AUSTRALIAN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 6, 1988

Munsell Color Charts: A Necessity forArchaeologists?

RUDOLF RICHARD GERHARZ, RENATE LANTERMANN andDIRK R. SPENNEMANN
There is an increasing need among archaeologists todocument thecolours of theobjects theyexcavate. A
sound colour determination is needed to complete a usefuldescription. Furthermore itmay open newfields
of research since colours representan essential quality of theenvironmentwe perceive: theyarefull of hidden
meanings to the study of which human science has not yet sufficientlyapplied itself. Since colours are
extremelyhard to classify, theMunsell Color Charts which are based on a sound theoreticalmodel seem to
be a suitable means toproduce unequivocal results. However, theuser of these charts should be warned, a
number of obstacles may make a determination a difficultaffair. Therefore, she or he should know about the
theoreticalframework and the difficulties in applying it to particular materials of research. Colour
determination in archaeology may serve various aims. An assessment of thosefields of application already
tested,as well as other ones not yet sufficientlyexplored, is given.1 Rudolf G erharz and Renate Lantermann
are at theSeminar f?r Vor- undFr?hgeschichte, JohannWolfgang Goethe Universit?t, Frankfurt,Federal
Republic ofGermany, and Dirk Spennemann is at theDepartment ofPrehistory,Research School ofPacific
Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.

To thequestion 'What do thewords "red", "blue", "white",

base a perceived impression of colour on objects whose colour is
"black" mean,' we can easily point immediately to things
thatare so colored? but our ability to explain themeaning assumed to be commonly known: when we describe something as
of these words goes no further! 'sky blue' we mean that 'it appears to us to be as blue as the sky'. This
method admits of a whole spectrum of possible interpretations, as
Ludwig Wittgenstein was shown by the example of the archaeologist.

Besides analogies, we can employ arange of quantitative attributes

1. THE PROBLEM OF COLOUR DETERMINATION verbally to express colours more precisely. Yet these too only have
The quotation which prefaces this paper addresses a fundamental predicative value when they refer to something well-known. What,
for example, do we understand by a 'pure' red? In order to render this
difficulty: colours can only be talked about unequivocally as long as
'
all the interlocutors can actually see them. If, however, one of the precisely we would have to cite a comparison, something like: a red
receives the information exclusively from the oral or that is as pure as ...'. We would, therefore, at least have to name a
participants
written reports of one of the others, she or he must try to picture a verifiable object with the said colour characteristics. This similarly
itherself or himself. The to an attribute like 'middle'. Which middle is meant by
particular colour without having perceived applies
mental thus created will in the rarest cases something like a 'middle brown'? We could define this more
image thereby only
to the visual the other person was if we were first to determine the boundaries of brown.
correspond impression which precisely
stimulated to communicate. Almost everyone ? the issue of colour These examples can be multiplied; the same applies to 'light', 'dark',
blindness will be addressed below ? knows what ismeant by 'red', 'bright', 'strong', 'weak', 'pale' and so on.
'yellow', 'green' or 'blue' and can therefore also translate these terms
into colour images. But as soon as special tints or transitional areas colours can only inadequately
Since be described by verbal
whenever one wants to make
between colours are considered, the associated images take on a means, nowadays unequivocal
largely noncommittal character. statements, systematically constructed colour charts are used. Those
who are looking for the connection with archaeology may well ask
As an example, let us imagine an archaeologist who describes the whether an exact and theoretically well-founded description of
colour of a certain piece of pottery as 'brick red' in a publication. colour is really required by our science. We think that it is, because
Each one of the readers will instinctively see a particular red before archaeologists pre-eminently base theirpremises on objects and finds
her or his eyes that derives from personal experience; a red that, and consequently their science depends on the accuracy with which

according to the reader, corresponds most exactly to the colour of a they can describe these. The more exact and complete thedescriptions,
brick. However, the reader has in no way thereby defined a precise the greater is the area inwhich significant questions can be asked. It
colour tone. One can, withinlimits of course, picture a light or dark would be nonsensical to limit this arbitrarily, for example by replacing

red brick, or else bright or pale red; the redmay incline more towards metric lengths in a description of a find with imprecise data like
or
'immense'. In such a way, however, do those
orange or brown, have some pink in it, a bluish lustre and so on. The 'medium-long*
'brick red' that the reader pictures, therefore, does not have to be archaeologists proceed who still employ unclearly defined colour
terms in colour determination. Such methodically
absolutely the same as thatwhich the archaeologistoriginally perceived inadequate
the piece of pottery to be. 'Brick red' merely marks out a limit that procedure cannot be justified, especially since there is available a

leaves plenty of room for individual method of using theMunsell Color Charts, well-tested by colleagues,
interpretation. Generally,
can be more which renders determinations of colour possible that are both reliable
colours exactly designated only with the help of
and reproducible.2
analogies. Within theframework of colloquial speech, we frequently

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 2. MUNSELL'S SOLUTION3
WMTE
2.1 The concept
Most archaeologists will be familiar with the name Munsell through
theMunsell Soil Color Charts. These are small-format charts, in a
loose-leafed ring-binder, on which colour chips have been stuck in
rows. It is less well-known that these charts represent only a modest
extract from the farmore wide-ranging Munsell Book of Color and
that the name Munsell in fact stands for a theoretical model of colour

description which was conceived independently of special

applications.

The artist Albert H. Munsell was a lecturer at the Normal Art

School in Boston at the turn of the century. There, proceeding from
his experiences in class, he developed a concept of colour which

manages completely without the vague formulations of traditional

determinations. He interpreted impressions of colour as the interaction
*
of three visual variables which he called Value*. 'Hue'and 'Chroma*
and described separately.4 These three variables are the coordinates
of a spatial model with which one can clearly illustrate the totality of
the colours.5

12 Value
a black and white photograph
Let us now imagine thatwe produce Fig. 1: The colour solid with thefive principal Hues: Red', 'Yellow',
from a colour original. On it all the colourful details of the original 'Blue' and 'Purple'.
'Green',
are perceived as grey areas; the colours only differ from each other
in the reproduction by their degree of greyness. Dark colours are

represented darkgreytoblackand
inthephotographintherangefrom
lightones fromlightgrey towhite. Two equally lightcolours, a
red and a particular blue for example, can thereby represent The Hue scale is a means of defining differences and overlaps
particular
thesamedegreeofgrey;on thephotographtheyare indistinguishable between various fields of colour: every spatial difference on the scale
from each other. The lightness of a colour Munsell called' Value* and exactlycorrespondsto thevisualdifference
thereby perceivedby the
it as a scale of values that progresses from dark to light: eye. Via a defined number of steps one can proceed from one field
presented *
the darkest colour there is, absolute of Hue into another. Let us, for example, add touches of Yellow* to
'Zero* represents black, 'Ten*
a particular 'Blue*, thus moving along the scale in the direction of
represents the lightest colour, absolute white. In the intervening areas
are presented as 'Green*. *5R' concerns a colour that is visually equidistant from
lie all the perceptible gradations of colour, which
shades of grey on the black and white scale. 'Yellow' and from 'Purple'; '7.5R' on the other hand, displays a

slight affinity towards 'Yellow* and with '10R* this tendency ismore
23 Hue pronounced.
With the aid of the term 'Value* we can construct the colour model in
a vertical direction. We can arrange all perceptible colours according
to their various Values in a succession of ten horizontal positions. By
we attaina colour solidwith a base 'Black*(Value0) and
doing this
a vertex 'White' (Value 10). Since these values are both absolute
(there is only one darkest and only one lightest colour), we must
consequentlyportraythemas points.They shallbe thepoles of our
colour solid. Between these extremes of lightness runs its vertical
axis, which we can imagine as a progressively lightening sequence of
shadesof grey thehigheritgoes. All thecolourswhich differfrom
grey, black or white, those therefore that have a constituent of
'colour*, are arranged around this axis. In Figure 1 wc have

simplifiedthiscoloursolid intoa segmentedsphere.This iscomprised

of five segments which we call in sequence 'Red' (R), 'Yellow* (Y),
'Green* (G). 'Blue* (B) and 'Purple* (P). The area where the
individual segments meet is represented as a neutral colour axis.
With this sequence of colours circling the vertical axis we have a

picture of the second visual variable before us; Munsell called this
'Hue*. The Hue of a colour ismerely one of itsproperties and should
not be confused with the colour itself. The Hue 'Red', for example,
of all colourshaving theproperty'reddish*.
isdefinedby thetotality

The Hue scale portrayedinFigure 2 is laidout incircularform.

Ten sectors are differentiated, five of which we have already
enumerated above as segments of the colour solid: the principal Hues

(R,Y, G, B and P). These are expandedby theintroduction

of five
intermediateHues (YR.G Y. BG, PB andRP). Each of thesein total
ten sectors, represented by letters, is further divided into four sections
with the values 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10. Fig. 2: TheHue Scale.

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2.4 Chroma
In order to describe portrayed in Figure 1 fully, we
the colour model
must introduce Chroma as the third visual variable. In the spatial
model Figure 3 it is represented as the distance from the vertical axis,
and this gives information as to how intensely a particular Hue comes
to our attention; Munsell talked in this context about the saturation of
a colour. Along the axis there can be no colour saturation, there every
colour is grey and it follows thatChroma is also 'Zero' there. Only
when we distance ourselves from the axis and are able to distinguish
individual Hues does Chroma become quantifiable and determines,
ever more clearly the greater the distance from the axis, the character
of the respective Hue.

Whit*

tu
3

Black

Fig. 3: The variables Hue, Value and Chroma in their spatial

relativity.

Fig. 4: The Hue Charts as a spatial model.

With reference to the spatial model, the Chroma scale, like the
other scales, is subdivided into large, visually equal gradations whose
notations are whole numbers. 10 represents brilliant colours.
Chroma
The extreme Chroma is only attained in exceptional
value, which
cases, is Chroma 20. Owing to the fact that the Chromas, according a range of supplements (Hue charts of the value 5R,7.5R, 10Y,2.5GY
to their Hue, have theirmaxima in differing Value areas, the colour and a Grey Chart with selected greenish-grey and bluish-grey colours).
solid, represented in simplified form as a sphere in Figure 1, attains In their extended form the MSCC provide a useful tool for
a distorted shape following the outline of themaximal Chromas. archaeologists and can be employed in the registration of many
different materials (see Section 4). Usually only a selection of the
2.5 The Color Charts colours tobe found in theMBC are reproduced in the charts; as a rule,
The previously described colour sphere is a model which clearly they are confined to subdued tones only up to Chroma 8.

arranges all perceptible colours. Each colour is represented therein

by a particular point which is unequivocally fixed by the three Munsell Book of Color (MBC). This is themost extensive and
coordinates (angle of rotation), Value (height
of Hue on the axis), and expensive publication. It contains a complete series of 40 Hue charts
Chroma (distance from the axis). With the aid of thismodel, one can (all principal and intermediate Hues in steps of 2.5,5.0, 7.5 and 10).
establish colour charts by dissecting the colour solid into a series of Li contrast to theMSCC, all the colours are fully represented in the
slices and representing the colours thus made visible in the cut charts of theMBC.
surfaces by coloured chips. These slices should be so oriented that at
any given time one of the three variables remains constant: with Munsell Color Charts for Skin-Hair-Eyes Colors (MCCSHE). This
radial slices one obtains charts with constant Hues, with horizontal edition was specially developed from the MSCC for the use of

slices, Value charts, and with slices cut cylindrically round the axis, anthropologists. It contains eight Hue charts (5R-2.5 Y) and a special
tones.
Chroma charts. Most important are the Hue charts of which Figure card with divergent colour Colour determination of
4 represents a series in their spatial context. On such charts theValues anthropological material, insofar as it occurs in archaeological
are varied in rows and the Chromas in columns. contexts, such as bones and the remains of cremations, can be readily
carried out with theMSCC (see Section 4.7).
Munsell Color Charts are available in a range of different editions
that have been conceived for varying purposes. We shall limit Munsell Color Charts for Plant Tissues (MCCPT). These comprise
seventeen Hue charts (2.5R, 5R, 10R, 2.5 YR, 5YR, 7.5 YR, 2.5 Y, 5Y,
ourselves here to themost important for our context.
2.5GY, 5GY, 7.5GY, 2.5G, 5G, 7.5G, 5BG, 2.5B and 5RP) with
Munsell Soil Color Charts (MSCC). We have alreadymentioned the selected colours. This edition, in contrast to the MSCC and the
MSCC at the beginning of this section. They are a series of seven MCCSHE, embraces practically the entire Hue range (including
and Red areas (from 10R to 5Y) limited representations of 'Blue* and 'Green').
pocket-size Hue charts of theYellow
devised especially for on-site use. This edition can be augmented by

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2.6 Means of quotation It is further to be considered that the choice
of the right Hue
Colour codes. The notation of each colour is a combination of becomes more difficult the lower the Chromaof a colour, since, as is
numbers and letters. The order is always Hue, Value, Chroma and the illustrated by themodel of the colour, charts (Fig. 4), the distance
last two are divided by a slash '/'. The full Munsell notation of a between two neighbouring Hue charts gets ever smaller the nearer
*
colour with a Hue of '2.5 YR', a Value of *6 and a Chroma of '4', runs they approach the axis ?which, as already enlarged upon, is also
'2.5YR 6/4'. Munsell notations are codes that permit a reliable translated into a visual difference. For a whole range of archaeological
identification of colour independently of linguistic description. They materials then, which frequently have subdued colours (i.e. low
are, therefore, an internationally applicable means of communication Chromas), a determination of Hue is not always that simple.
unrestricted by any kind of linguistic boundaries.
3.2 Series determination
Colour names. All colour charts are classified into fields with fixed Whenever there are large quantities of material the person working
colour names. These designations must not necessarily correspond on them will often not be in a position to determine each object
to the colour perception of the user but should nevertheless be quoted individually. In this case the pieces will have to be sorted according
with the colour code when a determination is carried out. The colour to colour groups. For this one can define random limits or, better, take
'2.5YR 6/4' belongs, for example, in the range of 'light reddish into consideration discernible accumulations. Each colour group has
brown'. a notation as afield of colour read off on theMunsell scales of Hue,
Value and Chroma, rather than one single colour notation.
Neutral colours. Pure shades of grey carry thenotation 'N' ('neutral').
Since Hue and Chroma do not occur in them, specifying the relative 33 Sources of error
Value is sufficient for a complete description; 'N10' corresponds, for Munsell notations are not always unequivocal; apart from the human
to pure white (see Section 2.2). error and the individual colour perception, which will be referred to
example,
below, the determinations allow some uncertainty, above all when
Intermediate values. The human eye can distinguish variations in more difficult materials (like pottery) are valued. In order to
Hue of 0.5 units (in the case of middling Chromas), variations in investigate the relevance of this uncertainty, Frankel got several
Value of 0.1 units and variations inChroma of 0.4 units. Within this people to determine a series of sherds and to repeat the process at
7
scope thenearly 1500 colour chips of theMBC and themore than 300 varying intervals. This test was instructive in two ways: firstly,
of theMSCC (including the supplementary charts) appear some sherds were evaluated differently by different people and
chips
relatively modest. The probability that a sought-after colour is secondly, individuals recorded varying results when they repeated
represented in the available chips with anything approaching exactitude the test. The greatest divergencies were registered with one of the
is therefore slight but whoever wishes towork accurately beyond the sherds whose Hue was determined as being from 2.5YR to 5Y. Such
bounds of the given framework must interpolate. For Values and extreme variations were, however, relatively rare and occurred above
Chromas one should limit oneself to themiddle values which are all with problematical pieces; in the latter example, the anomalies can
given as decimals; with the notation '5YR 5.5/6.5', for example, be attributed to the sherd's very low Chroma (see Section 3.1). If, for
Value and Chroma have been interpolated. One can also determine each sherd, one takes into consideration only those values which were
values like '5.7' or '4.1' but how far this is meaningful remains clearly determined and excludes the 'extremes', then one can reduce
undecided. Interpolations in theHue field are much more difficult to the variations to relatively small amounts of 2.5 (more rarely 5.0)

carry out, since one is not dealing with individual colour chips units on theHue scale and 1 (or sometimes 2) units on theValue and

neighbouring each other but with separate leaves of the colour charts. Chroma scales. In some cases, especially when the results of
One can record the notations: '1.25*, '3.75', '6.25' and '8.75' in determination are equally divided between two neighbouring values,
addition to theHues portrayed on theMBC charts. the suspicion arises that the tester has neglected to interpolate.

The enlarged Hue scale. The Hue scale can also be subdivided into Irregular results can only partly be attributed to difficulties of the
a hundred steps. This version is represented in the outer ring of Figure type mentioned in Section 3.1 (interpolation, choice of the correct
2. With this form of notation, the letters used in the more usual colour chart, low Chroma etc.). There is, in addition, another more
method of notation are replaced by whole numbers which extend fundamental uncertainty with which the user of colour charts must
round the entire Hue circle from '0' to '100'. Hue '55' on the enlarged come to grips. This appears to be based less on themethod itself and
scale represents the conventional '5BG*. Notations according to the more on the inability of the human eye adequately to interpret colours

hundred-step scale are suitable for computer evaluations. under normal conditions. Let us amplify this somewhat more closely.

3. ON THE USE OF THE COLOUR CHARTS Surfaces of the object and homogeneity of themater ial. The colour
3.1 Generalities: difficulties chips of theMunsell charts are ideally shaped colour surfaces: they
a colour determination is relatively easy to conduct; have a uniform colouration and display no disturbing textures. The
Using Munsell,
one selects the relevant Hue chart and covers the object to be materials which the archaeologist generally has to evaluate are, in
determined with a grey mask or, if one is working with theMSCC, contrast, only in the rarest cases homogeneous, both in relation to
their colour and their texture. On closer inspection their surfaces can
lays itunder one of the apertures fixed under each colour chip. The
colour chip is be broken up into a variety of different areas:
object is then moved along until the corresponding grains, stains,
found.6 With theMBC amore discriminating method of determination inclusions etc., which generally also cause varying colour effects.
is also possible but we do not wish to discuss that here. This is often the case with pottery, stone, and soil profiles, more rarely
with (unoxidised) metals and glass. If one wants to determine the
The basic difficulty with the described procedure is the choice of colours of archaeological material using Munsell, one is thusfrequently
the right Hue chart. If this is picked out then an object's Value and forced to compare irregular surfaces, possessed by many of the
Chroma can be relatively easily determined. The choice of the objects inquestion, with the uniform surfaces of the colour chips. By
correct Hue chart is made more difficult when the Hue of the this processthe eye has to reduce a complex impression to a simple
one is thereby very easily confounded,
and on which
particular object is not specifically represented on one of the colour depending
charts but must be sought between two of the available charts (see components in the irregular colour surface are emphasised in the
Section 2.6: Intermediate values). perception.

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 In dealing with irregular colour surfaces then, the declaration of mainly employed, it is an undertaking of dubious value. This is
exact notations is subject to some uncertainty which varies according regrettable, forprecisely this evidence requires an exact and above all
to the degree of irregularity. The question is, therefore, whether after reproducible documentation, since by excavation we destroy this part
a certain point it is not more sensible to determine objects according of the site and a check of the data after closure of the excavation is
to fields of colour (as explained in Section 3.2), instead of declaring only in the rarest cases still possible. Munsell notations should
one pinpointed colour notation. On the other hand, however, provide a remedy here, as they have already been doing for some time
homogeneous colour surfaces will inmany cases be relatively easy in the soil sciences. They can be employed in the reconstruction of
to determine. the connections between finds, for example in correlating profiles in

separate excavation areas, assuming there are no lateral spatial

Colour blindness. Deficiencies in colour perception are common in changes in colour. They can do the same for temporally unconnected
about 4 per cent of all males and 0.4 per cent of all females. These excavation campaigns also. During the recording of the soil
deficiencies occur in grades, the extreme being total red-green characteristics, it should always be stated whether the colour of a
blindness. As a rule, slightly impaired individuals have problems profile was determined in a damp or a dry condition or whether an
with the colour perception of reddish hues in the YR range, while artificial moistening had been necessary. If possible, soil samples
among more impaired individuals theR and RPrange is also affected. should be taken to the laboratory and their colour determined in an
Colour tests to assess one's own ability to distinguish colours exist air-dried state to overcome inconsistencies.8
and it is advisable to undergo such an assessment (see Section 5).
43 Stone
4. FIELDS OF APPLICATION Rock material. Determinations of colour, as is customary in
4.1 remarks petrology, should be undertaken with thematerial in amoist condition,
Preliminary
As we have seen, although systematic colour determinations i.e. at a fresh break. Colours can be employed as criteria for raw
using
Munsell are dependent to a certain degree on personal value material classification but this ismeaningless if the stone's colour has
been altered by thermic influences.
judgements, they nevertheless represent a clear improvement on
arbitrary descriptions of colour. Their results can be reproduced
within a defined framework; every reader of an archaeological report Flint, obsidian etc. Here too, colours can help to classify raw
can, provided one has the colour charts to hand, transform aMunsell materials. When the material concerned is translucent, a colour
notation into an adequate colour impression. Munsell notations are determination similar to thatwith glass should ensue, using a white
Raw material classifications cannot, because of the
primarily a purely descriptive medium but can also, as will be shown background.
below, be used as an analytical means. colour, be carried out on patinated pieces and those that have

undergone thermic and thereby also colour alterations. On the other

The increasing significance of computers for data analysis may hand, precisely in the latter case itmight perhaps be possible to
induce archaeologists and anthropologists to seize connect the colour produced by burning with the temperature attained,
indiscriminately
the most varied data, even when as in the case of pottery firing by experiments (see Section 4.4). Such
they have, at the time of data
This can lead to an an investigation could help to illuminate the common problem of so
collection, no clear, pre-formulated questions.
in called 'burnt flints'.
unbridled flood of information (fittingly termed 'data pollution'
America) which hinders evaluation because it very easily diverts
attention from essentials. For this reason, one should ask oneself 4.4 Pottery
before one starts to document the material, how meaningful it is, General. Like organic material,pottery can, under particular storage
within the framework of the specific research application, to register conditions, acquire secondary colouration (see Section 4.7: General).
the colours of particular objects. Thus, for example, there is at present If necessary, this should be taken into account and sufficiently
no relevant line of questioning on the registering of the colour of iron documented when determining the colour. The strength of such

implements.
colouration probably depends on the porosity of the pottery and
thereby indirectly on its hardness after firing. In the structure of an
unweathered pottery sherd three zones of colour can commonly be
With colour determination always be clear as to what
one must
the ascertained values to the object itself (original
actually refer: distinguished, which we describe more closely below.
colour), its patina (weathering colour), the adherent layer of dirt
The surface colour. This is to be distinguished from the colour of the
(colour of uncleaned or insufficiently cleaned surfaces) or secondary
of ochre, the residue from pit latrines or actual clay body, particularly when the surface has been treated at the
colourations (by means
oxidised metals, for example) and whether the surface is wet or dry. time of manufacture. The following surface treatments, partly
In many cases a determination will only become meaningful when occurring in combination, should be distinguished at a determination

the objects or small test areas are specially prepared, i.e. when the of colour: (a) no special treatment, (b) smoothing, (c) polishing, (d)

layers of corrosion and contamination

are removed. Some materials glazing, (e) coating (includingslip), (f)painting.
can be coated with an opaque, whitish film which clearly adulterates
the original colour and which cannot be removed by washing. In The colour of the outer layers. This is the colour of the outer clay layer

order to neutralise the effect of this film the objects in question should (at the inner or outer side of the vessel), independent of the surface
be moistened when a determination is to be made. colour (see above). It is solely effected by the type of clay and special
conditions of the firing. It should be valued at a fresh break or on a

Below we present a collection of points, ordered according to freshly scraped test area.

material, on themeaningful determination of colour in archaeology

and anthropology which, as we shall expand, can also in several ways The colour of the core. This only concerns the central inner zone of

be of interest to ethnologists. We do not thereby wish to claim this the sherd and can differ from the colour of the outer layers.

collection to be complete. Bibliographical information is also

therefore largely foregone. We are primarily concerned with indicating Technique and length offiring. The differences in colour between the
and providing stimulation. core and outer layers of a sherd can provide information on the firing
possibilities
process. For example, a sherd which a low Value and
displays
4.2 Soil profiles Chroma at its core but clearly higher values in the outer layers, has

It is customary to document the colourationof archaeological strata. been first fired with reduced oxygen supply (this causes the darker,

However, as only more or less arbitrary designations of colour are mostly greyish or blackish colour in the core) and then with free

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oxygen supply (this causes the lighter, mostly reddish or yellowish examples of the latter, traces of mineral colouring agents and
colour in the outer layers). The relative length of the individual firing colourations frommetal grave goods might suffice. With insufficiently

phases can be determined by the thickness of the colour zones. documented bones frommuseum collections, colour determinations
Hulthen has used colour changes that occur with an experimentally could be used to fix their affiliation to particular excavation areas.
conducted secondary firing to make assertions about the mineral Bones from faunal assemblages have also been shown on occasion to

composition of the raw material in question.9 In this context, the be stained by cooking fluids, an observation from which cooking

approximate temperature at which a sherd was fired can also be practices might be reconstructed.
determined: its colour changes during a secondary firing when the

temperature surpasses that of the original firing. 4.8 Textiles

Due tounfavourable conditions of preserv ation, a colour determination
4.5 Glass of archaeological textile material will only be possible in exceptional
cases. Munsell notations could, however, render a valuable service
Glass objects, if they are translucent, should be determined in front
of a white background (Munsell N10); their own colour thereby with the systematic recording of ethnographic collections. Before
comes unadulterated to the fore. Corroded glass should be moistened conducting the determination it should be established whether the
before determination unless there are important reasons to the contrary. material's colour is natural, dyed or painted.
The falsifying effect of thewhitish-opaque film of corrosion will thus
be largely counteracted. Colour determinations of glass objects 4.9 Paintings
(above all of glass beads) can provide usable criteria for the By this we understand applications of colour in theirwidest senses:
differentiation of typological groups. In addition, it is conceivable rock paintings, mural paintings, body painting and painting of objects
that a direct connection can be made between the colour and the (see in this context Sections 4.4: Pottery and 4.8 Textiles). In the case
admixture of particular chemicals in the glass. of rock paintings, as long as the colours in question have not been
altered by weathering or sinter, an exact determination of colour can
4.6 Metal be employed to differentiate between styles.11 With mural paintings
Both the original colour and the patina colour of metal objects allow on the other hand, which with regard to colour can be much more
conclusions to be drawn. With copper alloys, for instance, one can varied, this would probably be substantially more difficult. Effects
find out more about the conditions surrounding the find via the colour of weathering and differential application of paint/pigment have to
of thepatina; abrown patina indicates having lain hermetically sealed be taken into account. In case of heavily weathered or thinly applied

(e.g. in a bog or river), whereas a green patina indicates oxydation. paint, the underlying rock surface is likely to show through, strongly
With some metals like
iron, however, it at present seems quite influencing the colour reading. Thus, as a general rule, it is advisable
pointless to document the patina colour. The original colour ofmetal to record the colour of the unpainted rock surface as well. If

objects can usually be determined on a surface free of impurities and differential application of pigments can be observed, it is advisable
corrosion. It is conceivable that, if appropriate reference values were to record the colour as an irregular colour surface (see Section 3.3)
worked out, they could provide direct, distortion-free information on rather than as pinpointed colour readings. The latter option, however,
the composition of copper alloys. may allow for spatial and/or chronological differentiation of

weathering, which may open new avenues of interpretation.

4.7 Solid organic matter
General. Organic substances usually have a porous structure. This 5. SUMMARYPOINTS
is pervious to water and under certain conditions makes the deep We would like to summarise the key issues of the determination of
deposit of different coloured matter possible. It is often impossible colours, which have been addressed above.
to remove these secondary colourations even by intensive washing.
In general, it is the alterations in the original colour, whether they be Individual colour perception. Everyone who works frequently with
caused by deposit conditions or special treatments, which make a Munsell Charts should check how reliably and accurately she or he
determination of colour relevant; they make assertions about the is able to address colours. One can do this by using a standard colour
find or, if it is a of intentional
original possible question colouration, test,12 or by laying out for comparison a small, numbered collection
allow conclusions tobe drawn about practical and technical procedures. of objects tobe determined (for example 20 pottery sherds), examining
We shall limit the following remarks tobones, because these constitute them several times at intervals of a few weeks and, in addition,
the bulk of solid organic finds. What is said about bones applies
repeating the test on different colleagues or friends. By means of a
similarly to ivory, horn and corresponding materials. tabular survey, on the one hand the reliability with which one is able
to reproduce one's own results and on the other the accuracy which
Burnt bones. The colour of burnt bones provides some information one develops in comparison with others, can be ascertained (see
about the temperature of the fire towhich theywere exposed. A most Section 3.3). The latter assessment is advisable ifcolour determinations
precise colour determination is in this case of importance. It can be of the same sample (for example a pottery collection) are to be made
satisfactorily carried out with theMSCC; two of the authors have
by a number of people.
tested this extensively on material from cremations. There are

experimentally ascertained correlations between Munsell notations determinations. Whenever extensive material is worked
Uniform
and fire temperatures.10 With cremation, which as a rule is extremely upon by several people, all the colour determinations should, if
the pieces that belong to one individual should all be
fragmented, possible, be carried out by one and the same person, so that a uniform
determined together as if theywere part of an irregular colour surface is guaranteed.
approach
(see Section 3.3). Pinpointed individual colour determinations are
are thereby clarified; it
if special questions
usually only meaningful Choice of the appropriate Munsell publications (see Section 2.5).
is conceivable, for example, that variations
of colour in fragments The MBC is the only publication with which one can register all
from different areas of the body, could provide information on the visible colours.
However, because of its prohibitive cost it is
position of the corpse on the funeral pyre. practically beyond themeans of private people, smaller institutions
and projects with limited funds. Most archaeological material can
Unburnt bones. Most interesting are discolourations of finds from nevertheless be determined with the appreciably cheaper MSCC,
grave contexts (including not only the bones but also implements and especially when the subject is coloured close to that of the earth, like
ornaments of bone, horn and ivory). The variations in colour can
pottery and stone (but also with a series of colour pigments). Outside
or ritual practices. As
generally be traced back to the effect of the soil the earthy shades of colour when blue and green shades occur, as in

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 glazed pottery, glass, metal (oxides), textiles and mural paintings, the 9. Under what conditions of illumination was the determination
MCCPT can be resorted to if it is not possible to refer to theMBC. conducted?

Accuracy of assertion. This depends on several factors: both on the

observer's accuracy of determination (see Section 3.3) and on NOTES
difficulties which occur with the use of the colour charts (see Section on a previous version of this
1. The following have commented
3.1) but also on uncertainties which the ev aluating of unhomogeneous Dieter Hollmann, Gerhard Lanz
paper: (from whom Figure 1
colour surfaces involves (see Section 3.3). A further circumstance
originates), Dorothee Livesey, Jens Liming, Christine Peschel,
that makes inaccurate work inevitable is the presence of large Karl-Friedrich Rittershofer, G?nther Smolla and Petar Stehli as
amounts of material which, owing to the expenditure of work, can no as
well an
anonymous referee; Friedrich Gl?ser from the
longer be determined individually (see Section 3.2). Farbwerke Hoechst obligingly provided us with information.
We would like to thank them all for their help. Rupert T.G.
Colour type. It should always be made clear whether the original
Livesey provided the translation of an earlier version. A version
colour of an object, the colour of its patina, some impurity or of this paper was published inGerman under the title 'Munsell
secondary colouration is being determined (see Section 4.1). Farbkarten: eine Notwendigkeit f?r Arch?ologen? Acta

PraehistoricaetArchaeologica 16 (1986) 177-87. This paper is

State of the colour surface. The colour surfaces to be determined are
dedicated to G?nther Smolla.
only seldom smooth and uniform; their condition can, to a certain
degree, influence colour perception. Itmust therefore be clarified
before the determination whether the material concerned has an 2. Munsell, A.H. 1971. A color notation, (12th ed.), Baltimore.
homogeneous or an unhomogeneous colour surface (see Section 3.3).
Furthermore, itmust be asked whether the surface to be determined
3. We are limiting ourselves to the Munsell Color Charts and
has undergone an intentional or natural manipulation: is it smoothed,
a series of other methods of determination. We are
ignoring doing
polished, glazed or does itbear a coating? With potsherds, is there a this because theMunsell Color Charts offer the best provisions to
difference between the colour of the surface area, the outer layers and
achieve a generally binding status. They can be obtained
through
the core?
Munsell Color, 2441 N. Calvert St, Baltimore, Maryland 21218.

They are relativelyexpensive: theMBC costsUS $500, the

of the surface to be determined. In the case of the
Preparation MSCC (single edition) US $49.50 and theMCCPTT (for
original colour of an object having to be determined but being
see Section 2.5) US $84. Of the
explanation othe abbreviations
concealed by impurities, patination or other coatings, a small test area
other methods of colour determination, it isworth mentioning the
on the object must be cleaned by washing or scraping. With glass and,
Swedish Colour Register (Skandinaviska F?rginstitutet AB,
ifnecessary, stone, the determination should be carried out in amoist
Riddergatan 38, P.O. Box 14038, S-10440 Stockholm) and the
condition. Such a measure is always to be considered when the
DIN Colour System DIN 6164. There are also, amongst others,
material to be determined is covered by a coating that cannot or may
a French, a Japanese and an American system (National Color
not be washed off.
System 'NCS'), about which we were unable to discover any
details. In addition to these, various other colour charts are
Test conditions. Where possible, the determination should be carried
available, like the colour chart for stamp collectors by Michel
out in daylight but not in direct sunlight. External colour influences,
Schwaneberger (1951) and the Colour Atlas by H. K?ppers
like bright wallpaper for instance, are tobe avoided. With objects that
published by Du Mont; these are relatively cheap but for our
have smooth surfaces, any reflections which may appear should be
requirements largely useless. There is also not much sense in
suppressed but if the surfaces are in strong relief the illumination
using special colour charts forparticular archaeological materials,
must be arranged so that only theminimum amount of shadow can
as was suggested, for example, by a working group on German
result.
medieval pottery (Erdmann,W. et al. 1984. Rahmenterminologie
zur mittelalterlichen Keramik in Norddeutschland,
Documentation. The result of each colour determination is to be
Arch?ologisches Korrespondenzblatt 14: 417-36), since the
quoted both as colour code and as colour name (see Section 2.6).
comparison of differing archaeological sites is thereby made
Moreover, within the framework of the colour determination the
more difficult. Neither is itmere formalism to ask that colours,
following questions should be looked into:
wherever possible, should be quoted as Munsell notations (see
Section 2.6). At some time in the future, assuming that several
1. Has the observer experience in using the colour charts?
systems of colour description establish themselves in
juxtaposition, it would be very laborious to bracket together,
2. How reliable and reproducible are her or his results?
under a common denominator, the differences produced by the
various systems. The suggestion made by E. Ettlinger and R.
3. Which Munsell was used?
publication
Steiger(Ausgrabungenin?ugst 111(1971): 19-23) todrawup
colour charts for the determination of Roman pottery according
4. Are homogeneous or unhomogeneous colour surfaces involved?
to archaeological requisites, to develop these further on the basis
of material and then to hand over the results of these endeavours
5. Were colour readings ascertained or were values
pinpointed to theMunsell Color Company for the compilation of a 'Roman
only determined within fields of colour?
Pottery Color Chart', can be regarded as an example of a useful
application. The connection to an overlapping system of colour
6. To what condition of the object does the determination refer
notation is thereby guaranteed.
soiled, weathered or patinated surface)?
(original,

7. Does the colour surface display manipulation of an intentional 4. Munsell's colour model is based on a much
older concept. At the
or natural kind? beginning of the nineteenth century, Phillip Otto Runge
(1777-1810), a German painter, created a 'colour
sphere' already
8. Was the colour surface specially prepared for the determination? representing the three visual variables defined by Munsell a
hundred years later. He wrote an essay on this matter entitled

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 Farbenkugel oder Konstruktion des Verh?ltnisses aller

Mischungen der Farben zueinander und ihrer vollst?ndigen

Affinit?t, which appeared in Hamburg in 1810. This paper was

illustrated with a series of sections through the colour sphere,
neatly illuminated with
water-colours, showing how closely
Runge matched Munsell's idea. Munsell would have known
about thispreparatory work fromWilhelm Ostwald (1853-1932)
who worked in the same field as him and was an acknowledged
ermentioned
authority on thehistory of science. Since Munsellnev
Runge's work, we would like to do so here.

5. Nickerson, D. 1969. History of theMunsell Color System, Color

Engineering7(5).

6. American Society forTesting andMaterials, n.d. Standard method

of specifying color by theMunsell system, reprinted fromAnnual
Book of ASTM standards.

7. Frankel, D. 1980. Munsell colour notation in ceramic description.

An experiment, Australian Archaeology 10: 33-7.

8. Hughes, RJ. & Sullivan, M. 1982. Geo archaeology inAustralia:

a review, inAmbrose, W. & Duerden, R (eds) Archaeometry; an
Australian perspective, Department of Prehistory, Research
School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University,
Canberra: 100-12.

9. Hulthen, B. 1976. On thermal colour test, Norwegian

Archaeological Review 9(9): 1-5; Shepard,A.0.1956. Ceramics

for the Archaeologist, Washington.

10. Shipman, P., Foster, G. & Schoeninger, M. 1984. Burnt bones

and teeth. An experimental study of colour, morphology, crystal
structure and shrinkage, Journal of Archaeological Science 11
(4): 307-25.

11. Van Riet Lowe, C. 1945. Colour in prehistoric rock paintings,

South African Archaeological Bulletin 1(1): 13-18.

12. e.g. The Farns worth Munsell 100 Hue test, available fromMunsell
Color Co. At this point we would like to draw attention to
automatised colour systems, such as reflectance
determination

spectrometers, the use of which

avoids individual perception
errors and takes the light conditions into account. These systems,

commonly used for colour quality control (Douse, T. 1986.

Colorimetry: present and future, Industrie Textile 1165: 382)

have also been applied to pigment analysis of paintings and

pottery. Such systems, however, are both expensive and usually

confined to a laboratory environment, making them unacceptable
tomany archaeologists.

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