMG), while Turkish Cypriots employ
standard modern Turkish (SMT). For informal oral exchanges, each community employs what
could be called the Cypriot dialect. Cyprus has a high degree of literacy, and much of the
population can communicate in English, especially the younger generation.
Outstanding writers in Literature/Literary work produced/Significance and meaning of
selected Lietrature pieces
Lawrence Durrell -lived in Cyprus from 1952 until 26 August 1956 and wrote the book Bitter
Lemons concerning his time there, which earned him the second Duff Cooper Prize in 1957
Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis, from Greece was heavily influenced by Cyprus.
He wrote one of his most famous works (Log Book III – initially entitled Cyprus, where it was
ordained for me…) while working for the Greek diplomatic mission on the island.
British novelist Paul Stewart is also based on Cyprus, and the island was the location for
Victoria Hislop’s 2015 novel The Sunrise.[13]
Neşe Yaşın is a well known Cypriot Turkish poet and author, who mainly writes in Turkish
although a considerable number of her works of prose have been translated into Greek and
English. In 2002 her novel Secret History of Sad Girls was banned in the TRNC and Turkey and
she received multiple threats from Turkish nationalists.
Cyprus Culture
The ancient cultural traditions of Cyprus are maintained partly by private enterprise and partly
by government sponsorship, especially through the Cultural Services office of the Republic of
Cyprus’s Ministry of Education and Culture, which publishes books, awards prizes for literature,
and promotes Cypriot publications. Cities have public libraries, as do many rural communities.
The government-sponsored Cyprus Theatre Organization stages plays by contemporary Cypriot
dramatists as well as classical works.
Cyprus Landform (Geography)
Cyprus is a 3,567-square-mile island, or about 30 percent smaller than Connecticut, located in
the Mediterranean Sea south of Turkey. The major landforms are the limestone formations of
the Kyrenia Mountains on the north, the central Mesaoria Plain, and the rugged, volcanic
Troodos Mountains on the south, with their associated Mamonia Terrane. Many coastal stream
valleys contain fertile soil developed over sediments from the mountains, and 40 percent of the
land is arable and can be farmed. Cyprus has an arid climate, so most streams are intermittent
after 15 inches of mostly winter rainfall.

BHUTAN
Bhutan History
Bhutan's early history is steeped in mythology and remains obscure. Some of the structures
provide evidence that the region has been settled as early as 2000 BC. According to a legend it
was ruled by a Cooch-Behar king, Sangaldip, around the 7th century BC,[1] but not much is
known prior to the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism in the 9th century, when turmoil in Tibet
forced many monks to flee to Bhutan. In the 12th century, the Drukpa Kagyupa school was
established and remains the dominant form of Buddhism in Bhutan today. The country's
political history is intimately tied to its religious history and relations among the various
monastic schools and monasteries.
Bhutan is one of only a few countries which has been independent throughout her history,
never conquered, occupied, or governed by an outside power (notwithstanding occasional
nominal tributary status). Although there has been speculation that it was under the Kamarupa
Kingdom or the Tibetan Empire in the 7th to 9th centuries, firm evidence is lacking. From the
time historical records are clear, Bhutan has continuously and successfully defended its
sovereignty.
The consolidation of Bhutan occurred in 1616 when Ngawanag Namgyal, a lama from western
Tibet known as the Zhabdrung Rinpoche, defeated three Tibetan invasions, subjugated rival
religious schools, codified the Tsa Yig, an intricate and comprehensive system of law, and
established himself as ruler over a system of ecclesiastical and civil administrators. After his
death, infighting and civil war eroded the power of the Zhabdrung for the next 200 years. In
1885 Ugyen Wangchuck was able to consolidate power, and began cultivating closer ties with
the British in the subcontinent.
Bhutan Capital
Thimphu, also spelled Thimbu, capital of Bhutan. The city, situated in the west-central part of
the country, is in the Himalaya Mountains on the Raidak (also called Thimphu, or Wong) River
at about 7,000 feet (2,000 metres) above sea level. It was designated the official seat of
government in 1962 (formerly the seat was wherever the king resided), and a large
construction program was undertaken with Indian aid. Tashi Chho dzong (fortress, or castle),
the traditional fortified monastery that has been remodeled and extended to house the offices
of the royal government, is one of the finest specimens of traditional Bhutanese architecture.
Bhutan Language
The national language is Dzongkha, the native language of the Ngalops of western Bhutan.
Dzongkha literally means the language spoken in the Dzongs, massive fortresses that serve as
the administrative centers and monasteries. Two other major languages are the Tshanglakha
and the Lhotshamkha.
Bhutan Religion
On top of being the number one religion, Buddhism is also the state religion. To be more
precise, it should be noted that the Buddhism practised in Bhutan is Mahayana Buddhism, also
known as "Great Vehicle Buddhism". It is in fact Tibetan Buddhism practised in its tantric form.
You will also hear it described as Lamaism. In actual fact, Bhutan is the one and only country in
the world where this type of "Great Vehicle Buddhism" is the official religion. The latest
statistics and the last official census in Bhutan affirm that 75% of the population practise this
Lama Buddhism.
The different religions
In the face of the indisputable predominance of Buddhism, the other religions are well in the
minority. Only the Hindus with about 21% of the population are well represented. The
Hinduism practised here in Bhutan is Indian Hinduism with a touch of Nepalese influence. For
their part, animists represent just under 4% of the population, with just over 1% representing
diverse religions. Christians only account for a tiny proportion of the population at 0.5%.
Amongst them an even smaller proportion is Catholic. Protestants are a little more numerous.
In a country considered peaceful by many, you need to be aware that Christians are often and
unfortunately quite regularly the target of numerous persecutions .
Bhutan Cuture/Beliefs
Culture of Bhutan is quite festive when it comes to the birth of a child. It is one of the very few
countries in the world which does not discriminate between a boy and girl. However, no
outsider is allowed to enter the house for 3 days after a baby is born. It is only after a
purification ritual that the guests can enter. Name of the baby is kept by a local lama, and there
is no family name as such. Instead, the name is a combination of two traditional names, and the
gender is usually indicated by the second name. In Bhutan, marriage is not usually a big deal
and hence, the wedding ceremony is kept simple. Marriage between cousins is very common.
This has been going on for years, but the educated masses discourage it now. In some parts of
Bhutan, it is the groom who goes to his wife's home, instead of the other way around. Death of
a person means passing on one life to another, i.e re-birth. Prayer flags are erected in the
memory of the departed person and the relatives and neighbours come to attend the funeral
and other rituals with simple eatables and souvenirs.
Bhutan Government
Government. Bhutan is a constitutional monarchy, ruled by a hereditary king, the "Druk
Gyalpo," who governs with the aid of a Royal Cabinet and a National Assembly (the Tsongdu). In
the past, the king appointed members to a Royal Advisory Council and to a Council of Ministers.
Following the political reforms of 1998, however, these two councils were combined to form
the cabinet. This body consists of six ministers elected by the National Assembly, six advisors
also elected by the National Assembly, a member nominated by the king, and two
representatives of the clergy. The unicameral National Assembly (established in 1953), known
as the Tsongdu, consists of one-hundred fifty members. Of these, thirty-five are appointed by
the king to represent government and other secular interests; one-hundred five are elected to
three-year terms by groups of village headmen, who are, in turn, elected by a one-family, one-
vote system; and the remaining ten are chosen by the lamas acting in concert. The Tsongdu
meets twice a year at Thimphu, the capital. Candidates file their own nominations.
Bhutan Landform (Geography)
Location and Geography. Bhutan is located in the northern area of South Asia and is also in the
eastern Himalayan mountain area. It is 18,000 square miles (46,620 square kilometers) in size
and is bordered in the north by the People's Republic of China and to the south, east, and west
by India.
Geographically, Bhutan is divided into three zones: the southern zone, which has low foothills
that are covered with dense tropical forests; the central zone, which primarily consists of fertile
valleys at altitudes that range from 3,500 to 10,000 feet (1,060 to 3,050 meters); and the
northern zone, which has valleys at heights that range from 11,000 to 28,000 feet (3,350 to
8,535 meters). It is this northern section that forms part of the Himalayas with its high peaks
along the Tibetan borders.
The largest percentage of the population lives in the central zone. The federal capital of
Thimphu is located along the river of the same name in this section of the country.
Bhutan Literary Work Produced/Outstanding writers in Literature/Significance and meaning
of selected Literature pieces
The Circle of Karma by Kunzang Choden- is the first novel written by a woman in Bhutan. Using
simple language and straightforward plot line, the story weaves around Tsomo and her literal
and metaphorical journey from her childhood to her old age.
Dasho Kinley Dorji’s collection of 13 short stories about different aspects of Bhutan is aptly
titled, Within the Realm of Happiness.-The thirteen stories are a mix of fiction and creative non
fiction that take a leaf out of his life as well as the different shades of his country.
Born in Jangbi by Damber S. Mongar-is a fictional account of one Monpa, Sangayla’s struggle to
achieve something in his life and bring about the development of his fellow people as well
rather than continuing to languish in poverty.
Lomba is a novel by one of Bhutan’s youngest authors, Pema Euden. Lomba- is a young adult
novel about discovering true friendships and an appreciation of your own culture and society
through a wild ride into the spirit world.
With simple fun dialogues and beautiful illustrations by Chand Bhattarai, Khakey is about an
interesting ritual carried out mostly in Paro, in Western Bhutan, on the first day of snowfall,
where one secretly tries to deliver a big ball of snow filled with some ingredients.

MALDIVES
Maldives History
Archaeological finds indicate that the Maldives was inhabited as early as 1,500 BC but much of
the country’s origin is lost in time due to a lack of surviving written records. However, there are
all kinds of fascinating folklores and myths about the history of the Maldives.
It is believed that the most important factor that contributed to the first ever settlement of
people in the Maldives is its geographical location. Large ruins and other archaeological remains
found in the islands including those bordering the equatorial channel and the One and a Half
Degree channel bear testimony to the fact that people of antiquity had indeed stumbled upon
the country during their travels. It is believed that permanent settlements were established in
around 500 BC by Aryan immigrants from the Indian subcontinent. Many customs, traditional
practices and superstitious beliefs that still prevail in the country also attest to the influence of
the early Dravidian culture of the Maldives.
Although it is most probable that early Maldivians were Buddhist or Hindus migrating from the
Indian subcontinent, the archaeologist Thor Heyerdahl, who carried out extensive
archaeological research in the Maldives and has contributed significantly to theories of the
origins of the country, stated that some of the figures unearthed from the ancient mounds bore
a striking resemblance to the figures he had investigated on Easter island in the Pacific Ocean.
Many of these theories, however, are still a matter of controversy and the Maldives still holds
many more secrets about its past which are yet to be unearthed.
The accounts of travellers who had stopped over for supplies and due to shipwrecks (as the
Maldives is located along the ancient marine trade routes from the West to the East) also serve
as useful guides to the history of these small islands. Cowrie shells were used as one of the
oldest forms of currency amongst traders who traversed the region, and the Maldives offered
one of the most plentiful supplies of these shells.
Among the travellers were the Chinese historian Ma Huan and the famous Arab
travelerIbnBatuta. It is also understood that the Maldivians themselves ventured far beyond
their own shores; Pliny, for example states that Maldivian emissaries bore gift to the Roman
Emperor.
The Maldives was briefly part of the Portuguese Empire, for 15 years from 1558 onwards,
before being overthrown in an uprising.
The country was never part of the British Empire but from 1887 to 1965 it was classed as a
Protectorate of Great Britain before becoming a republic.
Maldives Landform(Geography)
Location and Geography. The Republic of Maldives is an archipelago consisting of twenty-six
coral atolls, in the northern Indian Ocean. The chain of islands extends 510 miles (820
kilometers), but occupies an area of just 116 square miles (300 square kilometers), roughly 1.5
times the size of Washington D.C. The closest neighbors are India and Sri Lanka. The capital is
Malé.
The twenty-six coral atolls contain 1,190 very small islands of which 198 are inhabited. Most of
the islands are close to the atoll enclosure reef, and some are still in the process of forming. The
longest is Gan in Adu atoll. Because the islands are coral-based, they are flat and low-lying. As a
result, the water table is high. However, the islands are protected from the elements by the
reef and rarely have major storms. In the older islands a larger layer of topsoil has formed, and
these islands are covered with coconut trees, breadfruit, and dense shrubs. Agricultural
potential is limited by the high alkalinity of the soil and its poor water retention. However,
people grow vegetables, fruits, and yams.
The climate is warm and tropical. Seasonal changes are determined by the two yearly
monsoons. The season of the northeast monsoon is characterized by dry, mild winds, and
generally extends from December to April. The southwest monsoon, although irregular,
extends from May until August and brings heavy rains and wind. The northern atolls are drier,
while the southern atolls are wetter. The humidity is fairly high throughout the year.
Maldives Language
Linguistic Affiliation. Dhivehi, which is spoken in all parts of the country, is not spoken in any
other part of the world. It is considered an Indo-European language related to Singhala, the
language spoken in Sri Lanka. The alphabets and writing system are similar to Arabic. English is
the second language and is widely used in commerce and in many government schools
Maldives Government
Government. The legislative assembly known as the Majlis is composed of fifty members: two
from Malé, two from each of the twenty administrative atolls, and eight appointed by the
president. The speaker of the Majlis is not a member of that body and is appointed by the
president. Even though all the members have the right to attend sessions and speak at the
Majlis, only elected members can vote. The right to vote is universal for those age twenty one
years and over. The head of the government is the president who is nominated in a secret
ballot by the Majlis, and then elected by a majority vote at a national referendum for a five-year
term. The president appoints the ministers and all judges to the courts. The high court consists
of a chief justice and four judges.
The executive branch is divided into the president's office, the attorney general's office, and
seventeen ministries and associated entities that implement government programs. The
ministries of government, the attorney general's office, and the high court all function under
the president's office. The current president is also the governor of the central bank.
Maldives Religion
Religious Beliefs. Islam is the only national religion; no other religions are permitted. All
Maldivians belong to the Sunni sect. Only Muslims may become citizens, marry, or own
property in Maldives, and daily life is regulated according to the tenets of Islam. The
widespread belief in jinns, or evil spirits, has resulted in a blending of Islam with traditional
island beliefs into a magico-religious system known as fandita.
Religious Practitioners. The political, judicial, and religious systems in Maldives are so closely
intertwined that the political leaders and judges are also the country's religious leaders. The
president is considered the primary religious leader, and judges, known as gazis, are
responsible for interpreting Islamic law in the courts.
Rituals and Holy Places. Most holidays are based on the Islamic lunar calendar. In addition to
the Golden Grand Friday mosque, twenty other mosques are scattered around Malé. Mosques
are also found in each of the islands. In Malé, a graveyard holds the tomb of Abu Al Barakat, a
North African Arab who brought the Koran to the Maldives in the twelfth century. He later
became the first sultan. Also located in this graveyard are tombstones of all the former sultans.
Maldives Culture/Beliefs
Historically, the Maldives was an important crossroad in the Indian Ocean, hence Maldivian
culture is a melting pot of various influences gathered from visitors who set foot there over the
centuries. Influences of India, Sri Lanka, Arabia, Persia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Africa are
evident in the unique culture of the Maldives. Maldivians have assimilated these influences
over the years and created their own cultural identity like no other.
A proud history and rich culture evolved from the first settlers in the Maldives, who were
seafarers from various parts of the world, traversing the oceans in ancient times. Since people
from different parts of the world settled in the Maldives over the centuries, you can still spot
some of the traditions they brought with them in Maldivian culture. Some of the traditional
drumming and dancing (known as ‘boduberu’) shows African influences, with rhythmic beating
of drums and some songs in a language resembling that of East African countries.
As one would expect, there is a great South Asian influence in some of the music and dancing
and particularly in the traditional food of the Maldives. This includes spicy curries using coconut
milk and fish as the main staples and ‘roshi’ (a thin flatbread) as a popular accompaniment.
Those who aren’t fans of curries will also find a range of world cuisine available including pasta,
burgers, noodles and other home comforts. The resorts boast a wide variety of international
cuisine, much of which is serious competition for the world’s top restaurants. Fresh ingredients
are flown in daily or grown on the islands.
However, some of the South Asian customs especially with regard to women such as the Sub
Continent’s tradition of secluding women from public view are not tenets of life here. In fact,
women play a major role in society - not surprising considering the fact many Maldivian men
spend the whole day out at sea fishing. Many of the country’s traditions are strongly related to
the sea and the fact that life is dependent on the sea around us.Traditional handicrafts include
matt-weaving and beautiful lacquer-work, usually painted in black, red and yellow. Although
these traditions are less commonplace today, there are still some talented craftsmen and
women who make these (matts are weaved exclusively by women). They can be found in
souvenir shops at resorts and in Male’ and make a wonderful souvenir of your holiday in the
Maldives.
Maldives Capital
The capital of the Maldives, Malé, spans over a mere 5.8km2 and is deemed to be one of the
smallest and most densely populated capitals in the world. Found in the southern part of the
North Malé Atoll, or, more specifically, in the Kaafu Atoll, this unusual city has a population of
around 133 412 people (which is almost a third of the island’s population) and is famous for its
stunning mosques (such as the Islamic Centre with its characteristic gold dome), colourful
buildings and its bustling fish produce markets.
The capital of the Maldives itself is technically spread over multiple islands; the central island of
Malé, an airport island (Hulhulé Island) and two additional islands that are run by the Malé City
Council. It’s also divided into six parts; four are on the central island (Henveiru, Galolhu,
Maafannu and Machangolhi), the fifth division is the neighbouring island of Vilingili and the
sixth is the artificial island of Hulhumalé.
Maldives Literary work produced/Outstanding writers in Literature/Significance and meaning
of selected Literature pieces
Most literature from the Maldives is written in the official language of Dhivehi. Because it’s an
Islamic country, there does tend to be a significant amount of religious texts, and it’s been a
focus since antiquity. One of the most famous religious writers is Husain Salaahuddheen who is
most widely known for his work entitled “Siyarathunnabaviyyaa.” -This work is often considered
one of the most famous religious works of the modern period.
Maldivian literature is dotted with folklore. These folklore stories have been passed down for
generations and are often told to kids, serving a variety of purposes. There are myths of origin,
how they landed in the Maldives Islands, and extinction, some of which has similarities to other
nearby locations. There are also myths about good and evil spirits, myths about magic and
sorcerers, and stories about the flora and fauna of the islands. One story about the characters
of Dhon Hiyala and Alifulhu is almost reminiscent of the Romeo and Juliet story or the
(Japanese) Tanabata story.
Poetry is also important in Maldivian literary culture. Bodufenvalhuge Sidi (intellectual, writer),
Saikuraa Ibrahim Naeem (writer, government officer), and Ibrahim Shihab (poet, writer,
essayist, statesman) are among the many writers and poets who have emerged onto the
Maldivian literary scene.
BRUNIE
Brunie History
From the 14th to the 16th centuries Brunei Darussalam was the seat of a powerful sultanate
extending over Sabah, Sarawak and the lower Philippines. Thus, the current Sultan represents
one of the oldest continuously ruling dynasties in the world. By the 19th century, the Brunei
Darussalam Empire had been whittled away by wars, piracy and the colonial expansion of
European powers.
In 1847, the sultan concluded a treaty with Great Britain and in 1888 Brunei Darussalam
officially became a British protectorate. In 1906, the Residential System was established in
Brunei Darussalam. A British Resident was nominated as a representative of the British
government to advise the sultan in all matters except Malay customs, traditions and Islamic
religion.
The 1959 Agreement established a written constitution which gave Brunei Darussalam internal
self-government. In 1971, the agreement was amended and revised to assert full internal
independence except defence and external affairs.
In 1967 His Highness Sultan Haji Sir Muda Omar Ali Saifuddien abdicated in favour of his son
Pengiran Muda Mahkota Hassanal Bolkiah. On January 1, 1984 Brunei Darussalam resumed full
independence and the Sultan took office as Prime Minister, Finance Minister and Home Affairs
Minister, presiding over a cabinet of six. In October 1986, the cabinet was expanded to 11
members, with His Majesty relinquishing the portfolios of Finance and Home Affairs and taking
over the Defence portfolio which his late father had held since 1984. In 1988 another reshuffle
brought about the elevation of the deputy minister to a full minister and the creation of the
Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources designed to boost the country's development.
Brunie Culture
The culture of Brunei is strongly influenced by Malay cultures and the Islamic religion. The
culture is also influenced by the demographic makeup of the country: more than two-thirds of
the population are Malay, and the remainder consists of Chinese, Indians and indigenous
groups such as Dayaks, Dusuns and Kedazans.
Brunie Religion
Brunei’s population is predominantly Sunni Muslim, although the Chinese usually follow
Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism, or Christianity. Some of the indigenous peoples are Christian,
while others follow their own local religions.
Brunei Landforms (Geograpy)
Brunei is a country in Southeast Asia, bordering the South China Sea and East Malaysia. Its
geographical coordinates are 4°30′N 114°40′E. The country is small with a total size of 5,765
km2 (2,226 sq mi). It is similar in size to the UK's Norfolk and slightly smaller than the US state
of Delaware. It is close to vital sea lanes through the South China Sea linking the Indian and
Pacific Oceans. The country has two parts physically separated by Malaysia, making it almost an
enclave within Malaysia.
Brunei Oustanding writers in Literature/Literary work produced/Significance and meaning of
selected Literature pieces
Most literature in Brunei is either written in Malay or in English. (I’ve been reading a lot of
English-language articles from The Brunei Times lately to get information for these posts, one of
their largest newspapers.) The most popular form of literature is a poetry style called sajak. No,
not Pat Sajak, but close. (Actually, no. Pat Sajak is of Polish descent and grew up in Chicago.)
Sajak is a Malay free-form style (meaning “rhyme” in English) that was full of nationalistic
symbolism once used as a means of propaganda during the days when the Japanese occupied
the island during WWII. There aren’t a lot of Bruneian writers that are well-known outside of
the region, but the most famous work that came out of Brunei is the epic poem called Sya’ir
Awang Simawn, about a famous hero to their culture. However, there are a few books
mentioned which use Brunei as its setting. One is a book called Armageddon by Dan Brown
(although I can’t figure out if this is the same Dan Brown who wrote The Da Vinci Code and
Angels and Demons). Another is an Anthony Burgess novel called Devil of a State (I believe it’s
the same author of A Clockwork Orange.).
Brunei Capital
Brunei Darussalam is divided into four districts namely Brunei/Muara, Tutong, Belait and
Temburong. Bandar Seri Begawan is the capital of Brunei Darussalam with an area of about 16
sq. km. The famed Water Village of Brunei (Kampong Ayer) is also located here.
Other towns are Muara, about 41 km to the north east of Bandar Seri Begawan where the chief
port is located, Seria which is the seat of oil and gas industry, and Kuala Belait, Pekan Tutong
and Bangar which are the administrative centres of Belait, Tutong and Temburong Districts
respectively.
Brunei Language
Official language is Malay. Other languages include English and Chinese (various dialects).
Brunei Beliefs
Religious Beliefs. The national religion is the Shafeite sect of Islam. Religious holidays have
variable dates that are set according to a lunar calendar. Early Ramadhan marks the beginning
of the holy fasting month; the Anniversary of the Al-Quran commemorates the revelation of the
Holy Book of Islam; Hari Raya Adilfitri or Hari Raya Puasa celebrates the end of the fasting
month; Hari Raya Aidiladha or Hari Raya Haji celebrates the Haj or holy pilgrimage to Mecca;
Hijrah celebrates the journey of the Prophet Muhammad Sallallahu Alihi Wassalam from Mecca
to Medina; Mulaud, or the Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, celebrates the birth of the
founder of Islam; and Israk Mikraj commemorates the ascendancy of Muhammad into heaven.
Brunei Government
Government. Brunei Darussalam is an absolute constitutional monarchy. There are no political
parties, elections, or legislature. Attempts to establish political parties in 1956 and 1985 did not
succeed. In 1996, the first General Assembly of over a thousand elected village and mukim
leaders met to give input to the Government. The first written constitution was promulgated in
1959, naming the sultan head of state, assisted by five councils (Religious Council, Privy Council,
Council of Ministers, Legislative Council, and Council of Succession), with internal self-
government and defense and foreign relations run by the United Kingdom. It was amended in
1971 to establish joint Bruneian-British responsibility for defense; in 1984, a cabinet-style
government was introduced when Brunei resumed full sovereignty.
The sultan appoints judges to the Supreme Court, which consists of the high court and the court
of appeals, and the Subordinate Court, which consists of the magistrate's courts. In 1991, an
intermediate court was given civil and criminal jurisdiction. Syariah courts deal with Islamic law.
Leadership and Political Officials. There are two forms of government administration—a
modern administrative bureaucracy and a traditional system of ritual offices—which are
awarded to nobles and aristocrats by the sultan. Individuals can rise through the ranks in both
systems. The traditional system includes for the nobles five offices of vizier and about sixty
additional various offices, and for the aristocrats about seventy-three offices of minister
( Pehin ). All occupants are males. Not all these traditional offices are always occupied at any
given time; offices are not inherited on the death of their occupants but remain vacant until a
sultan appoints a new occupant.
Themes, Issues an subject matter that dominate Literature
Cyprus- The Theme of Cyprus (Greek: θέμα Κύπρου, thema Kyprou) was a Byzantine military-
civilian province, located in the island of Cyprus, established in the 960s after the reconquest of
Cyprus by the Byzantine navy. Prior to this the island had been a Byzantine-Arab condominium
for three centuries, except occasional short periods where it was occupied by either power. A
rebellion by governor Theophilos Erotikos in 1042, and another in 1092 by Rhapsomates, failed
as they were quickly subdued by imperial forces. At the end of the 12th century there were
again separatist tendencies in Cyprus: Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus proclaimed himself as
"basileus" (emperor) in 1185. Cyprus remained under his command until its conquest in 1191
during the Third Crusade by Richard I of England, who sold it to the Knights Templars.
The Republic of Cyprus was established in 1960 as a constitutional partnership state, based on
the political equality of the two constituent peoples of the island, the Turkish Cypriots and
Greek Cypriots. Contrary to common belief, the Cyprus problem did not emerge with Turkey’s
military intervention in 1974, but in 1963 when the Turkish Cypriots were ejected from the
island’s government and faced attacks by Greek Cypriot guerilla bands. The Greek Cypriots
openly sought to unite the island with Greece, a process they called Enosis, but which was
expressly forbidden by a treaty guaranteeing the independence of the island. It was at this time
that a Green Line was drawn across Nicosia and the United Nations established its presence on
the island. As violence subsided, Greek Cypriots nonetheless continued their drive for Enosis,
forcing Turkish Cypriots to live in ethnically homogenous enclaves.
3.Trace the major literary works produced and identify the outstanding writers in Asian
Literature.
Five writers from China, Japan, and India made the Man Asian Literary Prize shortlist for its
2010 award for the best novel by an Asian writer, either written in English or translated into
English .

Bi Feiyu

1. Bi Feiyu, nominated for “Three Sisters”

Bi Feiyu is well known in China as a novelist and screenwriter. He grew up in the Chinese
countryside during the Cultural Revolution. He once told an interviewer that as a child he had
no toys — only nature. When he entered college, he says, and began reading, he was shocked
by the difference between books and real life and that is what pushed him to become a
novelist.
Awards: Man Asian Literary Prize
“Three Sisters” tells the stories of three daughters of a lecherous Communist Party secretary
as a vehicle for exploring the difficult lives of women in Communist China in the 1970s and
80s.

Manu Joseph

2. Manu Joseph, nominated for “Serious Men”

Manu Joseph, deputy editor and Mumbai bureau chief of Open magazine, has been a
journalist for 14 years.
Awards:2010: The Hindu Literary Prize won for Serious Men
2010: Man Asian Literary Prize shortlisted for Serious Men
2010: Huffington Post′s 10 best books of the year for Serious Men[citation needed]
2011: Bollinger Everyman Wodehouse Prize shortlisted for Serious Men
2011: PEN Open Book Award won for Serious Men
2013: The Hindu Literary Prize shortlisted for The Illicit Happiness of Other People

“Serious Men,” his debut novel, is an exploration of questions of class in India. This novel tells
the story of a Dalit (untouchable) secretary who works for a high-class Brahmin at Bombay’s
Institute of Theory and Research and invents stories about his disabled son in a desperate
effort to advance socially.
It won the inaugural The Hindu Literary Prize and the 2011 PEN Open Book Award.[4][5] It
was also shortlisted for Man Asian Literary Prize and Bollinger Everyman Wodehouse Prize.[6]
[7]
Tabish Khair

3. Tabish Khair, nominated for “The Thing About Thugs”

The Indian poet-novelist Tabish Khair was born and educated in Bihar, India, but now lives
mostly in Aarhus, Denmark where he is a professor of English at the University of Aarhus. His
books include “Babu Fictions” (2001) and “The Bus Stopped” (2004).
Awards: shortlisted for the Encore Award (UK) and The Thing About Thugs (2010), which has
been shortlisted for a number of prizes, including the DSC Prize for South Asian Literature[1]
and the Man Asian Literary Prize. His poem Birds of North Europe won first prize in the sixth
Poetry Society All India Poetry Competition held in 1995.

A lyrical writer whose prose is often called “poetic,” Khair is also known for his reluctance to
allow his work to be categorized as representative of any kind of post-colonial Indian literary
tradition. (“Can I represent anyone other than myself?” he once asked an interviewer. “On
what grounds can I speak for someone else?”)

“The Thing About Thugs” is set in Victorian England and tells the story of an Indian villager
who travels to London with an English captain and fascinates him with the story of his life as
a murderous thug.

Kenzaburō Ōe

4. Kenzaburō Ōe, nominated for “The Changeling”

Japanese Nobel laureate (1994) Kenzaburō Ōe has always credited French and American
literature as important influences in his creative development. (He says that he “willl carry to
the grave” the impact of the copy of “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” given to him by
his grandmother when he was a boy.) Another major influence in Ōe’s life has been his oldest
son, Hikari, who was brain-damaged during his 1963 birth. Several of Ōe’s books feature
characters based on his son.

Award:
Nobel Prize in Literature
1994

“The Changeling” takes the real-life suicide of film director Juzo Itami (who was also Ōe’s
close friend and brother-in-law) and spins around it a roman à clef that takes the main
characters back to their past and their previous entanglement with a right-wing paramilitary .
Yoko Ogawa

5. Yoko Ogawa, nominated for “Hotel Iris”

Yoko Ogawa is no stranger to Western readers. Her 1990 novella collection “The Diving Pool”
was published in English in 2008 to strong reviews. Her charming 2003 novel “The Professor
and the Housekeeper” — an unusual love story involving a brilliant former professor of
mathematics, his housekeeper, and her 10-year-old son — also received much acclaim when
released in the US in 2009. Ogawa’s fiction has been published in The New Yorker, A Public
Space, and Zoetrope.
A highly prolific writer, Ogawa has published more than 20 works of fiction and nonfiction
since 1988 and has won every major Japanese literary award. She is known for her precise,
economical language and her fascination with mathematics. Her fiction is sometimes
described as “eerie” or mysterious.
Awards:
Akutagawa Prize-1990
Tanizaki Prize-2006
Izumi Kyōka Prize for Literature-2004
Independent Foreign Fiction Prize
American Book Award
2020 · The Memory Police
Shirley Jackson Award for Collection
2008 · The Diving Pool

“Hotel Iris” — in which Ogawa explores questions of obsession and insecurity — is a darker,
more sexually explicit book than some of her earlier work. It tells the story of 17-year-old
Mari, a 17-year-old who works in a rundown seaside hotel, and who is drawn into a
frightening affair with a middle-aged male guest.

4 Point out the universal themes, issues and subject matters that dominate Asian Literature.

Asian Literature is rich in culture and heritage that is intertwined with messages advice, life
and society.
There are few themes that are prominent in Asian literature and we are got to look at few
from several selected short stories.
Let's explore into the rich texts of Asian Literature
there is a pattern in the themes projected by the stories we analysed. Most of the stories
touched upon relationships of families, upholding ones culture/heritage and of respect to
other people. These encompass the very essence of being Asian that is the value of thought
for other people and just general courtesy. There is a lot to be learnt from the pieces that we
managed to go through and we must be proud of the rich literature that Asia has and how
good it gives us an image of how it is like to be Asian
Examples:
The Underdogs - Gautam Sen

- Societal expectations towards gender roles

- The innocence of youth and stupidity of it

- Wisdom of the old

The story is filled with passion of love from young people and the challenges they face as they
go against the current of culture and norms
The Burden of Sin - R. Kathigesu

- The love of young people

- Community bonds of the kampung

Red Roses in a Bouquet - Khadijah Hashim

Abdulfattah bin Jusoh
2011691108
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Madam Roslind's Literature Class
- The innocence of youth

We see a Chinese girl falling in love with innocence to man she does not even know well
Salt of The Jungle - Nguyen Huy Thiep

- Value of nature

We are presented with a man hunting in the forest and comes into qualms with a monkey he
shot. Here we can see the relationship of man and nature and how we are interdependent of

each other.
The Road To Mawab - Leoncio P. Deriada

- The will to live even when overcome by hardship

We can see people change and sacrifice in this story for things that are more important than
what they want
The Tamarind Harvest - Nay Myo Thant

- Societal gender roles

- The innocence of youth and stupidity of it

This story pictures a community with heavy emphasis on gender roles where a certain gender
is expected to do certain things. Grandpa Tun

Nyo is the perfect example of how a "man" should be which is different from his grandson
Tanjong Rhu - Mintang Ho
- Remembering your roots

- Upholding traditions

Mr. Li is being reminded of his roots and how he used to be by his mother who sees Tanjong
Rhu, the place where he grew up, using the binoculars he gave her. This is a reminder for all
that we must not forget the very basis that propelled us forward in the first place
A Dream of China - Ovidia Yu
-A man sacrifice for his family
-Recognition of ones past and roots

The writer beautifully puts the father as someone who never forgets his roots even though he
is living lavishly compared to China. Whether the father's longing for China is genuine or as a
sign of respect to his past is still a question.

Gulai Rawa - Baharuddin Kahar

- Communal relationships

- Uncanny love of the elders to the young

- A mans sacrifice for his family

- Recognition of ones past and roots

The writer beautifully puts the father as someone who never forgets his roots even though he
is living lavishly compared to China. Whether the father's longing for China is genuine or as a
sign of respect to his past is still a question
This story asks of us to respect and appreciate the sacrifices that people have made for us and
not to forget our roots and cultures
Nyanyuk - Rejab F.I

- Family love

- Priorities in life

The writer gives us a situation where a mother turns senile and her family is not settled in the
matters of how she is going to be taken care of.
Hidup - Norisah M.S

- Uncanny love of elders to the young

- The innocence of youth and stupidity of it

- Upholding ones pride

Hidup is a tragic story of a man saving his face. the writer sends messages that we should
cherish our elderly anyway we can and not abandon them as it is not our culture to do so.
A Quid of Sireh, A Bowl of Water - Khadijah Hashim

- Uncanny love of elders to the young

- The innocence of youth and stupidity of it

Khadijah Hashim beautifully knits kampung culture to the contrasting heat of modern society
as Farid is not seeing eye-to-eye with his traditional father. This showcases elderly people's
wisdom and the
eagerness and selfishness of young people in going about their lives
Woman - Shannon Ahmad

- Gender roles in society

- Womanhood

We come across the story of Siti who in aggression and violence agrees to marriage with a
man she does not like. Siti is unable to muster courage to tell her heart out and she is trapped
in decisions made by others.

Inem - Pramoedya Ananta Toer

- Society's predispostion towards gender roles

- Society bound by tradition

Inem is a sad and eye-opening story that serves us the pains and hardship a girl goes through
as she is hurled through life trying to meet societal norms

such as early marriage which is a main point of this story

The Birdhead Kite - Aziz Haji Abdullah

- Significance of a wife
- Uncanny love of elders to the young

This lovely story delivers the message of love and sacrifice of a wife that has taken care of a
husband and a grandfather to his curious and playful grandchildren.

5.Interpret the significance and meaning of selected literary pieces.

 .THREE SISTERS
Three sisters novel is a kind of literary piece that define women who doesn't let their
selves to suffer from anomalistic world they have. They prove that they can make a
change , even without any violence yet with the use of their wiseness and intelligence
they capable of.Drawn with dispassionate candor, this is a bleak tale of human
miseries and of women struggling to survive in a culture that devalues them.
 SERIOUS MEN

It portraits an under-privileged societal status, which use a disguised to capitalize

something he could gain change and profit to their condition.But like life, serious man is like a
wrong decision which later on could destroy everything we have.Wrong investment means
huge lost. To sum up, serious man is at once a hilarious portrayal of runaway egos and
ambitions and a moving portrait of love and its strange

 THE THINGS ABOUT THUGS

It is a novel that full of suspense where various strands of mystery, human relationships
and crime are expertly woven into one absorbing and fast-moving table like the thugs possess
.Also, it lies in making us questions our assumptions about what we do and what we do it.

 THE CHALLENGING

It is an ambitious, sweeping novel about friendships, artistic ambitions, and the distances
we’ll travel to preserve both.

 HOTEL IRIS

tale of sadomasochistic love, is mercifully short. I say "mercifully" because this is a novel
you find yourself reluctantly transfixed by. What also imbues Hotel Iris with an undeniable
magnetism is Ogawa's mastery of mood: This is such an off-beat, out-of-time story which
creates an intense vision of limited lives and the twisted ingenuity of people trapped within
them.