Discuss the matters considered in carrying out the design of a piled

foundation with particular emphasis on the choice of pile type.

(by S S LAM, Oct 1991)

1. INTRODUCTION

Because of the trend that large and complex structures are needed to

be constructed on sites with unfavourable ground conditions, the use of

piled foundation as supports to these structures seems inevitable in order

to transmit loads from the structure through weak subsoil strata down to a

load bearing stratum.

To start with the design of a piled foundation, a designer shall

determine the pile type to be used. Since different conditions entail

different considerations towards the choice of pile, care in the selection

is very important for achieving an economic design.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF PILES

Types of pile can be broadly classified into displacement piles and

non-displacement piles. Displacement piles include solid section or hollow

section piles with a closed end, which are driven or jacked into the ground

and thus displace the soil. Driven piles and driven cast-in-place piles are

of this kind. Non-displacement piles are formed by casting concrete into

preformed shafts sunk into the ground by means of boring with various

mechanical plants or simply by manual excavation with pneumatic tools.

Bored cast-in-place piles and hand dug caisson are typical examples of this

type.
3. CHOICE OF PILE TYPE

3.1 Location of Site

Before choosing the type of pile for a given structure, it is

necessary, as the first step, to carry out a general review of the site

constraints towards the construction of piles. If the structure is to be

constructed in a developed urban area, consideration must be given to

minimizing nuisances to the neighbouring residents. In this regard, driven

piles are not recommended because of the noisy driving operation. In

addition, the vibration generated during pile driving may be detrimental to

adjoining structures. Thus, favour shall be given to bored cast-in-place

piles or hand dug caisson.

In some circumstances where the operation of pile installation using

large mechanical plant is restricted by limited working space such as

limited headroom, the designer shall consider to adopt hand dug caisson as

it only requires simple installation equipment.

For structures that are to be built above water, driven piles are more

preferable. Driven pile can readily be installed to be projected above

water level which makes it particularly favourable in marine structures.

Bored cast-in-place piles may also be considered but permanent casings are

required to form the pile shaft in water.

3.2 Ground Condition

Ground condition is another factor governing the choice of pile type.

If the soil encountered is liable to heaving, driven or driven cast-in-place

piles are not suitable for use because their soil displacement character may

cause previously driven piles to `rise' and, more seriously, jeopardise the

stability of adjacent structures. Driven or driven cast-in-place piles are

also not recommended if the site is underlaid by boulders (which is common

in fill or colluvial soil). Obstructions caused by the existence of

boulders may cause severe disruption to the progress of work. Thus, bored

cast-in-place piles or hand dug caisson are more preferable.

If marine clay is underlying the proposed site which is usually the

case for reclaimed land, bored cast-in-place piles are not preferable

because the concrete in the bored shaft is liable to the effect of

`squeezing' or `necking' unless permanent casings are used.

Bored cast-in-place piles and hand dug caisson are not suitable for

sites which are subject to high ground water table. Extensive dewatering is

required in the case for hand dug caisson in order to allow the work to

proceed in a dry condition which in turn may cause unacceptable settlement

to the adjacent ground. Besides, the formation of the shaft for hand dug

caisson and bored cast-in-place pile may entail the problem of 'piping'

under the effect of the ground water.

The depth from the existing ground to the bearing stratum is also a

crucial point to consider in design a piled foundation. Driven pile are not

suitable for site with shallow bearing stratum because they may not be

securely fixed to resist the loads from the superstructure above. Bored

cast-in-place piles rigidly toed into bedrock give a more secure fixity. On

a contrary, if the bearing stratum is very deep beneath ground, driven piles

are more preferable as they can be designed as friction piles which enable

them not necessarily to be founded on rock. Thus, the pile length required

will be much shorter than that for a bored cast-in-place pile.

3.3 Time Constraint

The period of time allowed for the construction of a piled foundation

presents a factor affecting the choice of the pile type. The construction

time required depends on the length of the pile, the equipment to be

mobilized and the complexity of the installation process. Under suitable

conditions, driven piles are usually more preferable if the construction

time allowed is relatively short. The reason is that the piles are readily
to be installed and the operation is straightforward compared with cast-in-

place piles.

3.4 Cost of Construction

Cost is often the major factor governing the choice of pile type for a

piled foundation. It is always preferable to derive a piled foundation

which satisfies the functional requirement as a support to a superstructure

and at the same time costs least to the client of the project. Thus, great

care must be taken in comparing the cost for installing different types of

pile before deciding which of them to be used.

In assessing the cost for constructing a piled foundation, the

designer shall consider the cost of materials, the cost for mobilizing the

required machinery, the labour cost and the cost for overcoming obstructions

during the installation of piles. He shall also include the construction

cost of the pile cap which is likely to be different for different piles.

Furthermore, the designer shall consider the construction time required.

For instance, a higher cost of construction spent for a faster method of

pile installation may be compensated by the money saved due to the earlier

completion of the work.

3.5 Loading

Loading is also a key factor for determining the type of pile used in

a piled foundation. If the working load on the pile is large, it will be

more economical to use bored cast-in-place piles for supporting the load.

The reason is that the bored cast-in-place piles can be formed in very large

diameters and provided with enlarged bases which are very suitable to

withstand high working loads from heavy structures.

4. CONCLUSIONS

In carrying out the design of a piled foundation, a number of factors

such as the general site conditions, the ground conditions, the time of

construction and the cost of construction must be considered. These factors

are clearly interrelated and consideration shall be given to all the factors

in order to arrive at the most suitable pile type in a given situation.

There is no single type of pile which is both technically and economically

appropriate for every structure, site or set of ground conditions. Owing to

the many different situations, proper exercise of judgement by the designer

is essential to make the best possible choice.