INTRODUCTION TO WATER QUALITY ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 1.
1.1 Introduction

At a global level 70% of water is used for agriculture about 25% for industry and only 5% for domestic use and
global agricultural water consumption is expected to increase 19 percent by 2050. However this varies in
different countries and industrialized countries use a greater percentage for industry.
Next to the air, the other important requirement for human life to exist is water. Water is available in various
forms such as rivers, lake, streams etc. The earliest civilizations organized on the banks of major river systems
and required water for drinking, bathing, cooking etc. But with the advancement of civilization the utility of
water enormously increased and now such a stage has come that without well organized public water supply
scheme, it is impossible to run the present civic life and the develop the towns. The importance of water from
only a quantity viewpoint was recognized from the earliest days and the importance of quality come to be
recognized gradually in the later days. The earliest recorded knowledge of water quality and its treatment are
found in Sanskrit literature compiled about 2000 B.C. It deals with storage of drinking water in copper vessels,
exposure to sunlight, filtering through charcoal, sand etc.

Water is the essential ingredient of life. Unless it is in balanced quantity, any deficit or excess, may cause
physiographic imbalance. Similarly, for an entire region, too, deficit or excess of the normal requirement of
water may cause imbalance in the regions physical, social, or economic situation.

We need ample clean water to quench our thirst, irrigate our fields, and sustain all life forms in the environment.
We must have clean water in our homes, communities, businesses, industries, and in nature. We need clean
water today and we will need it tomorrow. We rely on clean water in almost every aspect of our lives. We rely
on it for drinking, bathing, cooking, swimming, fishing, and boating. We count on it for growing and
processing our food and nourishing the plants and animals. We count on the aesthetic qualities of clean
water to nourish our souls. Unfortunately, we have no guarantee that clean water, relied on so heavily, will
always be available. The supply of clean water on the earth is finite, and it is being threatened by water
pollution. Water pollution is a serious problem today, in spite of our efforts to control it.

According to Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in most of the countries the water sources are suffering
the effects of indirect (or diffuse) discharges of pollutants associated with storm water runoff from adjacent
lands. We call this type of water pollution nonpoint source pollution to differentiate it from direct or point
source discharges of pollutants into waterways from pipes and outfalls.

Many rivers have high nutrient concentrations due to municipal and industrial discharges, storm water runoff,
and natural soil conditions. These high concentrations of nutrients, combined with warm water temperatures,
cause unsightly algal blooms and unhealthy, fluctuating oxygen levels. . Water quality degradation caused by
erosion and sedimentation, municipal and industrial discharges, and agricultural runoff threaten fish and
wildlife.

Clearly, we cannot take clean water for granted. It is crucial to our survival, prosperity, and happiness and it is
being threatened in all parts of the world. Moreover, the water environment knows no political boundaries.
Water and the pollutants in it move freely across borders. We must address the world’s water pollution
problems not only as individual states and nations, but also as members of a greater worldwide environmental
community. Most people are concerned about clean water, yet may feel uninformed. They may not know about
the many sources of water pollution or the methods used to prevent and control it. They may not be aware of the
rules and regulations adopted to protect our water. They could be intimidated by the science of water pollution
control. Many of us know how important clean water is, but we may not know how to get involved to help
protect it.
1.2 Water crisis in Ethiopia

The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP), a global database of water, sanitation, and hygiene data, reports
that 31 percent of the Ethiopian population relies on unprotected water for their daily needs. That’s 32 million
people.

Another 28 percent of the population has what JMP deems “limited” access, meaning the water is likely safe,
but it takes over 30 minutes to retrieve it because of distance, overcrowding, or both.

In total, that is 62 million people living without basic access to safe drinking water.

•Access to water-supply services is defined as the availability of at least 20 litres per person per day from an
"improved" source within 1 kilometre of the user's dwelling.

“Improved” source is one that is likely to provide "safe" water, such as a household connection, a borehole,
etc.
Examples for an improved water supply are:
Household connection
Public standpipe
Borehole
Protected dug well
Protected spring
Rainwater collection

1.3 Key facts about drinking-water :

 In 2015, 91% of the world’s population had access to an improved drinking-water source, compared
with 76% in 1990.
 2.6 billion people have gained access to an improved drinking-water source since 1990.
 4.2 billion people now get water through a piped connection; 2.4 billion access water through other
improved sources including public taps, protected wells and boreholes.
 663 million people rely on unimproved sources, including 159 million dependent on surface water.
 Globally, at least 1.8 billion people use a drinking-water source contaminated with faeces.
 Contaminated water can transmit diseases such diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and polio.
Contaminated drinking-water is estimated to cause 502 000 diarrheal deaths each year.
 By 2025, half of the world’s population will be living in water-stressed areas.
 In low- and middle-income countries, 38% of health care facilities lack improved water source, 19%
do not have improved sanitation and 35% lack water and soap for handwashing.

1.4 Global water distribution :- The World’s total water resources are estimated at 1.36 × 10 8 M
ha-m. Of these global water resources, about 97.2% is salt water mainly in oceans, and only 2.8% is
available as fresh water at any time on the planet earth. Out of this 2.8% of fresh water, about 2.2% is
available as surface water and 0.6% as ground water. Even out of this 2.2% of surface water, 2.15% is fresh
water in glaciers and icecaps and only of the order of 0.01% is available in lakes and streams, the remaining
0.04% being in other forms. Out of 0.6% of stored ground water, only about 0.25% can be economically
extracted with the present drilling technology (the remaining being at greater depths).

1.5 Source of pollution

Water Pollution: Definition: - ‘When the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a
result of man’s activities such that it becomes unfit for any purpose it is said to be polluted.”
Sources of Water Pollution
There are many sources of water pollution but generally these sources can be classified on the basis of direct
and indirect contaminant sources or origin of the effluent or pollutant.

The two general categories exist: direct (point sources) and indirect(non-point sources) contaminant sources. 
a) Direct sources include effluent outfalls from factories, refineries, waste treatment plants etc, that emit(give
out) fluids of varying quality directly into urban water supplies.
b) Indirect sources include contaminants that enter the water supply from soils/groundwater systems and from
the atmosphere by rain water. Soils and groundwater contain the residue of human agricultural practices
(fertilizers, pesticides, etc.,). Atmospheric contaminants are also derived from human practices (such as gaseous
emissions from automobiles, factories and even bakeries).

1.6 Types of water pollution:- Most types of pollution affect the immediate area surrounding the source.
Sometimes the pollution may affect the environment hundreds of miles away from the source, such as nuclear
waste, this is called transboundary pollution.

There are many types of water pollution because water comes from many sources. Here are a few types of water
pollution:

1. Nutrients Pollution
Some wastewater, fertilizers and sewage contain high levels of nutrients. If they end up in water bodies, they
encourage algae and weed growth in the water. This will make the water undrinkable, and even clog filters. Too
much algae will also use up all the oxygen in the water, and other water organisms in the water will die out of
oxygen starvation.

2. Surface water pollution

Surface water includes natural water found on the earth's surface, like rivers, lakes, and oceans. Hazardous
substances coming into contact with this surface water, dissolving or mixing physically with the water can be
called surface water pollution.

3. Oxygen Depleting biodegradable matter

Water bodies have micro-organisms. These include aerobic and anaerobic organisms. When too much
biodegradable matter (things that easily decay) end up in water, it encourages more microorganism growth, and
they use up more oxygen in the water. If oxygen is depleted, aerobic organisms die, and anaerobic organisms
grow more to produce harmful toxins such as ammonia and sulfides.

4. Ground water pollution

When humans apply pesticides and chemicals to soils, they are washed deep into the ground by rainwater. This
gets to underground water, causing pollution underground. 
This means when we dig wells and bore holes to get water from underground, it needs to be checked for ground
water pollution.

5. Microbiological
In many communities in the world, people drink untreated water (straight from a river or stream). Sometimes
there is natural pollution caused by microorganisms like viruses, bacteria and protozoa. This natural pollution
can cause fishes and other water life to die. They can also cause serious illness to humans who drink from such
waters.

6. Suspended Matter
Some pollutants (substances, particles and chemicals) do not easily dissolve in water. This kind of material is
called particulate matter. Some suspended pollutants later settle under the water body. This can harm and even
kill aquatic organisms that live at the bottom of water bodies.

7. Chemical Water Pollution

Many industries and farmers work with chemicals that end up in water. These include chemicals that are used
to control weeds, insects and pests. Metals and solvents from industries can pollute water bodies. These are
poisonous to many forms of aquatic life and may slow their development, make them infertile and kill them.

8. Oil Spillage
The oil can cause the death to many fish and get stuck to the feathers of seabirds causing them to lose their
ability to fly

9. Thermal Pollution - It is the heat addition or discharge of heated water in to the water bodies, which
dramatically affects aquatic life. As the water temperature increases two factors join to make it difficult for
aquatic life to get sufficient DO.
The metabolic rates increase with the temperature, which result in higher demand of oxygen for the organism.
But on other side DO supplies are reduced as waste, which is present in water, assimilates faster, decreasing the
amount of DO which may result in to undesirable conditions.
10. Heavy metals :- Trace quantities of many metals are important constituents of most waters. Many of these
metals are also classified as pollutants. The presence of any of these metals in excessive quantities will interfere
with many beneficial uses of the water because of their toxicity.
Ex:- Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, Mercury, Nickel, Tin

1.7 WATER QUALITY

“Water quality” is a term used to express the suitability of water to sustain various uses or processes. Any
particular use will have certain requirements for the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water,for
example
i. Limits on the concentrations of toxic substances for drinking water use,
ii. Restrictions on temperature and pH ranges for water supporting invertebrate (no back bone)
communities.
Consequently, water quality can be defined by a range of variables which limit water use.

The quality of water may be described in terms of the concentration and state (dissolved or particulate) of some
or all of the organic and inorganic material present in the water, together with certain physical characteristics of
the water.

Water(H2O) contains two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen by volume. Absolutely pure water is never
found in nature and contains number of impurities in varying amounts. The rainwater which is originally pure,
also absorbs various gases, dust and other impurities while falling. This water when moves on the ground
further carries salt, organic and inorganic impurities.
So this water before supplying to the public should be treated and purified for the safety of public health,
economy and protection of various industrial process, it is most essential for the water work engineer to
thoroughly check analyze and do the treatment of the raw water obtained from the sources, before its
distribution. The water supplied to the public should be strictly according to the standards laid down from time
to time.
WHOLESOME WATER
The removal of the turbidity, odour and bad taste is considered as good and removal of dissolved substances is
considered as “chemically pure”. But removal of substances like calcium, magnesium, Iron, Zinc etc completely
is not good for health. These minerals are required for tissue growth and some are required to prevent diseases.
Therefore wholesome water is defined as “the water which containing the minerals in small quantities at
requisite levels and free from harmful impurities”. Chemically pure water is also corrosive but not wholesome
water. The water that is fit for drinking safe and agreeable is called potable water.

The following are the requirements of wholesome water.

1. It should be free from bacteria
2. It should be colourless and sparkling
3. It should be tasty, odour free and cool
4. It should be free from objectionable matter
5. It should not corrode pipes
6. It should have dissolved oxygen and free from carbonic acid so that it may remain fresh.

1.8 Water quality changes - Pollution of water resources takes place due to unwanted substances such as
chemicals, effluents, solid wastes and extra heat. When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans, and other
water bodies, they get dissolved in water, resulting in the water quality deterioration, affecting aquatic ecosystems.
Water pollution has many sources. The most polluting of them are the city sewage and industrial wastes discharged into
the rivers. River water is strongly impacted by runoff from rain events. This is easily observed by the eye during and
after storms when streams and rivers are very cloudy and look brown. When it rains, the dirt, animal waste, and other
contaminants that build up on the surface of the ground or pavement are washed off into the streams and rivers.
Though there is more water in the streams and rivers during storms, there are more contaminants as well.

Rivers, lakes and oceans are not sterile bodies of water. Not only do they contain naturally occurring organisms
and bacteria, they can be contaminated by outside sources. The most frequent sources of microbial
contamination are polluted storm water runoff, sewage overflows, and boating wastes. Contamination in large
bodies of water is often much higher during and immediately after rainstorms, because the rainwater picks up
wastes and other pollutants as it runs off lawns, farms, streets and other ground sites and into the streams.

How to Prevent Pollution?

The impacts from runoff can be addressed in many ways. In urban and suburban areas the following are
possible ways to address runoff:

 Individuals shouldn't dump oil and unused household chemicals down storm drains, they should be
disposed of properly at household hazardous waste drop-off events.
 Minimize the use of lawn fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides and do not use them when rain is
forecasted within 24 hours of their application.
 Landscape your property to detain and infiltrate runoff from rooftops, sidewalks.
 Install a rain barrel or cistern to detain rooftop runoff and have it slowly drain via a soaker hose into
flowerbeds or back into the storm sewer.
 Local communities can adopt ordinances that require storm water runoff to be infiltrated or detained
from new or redeveloped areas.
 Local communities need to adopt and enforce erosion and sedimentation control measures to prevent
runoff impacts from new construction.
 Incentives can be provided in communities to encourage businesses, schools, and owners of large
impervious areas to employ techniques to reduce runoff discharge to local streams.
 Open space can be preserved and enhanced along stream corridors to create riparian buffers( is a
vegetated area (a "buffer strip") near a stream, usually forested,) that will keep the stream bank stable
and prevent erosion.

In agricultural areas, the following are possible ways to address runoff:

  Riparian buffers should be created and preserved along streams to filter runoff from crop fields and
livestock areas.
 Stream bank fencing should be employed to keep cattle from accessing stream bank areas and
alternative water sources away from the stream should be provided.
 Manure should be managed to prevent runoff into streams and the groundwater.
 No-till and low-till crop growth options should be employed or encouraged.

Natural processes affecting water quality

Although degradation of water quality is almost invariably the result of human activities, certain natural
phenomena can result in water quality falling below that required for particular purposes.
1. Natural events such as torrential rainfall and hurricanes lead to excessive erosion and landslides, which
in turn increase the content of suspended material in affected rivers and lakes.
2. Seasonal overturn of the water in some lakes can bring water with little or no dissolved oxygen to the
surface. Such natural events may be frequent or occasional.
3. Permanent natural conditions in some areas may make water unfit for drinking or for specific uses, such
as irrigation. Common examples of this are the salinisation of surface waters through evaporation in arid
and semi-arid regions and the high salt content of some ground waters under certain geological
conditions.
4. Many ground waters are naturally high in carbonates (hardness), thus necessitating their treatment
before use for certain industrial applications. Ground waters in some regions contain specific ions (such
as fluoride) and toxic elements (such as arsenic and selenium) in quantities that are harmful to health,
while others contain elements or compounds that cause other types of problems (such as the staining of
sanitary fixtures by iron and manganese).

Water use and water quality deterioration

The development of civilisations has led to a shift in the pattern of water use from rural/agricultural to
urban/industrial, generally according to the following sequence: drinking and personal hygiene, fisheries,
navigation and transport, livestock watering and agricultural irrigation, hydroelectric power, industrial
production (e.g. pulp and paper, food processing), industrial cooling water (e.g. fossil fuel and nuclear power
plants), recreational activities and wildlife conservation. Fortunately, the water uses with the highest demands for
quantity often have the lowest demands for quality. Drinking water, by contrast, requires the highest quality
water but in relatively small quantities.

Increasing industrialisation and the growth of large urban centres have been accompanied by increases in the
pollution stress on the aquatic environment. Since ancient times, water in rivers, lakes and oceans has also been
considered as a convenient receiver of wastes. This use (or abuse) conflicts with almost all other uses of water
and most seriously with the use of freshwater for drinking, personal hygiene and food processing.

Table 1 Common water uses

Water uses Consuming Contaminating
Domestic use Yes Yes
Livestock watering Yes Yes
Irrigation Yes Yes
Aquaculture Yes Yes
Commercial fisheries Yes Yes
Forestry and logging No Yes
Food processing Yes Yes
Textile industry Yes Yes
Pulp and paper industry Yes Yes
Mining Yes Yes
Water transportation No Yes
Hydroelectric power generation No No
Nuclear power generation Yes Yes
Recreation No Yes