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Grounding Theory and Ground Fault Protection Schemes
Grounding Theory and Ground Fault Protection Schemes
Grounding theory
and ground fault
protection
21 schemes
Contents
21.1 Protection of a domestic or an the leakage current through the body and its duration,
i.e.
industrial single-phase system
S b = I b2 ◊ t b
21.1.1 Effects of current passing through a
human body and the body’s tolerable Sb
or Ib = (21.1)
limits tb
10000
Effects of a.c. currents (50 Hz) on a person
5000 at least 50 kg in weight.
– 30 mA
20
10 – 100 mA
5
2
1
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Current passing through the human body in mA (rms)
2
Two pole RCD
(Courtesy: MDS Ltd.)
1
of harmonics. Surges can cause electrostatic discharges to suit a particular application such as x-ray devices,
giving rise to high frequency leakage currents. Also due circuits associated with frequency converters or variable
to switching of inductive and capacitive loads causing speed drives (PWM inverters) etc. User may contact the
heavy in-rush currents and phase-to-phase faults etc. See manufacturer for the right choice of RCDs. For more
Sections 6.13 and 17.7 for sources and causes of over- details see reference 7 and 8 in the Further Reading.
voltages and surges.
Usually a RCD may feed a number of load points in
the same circuit such as clubbing of a few light and Table 21.2 Maximum impedances of ground loop, when protected
by overcurrent releases of circuit breakers or fuses
power points. It is possible that the RCD may trip even
under healthy condition due to spurious currents. For
instance devices like computers, printers and office Current rating of Overcurrent of Maximum desirable
circuit fuse the circuit breaker impedance of ground
workstations having built-in EM suppressors through L- MCCB or ACB fault loop on a 240 V
C filter circuits may have constant ground leakage currents
‘a’ ‘b’ circuit (415/ 3)
via the filter circuits. It may cause nuisance tripping
even on small line disturbances in the same circuit Amp Amp Zg = 240
(switching of devices causing surges and harmonics). 3 a or 1.5 b
W
Similarly fluorescent tubes having electronic ballasts
(reactors) generate high frequency currents during a 5 10 16
switching operation and that may find their path to the 10 20 8
ground through their built-in capacitors to cause nuisance 15 30 5.3
tripping. In such cases loads may be divided into more 20 40 4
circuits. Experience of the project engineer is the best 30 60 2.7
guide. As a rule of thumb when leakage ground current 40 80 2
of a device (computer or fluorescent tube) is known from 60 120 1.33
80 160 1
its manufacturer, the total leakage current of all such 100 200 0.8
devices connected on one circuit may be kept around 125 250 0.64
one third of RCD threshold value. Like for a 30 mA 150 300 0.53
RCD it may be kept at about 10 mA and the appropriate 175 350 0.46
number of devices in a circuit be determined accordingly. 200 400 0.4
To account for line disturbances and high frequency 300 600 0.27
currents some manufacturers adjust their EM L-C filters 400 etc. 800 etc. 0.2
21/778 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
Influence of SPDs total safety, the device should be able to detect this leakage,
assuming there was no ground current through the
The ground fault severity may mitigate when an SPD appliance. When the device will be able to do so, the
(Section 17.13) is provided upstream of an installation circuit in any case will be protected.
for surge protection. But, when the SPD is provided
downstream to an RCD it is possible that while SPD is
discharging the arriving surge to the ground, the RCD 21.2 Ground fault on an LV system
may detect the ground discharge current and trip when it
is not wanted. In such cases special types of RCDs may 21.2.1 System protected through over-current
be employed that play immune up to certain level of releases and HRC fuses
ground discharge currents. To meet this, RCDs are
designed with the following immunity levels, The value of ground loop impedance is always
predetermined, depending upon the system requirement
– General type RCDs with a minimum surge immunity and the type of protection available to the system, its
of 200 A with 0.5 ms/100 kHz wave. accuracy to detect the fault and time to operate. For
– S type RCDs with minimum surge immunity of 3kA systems protected through over-current releases or HRC
with an 8/20 ms wave. fuses only, the ground loop must have a comparatively
It is advisable to use SPDs upstream of RCDs or select low impedance. It will allow a high ground fault current
RCDs as noted. through the faulty circuit, sufficient to trip the over-current-
cum-short-circuit releases of the breaker if the circuit is
protected through such releases of the breaker or blow
Other applications out the HRC fuses, if the circuit is protected through
Ground leakage device can also be built into or associated HRC fuses. Such a requirement is more desirable for
with a circuit breaker (MCCB or ACB) to detect feeble higher rating systems, where discrimination between a
ground leakages due to bearing currents, electrostatic healthy and a faulty condition by such devices may be
discharges or insulation faults of a motor or generator, difficult. Medium-rating systems may cause a relatively
or insulation fault in cables. much higher fault current and be automatically protected,
Using the principle of RCD some manufacturers have as the normal ground fault current would be sufficient to
developed the device into a ground leakage relay that trip the short-circuit releases or blow out the HRC fuses.
can be incorporated in a protective scheme through a The rule of thumb to determine the ground loop
breaker in all current ranges. Using a filter circuit they impedance is to consider the ground fault current as one
are made immune to spurious voltages and currents to and a half times that of the over-current setting of the
avoid nuisance trippings, as noted already. circuit breaker for breaker-controlled systems (a fault
condition for a breaker) or three times the rating of the
fuses, for fuse-protected systems (an over-current
21.1.3 Principle of operation of a ground condition for the fuses). Based on this rule, Table 21.2
leakage circuit breaker (application of a suggests the optimum values of ground loop impedances
core-balanced CT) for circuits of different current ratings for an LV system.
At these values of currents, the over-current releases
Refer to Figure 21.2(a) showing a single-phase circuit
will trip in about 130–370 seconds. Refer to ‘I2 – t’
breaker having a thermal over-current and a magnetic
characteristic curves of such releases as shown in Figure
short-circuit element, OCR. A core-balanced transformer
21.3. The HRC fuses will blow out in about 40/60 seconds.
is arranged in the circuit as shown. When the system is
Refer to ‘I 2 – t’ characteristic curves of fuses, as shown
healthy, the current through the phase, IR, and the neutral,
in Figure 21.4.
In, will be equal and the magnetic effect of the load
current on the primary windings, P1 and P2, will be almost Notes
zero. In the event of a ground leakage, I, this balance is 1. Ground fault protection through over-current releases or HRC
disturbed and some of the leakage current will also flow fuses is not a reliable practice. It requires a very low ground
through one of the primary windings of this core-balanced circuit resistance to maintain a high ground fault current, which
CT, as shown in the circuit. This will cause a magnetic may not be possible in the long run. As a consequence, in certain
cases the system may remain intact on a ground fault and damage
flux in the core, inducing a voltage in the secondary the healthy circuits. It is therefore good practice to provide a
winding S. In the circuit shown, it feeds a rectifier circuit ground leakage MCB, ground leakage MCCB or a conventional
provided on the secondary side of the circuit. This unit MCCB with a CBCT and a ground fault leakage relay for low-
facilitates a direct current flow through the leakage trip rating incoming feeders.
coil, which trips the breaker. These breakers are extremely For domestic light and power distribution this practice is
common. Modern industrial installations can now adopt a fuse-
fast operating on fault (operating time may be less than free system and use MCCBs and provide a more sensitive ground
5 ms), and have a low let-through energy. Refer to leakage protection scheme for more safety and reliability.
I2 – t characteristics (Figure 21.1). The ground fault current 2. For clarity one may note that single-phase loads or unevenly
will also be comprised of a current through the appliance, distributed loads on a balanced three-phase system do not lead
IA (Figure 21.2(a)). But since the basic purpose of this to a faulty condition as a result of unbalanced currents. The
device is to protect the human body from an electric single-phase load currents will always have the return path through
the neutral and not the ground. The current through the ground
shock or electrocution, we have considered the leakage circuit will flow only when there is a ground fault and the circuit
current, I, through the body alone to be safer. To ensure completes through the ground loop. See Figures 21.4(a) and (b).
Grounding theory and ground fault protection schemes 21/779
1 1.2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
150% Ir
¥ Ir
in line with the universal practice of having the neutral of
half the size that of the phases. The neutral is normally
Figure 21.3 I 2–t characteristics of an OCR (Figure 12.13(a), grounded to form a complete circuit through the
reproduced for illustration) (Courtesy: L & T) ground conductor in the event of a ground fault. Refer to
50
20
500
minutes
10
400
A
320
224
5
A 355
630
160
A 250A
425
A 200A
100
A
A
2
A
63A
A 80A
A
125
60 sec.
32A
A
50A
20A 6A
20
25A
1
10
10A
6A
2
1
Pre-arcing time
seconds
0.5
0.2
1.0
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.005
0.002
0.001
10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10 000 20 000 50 000
1200
Prospective current in amps. (rms)
System or equipment
under protection
R
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
N
Y
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
B
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
Relay
units G/F O/C O/C O/C G/F O/C O/C G/F
G G G G
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Only for a ground fault (G/F) protection
(b) For 3–O/C and 1–G/F protections
(c) For 2–O/C and 1–G/F protections
Figure 21.5(a) Unrestricted G/F protection schemes for three-phase three-wire systems
Grounding theory and ground fault protection schemes 21/781
System or equipment
under protection
R
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
N Y
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
B
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
N
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
Relay
units G/F O/C O/C O/C G/F O/C O/C G/F
G G G G
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Only for a ground fault (G/F ) protection
(b) For 3–O/C and 1–G/F protections
(c) For 2–O/C and 1–G/F protections
Figure 21.5(b) Unrestricted G/F protection schemes for three-phase four-wire systems
IR
G G
HV IR
LV
N
IB IY
2 2
IB IY
G G IR = IY = IB
\ IR + I Y + IB = 0
Figure 21.7 Phasor sum of a balanced three-phase system is
zero
Figure 21.6 An HV to LV distribution system showing grounding 21.4 Ground fault protection of MV
circuits
and HV systems
The leakage current at hazardous locations such as Now the situation is different from that in LV due to
refineries, petrochemical plants and mines should not high phase to ground voltage Vg. It is now capable of
exceed 15% of the rated current of the circuit or 5 A, causing high ground fault currents. Too large a ground
whichever is greater. Table 21.3 indicates the maximum fault current is not desirable for reasons of safety to
permissible ground leakage currents for such areas at personnel from high ground touch voltages. To contain
21/782 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
Table 21.3 Maximum impedances of ground loop for protection loop impedance as possible to limit the ground leakage
by ground leakage relays in hazardous areas current, such that under no conditions will the touch and
step voltages exceed the permissible tolerable levels as
Current rating Maximum permissible Recommended maximum defined in Section 22.9.
of circuit ground leakage ground loop impedance In Chapter 20 we have analyzed the behaviour and
currenta ‘Ig’ on a 240 V phase to
Amp Amp ground circuit b
characteristics of a system when grounded or left isolated.
The ground fault factor (GFF) plays a very significant
Z g = 240 role in the selection of insulation level (BIL) and its co-
1.5 ¥ I g
ordination with the different equipment connected on
W
the system. The application of a particular method of
5 5 32 grounding would thus depend upon
10 5 32
15 5 32
• The ground protection scheme envisaged to decide
20 5 32 on the magnitude of the ground fault current
30 5 32 • Criticality of the supply system, e.g. whether an
40 6 26.7 immediate trip on fault is permissible
60 9 17.8 • Insulation level of the main equipment connected in
80 12 13.3 the system
100 15 10.7 • Where a neutral is not available (case of a three phase
125 18.7 8.6 three wire system) an inter-connected transformer is
150 22.5 7.1
175 26.2 6.1 used to provide an artificial neutral as discussed in
200 30 5.3 Section 20.9.
300 45 3.5
400 60 2.7
The grounding of a generator, for instance, which
may be designed for 6.6, 11, 15 or 21 kV, and all other
Notes equipment connected on this system may be solidly
a
Highly sensitive ground leakage relays can sense a current as low grounded to have the least GFF and hence, add no extra
as 0.1 A and less and at a much higher ground loop impedance. cost to the machine for a higher level of insulation or a
b
Calculated to allow at least 150% of the maximum permissible larger size of machine. But at such voltages the ground
current to be on the safe side. For example, for 15A maximum fault current will be excessive as noted in Section 16.13.2
ground leakage current, maximum impedance at 240 V to cause an extra burden to the windings of the machine
or in the selection of protective devices. It is, however,
= 240 = 10.7 W noted that a few application engineers may prefer an
1.5 ¥ 15
isolated neutral system at certain installations where
continuity of supply is mandatory, even on a ground
fault, until an alternative arrangement is made. Examples
are auxiliary drives in a power generating unit or essential
CBCT drives in a process plant, essential public services railways,
airports, community centres etc. At such installations, it
is imperative to ensure that the generator and all the
equipment connected in the system are designed for the
R higher GFF and a larger size or greater cost of the machines
are immaterial. But the occurrence of another ground
fault before clearing the first will lead to fatality and
cause total damage of the faulty equipment. The ground
current can now find its way through the earlier ground
fault and cannot be prevented, as there is no protection
R Y B N
available. Isolated systems are therefore generally not
Figure 21.8 Schematic of a core-balanced CT (CBCT) recommended. Instead, for such requirements, a resonance
grounding system may be adopted, limiting the ground
these currents in such a system the normal practice is to fault current to a desired low value to protect the machine
increase the ground impedance by inserting some from heavy fault currents and prevent the system from
impedance into the ground circuit through the grounded tripping on a ground fault. Such a system is more prevalent
neutral as discussed in Section 20.4.2. These systems in overhead transmission or long distribution networks
are protected through relays for different protective to save the whole system from an outage on a ground
schemes and not through fuses or over-current releases fault. The terminal equipment and the windings of all
as for LV. Since a relay is much more sensitive and is the machines may now be designed for a voltage
quicker to respond, even a small ground leakage current corresponding to the relevant GFF.
will be enough to actuate it and isolate the faulty circuit. The magnitude of the ground fault current is a matter
The ground loop impedance in these systems are therefore of system design and will largely depend upon the system
kept much higher than on an LV system. Moreover, since voltage and the ground loop impedance. The required
modern relays are able to sense a current as low as 0.1 A ground impedance may be determined on the following
or less, the universal practice is to have as large a ground lines, if
Grounding theory and ground fault protection schemes 21/783
kVA = rated capacity of the supply source, which can be that at no stage will the impedance of the system increase
a generator or a transformer beyond 0.54 W (inclusive of the impedance of the ground).
V = system rated line voltage in volts Otherwise it will render the protective scheme ineffective and
allow the ground fault to persist.
Ir = system rated full-load line current in amperes The above is the case for an LV system. For an HV system,
Zg = impedance of the grounded neutral circuit in ohms similar calculations may be carried out to determine the ground
Ig = required level of the ground fault current in amperes neutral impedance. Now it will be much higher than the above
due to a high Vg to limit the fault current and thus also the
Then ground potential difference to below a dangerous level at any
point on the ground circuit. The impedance of the ground
Vl circuit in such cases may be increased through a resistance
Zg = W or an inductor coil.
3 ◊ Ig
Consider the equivalent tripping circuit diagram of Since Vr and In are interdependent parameters the optimum
the CBCT in Figure 21.9. If design is achieved when In at Vr is of the same magnitude
as the relay operating current, i.e. In Ire.
RCT = resistance of the CBCT For high current systems, using more than one cable
RL = resistance of the connecting leads in parallel, the number of CBCTs will also be the same
Rr = resistance of the protective relay as the number of cables, as illustrated in Figure 21.10, in
Ire = relay operating current which case
Vr = relay operating voltage at the relay current
setting Ip = n[I re + N · In ] for N number of CTs
Ip = primary unbalance or ground fault current
All such CBCTs have to be identical in turns ratio
= IR + IY + IB and magnetizing characteristics to avoid circulating
currents among themselves. To order a CBCT the
n = turns ratio of the CBCT following information will be essential:
I nl = magnetizing (leakage) or no-load current of • Minimum primary ground leakage current
the CBCT at the relay operating voltage Vr • Nominal CT ratio. This may be such that on the smallest
Then Vr = Ire(RCT + R + Rr) and ground fault the current on the secondary is sufficient
The primary ground fault current to operate the relay. Normal Ip = 50, 100 and 200 A.
I p = n ( I re + I n ) It is recommended to be such that Vr 0.1 ¥ knee
point voltage of the CBCT
Since on a fault the power factor is normally low, Ire and • Relay setting
In may be considered almost in phase, when • CT secondary current, 1A or 5A
• Minimum excitation current required at the relay
I p n ( I re + I n ) operating voltage
• Knee point voltage
• Number of cables in parallel
i re + I n R CT i re R Rr • Limiting dimensions and internal diameter (ID) of
the CT. ID will depend upon the size of the cable.
I n
i re
21.5.2 Insulation level
CBCT Vr Relay Irrespective of the system voltage, a CBCT may be
designed for an insulation level of only 660 V. The cable
insulation of the HV conductor is sufficient to provide the
required insulation between the conductor and the CBCT.
Ground
leakage To indication, *
relay alarm or trip
circuit
S1 S1 S1 a1 b1 c1
S1 S1 S1
S2 S2 S2 a2 b2 c2
S2 S2 S2
(a) Separate CBCT for each cable. (b) Separate protective circuit for each cable
Figure 21.10 Methods to wire a protective circuit through CBCTs
Grounding theory and ground fault protection schemes 21/785
unbalance or the ground leakage in 3-core cables and before passing the cable through the CBCT to avoid
only ground leakage in 3 12 - and 4-core cables. To an induced e.m.f. through the armour and the
explain this see Figures 21.11(a) and (b). A 3-core corresponding magnetizing current which may affect
cable will detect an unbalance in the three phases, the performance of the CT.
whether this is the result of unequal loading in the 3 As such CTs are required to detect small out-of-balance
three phases or a ground fault. However, 3 12 - or 4- currents, the connecting leads should be properly
core cables will detect only a ground leakage as the terminated and must be short to contain the lead
amount of unbalance, when it occurs, will be offset resistance as far as possible.
by the flow of this unbalanced current through the 4 For high-rating feeders using more than one cable,
return path of the neutral circuit. When using only 3- there must be one CBCT for each cable. Not more
core cables, the load must be almost balanced otherwise than one multi-core cable must pass through such
it will send wrong signals or a higher setting of the CTs. The secondary of all such parallel CTs may,
relay will become essential to account for the out-of however, be connected in series, across the common
balance currents due to the feeders’ unequal loading. relay (Figure 21.10(a)).
2 In armoured cables, armouring must be removed All CBCTs being used in parallel and intended for the
R
N
Y
Iub
B
Iua
N This CBCT will detect the unbalanced
Iua Iub
current
Iub
This CBCT will detect nothing as
the unbalance of the 3-phases is
A A offset by the return current through
the neutral circuit
Iua
3–f load 3–f four-wire load Iua – Unbalanced current due to load–A
Iub – Unbalanced current due to load–B
Load-A Load-B
Iga Igb
R
N
Y
Iua
Iga B
Iub Iub
N This CBCT will detect the unbalance as
Igb Iua
well as the ground leakage currents
Iga Igb Iub
Iga This CBCT will detect only the
ground leakage current
Igb
A A Iua – Unbalanced current due to load–A
(Iua + Iga) Igb
Iub – Unbalanced current due to load–B
Iga – Ground fault current of load–A
Igb – Ground fault current of load–B
Load-A Load-B
G G G
Igb Iga Iga Igb
same feeder must have identical magnetizing phase loads or unequal loading on the three phases, will
characteristics and calibration in order to relay identical flow only through the neutral circuit.
signals. Even then small variations in the output may In a phase-to-phase fault, however, the system will
occur which could affect the sensitivity of a circuit be composed of two balanced systems, one with positive
using more than one CBCT. If such a reduction in sequence and the other with negative sequence
sensitivity is considered detrimental to the protection components. The phasors of these two systems
of the system or the equipment, it is advisable to use individually will add up to zero, and once again, as in
a separate relay with each CBCT (Figure 21.10(b)). the above case, there will be no residual quantities through
For a common indication, alarm or trip, the relays’ the neutral or the ground circuit, except for the transient
trip contacts may be wired in series. and spillover quantities.
5 When using only single-core cables, the same method The ground fault current may be detected through
should be adopted, as discussed above. Groups may three or four CTs, one in each phase and the fourth in the
be made of 3, 3 12 or 4 cores (R, Y, B or R, Y, B and neutral circuit (Figures 21.5(a) and (b)). Through the
N) of single-core cables, and one CBCT used in neutral to discriminate the fault, as discussed later.
circular or rectangular form, whichever is more
convenient, for each group. Note
In a G/F the three CTs will also measure the unbalanced load
current, if any, in addition to G/F current. For an appropriate setting
Note of the relay, therefore, it will be essential that the likely system
In an HV system it is recommended that each circuit be protected unbalanced current be measured and the relay set in excess of this
separately for a ground leakage as far as possible. This is to to detect a G/F. For systems feeding single-phase or unbalanced
localize the effect of the fault and to trip only the feeder of the loads, prone to carrying high and widely fluctuating unbalanced
faulty circuit. A common protection in the incoming is not neutral currents, it may be difficult to determine the likely amount
advisable, except for cost considerations, which also will be of unbalance and provide a suitable setting for the G/F relay. In
nominal for such a protection scheme compared to the cost of such cases use of four CTs or core balanced CTs would be more
the main equipment. Otherwise a ground leakage in the appropriate.
downstream may trip the whole system, which may not be
desirable. It is also possible that at the downstream, the ground
leakage is very feeble due to high ground loop impedance and Below we discuss the more widely adopted practices
may not be sufficient to be detected by the common ground to detect a ground fault, i.e.:
leakage protection provided at the incoming. It is also possible
that the setting of the relay is not so low as to detect this. Thus to • Protection through a single CT
provide a reliable ground leakage protection for each individual • Restricted G/F protection
circuit will be worthwhile without any serious cost implications. • Unrestricted G/F protection
Such a philosophy, however, will not hold good for a system • Directional G/F protection and
which is protected only through its incoming feeder and all the
outgoing feeders are merely isolators. In this case the ground • Differential G/F protection (high impedance differential
leakage protection will have to be centralized for the entire protection is discussed in Section 15.6.6(1)).
system and provided in the incoming feeder only.
21.6.1 Protection through a single CT
21.6 Ground fault (G/F) protection This is the simplest method to protect an equipment against
a G/F (Figure 21.12). It can, however, be applied only at
schemes the source, which is a generator or a transformer, provided
that the source has no other parallel grounding paths in
A scheme for a ground fault protection will depend upon the vicinity. This is to avoid sharing of the fault current
the type of system and its grounding conditions, i.e. whether and false or inadequate detection of the fault current by
the system is three-phase three-wire or three-phase four- the relay. This scheme is therefore more functional at the
wire. A three-wire system will require an artificial grounding main generating source, such as at the generator or the
while for a four-wire system the type of grounding must generator transformer, having a low impedance solidly
be known, i.e. whether it is effectively (solidly) grounded grounded neutral.
or non-effectively (impedance) grounded.
Grounding protection will depend upon the Downstream
measurement of the residual quantities (V0 or I0) that
will appear across the ground circuit in the event of a
ground fault. As discussed above, in a balanced three-
phase system the voltage and current phasors are 120∞
apart and add up to zero in the neutral circuit. In the GFR
event of an unequally distributed system or a ground
fault, this balance is disturbed and the out-of-balance Neutral
quantities appear across the neutral or the ground circuit solidly
respectively. The current through the ground circuit will grounded
flow only when there is a ground fault, the fault current
completing its circuit through the ground path. The normal
unbalanced current, due to unevenly distributed single- Figure 21.12 Ground fault protection through a single CT
Grounding theory and ground fault protection schemes 21/787
For any other equipment or system, such as shown in a G/F occurring within the restricted zone as illustrated
Figure 21.13, the fault current may be shared by the various in Figure 21.14(a). For faults occurring outside the
grounding stations in the vicinity and the relay may not restricted zone, as shown in Figure 21.14(b), the fault
sense the real extent of the fault, even when the system is current through the ground circuit CT will be offset by
effectively grounded. A part of the fault current, may now the residual current of the three-phase CTs and thus the
flow through the other nearby grounding stations. Moreover, relay will remain immune to such a fault.
for a fault on another feeder spill currents may also pass
through such relays and trip them (unwanted) when the
relays are highly sensitive or have a low setting. Such a
Ir 1
scheme will also not discriminate when required, and hence R
S1 S2
will have limitations in its application. Nevertheless, it is ir
Iy 2
common practice to apply single CT protection through Y
neutral circuits of the grounded transformers anywhere in S1 S2
Ig iy
the system, generation, transmission or distribution. Multiple 3
B
groundings may cause problems, but this is taken into account Ig S1 S2
at the design/planning stage.
4 G
Direction
21.6.2 Restricted ground fault protection of residual S1 i
g
induced
S2
When it becomes essential to discriminate between a current
fault within the circuit to be protected from one outside
the circuit, this scheme may be adopted. While doing so, Impedance
grounded Ig
it must be ensured that adequate ground fault protection system
is available to the remaining feeders, if connected on the To trip
same system. G circuit
GFR
Note All the four CTs must be wired with the same polarity
For a three-phase three-wire system
(generally HV systems) (a) Relay operates when the fault occurs within the protected zone
F Note All the four CTs must be wired with the same polarity
G
Figure 21.13 Limitation in using a single CT for a G/F protection Figure 21.14 Scheme for a three-phase three-wire restricted
when the equipment has more than one parallel ground path ground fault protection for an HV system
21/788 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
S2
Ir
R G
S1 S2 GFR Ig
ir Ig
Iy
Y
S1 S2
iy The residual currents are equal and opposite, hence nullify and
Ib *
B the relay stays inoperative.
S1 S2
ib Figure 21.17 Scheme for restricted G/F protection for a three-
Iu
N phase four-wire system. Fault occurring outside the protected
S1 S2 zone
iu
iu iu
S1 2 A delta-connected or an ungrounded star-connected
winding should also be protected through a restricted
iu iu ground fault scheme, otherwise it will remain
S2 unprotected. There is no zero sequence or residual
current in such a winding to detect a ground
G
GFR fault. The arrangement will be similar to that for
directional protection of a delta side of a transformer,
Under healthy condition the unbalance residual current of the 3 phase as discussed later, with the use of a grounding
CTs is nullified by the equal and opposite current in the neutral CT. transformer (Figures 21.18 and 21.19).
There is thus no current through the relay.
– – – –
Ir + Iy + Ib = Iu 21.6.3 Unrestricted ground fault protection
Figure 21.15 Scheme for restricted G/F protection for a three- The CT provided in the ground circuit is now removed
phase four-wire system. Healthy condition and the same scheme becomes suitable for an unrestricted
Grounding theory and ground fault protection schemes 21/789
Application
Igb
This is the most common scheme in normal use for any
Iga power system with more than one feeder, connected to a
G
Iga
G
common bus, such as for distribution and sub-distribution
power networks, having a number of load points,
Iga A¢ Igb
B¢ controlled through a main incoming feeder. In a switchgear
G assembly, for instance, common protection may be
Igb provided at the incoming for a ground fault or combined
Iga Iga Igb O/C and G/F protections as discussed above. In such
cases, a restricted G/F protection may not be appropriate
Iga Iga or required, as the protection now needed is system ground
* protection, rather than individual equipment ground
protection. The incomer must operate whenever a ground
fault occurs at any point on the system. Moreover, for an
G a¢ G b¢
LV system, where it may not be desirable or possible to
Iga Iga provide individual ground protection to each feeder, such
a scheme is adopted extensively.
direction, Ve = 0 (refer to Section 15.4.3 for details), and needs more careful consideration of the fault conditions
the relay remains inoperative. The relay operates only and impedance of the ground circuit, in addition to
when the current flows in the reverse direction. the location of the CTs. This is due to a rather low
setting of the G/F relay, 10–40% or 20–80% of the
Note full load current or even lower, as in mines and other
This relay may be used only under unrestricted fault conditions, sensitive locations. Too low a setting may even trip a
with three CTs as shown. If the scheme is used under a restricted healthy system due to ground capacitance leakage
fault condition, with the fourth CT in the neutral, the directional currents (more so in HV circuits) or unbalanced
relay will remain immune to any fault occurring outside the zone
of the three CTs, as the fault current through the fourth CT will currents through the neutral (more on LV circuits). In
offset the residual current, detected by the three CTs (Section 21.6.3), core balanced CTs detecting small leakage currents,
rendering the whole scheme non-functional. it is possible that during a phase-to-phase fault there
may be transient spill currents through its residual
Current polarization circuit, which may operate the low-set and more
sensitive G/F relay, which may not be desirable. To
Voltage polarization depends upon the location of the overcome this, the time setting of the relay may be suitably
relay and the location of the fault. It is possible that the adjusted so that the over-load relay will operate faster
residual voltage, at a particular location in the system, is than the G/F, or slightly higher setting for the relay
not sufficient to actuate the voltage coil of the directional may be provided or time delay in the trip circuit
G/F relay. In such an event, current polarization is used introduced.
to supplement voltage polarization. Current polarization 2 In another situation, when the ground circuit has a
is possible, provided that a star point is created on the higher impedance than designed it may be due to
system, even through a power transformer, if such poor soil conditions, dry soil beds, rocky areas, poor
a transformer is available in the same circuit, Figure grounding stations or inadequate maintenance of the
21.20. Else a grounding transformer may be provided as grounding stations. In such conditions, the ground
illustrated in Figure 21.21, and grounded neutral utilised, circuit may provide a lower fault current than
to provide the required residual current polarization, to envisaged. Sometimes an overhead conductor may
actuate the ground fault relay. snap due to strong winds and fall on dry metallic
roads, hedges and shrubs causing extremely low
Note leakage currents, creating a hazard to life and property.
The two currents, residual and polarizing, are capable of operating
the relay. This may cause an arcing ground, leading to fire
hazards. For all such locations and situations, very
low current settings (of the order of 5% of Ir or even
21.6.5 Current setting of a ground fault relay lower) or leakage current detection through core-
1 Selection of CTs for ground fault protection particularly balanced CTs may be adopted.
power
CTs transformer
R
Power S1 S2
CTs transformer Y
R S1 S2
S 1 S2 B
Y S1 S2
G G
S 1 S2
B
S 1 S2
G
Grounding
Residual transformer
Residual
current
current
coil
coil
Current
Current
polarizing
polarizing
coil
G coil
Directional G
Directional
ground fault ground fault
relay relay
Current polarization through the grounded Current polarization through the grounded neutral of a grounding
neutral of a power transformer transformer
Figure 21.20 Typical circuit illustrating current polarization Figure 21.21 Typical circuit illustrating current polarization
scheme to operate a directional GFR scheme to operate a directional GFR
Grounding theory and ground fault protection schemes 21/791
3 For circuits protected by HRC fuses for short-circuit (i) TN-C (Figure 21.22) – Transformer neutral is
conditions, the G/F relay must be a back-up to the grounded and the metallic frames of all load points are
fuses, and trip first on a ground fault. In other words, connected to the neutral. The neutral of the supply system
I2t (relay) < I2t fuses. works as the protective ground (earth) neutral (PGN or
PEN). Under normal conditions the N, load metallic frames
and the ground are nearly at equi-potential. During a
21.7 Grounding systems ground fault the following may happen,
– During an MV fault a current will flow through the
Based on the protection criteria and ground fault protection ground electrode of the LV neutral and a power
schemes discussed in the previous sections and Chapter frequency voltage will appear across the LV bodies
20 we now provide a brief reference to the various types of all equipment and devices connected on the system
of grounding methods in vogue worldwide for installations and the remote ground.
comprising homes, buildings, HV/LV substations, – During an LV phase fault (insulation fault) also the
industries, switchyards, power generating stations and voltage between phase and body of the faulty
over-head lines. The grounding schemes may vary with equipment or device may exceed the phase to neutral
system voltage, type of installation, equipment to be voltage (see Section 20.1). It is therefore not a
protected, criticality of installation and exposure to human- recommended system at locations contaminated with
body. It may also vary from country to country depending volatile gas, liquid or vapour prone to fire hazards
on their own grounding codes and statutory regulations. and explosions.
Here we provide only broad guidelines on basic grounding – An insulation (equipment) fault is a short circuit fault
systems as practised for various types of installations. and the faulty equipment or device must be isolated
For details on application one may refer to the Standards quickly using HRC fuses or interrupters, short circuit
noted under Relevant Standards. releases or relays when used.
The basic criteria of grounding are, – The system is not allowed to be used for conductors
less than 10 mm2 of copper or 16 mm2 of aluminium.
– protection to a human body from electric shocks and – The touch voltage between any two ground points
limiting the touch voltage (body leakage current) within should be within safe limits as discussed in Section
safe limits (Section 21.1) 21.1.
– protection against fire hazards. – The use of this system must be reviewed for the third
– power supply continuity on a ground fault when desired. harmonic quantities that this grounding system is prone
– minimizing EM effects. to receive from other systems in the vicinity. The
– protection from lightning strikes, transferred surges, system therefore has limitations for electronic devices
switching surges and over-voltages. and communication circuits when connected on the
system.
The nomenclatures used for grounding systems are defined
– Neutral in the vicinity of metallic structures and power
as,
cables may also become a potential source of EM
T- Connection to ground disturbances.
I- Isolation from ground.
Note: To overcome the above short comings (over-voltages
N-Connecting to the neutral and neutral connected to the during a fault) the neutrals of supply source and the LV installation
ground. may be grounded separately.
The following are the grounding systems in practice, 2 TN-S (Figure 21.23)
1 TN – The supply source (usually a transformer) – Now the neutral and the protective conductors are
neutral is grounded and all metallic frames of equipment separate and the equipment and devices are grounded
and devices operating on the system are connected to the
neutral. The neutral may be connected in the following
R
possible ways,
R Y
Y B
B N
PGN PG
G Load G Load
Figure 21.22 TN–C system of grounding Figure 21.23 TN–S system of grounding
21/792 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook
directly with the protective ground (PG). Use of – The risk to fire, explosion and damage to equipment
separate protective ground and neutral conductor is and devices is low.
necessary for small feeders with, conductors less than – The system causes low EM disturbances.
10 mm2 of copper or 16 mm2 of aluminium. It is a
five-wire system and preferred where quick 5. IT (Figure 21.26) It is an ungrounded system or has
maintenance and repair backup is available. an impedance grounded neutral. Transformer or source
– Neutral is not protected and may cause a risk to life of supply neutral is not grounded but load metallic frames
and property. are grounded. The system is preferred where continuity
– But it is a low fault current system, the risk to fire and of service is more essential such as at critical installations
danger to faulty device is low. like power generating stations, process plants and crowded
– An MV/LV disruptive break-down in the transformer public places (also see Section 20.2.1). It calls for prompt
or the source of supply may cause surge transference fault tracking and removing and demands for efficient
(Section 18.5.2) and over-voltages (Section 20.1) and engineering and maintenance back up. A second fault on
raise the neutral voltage and pose similar risk. another phase before the first gets cleared, however, will
– Since neutral is grounded this scheme also allows the cause a severe phase to phase fault. Provisions must be
third harmonics to flow into the system from other available to promptly clear the same through short-circuit
sources. protection of interrupting device of the faulty equipment.
– The system is suitable for loads with low level of With the availability of advanced electronic diagnostic
insulation like furnaces, electronic devices and computer instruments, tracking the first fault and removing the
networks. It is a preferred system for hospitals and same promptly even remotely is simple and in all
practised by UK and Anglo-Saxon (British) countries. likelihood a second fault would be rare.
3 TN-C-S (Figure 21.24) This system is a combination – As there is no current flow during the first fault, the
of TN-C and TN-S at one installation. The neutral and risk to fire, explosion or damage to equipment is low.
the protective ground conductors of TN-S, five wire system – Also low EM disturbances.
are separate from TN-C four wire system. The TN-S – In France, for instance, IT system is compulsory in
therefore cannot be placed in the upstream. The point at hospitals, particularly operation theatres to ensure an
which PG conductor separates from neutral is generally uninterrupted power supply. With the back-up of UPS
at the origin of installation. (un-interrupted power supply), this requirement may
not be over emphasized, nevertheless it is a safety
4 TT (Figure 21.25) requirement.
– It is the simplest system and practised by most
countries. The transformer or the source of supply
R
neutral and its frame are grounded. The metallic body
of loads are also connected to the ground conductor.
Surge protective arrester
Y
The system is prone to over-voltages and transference
(SPD) optional
Y
R
B
Y
N
B
PG
16mm2 6mm2
N
G
See
Note
TN–C TN–S G
21.7.1 Choice of grounding system – 150 V< phase to neutral voltage < 600 V.
All grounding systems are similar and aim at achieving Similarly various parts of IEC 60364 provide solutions
the same objectives as noted before. As there is no one to grounding of various types of installations and locations
choice with one grounding system, a power installation such as bath tubs, shower basins, swimming pools, sauna
may therefore have a combination of these systems heaters, construction and demolition sites, installations
depending on location, type of equipment, user at agriculture and horticulture premises, data processing
requirements and also local electricity authority statutory equipment, caravan parks and caravans etc. Similarly
regulations. It is possible that one installation may use for hospitals, schools, navy, mines and work sites.
more than one grounding systems to satisfy different For brevity we limit our discussions to the above. For
requirements for different types of loads. For example, implementation of these systems one may refer to the
various parts of IEC 60364, NEC and references 3–6
– Special grounding system for sensitive installations provided in the Further Reading.
having electronic circuits, video, computers and
communication network. Also see Section 6.13.3 on
clean grounding. 21.7.2 Protection from lightning strikes,
– IT system may be preferred for critical installations transferred surges and over-voltages
not wanting an immediate shut-down. But this too Limiting potential rise in the LV ground circuit due to
has its own merits and demerits as noted above. lightning surges, surge transferences and over-voltages
– TT being the most practised system worldwide for caused by faults on MV side is an important requirement
LV grounding. for all LV ground systems. Some remedial measures are
– Some countries like Norway use IT System. noted below,
– Anglo-Saxon (British) countries generally use TN-C
system. – To protect from direct lightning strikes a lightning
arrester can be installed at the top most point of the
All these grounding systems are practised in varying building and grounded separately.
degrees by different countries. Table 21.4 gives a general – To protect from transferred surges (Section 18.5.2) a
over-view of the grounding practices of LV installations surge protective device (SPD) (Section 17.13) can be
as adopted by some countries just for a general installed across the neutral and ground on the LV side
reference. of the transformer as marked in Figure 21.25. It should
Most countries have drawn-up their own electricity be at the origin of the supply source and not near the
regulations like National Electric Code (NEC) and one receiving point as far as possible.
may refer to the same before deciding on the grounding Note
system. For example according to NEC one may use SPDs wherever installed must be grounded separately to prevent
RCD when it meets the following, ground potential rise while clearing the surge.
Relevant Standards
IEC Title IS BS
ANSI-C37.16/2000 Low voltage power circuit breakers – preferred ratings and application –
recommendations.
NEMA-280/1990 Application guide for ground fault circuit interrupters. BS 5958-1/1991,
BS 5958-2/1991
Notes
1 In the table of relevant Standards while the latest editions of the Standards are provided, it is possible that revised editions have become
available or some of them are even withdrawn. With the advances in technology and/or its application, the upgrading of Standards is a
continuous process by different Standards organizations. It is therefore advisable that for more authentic references, one may consult the
relevant organizations for the latest version of a Standard.
2 Some of the BS or IS Standards mentioned against IEC may not be identical.
3 The year noted against each Standard may also refer to the year it was last reaffirmed and not necessarily the year of publication.
Current passing through a human body Safe currents through a human body
(i) for a 50 kg body
Sb
Ib = (21.1)
tb I b (50 kg) = 0.116 (21.2)
Sb = shock energy in watt-seconds (Ws) tb
Ib = r.m.s value of the leakage current through the body
in Amperes (A) (ii) for a 70 kg body
Grounding theory and ground fault protection schemes 21/795