THE ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, 538 : 105È114, 2000 July 20

( 2000. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A.

RELATIVISTIC WINDS FROM COMPACT GAMMA-RAY SOURCES. II. PAIR LOADING AND
RADIATIVE ACCELERATION IN GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
CHRISTOPHER THOMPSON1 AND PIERO MADAU2,3
Received 1999 August 27 ; accepted 2000 February 18

ABSTRACT
We consider the e†ects of rapid pair creation by an intense pulse of c-rays propagating ahead of a
relativistic shock. Sidescattered photons colliding with the main c-ray beam amplify the density of scat-
tering charges. The acceleration rate of the pair-loaded medium is calculated and its limiting bulk
Lorentz factor related to the spectrum and compactness of the photon source. One obtains, as a result, a
deÐnite prediction for the relative inertia in baryons and pairs. The deceleration of a relativistic shock in
the moving medium and the resulting synchrotron emissivity are compared with existing results for a
static medium. The radiative efficiency is increased dramatically by pair loading. When the initial
ambient density exceeds a critical value, the scattering depth traversed by the main c-ray pulse rises
above unity and the pulse is broadened. This sets an upper limit to the preburst mass-loss rate of
D10~5 M per year and places signiÐcant constraints on c-ray burst progenitors. An anisotropic c-ray
Ñux (on an_angular scale !~1 or larger) drives a large velocity shear that greatly increases the energy in
the seed magnetic Ðeld forward of the propagating shock.
Subject headings : cosmology : theory È gamma rays : bursts È radiation mechanisms : nonthermal

1. INTRODUCTION highest energy photons provide most of the momentum.

Physical models for c-ray emission from a relativistic
Ðreball, and the ensuing synchrotron emission from the
decelerating shock, have generally neglected the feedback of
the intense c-ray Ñux on the dynamics of the Ðreball, and on
the prompt and delayed emission. There are, however,
several reasons to believe that this interaction can have an
important inÑuence on the observed multiwavelength emis-
sion from c-ray bursts (GRBs). Pair creation by high-energy
photons will raise the radiative efficiency of a shock
(Thompson 1997), andÈif the ambient medium is sufficient-
ly denseÈit will signiÐcantly smear and broaden the
observed time proÐle of the prompt GRB. The pairs also
carry net forward momentum which will couple e†ectively
to the ambient medium if this contains a strong enough
magnetic Ðeld. In this work we extend previous results on
radiative acceleration in the Thomson (Noerdlinger 1974 ;
OÏDell 1981 ; Phinney 1982 ; Kovner 1984) and Klein-
Nishina (Madau & Thompson 2000, hereafter Paper I) scat-
tering regimes to include the e†ects of pair creation.
Attenuation of the high-energy c-ray spectrum by collisions
with soft photons was calculated by Baring & Harding
(1997), but the dynamical e†ects of pair creation and the
feedback of radiative acceleration on the scattering depth
were not considered in that work. The role of pair creation
in accelerating a transrelativistic outÑow from a black hole
accretion disk with a hard X-ray spectrum has been con-
sidered recently by Beloborodov (1999).
The plan of this paper is as follows. In ° 2 we calculate the
rate of acceleration by a thin shell of c-rays, some of which
sidescatter o† ambient charges and collide with the main
c-ray beam. We show that acceleration is much faster (for a
given compactness) than in the Thomson limit because the
1 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of North Carolina,
CB 3255, Chapel Hill, NC 27599.
2 Institute of Astronomy, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA,
England.
3 Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of California, Santa
Barbara, CA 93106-4030.
105
The reduction in the mean inertia per scattering accom-
panying pair creation signiÐcantly increases the limiting
Lorentz factor over the value for a baryonic plasma. In ° 3
we apply these results to GRB afterglows. We consider the
deceleration of a relativistic shock propagating into a
medium that is itself moving at bulk relativistic speed and
show how the timescaling of the synchrotron emission is
modiÐed from the case of a static medium. We estimate the
limiting ambient density above which the c-ray pulse expe-
riences a large optical depth to scattering. Finally, we note
that angular variations in the radiative force will excite non-
radial shear Ñows in the ambient medium that can greatly
amplify the preexisting seed magnetic Ðeld.
In the following we will denote by x and x the incident
and scattered photon energies in units of sm c2 in the
(unprimed) lab frame and with ! \ (1 [ b2)~1@2 e the bulk
Lorentz factor of the Ñow.
2. PAIR LOADING
Gamma-ray sources of high compactness are opaque to
photons that move at an angle with respect to the c-ray
Ñow. When the source spectrum extends to an energy x ? 1,
even soft photons will create pairs via cc ] e`e~, with a
cross section close to Thomson near threshold. This implies
that the source of c-ray radiation must itself expand at rela-
tivistic speed. When the photons are beamed into a narrow
angle h along the direction of motion, the threshold energy
for pair production within the beam is increased to
x D h~1. In Paper I we calculated the radiative acceleration
of matter exposed to a strong source of c-rays, including the
full Klein-Nishina (KN) suppression of the scattering cross
section, but did not include the e†ects of pair creation.
However, the same Compton-scattering process that accel-
erates material sitting close to a c-ray source also creates
side-moving photons. When the integrated Ñux of photons
of energy x º 1 is large, each sidescattered photon deposits
its entire momentum, along with the momentum of a second
colliding photon, into an electron-positron pair. The
buildup of a pair plasma (““ pair loading ÏÏ) through this
106 THOMPSON & MADAU Vol. 538

process, and the bulk acceleration that ensues, will be the x@ \ x!(1 [ b). A similar relation, x@ \ x !(1 [ b cos h@),
s s s
subject of this section. holds for the photon after scattering. The scattering angle in
the frame of the charge is given by cos h@ \ (cos h [ b)/
2.1. Radiative Acceleration (1 [ b cos h ). The lab frame energy xB before s scattering
s can
s
At very high compactness, the source of c-rays must be be related to the energy xB following scattering through
impulsive ; otherwise, the assumption of low-scattering s
optical depth in the accelerating medium is not self- !xB(1 [ b cos h )
xB \ s s , (6)
consistent. We approximate the photon source as a radially (1 [ b)! [ (1 [ cos h )xB
propagating shell situated at c(t [ *t) \ r \ ct. We found s s
in Paper I that, in the Thomson limit, a test particle surÐng which approaches xB ] xB(1 [ b cos h )/(1 [ b) in the
s s
the photon shell attains a limiting Lorentz factor Thomson limit (x@ \ x@). In these variables, the cross section
s

! \ c
q m
e
A B (1)
for the collision between photons A and B (scattered) is
3 C 1]m A B D
max 2 k p \ p (1 [ m2) (3 [ m4) ln [ 2m(2 [ m2)
cc 16 T 1[m
when the shell is thin enough that the acceleration length is
much less than the radius, (7)

2 (Jauch & Rohrlich 1976), where

!2 c*t > r .
3 max
(2)
m\
S 1[
2
. (8)
The parameter xAxB(1 [ cos h )
s s
F The cross section reaches a maximum of 0.25p at xA \
q 4 p *t (3) 2xA (m \ 0.71). T
c T m c2 min
e Most of the momentum deposited through this process
is expressed in terms of the integrated energy Ñux involves the sidescattering of very soft photons, which

F\
P F dx (4)
collide with hard c-rays to produce energetic (and almost
radially moving) pairs. The minimum (threshold) energy of
x the radial photon can be expressed as a function of the
and characterizes the column density of photons N energy and propagation angle of the sidescattered photon,
through the shell, q D p N SxT. When the particles arec
c Ðeld
coupled by a magnetic c the electrons and positrons
T and 2
xA (xB, h ) \ . (9)
are cold, the mean mass per scattering charge is min s s xB(1 [ cos h )
s s
A
k \ m ] m 1 ] 2 e`
B
n ~1
. (5)
Thus, a photon of energy xB > SxT that is sidescattered
through an angle Dh creates s a pair of energy xpair D
e p n s
p 4/h2 xB. During the Ðrst stages of the acceleration, this pair
(We assume for simplicity a hydrogen plasma and neglect wills bes relativistic in the bulk frame,
the inertia of the original neutralizing electron component,
but not of the pairs.) The term m in this expression must be xpair
e k 4 4 Sc Tm when the 2c (injected) D ?1 . (10)
replaced with the relativistic inertia e (1 ] b)!
electrons and positrons are hot. e 3 e e
(Recall that the photon beam is assumed to be radially
The optical depth to pair creation is proportional to the
streaming.)
optical depth parameter q , which is in turn proportional to
c In the presence of a sufficiently strong magnetic Ðeld, this
the duration *t of the c-ray pulse and the source com-
momentum is e†ectively communicated to the other
pactness l \ L p /(4nkc3R). Here, R and L are the source
T charges. Inspection of equation (39) in Paper I shows that
radius and luminosity, respectively. We assume that the
this coupling rapidly becomes stronger as ! increases. In
incident spectrum is broadband, extending well above and
the case of a c-ray Ðreball of duration *t D 10 s and photon
below x D 1. As long as q ? 1, even a soft photon that is
c optical depth q D 300 (eq. [3]), propagating into an inter-
stellar medium c(ISM) with B D 3 ] 10~6 G, the coupling
sidescattered can be absorbed by the main photon beam.
The accelerating material is, in this situation, photon-rich : a 0 frame energy xpair D few.
is strong only for pairs of lab
sidescattered photon that Ðnds itself above the pair creation
However, above a Lorentz factor
threshold has a much higher probability of colliding with
another photon than of Compton scattering a second time.
Indeed, the number of scattering particles in the rela- ! D 3.5
A B
0
B A c
B A B
~1@5 q /*t 1@5 xpair 2@5
(11)
3 ] 10~6 G 30 s~1 100
tivistically expanding material that emits the photons is
suppressed by a factor of !~1 with respect to the number of even energetic pairs deposit their entire momentum. In the
photons. process, all particles will share a bulk radial Lorentz factor.
We now calculate the momentum deposited when a (soft) In the calculations that follow, we assume that B is strong
photon B is sidescattered through an angle h and collides enough (and *t long enough) to assure e†ective0coupling ;
with a (hard) photon A. The combined processs of scattering but this constraint should be kept in mind when applying
followed by pair creation deposits a net forward momentum the formulae below.
(xA ] xB)m c in the accelerating medium. When the scat- When q ? 1, each newly created e`e~ Compton cools
e is cold, the initial energy of the scattered c photon beam. Indeed, it drops to an energy far
tering charge on the main
photon in the rest frame of the scattering charge is below the injection energy over the time that the medium
No. 1, 2000 RELATIVISTIC WINDS FROM COMPACT c-RAY SOURCES. II. 107

accelerates ; this starting assumption will be justiÐed a pos- The value of the second term in the brackets depends on the
teriori in ° 2.2. In the process of scattering o† an anisotropic importance of secondary pair creation. During the last
radiation Ðeld, the cooling particle absorbs an additional stages of acceleration ( f ^ 5 ), one has k ^ m and N ^
3 e e mult
momentumÈsimilarly to what happens in the Compton 1 (° 2.2). Otherwise, we substitute f \ 1 and expression (13)
rocket (OÏDell 1981 ; Phinney 1982). The e†ect of this for N and Ðnd that the quantity in brackets is (xA ] xB)
mult
Compton afterburn on the net momentum deposited in the multiplied by (1 [ 1 b)/(1 ] b). Both these results can be
3
medium depends on whether the Compton-scattered expressed in terms of a b-dependent Compton afterburn
photons are absorbed by pair creation. When they are not parameter

0
absorbed, the net e†ect is to increase the total momentum
absorbed per photon collision to 45
(no secondary pair creation) ;
f ] (xA ] xB)m c . 3

0
(12) f \5 (17)
e b 1 [ b/3
Because the magnetic Ðeld becomes nearly transverse as the (secondary pair creation).
medium accelerates, the numerical factor works out to f \ 5 6 1]b
3
(Paper I). Secondary pair creation can be neglected after the
bulk Lorentz factor reaches a critical value, but during the The photon shell will be parameterized by a radial coor-
early stages of the acceleration the sidescattered photons dinate -, measured from its inner boundary,
are absorbed. The net e†ect then is to cancel the additional
r \ c(t [ *t) ] - . (18)
momentum absorbed by the cooling charge and to force
f ] 1. We discuss further details of the pair-photon cascade The scattering occurs at position - and time t , and the
induced by the injection of an energetic pair in ° 2.3 and for collision at position - and time t . sHence, s
now summarize this process in terms of mean relativistic B B
inertia k ^ 4 Sc Tm of the daughter eB and a multiplicity - [ - \ c(t [ t ) cos h . (19)
factor Ne 3. When
e e secondary pair creation can be s B B s s
mult The intensity I(xB, h ) of sidescattered photons is related to
neglected, one has N ^ 1 ; otherwise,
the Ñux F (xB) ofs unscattered
mult s
radiation in the thin shell (cf.
xA ] xB x
^ eq. [2]) via
2Sc TN
e mult (1 ] b)!
.

The quantity on the right-hand side is the total energy of

(13)

I(xB, h , - ) \
P
c*t
(2n ` ] n )F (xB)(1 [ b)
dp
s s B e p x d)
the injected pair in the bulk frame. –B
Let us now calculate the rate of acceleration due to injec- ] exp [[q (xB, h , - [ - )]d- . (20)
tion of energetic pairs which cool down rapidly o† the main cc s s s B s
photon beam, to a mean Lorentz factor Sc T > SxA ] xBT. Note that the radial position - of the scattering site within
e s
In the Ñuid approximation, the rate of change of the bulk the photon shell always lies outside the position - of pair
B
creation because the radial speed of the sidescattered
momentum is given by
photon is less than c. The optical depth to pair creation
L experienced by the sidescattered photon is
Lt
[!2bc(2k n@ ` ] m n@ )]
e e p p
] + Æ [b!2bc2(2k n@ ` ] m n@ )] q (xB, h , - [ - ) \
P
–B d-@ = P F (xA)
dxA x
cc s s s B c xA
P
\ (xA ] xB) f x
F (xA) I(xB, h )
s s
e e p p –s xAmin(xBs,hs)
] (1 [ cos h )p [xA/xA (xB, h )] . (21)
s cc min s s
xA xB
s When the optical depth along the ray from - to - is
] p (1 [ cos h )dxA dxB d) , (14) s
B by side-
cc s s much larger than unity, the momentum deposited
where the bulk-frame charge densities are denoted by a scattering and pair creation is localized, and the xA integral
prime. The rate of pair creation induced by sidescattering of can be performed directly :
soft photons per unit volume is
L P F (xA) I(xB, h )
d f
(!b) \ b
P dxB
(SxAT ] xB)F (xB)(1 [ b)dp s , (22)
(!n@ `) ] + Æ (!bcn@ `) \ N x s s dt kc2 x xB
Lt e e mult xA xB s
s where we have made use of equation (5) for the mean mass k
] p (1 [ cos h )dxAdxB d) . (15) per scattering charge. The average energy of the unde-
cc s s
The Compton force acting on transrelativistic or sub- Ñected, radial photon is
relativistic particles has been neglected.
Substituting the equations of continuity into equation / F (xA)p dxA
SxAT 4 x cc (23)
(14) yields / F (xA)p dxA/xA
x cc
d!b L!b 1 after weighting by cross section and photon spectrum. We
\ ] cb Æ +(!b) \ write
dt Lt m (2k n ` ] m n )c5
PC
] (xA ] xB) f [ e N
k A B
e e e
2!b
p p
x
D
F (xA) I(xB, h )
s s
SxAT(xB, h ) \ k(a)xA (xB, h)
s s min s
(24)
m mult xA xB
e s from here on. The constant k is plotted as a function of
]p (1 [ cos h )dxAdxB d) . (16) high-energy spectra index in Figure 1.
cc s s
108 THOMPSON & MADAU Vol. 538

bound on the energy of the scattered photon is

2k 4k!2
xB [ D . (29)
s xpair(1 [ cos h ) xpair
max s max
This energy sits below (above) the break energy x when !
is less than (greater than) 2!*, where br

1
!* \ (x xpair)1@2 . (30)
4k1@2 br max
Thus, the supply of sidescattered photons is smaller when
FIG. 1.ÈL eft : The function k(a) (eq. [24]), plotted against spectral ! [ 2!*, and the acceleration rate is reduced accordingly.
index a. Right : The function k (a) (eq. [27]). We Ðrst calculate the acceleration at low Lorentz factors,
2
! > !*. The softness of the sidescattered photons allows us
to perform the integral (22) over xB in the Thomson regime,
It is now necessary to prescribe the incident radiation s
dxB/xB \ dxB/xB. At this stage of the acceleration, SxAT \
spectrum. We assume a simple broken power-law form, s s
xpair ? xB. Setting a lower bound (29) to xB, we obtain
appropriate for GRB sources, with photon number Ñux (per
logarithm of energy) constant below a break energy x D 1
and photon index a above the break : br
max
d
(!b) ^ b max x br
A B
f xpair F (x ) m
s
e (1 [ b) dp ,
P (31)
dt m c2 k
e
04 F (x )
F (xA) \ 5 x br
xA \ x ;
br and we have
x 06 Fx(xbr)(xA/xbr)~a`1 xA [ xbr .
For the assumed spectral shape, low-energy photons (x \
(25)
d A BA B
xpair m 1 [ b
(!b) \ f q@ max e (! > !*) . (32)
dt b c x k *t
x ) are sidescattered at a slightly higher rate than are br
br
photons near the break energy x (the scattering cross It is worth recalling the physical origin of the various
br low-energy photons factors in this expression : f is the Compton afterburn
section is not KN-suppressed). These b
then pair produce o† photons of energy x ? x and deposit parameter (eq. [17]) which describes the inÑuence of sec-
br ondary Compton scattering and pair creation on the net
a relatively large momentum. It will be convenient to intro-
duce the modiÐed parameter momentum injected per high-energy pair ; q@ (eq. [26]) is a
dimensionless parameter, proportional to thec energy Ñux at
x F x F frequency x and comparable to the optical depth to c-c
q@ \ q br xbr \ p *t br xbr , (26) br
c c F T m c2 collisions through the photon shell ; xpair (eq. [28]) is the
e
maximum energy of the injected pair in max the lab frame (above
which rescales q by the ratio of the energy Ñux at frequency
c
x to the total energy Ñux.
which the optical depth to pair creation through the shell is
brThe energy of the sidescattered photon cannot, however, small) ; k (eq. [5]) is the mean inertia per scattering charge ;
and *t is the temporal width of the photon shell.
be taken to be arbitrarily small. When xB > 1, the radiation
shell becomes optically thin to pair creation. s This leads to
To approach the high Lorentz factor regime (where
! ? 2!*), we approximate the scattering charges as being
an upper bound on the energy of the photo-pair, which we
cold, Sc T \ 1 and k \ m . This approximation turns out
now evaluate. Each sidescattered photon overlaps the shell e e regime
e
to be justiÐed, as in this the time for freshly injected
for a time D*t/(1 [ cos h ), but the collision rate is pro-
portional to (1 [ cos h )p s. The optical depth to pair cre-
pairs to Compton cool in the bulk frame is short compared
ation therefore dependssoncch only implicitly through xA :
with the acceleration time (° 2.2). Since the minimum value

*t =P
s
F (xA)
min of xB lies above x , the frequency dependence of F gives an
additional factor br
of
x
q (xB h ) \
cc s s m c2 A B
e xmin(xs ,hs)
dxA x
xA C
1 xpair x (1 [ b)(1 [ cos h ) a~1
max br s
D (33)
] p [xA/xA (xB, h )] a 2k(1 [ b cos h )
cc min s s s
p *t after performing the integral over xB. Here the factor in
4 k (a)F [xA (xB, h )] T [ 1 . (27) s value of xB before
2 x min s s m c2 brackets is x divided by the minimum
e br
scattering (eqs. [6] and [29]). After substituting the relation
The dimensionless function k is plotted against spectral (1 [ cos h )/(1 [ b cos h ) \ (1 [ cos h@)/(1 ] b), the accel-
index a in Figure 1. DeÐning a2 characteristic optical depth s can be expressed
eration rate
s
as
s
q@ (eq. [26]) through the photon shell at frequency x , and
c
noting that in general xA ? x one gets an upper br bound d
(!b) \ b
A
br max
B
2f k x xpair a F (x )
x br (1 [ b)
on the mean energy xpair min
\ SxA br ] xBT ^ SxAT, dt a 2x k m c2
xpair
max \ k k c
A B
q@ 1@(a~1)
. (28)
P C
br e
] d)@ (1 [ cos h@)
1 [ b a~1 dp D, (34)
x 2x s 1]b d)@
br br
This upper bound is approximately independent of the scat- which becomes
tering angle h (even though the most probable energy of
s photon that collides to form a pair of
the sidescattered d A BA B
xpair
(!b) \ f q@ max
!* 4 1
(! ? !*) (35)
energy xpair does depend on h ). The corresponding lower dt b c x ! 2(!*)2*t
max s br
No. 1, 2000 RELATIVISTIC WINDS FROM COMPACT c-RAY SOURCES. II. 109

for a \ 2. This expression matches onto equation (32) at at 1 > ! > !*, and
! \ !*.
Let us compare the rates of acceleration just derived with t0 A B
4f k ! ~4
cool \ b (42)
the corresponding expression t0 x2 !*
d! m R
\ !2(1 [ b)2l e
A B. (36)
accel br
at ! ? !*. The equilibrium Lorentz factor works out to
Sc T ^ 1.4!~1(xpair/100)1@2 for a pair-loaded plasma
dr k r2 e max
moving slowly (! \ !*).
for Thomson scattering without pair creation (Noerdlinger
1974 ; Paper I). When 1 > ! > !*, the acceleration rate (32) 2.3. Relative Inertia in Pairs and Baryons
is larger by D2f xpair than for Thomson scattering by a
b max The distribution of inertia between (cold) pairs and
spectrum localized near x ; and when ! ? !* the acceler-
br baryons within the accelerated material has important
ation rate (35) is larger by D2f xpair(!/!*)~2.
b max implications for the radiative efficiency of the forward
Pair creation no longer increases the speed of the bulk
shock. The number of pairs multiplies greatly as each hard
Ñow when two colliding photons of comparable energy,
eB (of bulk-frame energy c D xpair/4!) cools by side-
xB D xA D 2k/xB(1 [ cos h ) D xpair have an optical depth e max
s s max scattering the photon beam. During the initial stages of the
to pair creation that is close to unity. The resulting
acceleration, the sidescattered photons are well above the
maximum Lorentz factor is
AB
pair creation threshold ; little additional momentum is
xpair k 1@2 absorbed from the photon beam when they collide with soft
!pair D max \ (k xa~2 q@ )1@(a~1) . (37) photons. The momentum imparted to the medium by the
max J2k 2 2 br c
cooling of the hard eB is canceled. In this regime, f ^ 1.
Continued scattering in the pair-loaded Ñow increases its Balancing the radial momentum density in the lab frame,
speed further : the limiting Lorentz factor is under the assumption that each injected hard pair leads to
N ? 1 softer pairs with an isotropic distribution in the
! ^ 1q , (38) multframe, we obtain
bulk
max 2 c
from equation (1). This is comparable to equation (37) for n
a \ 2 but larger for softer high-energy spectra. We conclude xpair e` m c \ !(2k n ` ] m n )c . (43)
max N e e e p p
that the main e†ects of pair creation are (1) to increase the mult
rate of acceleration at low Lorentz factor and (2) to reduce Here k \ 4 Sc Tm when the pairs are at least mildly rela-
tivistic eand3 thee multiplicity
the mean mass per scattering charge to k ^ m , thereby e
N is given by xpair/4!Sc T
allowing much higher terminal Lorentz factors. e (eq. [13]). This equation invertsmult
to max e

2.2. Mean Energy of the Pairs in the Bulk Frame 2n ` k

e e\2 . (44)
It remains to calculate the mean energy Sc T of the pairs m n
e assumption p p
in the bulk frame and show that our starting The medium becomes very heavily loaded by pairs as it
that Sc T > xpair is self-consistent. During the Ðrst stages of accelerates to bulk relativistic speed (where Sc T ^ 1). The
e
acceleration, maxelectron or positron will be injected with a
an e
fraction of the inertia carried by the hadrons becomes
characteristic energy cmax D 1 xpair and will cool o† the
radial photon Ñux whene x > 2 xmax
pair. At the same time, the m n 1
br
accelerated medium is compressed max(Paper I), and the pairs f \ p p ^ (45)
h 2k n ` ] m n 3
are adiabatically heated at a rate Sc T~1[dSc T/dt] \ e e p p
e
1 n@~1(dn@/dt) \ 1 !~1(d!/dt). The equilibrium e
energy Sc T in this regime.
3that results from3 a balance between compressional heating e
Compton scattering of photons of lab-frame energy Dx
and Compton cooling lies far below the injection energy, br
by the hard eB is initially in the Klein-Nishina regime,
and so we will assume that the heating process has iso- where the eB loses a signiÐcant fraction of its energy in one
tropized the momenta of the pairs in the bulk frame. From scattering. Cooling continues in the KN regime as long as
equation (38) of Paper I, c2(x /2!) [ c , that is, as long as ! \ (2k)1@2!*. As the

Sc T \
A B
1 t0
cool
1@2
, (39)
e br
medium
e
attains a Lorentz factor not far below the
maximum value (38), the hard eB are injected with a small
e 2 t0 enough bulk-frame energy that most of the energy lost to
accel
Compton cooling is not reabsorbed by photon collisions.
where the reference (lab frame) cooling time is t0 \
coolÑux This occurs when c2(x /2!)(xpair/2!) \ 1, that is, when
m c2/p !F ^ (!/2q@ )*t, and F ^ F/2!2 is the energy e br max
e T ! c ! (!/! )4 [ 1 k3k3@(a~1)(q @ /x )(7~4a)@(a~1). Above this
in the boosted frame. The acceleration rate is decreased by a max 4 2 c br
Lorentz factor, f ^ 5 .
Implicit in this 3calculation of the maximum Lorentz
factor DSc T~1 from the values (32) and (35) calculated
e
above for a cold plasma :
factor is the assumption that the photon Ñux is high enough
1 d! 1 to supply the needed momentum. This constraint translates
^ . (40) into an upper bound on the density of the medium sur-
! dt Sc Tt0
e accel rounding the c-ray source. The strongest constraint comes
For a spectrum a \ 2, from the requirement that the phase of pair-dominated
t0 A B
f xpair 4f k ! ~2
cool \ b max \ b (41)
acceleration continues up to a Lorentz factor !pair (eq.
[37]). This sets a lower bound to the Ñux of photons
max of
t0 4!2 x2 !* energy Dxpair.
accel br max
110 THOMPSON & MADAU Vol. 538

3. SHOCK DECELERATION, PULSE BROADENING, internal dissipation could be triggered by an interaction

AND AFTERGLOW with the external medium : for example, when a blob of
magnetized ejecta is decelerated and the causal propagation
We now consider the e†ects of radiative acceleration on distance within the blob grows large enough to allow recon-
the dynamics of a decelerating, relativistic Ðreball. The nection (Thompson 1994 ; Begelman 1998). In such a hybrid
emission process operating in a GRB probably covers a model, the observation of distinct, overlapping subpulses
range of radii. In some models, the emission is due to opti- requires that the ejecta extend over a cone of angular width
cally thin synchrotron and/or inverse Compton processes h ? (!0 )~1 and that the surface of the ejecta is wrinkled on
(Meszaros, Rees, & Papathanassiou 1994 ; Sari, Piran, & ej
angular scales larger than D(!0 )~1. To simplify the dis-
Narayan 1998) ; whereas in others, the emission is by inverse ej
cussion that follows, we assume that the burst is composed
Compton scattering at moderate Compton optical depth of a single pulse of width *t D R /2(!0 )2c.
(Thompson 1994, 1997 ; Crider et al. 1997). To focus the q ej
present discussion, we assume that the dissipation extends 3.1. Deceleration of the Ejecta
outward from (at least moderately) large optical depth. The Preacceleration of the ambient medium by the prompt
optical depth q (eq. [3]) through the photon shell is c-ray pulse will slow the deceleration of the burst ejecta and
c
q \ q0
R ~2 AB
, (46)
therefore modify the synchrotron emission from the
forward shock. The maximum Lorentz factor (eq. [38]) to
c c R which the ambient medium may be accelerated decreases
q
outside the scattering photosphere. Here R is the radius at with distance from the matter photosphere. Let us assume,
q for the time being, that the ambient material is light enough
which the ejecta become optically thin to scattering and the
c-ray photons begin to stream ahead of the matter. As long to allow acceleration to ! \ ! . Then
as pair creation and annihilation remain in equilibrium at
energy x D 1 in the bulk frame (x D ! in the lab frame),
amb
! (R) \ ! (R )
AB
max
R ~2
, (53)
ej amb max q R
the position of the Thomson photosphere is determined q
implicitly by4 since ! P q P R~2. Thus, the kinetic energy per scat-
p *t
F (! x ) T \ c
q@ ! ~a
ej
A B
D1 . (47)
tering charge
c
max behind
the forward shock is
!2 (R)
x ej br m c2 x x ej
e br br kc2 (54)
! (R)
(Recall that q@ is q rescaled by the factor x F /F.) In this
c value
c of q can be related to brthex(initial)
br
amb
way, the initial bulk in the lab frame. Here k \ m /(1 [ f ) (eq. [5]) is the mean
c
mass per scattering charge. e
Lorentz factor of the ejecta, h
The energy E of the shock decreases with radius because
q@0 D (!0 )a~1x2~a . (48)
c ej br only a fraction f of the postshock particle energy is carried
This equation provides an upper bound on q@0 if the c-ray by baryons thath do not cool. The calculation in ° 2.3 indi-
emission region is optically thin to scattering. c cates that the inertia of the ambient medium becomes domi-
The width of the prompt c-ray pulse is bounded below by nated by leptons (eq. [45]). Energy is deposited in shocked
leptons at a rate
R
*t º q . (49) L2E !2 m
2c(!0 )2 B \ [(1 [ f ) ej p n (R)R2c3 . (55)
ej L)Lt h ! f p0
More generally, we can deÐne a minimum timescale for amb h
variability driven by internal dissipation in the outÑow, We assume that these particles cool instantly. When f > 1,
h the
the remaining energy E of the Ðreball is dominated by
R kinetic energy of the ejected matter (mass M ),
*t (R) \ . (50) 0
var 2c!2
ej LE LM
\! 0 c2 . (56)
This timescale can be related to the c-ray Ñuence LE/L) (at L) ej L)
energy x and per unit solid angle) by noting that
br One can calculate the timescaling of the shock energy by
LE/L) balancing the energy radiated (eq. [55]) against the energy
q@0 \ p . (51)
c T m c2R2 retained (eq. [56]). Assuming the density proÐle around the
e q center of the explosion to be a power-law
At the scattering photosphere, one Ðnds

*t (R ) \ 0.5 br
A B C
x (a~2)@2 4n(LE/L)) 1@2 !0 ~(3`a)@2
ej
D A B
s p0
o (R)
n (R) \ 0 P R~d ,
m
p
(57)
var q 300 1053 ergs 300
one Ðnds
(52)
E(R) P R~v , (58)
upon making use of equation (48). Should the overall dura-
tion *t of the burst be determined by the activity of the with
central engine, one does not expect the afterglow emission v\5[d . (59)
to connect up smoothly with the main burst. However, the
This compares with v ^ 3 [ d in the case where the external
medium is static or moves subrelativistically (e.g., Katz &
4 Here a is the high-energy spectral index (eq. [25]). Piran 1997).
No. 1, 2000 RELATIVISTIC WINDS FROM COMPACT c-RAY SOURCES. II. 111

More generally, we will assume a power-law scaling (58)
of the shock energy. This assumption is motivated by the
weak dependence of f (eq. [45]) on the c-ray continuum in
h c [ ej .
the region where acceleration to bulk relativistic speed is
possible. At large radius, f ] 1 and v ] 0 because pairs
h Closely related synchrotron models, in which the inertia of
with the minimum (shock frame) energy D! m c2 no
ej e
longer cool e†ectively. This allows a Ðrst evaluation of the
inÑuence of radiative acceleration and pair loading on the
initial stages of the deceleration of a relativistic shock. A
more detailed numerical treatment of shock deceleration
including these e†ects is deferred to a later paper.
Balancing the shock energy with the energy deposited in
shocked particles, one obtains
distribution of pairs, Ln /Lc P c~P for rest-frame energies
e e e
!
(63)
e !
amb
the nonthermal particles is dominated by baryons, have
been constructed by Meszaros & Rees (1997), Wijers, Rees,
& Meszaros (1997), and Waxman (1997). The energy carried
by the nonthermal pairs is taken to be a constant fraction
e of the total postshock particle energy in the shock frame,
cr
and the magnetic Ðeld is assumed to carry a constant frac-
tion e of the postshock pressure. As we discuss below,
B
preacceleration of the ambient medium by a collimated

! (R) \ ! (R )
AB
R (d~v~5)@2
. (60)
c-ray beam will ensure that this second assumption is satis-
Ðed, once the ejecta are moving sufficiently slowly.
ej ej q R
q The medium just ahead of the shock is compressed at the
The relation between shock radius and observed (postburst) same time as it is accelerated, so that the lab-frame density
time t becomes of baryonic particles has increased to n ^ 2!2 n over
p The amb p0
the ambient value (eq. [17] of Paper I). bulk-frame
t P R6~d`v . (61) energy density behind the shock is then
Pair creation feeds back strongly on the radiative losses
from a relativistic outÑow, and regions with extended non-
A B
! 2 2!2
ej 2n ` kc2 ^ ej n m c2 . (64)
! e f p0 p
thermal spectra are expected to be much brighter than amb h
regions with quasi-thermal (e.g., Wien) spectra (Thompson The equilibrium postshock magnetic pressure therefore
1997). It also introduces new characteristic length scales and scales as
timescales into the afterglow process. One of these is the
B2
radius R(! D 1) outside of which the ambient medium is r P e !2 n P R~5~v , (65)
acceleratedambto subrelativistic speeds. If the medium were to 8n B ej p0
remain pair loaded out to this radius, one would calculate independent of d in the shock rest frame.
R(! D 1) by setting k D m in equation (1) ; this would We are now in a position to work out the timescaling of
R(! D 1)/R D (1 q )1@2.e However, because several e-
yieldamb the synchrotron emission at Ðxed frequency l. Pairs which
q 2 care required to push the ambient
foldings ofamb
the pair density radiate at this frequency (Lorentz-boosted into the obser-
medium (assumed initially free of pairs) to bulk relativistic verÏs frame) have an energy
speed, bulk relativistic motion e†ectively stops somewhat
inside that radius. A more accurate estimate of R(! D 1)
is obtained by noting that when q is not much larger amb than c D
A e
B
2nlm c 1@2
P R5@2~(d~2v)@4 . (66)
c e ! eB
unity the pair density exponentiates according to n `/n D ej r
exp (n p c*t) \ exp (q /x ). Requiring that 2me n `p D When synchrotron cooling is rapid, the synchrotron emis-
c T c br e e sivity depends on the incoming Ñux of kinetic energy, but
m n yields q /x D ln (m /2m ) D 7. This value of q is
large enough that the photon shell is optically thickc to
p p c br p e not explicitly on postshock magnetic Ðeld. Assuming a
photon collisions, q D 0.25q /x D 2. Pairs continue to power-law spectrum LN /Lc P c~P of injected particles, the
e ofe frequency
e
dominate baryons cc
c brout to a radius where energy released in photons l is, per unit time,
in number
q /x D 1 but are not produced in sufficient numbers to
c br the mean inertia per scattering charge down to k D
force
l LL CA
l ^ !2 e
c
e
2~PB 2!2 n (R) p
m c3 D
. (67)
m . The corresponding delay from the beginning of the R2 L) ej cr ! /! ej p0 f
e ej amb h
burst is given by the time it takes the forward shock to The quantity in brackets denotes the rate at which particle
reach that radius. In the case of a uniform external medium, energy accumulates (in the bulk frame) per unit area of the
! P R~5@2 and the time delay scales with radius as shock ; the prefactor transforms to the lab frame. The
ej 2 c P R6. This yields
R/2!
ej power-law index
*t(! D 1)
amb
AB q0 3
D c D 3 ] 104 c
A B q0 3
. (62) b4[
L ln (lL )
l (68)
*t 10 300 L ln t
is expressed in terms of the synchrotron index a \ 1 P
3.2. Synchrotron Emission sync 2
via
This preacceleration of the ambient medium will modify
the timescaling of the synchrotron emission from the 6a ] 2 [ 1 d(3a [ 1) ] 2va
b\ sync 2 sync sync
forward shock propagating ahead of the burst ejecta. The 6[d]v
pair loading ensures that the Lorentz factor of the shock- (! \ ! ; fast cooling) . (69)
accelerated particles (in the shock frame) extends downward amb max
to the minimum kinematically allowed value, c D ! When the shock loses energy slowly (v ^ 0), one has b \
e emis-
ej
(Thompson 1997). We consider here only the simplest a ] 1 for a uniform medium (d \ 0) and b \ 3 a ] 3
sion model involving synchrotron radiation by a power-law synca steady
3 wind (d \ 2). 4 sync 4
for
112 THOMPSON & MADAU Vol. 538

Now let us compare this result for the timescaling of the
synchrotron emission, with the corresponding expression
for a shock propagating into a static external medium. In
that more familiar case, the shock Lorentz factor, observerÏs
time, and rest-frame magnetic Ðeld scale as ! P R(d~v~3)@2,
ej
t P R1@(4~d`v), B P R~3@2~v@2, and c P R3@2~(d~2v)@4. For
r e
those scalings, the time index is
6a [ 2 [ 1 d(3a [ 1) ] 2va
b\ sync 2 sync sync
4[d]v
(! \ 1 ; fast cooling) . (70)
amb
This agrees with the scaling previously obtained by Sari et
al. (1998) and Meszaros, Rees, & Wijers (1998) if we substi-
tute expression (59) for v (in the case of a strongly radiative
shock) or v \ 0 (in the case of an almost adiabatic shock).
An adiabatic shock has b \ 3 a [ 1 for any value of d.
2 sync 2
The regime of slow synchrotron cooling (at the observed
frequency l) is treated analogously. We can now assume
v \ 0 because the lowest energy eB must not be able to cool
in this regime. One has
that has yet to be resolved in afterglow models, regards the
e†ectiveness with which a weak ambient magnetic Ðeld (e.g.,
B D 3k G for a Ðreball interacting with the ISM) will be
ex
ampliÐed above the Ñux density D!2 B expected from
ej shock.
ex
laminar compression behind a relativistic In the non-
relativistic limit (where pair creation can be neglected), the
limiting speed of the ambient medium is proportional to the
c-ray Ñux. One therefore expects the Ñow outside the
forward shock to be strongly sheared on length scales in
between (!0 )~1R and h R, given that the c-ray emission
is beamed ejwithin an angle
beam h but also varies on the
beam
smaller angular scale due to causal Ñuctuations in the rate
of internal dissipation. This sheared Ñow will be Kelvin-
Helmholtz unstable and, if there is time before the shock
hits, the resulting turbulence will strongly tangle a seed
magnetic Ðeld. Since the available time is DR/2!2 c, one
ej
expects e†ective tangling only after the ejecta have deceler-
ated below ! D (!0 )1@2. Thereafter, near equipartition
ej ej
between the magnetic pressure and the turbulent pressure in
the sheared Ñow appears plausible : B D (4nn m c2)1@2 D
p0 pas a two-
0.1(n /1 cm~3)1@2 G. If no other instability (such

l
LL
lP c
L2N A B
e ! 2 c 2 B2 , (71)
p0
stream instability ; Medvedev & Loeb 1999) raises the Ðeld
close to equipartition, one expects the burst and/or after-
L) e Lc L) ej e r glow light curves to contain features correlated with the
e
onset of e†ective magnetic shearing.
where the total number of radiating charges is

c
L2N
e ^
1
R3n (R)e
m
p
c
e
1~PA B
. (72)
3.4. Upper Bound on Preburst Mass L oss : Pulse Broadening
A strong constraint on the density of the ambient
e Lc L) 3 [ d p0 cr f m ! /!
e h e ej amb medium comes from the requirement that the accelerated
The relation between synchrotron index and particle index matter (which becomes loaded with pairs) remain optically
softens to a \ (P [ 1)/2, and the time index becomes thin to Compton scattering so that the c-ray pulse is not
sync appreciably broadened. This becomes a serious constraint
identical to equation (69) :
even if the scattering optical depth through the ambient
6a ] 2 [ 1 d(3a [ 1) medium is small (cf. ° 3.3 of Paper I). If all photons of
b\ sync 2 sync
6[d frequency greater than x are converted to pairs, then the
scattering depth through the resulting shell of pairs is
(! \ ! ; slow cooling)
amb max
for v \ 0. Notice that the functional dependence of the time
(73)
q ^ c
q@ A B
x 1~a q@0 R ~2 x 1~a
\ c
AB A B . (75)
index b on the spectral index a remains the same for T x x x R x
sync br br br q br
both fast and slow synchrotron cooling, when the ambient In order to prevent photons of this energy from being com-
medium has been preaccelerated by the prompt c-ray pulse pletely consumed, the medium must be accelerated suffi-
and the lowest energy eB do not cool radiatively (v ^ 0). If ciently that the photons are no longer above the threshold
the injected spectrum of nonthermal particles is constantÈ energy for pair creation in the bulk frame.5 To maintain
let us take P \ 2Èthen across a ““ cooling break ÏÏ the spec- q \ 1, we require that
trum hardens from a \ 1 to a \ 1 and the time index T
syncd)/(6 [ d)sync 2 1 d)/(6 [ d). ! [ ! (R) 4 [q@ (R)xa~2]1@(a~1) . (76)
hardens from b \ (8 [ to (5 [ amb q c br
By contrast, there is a stronger break 4in the timescaling The critical Lorentz factor ! can be expressed more
between regimes of fast and slow cooling if the external q
directly in terms of the initial bulk Lorentz factor of the
medium is static, ejecta, after making use of equation (48) :

b\
6a
sync
[ 1 d(3a [ 1)
2
4[d
sync ! (R)
q ^
AB
R ~2@(a~1)
. (77)
!0 R
ej q
(! \ 1 ; slow cooling) (74) Note that ! coincides with !0 at the scattering photo-
amb
sphere. If ! q \ ! , then the c-ray
ej pulse is spread out to a
(Meszaros et al. 1998). This simpliÐes to the familiar result amb q
b \ 3a in a uniform external medium. For P \ 2, the width
time 2 index
sync hardens from b \ 1 to b \ (3 [ 1 d)/(4 [ d)
across the ““ cooling break.ÏÏ
4 *t
spread \
R
^ amb
! A B AB
~2 R (a`3)@(a~1)
. (78)
*t 2!2 c*t ! R
amb q q
3.3. Anisotropic Radiation Pressure and Shearing of One Ðnds that *t [ *t at R º R .
External Magnetic Fields spread q
The prompt c-ray pulse induces strong shearing motions 5 The material undergoing radiative acceleration remains in causal
in the ambient medium that can amplify a seed magnetic contact with itself, and so the scattering depth through it is not a†ected by
Ðeld before the forward shock hits. An important question, the suppression of the scattering rate (by a factor D1 [ b) in the lab frame.
No. 1, 2000 RELATIVISTIC WINDS FROM COMPACT c-RAY SOURCES. II. 113

The kinetic energy of the accelerated medium moving at medium) cannot be made arbitrarily small. An upper bound
Lorentz factor ! (within a shell of thickness equal to the to !0 is obtained by balancing the energy of the ejecta with
q 2 !2 c*t ; eq. [2]) can be no larger than
acceleration length
ej
the kinetic energy of the baryons accumulating behind the
3 q
the energy of the c-ray pulse above a frequency x D ! , shock :
A
! n m c2 1 ] 2 e
n`m 2
e
B
!2 c*t
q
1 LE (!0 )2
º ej o (R )R3 c2 . (85)
q p0 p n m 3 q L) 3 [ d 0 q q
e
rad
A F x
¹ xbr br
BA B
p p
! 1~a
q c*t . (79)
Here e is the fraction of the kinetic energy of the ejecta
rad
converted to c-rays ; this expression is meant to be evalu-
c x ated at the scattering photosphere of the outÑow and so is
br
This yields the upper bound missing the factor of !~1 present in equation (56). Combin-
amb
3x(5~2a)@(a~1)
o \ br
A
m
e
BA n m ~1
1 ] 2 e` e
B ing this with equations (48) and (51), one Ðnds
A 4nV B A
2@(5~a) LE m c2 1@(5~a) B
0 2(q@ )3@(a~1) p c*t n m !0 ¹ e x2~a , (86)

P
AB c
R 6@(a~1)
.
T p p
(80) or
ej e
rad
M0 c2 L) p
T
br

R
q
The density in the above equation is higher than that !0 ¹ 36e~2@3
M0A ~2@3 B
ej rad 10~5 M yr~1
encountered in the di†use ISM and therefore does not
provide any constraint on GRB models involving the
merging of compact objects. We can use this expression, ]
V A _
B C
2@3 4n(LE/L)) 1@3 D (87)
1000 km s~1 1053 ergs
however, to set limits on massive stars as likely GRB pro-
genitors, as in this case the explosion occurs in a dense for a hard spectrum a \ 2. The width of the broadened
preburst stellar wind. Assuming a steady mass loss from pulse becomes
such a massive progenitor at a rate M0 and constant speed
V , the ambient density is *t º
R
q º rad
A
1 e M0 c2 (3`a)@(5~a) B
2(!0 )2c 2c 4nV
o (R) \
0
M0
4nR2V
. (81)
]
ej
A B
LE (1~a)@(5~a) m c2
e x2~a
A
~4@(5~a)
.
B (88)
L) p br
Substituting this expression into equation (80), and making T
Evaluating this expression for a \ 2, we deduce
use of equations (48) and (49) to express R in terms of *t,
q@0, and x , we have
q
M0A 5@3 B
c br
AB
m cV *t R (2a`4)@(a~1)
*t º 170e5@3
rad 10~5 M yr~1
M0 \ 24nf (x2a~3 q@0)1@(a~1) e
h br c p
T
R
q
. (82)
]
A V
_
B C
~5@3 4n(LE/L)) ~1@3
s . (89)
D
Setting ! \ ! and eliminating R, one deduces that the 1000 km s~1 1053 ergs
amount of q mass loss needed to induce a certain
ambpreburst
We can combine this last result with equation (83) to obtain
spreading of the pulse is a very similar bound on the width of the scattered c-ray
M0
\
*tAspread
B
(2a`4)@(3`a)
, (83)
pulse :
*t A 1 B
(a`3)@(2a`4)
M0 *t spread \ !(a`3)(a~2)@(2a`4)(5~a) .
*t ej
*t 3f x e
where h br rad

M0 4 24nf x !0
A
m cV *t
e
B Note that the width of the scattered pulse is independent of
(90)

*t h br ej p for a hard spectrum a \ 2, *t /*t \

\ 1.5 ] 10~5x f
T
!0
ej
A BA B *t
!
ej f x e /0.1)~5@8. It is much larger than *tspread
2.2(
h br e.g.,
spectra,
rad *t
for softer
/*t \ 2.1!3@10( f x e /0.1)~3@5 for
br h 300 10 s spread h br radfewer pairs, a
ej creates

]
A V B
M yr~1 . (84)
a \ 3. Because the softer spectrum
larger external mass density is required to induce runaway
pair creation for a Ðxed shock energy.
1000 km s~1 _
T his calculation sets signiÐcant constraints on GRB
Notice that both the width *t of the spread pulse (eq. models involving the delayed explosions of massive W olf-
spread
[49]) and M0 grow with radius R. Mass-loss rates close to Rayet stars (Woosley 1993 ; MacFadyen & Woosley 1999),
*t M0 broaden the c-ray pulse only near the
the critical value whose winds are characterized by mass-loss rates M0 B
*t and do not broaden it by much.
scattering photosphere 10~5 to 10~4 M yr~1 and velocities of 1000È2500 km s~1
Higher mass-loss rates cause further broadening at larger _
(Willis 1991). Hard bursts composed of peaks narrower
radii. than D10 s must either form in a more rareÐed environ-
The presence of a dense medium surrounding the GRB ment or have a low radiative efficiency e . The possibility
source also limits the bulk Lorentz factor !0 of the ejecta at rad c-ray bursts is
remains that the overall duration of some
ej
the Thomson photosphere. Hence the width *t of the determined by the processes of pair loading and radiative
emitted c-ray pulse (before scattering in the ambient acceleration in the ambient medium. We note Ðnally that
114 THOMPSON & MADAU
the constraint (89), (90) is weakened if the c-ray source func-
tion is not a rigid power law but has a thermal cuto† below
a bulk frame energy Dm c2.
e an angular scale !~1 or larger) will induce shearing motions
4. DISCUSSION
We have calculated the deposition of radiative momen-
tum into an (initially) static medium by the intense c-ray
pulse emanating from a relativistic Ðreball (eqs. [32] and
[35]). This process loads the accelerated medium with pairs,
which come to dominate its inertia (eq. [44]), and greatly
increases the radiative efficiency of the forward shock wave
that bounds the Ðreball material. Given this high radiative
efficiency, the ambient medium will attain a bulk Lorentz
factor close to the Lorentz factor of the Ðreball material
near the c-ray photosphere, decreasing as R~2 at larger
radius (eq. [53]). As a result, the rate of deceleration of the
ejecta is slowed (eq. [60]), and the relation between the time
index of the synchrotron emission and the synchrotron
spectral index (eqs. [69] and [73]) is modiÐed from the
relation previously obtained for a static ambient medium.
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