2nd Reading

September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami

Vol. 10, No. 4 (2016) 1650008 (26 pages)

c World Scientific Publishing Company
DOI: 10.1142/S1793431116500081

Effectiveness of Finite Length Inland Forest in Trapping

Tsunami-Borne Wood Debris

Ghufran Ahmed Pasha∗ and Norio Tanaka∗,†,‡

∗Graduate School of Science and Engineering,

Saitama University, 255 Shimo-okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan

†International Institute for Resilient Society,

Saitama University, 255 Shimo-okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan

‡tanaka01@mail.saitama-u.ac.jp

Received 1 September 2015

Accepted 22 January 2016
Published 7 February 2016

Debris produced by coastal forest destruction due to the tsunami after the Great East
Japan Earthquake caused secondary damage to buildings by collision. To limit such
destruction, the trapping action of a finite-length forest was examined in a flume con-
sidering the effects of ‘forest density’, ‘debris length to forest width ratio’, and ‘forest
width-length ratio (aspect ratio)’ because the trapping height greatly affects the rate of
damage to the forest itself. Higher forest density and a higher aspect ratio decrease the
velocity in front of the forest. Debris having a specific gravity up to 0.80 floated after
collision but oscillated vertically as forest density was increased. With debris of a higher
specific gravity (0.90–1.05), increased forest density resulted in debris attachment closer
to the ground, which reached a plateau beyond a forest density of 0.48 cylinders/cm2 . In
sparse forest, when debris was longer than the forest width; most debris fell at the foot
of trees, while it was caught in the upper half of water depth in dense forest. The flow
structure in front of and around a forest greatly affected the debris trapping capacity. It
was deducted that the inland forest with a density of 0.48 cylinders/cm2 and an aspect
ratio of 1.7 trapped most of the debris of all lengths at the foot of trees.

Keywords: Tsunami; coastal forest; wood debris; forest density; aspect ratio.

1. Introduction
A large tsunami is one of the most dreadful natural disasters in the world. It has
vast effects with both tangible and intangible damage, including loss of life, damage
to property and goods, and a negative impact on social and economic affairs. The
tsunami caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake at 14:46 JST on March 11,
2011 damaged many sea walls including large embankments and tsunami gates,
thus causing disastrous damage to people, buildings [Suppasri et al., 2012; Fraser
et al., 2013; Ishigaki et al., 2013], and even coastal forests [Tanaka et al., 2013] in
the Tohoku and Kanto districts of Japan.
Coastal forests have proved to be a vital solution in mitigating catastrophic
coastal phenomena like tsunami and storm surges. Previous studies have also shown

1650008-1
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

by post-tsunami surveys that coastal trees helped reduce the damaging effects of
natural disasters [Danielsen et al., 2005; Kathiresan and Rajendran, 2005; Tanaka
et al., 2007; Mascarenhas and Jayakumar, 2008]. To utilize the tsunami mitigation
function of a coastal forest, field plantation was also done along the coast in southern
Asian countries [Tanaka, 2009; Tanaka et al., 2011]. A forest can offer sufficient
resistance to a tsunami force depending upon its structure and density. Iimura and
Tanaka [2012] investigated the effect of vegetation density both experimentally and
analytically and confirmed that both the level and velocity of the water behind the
vegetation are reduced considerably by increasing the density of vegetation. Later,
Iimura and Tanaka [2013] studied the effects of aspect ratio (length along shoreline
direction/length of cross-shore direction of a coastal forest) on tsunami mitigation
by numerical simulations and found that the effect of collision behind the forest is
large if the aspect ratio is between 1 and 4.
Despite the effects of coastal vegetation as a natural and efficient solution to
mitigate a tsunami, the high acceleration of tsunami water may also cause breaking
and washing out of trees. The 2011 Great East Japan Tsunami passed through sand
dunes having coastal vegetation completely washed out or partly destroyed the
coastal pine trees. Instead of protecting the town from damage, the floating debris
produced by the tsunami further destroyed the area [Suppasri et al., 2012]. The
advantages and disadvantages of coastal vegetation were pointed out qualitatively
by Shuto [1987] and quantitatively by Tanaka and Suzuki [2013]. Recently, Tanaka
[2012a] and Thuy et al. [2012] analyzed the effect of tree breaking on tsunami
disaster management using a numerical model based on two-dimensional nonlinear
long-wave equations. Furthermore, Tanaka et al. [2013] conducted a post-tsunami
field survey in order to reveal the critical breaking conditions and breaking patterns
of Japanese pine trees.
The floating debris carried by a tsunami has the potential to collide with build-
ings and then to cause secondary damage to them, and can even cause fire out-
break. On March 11, 2011, the fire outbreak following the tsunami consumed cars,
debris, and houses, and devastated many neighborhoods [Tanaka, 2012b; Hokugo
et al., 2013]. Even worse, combustible material like cars and ships can pose a fire
threat to shelters, such as tsunami evacuation refuges, at the time of the disaster
(Fig. 1). Automobiles carried away by the tsunami hit buildings, destroying fuel
tanks and fuel pipes, thus igniting fires [Hokugo et al., 2012, 2013]. Hence, there is
a serious need to limit this floating debris effectively and economically. The Inland
forests help trap debris and protect refugees while in the evacuation site (Figs. 2(d)
and 2(e)).
Trees in the inland forest can withstand the pressure of floating debris and can
trap debris (Fig. 2(c)), depending on the velocity and Froude number (the ratio of
inertial and gravitational forces) [Tanaka et al., 2013], and this was confirmed at
Sendai, Natori, Yotsukura Beach, and Shinmaiko Beach during the field investiga-
tion. Tanaka and Suzuki [2013] investigated the impulsive force on houses by the
collision of floating debris. However, no research has been done to deeply investigate

1650008-2
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

Fig. 1. A fire occurred in Ishinomaki City, Miyagi Prefecture, at a school that was designated as
an evacuation center.

(a)

(b) (c)
Fig. 2. The role of inland forest in inundating-tsunami mitigation. (a) Effect of inland forest.
Even at the same diameter, some trees were not broken and trapped debris in case of an inland
forest, depending on the velocity and Fr condition [Tanaka et al., 2013], (b) height ratio is the
ratio of debris accumulation height (Hd ) and the water depth in front of the forest (Ho ) which
greatly affects the bending moment on trees and overturning moment on root anchorage zone,
(c) clear trapping effect, and (d) and (e) utilization of inland forest for trapping debris ahead of
an evacuation center.

1650008-3
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

(d) (e)
Fig. 2. (Continued)

the trapping function of an inland forest when debris collides with it. In the flowing
water state, if the debris is staying on top after hitting the trees then it will exert
enormous overturning force on the trees due to greater moment arm (Fig. 2(b)).
High accumulation height of debris may also result in trunk breakage leading to
failure of inland forest (Fig. 2(a)). Forest density and the aspect ratio of a for-
est are one of the vital parameters to be investigated. Therefore, the aim of this
research was to study effect of the flow structure of wood debris on its collision
with a finite length forest. Laboratory experiments were conducted considering the
effects of ‘forest density’, ‘debris length to forest width ratio’, and ‘aspect ratio’ on
debris accumulation height (Fig. 2(b)). Different patterns of debris collision were
also identified with pieces of wood debris of different shapes. This study provides
information necessary for designing and establishing a vegetation bioshield for trap-
ping debris without causing damage to inland forests.

2. Experimental Setup and Conditions

2.1. Non-dimensional pi groups
Scaling of experimental results to prototype conditions is challenging. This study
defines ‘debris accumulation height (Hd )’ as the height of attached debris when it
collides with the first/front line of trees and then gets trapped within the flowing
water (Fig. 2(b)). The height (Hd ) is an indication of inland forest capability to
trap most of the debris at the foot of trees. In the current study, Hd is a function of
water level without forest (H1 ), raised water level in front of forest (Ho ), velocity
of flowing water (V ), width of channel (B), gravitational constant (gc ), viscosity of
water (µ), density of water (ρw ), density of debris (ρd ), length of debris (l), spacing
of each cylinder in cross-stream direction (G), diameter of tree (D), forest length
(Wx ), and forest width (Wy ) [Figs. 2(b), 3(b), and 3(c)]. After Buckingham pi
theorem analysis, the following modified non-dimensional pi groups were identified:

π1 Hd B ρd V ρH1 V
= , π3 = , π4 = , π5 = √ , π6 = ,
π2 Ho H1 ρw g c H1 µ
π7 G π9 Wx π11 l
= , = , = .
π8 D π10 Wy π10 Wy

1650008-4
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

Since width of channel (B) and water depth without forest (H1 ) is same for every
case during the experiment, π3 group can be ignored. Also, viscosity and density of
water are same for every case and Froude scaling is commonly used for free surface
gravity flows, thus π6 group which is Reynold’s number, is ignored too. Therefore,
height ratio is a function of specific gravity, Froude’s number, G/D representing
forest density, aspect ratio, and debris length to forest width ratio:


Hd ρd V G Wx l
=f ,√ , , , .
Ho ρw gc H1 D Wy Wy

2.2. Experimental procedure and flume characteristics

Figure 3(a) shows the experimental flume setup. Laboratory experiments for 28
different cases (Table 1) were conducted in the water flume (constant bed slope
1/2400), which is 5 m in length, 0.7 m in width, and 0.5 m in height, in Saitama

(a)

(b) (c)
Fig. 3. Experimental apparatus and procedures. (a) Experimental set-up for investigation of
debris collision with the forest. (b) Staggered arrangement of forest model, where D is diameter of
cylinder, L is space between each cylinder, G is spacing of each cylinder in cross-stream direction,
Wx is forest length, Wy is forest width. (c) Definition of length of debris (l) type with respect to
forest model.

1650008-5
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

Table 1. Experimental conditions.

Forest Forest density Debris length to

Case aspect (cylinders/ G/D L/D Forest type Debris forest width
No. ratio cm2 ) typea ratio
Case 1 1.70 0.24 2.10 5.25 Sparse and PKV a 0.81
Case 2 1.70 0.34 1.50 4.00 Transition a 0.81
Case 3 1.70 0.48 1.09 3.18 Transition a 0.81
Case 4 1.70 0.85 0.58 2.13 Transition a 0.81
Case 5 1.69 1.22 0.25 1.50 Dense and LKV a 0.81
Case 6 1.01 0.24 2.13 5.25 Sparse and PKV a, b, c, d 1.37, 1.09,
0.82, 0.55
Case 7 0.93 0.34 1.5 4.0 Transition a, b, c, d 1.49, 1.19,
0.89, 0.60
Case 8 0.96 0.48 1.09 3.48 Transition a, b, c, d 1.43, 1.14,
0.86, 0.57
Case 9 0.94 0.85 0.58 2.13 Transition a, b, c, d 1.47, 1.17,
0.88, 0.59
Case 10 0.98 1.22 0.25 1.5 Dense and LKV a, b, c, d 1.41, 1.12,
0.84, 0.56
Case 11 1.01 0.24 2.13 5.25 Sparse and PKV d 0.55
Case 12 0.93 0.34 1.5 4 Transition d 0.60
Case 13 0.96 0.48 1.09 3.48 Transition d 0.57
Case 14 0.94 0.85 0.58 2.13 Transition d 0.59
Case 15 0.98 1.22 0.25 1.5 Dense and LKV d 0.56
Case 16 1.70 0.24 2.13 5.25 Sparse and PKV c 0.49
Case 17 1.70 0.34 1.5 4 Transition c 0.49
Case 18 1.70 0.48 1.09 3.48 Transition c 0.49
Case 19 1.70 0.85 0.58 2.13 Transition c 0.49
Case 20 1.69 1.22 0.25 1.5 Dense and LKV c 0.49
Case 21 2.38 0.24 2.13 5.25 Sparse and PKV a 0.58
Case 22 2.48 0.34 1.5 4 Transition a 0.56
Case 23 2.43 0.48 1.09 3.48 Transition a 0.57
Case 24 2.46 0.85 0.58 2.13 Transition a 0.56
Case 25 2.41 1.22 0.25 1.5 Dense and LKV a 0.57
Case 26 1.70 0.48 1.09 3.48 Transition e, f, g 0.81
Case 27 2.43 0.48 1.09 3.48 Transition e, f, g 0.56
Case 28 2.41 1.22 0.25 1.5 Dense and LKV e, f, g 0.57
Note: PKV and LKV are primary Karman vortex street and large Karman vortex street, respec-
tively [Takemura and Tanaka, 2007].
a Refer to Table 2.

University. In an experimental channel, the ground conditions and tsunami charac-

teristics implicated were not specific to any location but were considered in general.
Nandasena et al. [2012] estimated that the maximum Froude number ∼1.5 (video
analysis) at the time the tsunami attacked Misawa and Hachinohe shores in Japan,
whilst the Froude number was about 1.14–1.4 at the wave front 1 km inland from
the coast of the Sendai Plain. At many locations inundated by the tsunami, the
tsunami’s flow was subcritical and had a Froude number between 0.7 and 1 [Spiske
et al., 2010]. In the current study, the forest is set to be located inland to trap
debris, and the Froude number in a channel was set around 0.7 without a forest
placed in the channel. The water depth selected in the experiment was 4.5 cm at
the channel start, setting the Froude number approximately equal to 0.70.

1650008-6
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

According to Tanaka and Suzuki [2013] the water depth behind the coastal forest
in Miyagino district was 3.0–3.6 m while the distance of the point of water depth
measured was about 800 m from the shoreline; and the water depth at the front
area of the house group was 2.5–4.6 m with a distance from the shoreline totaling
1200 m. If the length ratio between prototype (Lp ) and model (Lm ) is Ls = Lp /Lm
then scaling an experimental water depth of 4.5 cm to a tsunami water height of
4–4.5 m requires a scaling factor Ls approximately equal to 100. The rectangular
forest models were mounted on the water flume bed and carefully placed at the
middle of the stream-width about 2.8 m from the upstream inlet. The water level
was measured at every 20 cm throughout the center of the channel and at the front
line of the forest by using a point gauge.
Using particle image velocimetry (PIV) (Laser Light Sheet: G200, high speed
digital CCD camera: K-II, fps: 50–1000, flow analyzing software: FlowExpert2D2C,
Katokoken Co., Ltd.) in a cross-wise direction, the velocity distribution at 80%
water depth in front of the forest was measured. Thereafter, debris was soaked in
water to attain the desired specific gravity, so that when released, it floated with
its longitudinal axis perpendicular to the flow. The motion of the wood debris was
recorded on a video system, and the site of debris attachment in a section was
investigated later by video analysis.

2.3. Forest conditions

The tree species selected for the forest model was the Japanese pine tree (average
tree height = 15 m and trunk diameter = 0.4 m) found on the Sendai Plain; the tree
crown of which was high compared with the tsunami height, and can be consid-
ered as circular cylinders [Tanaka et al., 2014]. For a 1/100 scale model, the trees
were modeled by wooden cylinders with a diameter of 0.004 m set in a staggered
arrangement, based on the average diameter of pine trees. According to Takemura
and Tanaka [2007], flow structures in front of the forest model are different depend-
ing upon the L/D, G/D arrangement, and instabilities of the vortex street where
G represents the spacing between each cylinder in a cross-stream direction, L is
the spacing between each cylinder, and D is the diameter of a cylinder (Fig. 3(b)).
Takemura and Tanaka [2007] also investigated the flow structures and drag charac-
teristics of a colony-type emergent roughness model and found that the generation
of a large Karman vortex street (LKV) occurred for G/D < 0.4 while the pri-
mary Karman vortex street (PKV) behind individual cylinders was generated for
G/D > 1.8. The G/D ratio also indicates whether a forest is sparse or dense. In
order to investigate the debris accumulation behavior, forests with five different val-
ues of G/D (2.13, 1.5, 1.09, 0.58, and 0.25) were made. A forest with G/D of 2.13
represents a sparse forest, while G/D of 0.25 characterizes a dense forest. Forest
densities (number of cylinders per cm2 ) calculated against five values of G/D were
0.24, 0.34, 0.48, 0.85, and 1.22, respectively.

1650008-7
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

The fluid force behind a forest increases compared to that without forest if the
aspect ratio (forest width-length ratio) is in the range of 1 to 4 [Iimura and Tanaka,
2013]. Three aspect ratio values (1, 1.7, and 2.4) were selected to represent inland
forests at different locations. The arrangement of forests is shown in Fig. 3(b). Wx
and Wy represent forest length and forest width, respectively. Each of the three
aspect ratios was matched with five different values of G/D, thus creating 15 forest
models. The forest model conditions are shown in Table 1.
The constriction effect, i.e. the effect of side walls, affects the flow structure if
the blockage ratio (the ratio of the model’s frontal width over the channel width,
Wy /B) exceeds a certain threshold value. Previous researches have shown that if
the blockage ratio is up to 5–6%, then, there is an extremely small effect of the side
walls on the drag of flat plate [Okamoto and Okamoto, 1984] and circular cylinder
[West and Apelt, 1982] placed in a wind tunnel. Even, if the blockage ratio is in
the range of 6–16%, the increase in drag coefficient is less than 5% from that of no
blockage [West and Apelt, 1982]. Okajima et al. [1997] investigated the blockage
effect (up to 40%) around a rectangular cylinder having uniform water flow and
found that with increasing blockage ratios, the drag forces initially decrease to a
minimum value (blockage ratio 9–10%) and then gradually increase with increasing
blockage ratios.
In the current study, the forest model has a tendency to allow water to
pass through it and this depends on the forest density. Therefore, to find the
blockage ratio (Wy /B), the frontal width of forest model (Wy ) was calculated
by taking the summed diameters of the frontage cylinders (product of cylin-
der diameter and number of cylinders in first two rows of forest model due to
staggered arrangement) into account. Except for 3 out of 15 forest models, the
maximum blockage ratio attained was 15%; whereas, the rest of the three forest
models (having high forest density and high aspect ratio) had blockage ratios of
18%, 21%, and 25%. Moreover, it was observed during the experiments that no
reflected wave reached the observed area from the sides of channel. Thus it was
assumed that the constriction does not affect the results and therefore its effect
neglected.

2.4. Wood debris conditions

Wooden sticks having a smooth surface were used to make the model wood debris.
Wood debris having a dry specific gravity of 0.59–0.86 was selected to determine
the relationship between forest density and debris accumulation height. The debris
was soaked in water before the experiment, and the results for the three groups of
specific gravity, i.e. 0.70–0.79, 0.80–0.89, and 0.90–1.05, were compared. However,
only the third group (specific gravity: 0.90–1.05) was considered in the ‘debris length
to forest width ratio’ and ‘aspect ratio’ section.
Tanaka and Yagisawa [2009] classified tree-breaking patterns as trunk-bending
(BE), trunk-breaking (BR), overturning including the root anchorage zone (OV),

1650008-8
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

Table 2. Conditions of wood debris (dry state).

Wood debris type Length (cm) Diameter (cm) Dimensions (cm) Specific gravity
a 12.5 0.5 — 0.59–0.86
b 10 0.5 — 0.80–0.86
c 7.5 0.5 — 0.79–0.86
d 5 0.5 — 0.78–0.84
e 12.5 0.5 — 0.48–0.51
f 12.5 — 0.6 × 0.6 0.50–0.52
g 12.5 — 0.5 × 1.0 0.49–0.52

and washing out (W). Almost identical tree breaking patterns were observed in the
2011 tsunami. A constant diameter of 0.5 cm was adopted to make four different
lengths of wood debris (Table 2) of 12.5, 10, 7.5, and 5 cm; the 12.5 cm lengths of
wood debris were selected as full-length uprooted trees produced by either overturn-
ing (OV) or washing out (W) while 5, 7, and 10 cm lengths were used to represent
trunk-bending (BE) or trunk-breaking (BR). However in order to understand the
effect of wood debris shape, debris types e (circular), f (square), and g (rectangular)
were floated for comparison (Table 2).
In addition, mutual interactions of wood debris, i.e. collision or sheltering, were
not considered because it was assumed that the pieces of debris are not generated
at the same time. Furthermore, the effect of tree branches is not taken into consid-
eration. The density of wood debris (ρd ) is smaller than the density of water (ρw )
so it floated on the water surface.

3. Experimental Results and Discussions

3.1. Patterns of debris deposition
Water-driven debris generated during tsunamis can have substantial impact on
structures that are often not designed for such loads. Cars, ships, and containers
existing in the area may start floating in the series of tsunami currents. Furthermore,
the high acceleration of tsunami water results in breaking and washing out of trees.
The various forms of debris include mainly wood debris, boats/ships, vehicles/cars,
containers/vessels, and building components. In the Japan Tsunami of March 2011,
most of the floating debris was found to be wood. Therefore, in the current phase
of research, the behavior of wood debris only was considered.
Drifting wood debris carried by a tsunami is likely to be deposited where it hits
an obstruction, i.e. a forest [Tanaka, 2012a]. A piece of debris was made to float
with its longitudinal axis perpendicular to the direction of the water flow. Several
deposition patterns were observed depending on the shape of the wood debris,
collision angle, and position of release. Five different patterns were identified in
the current experimental study, as shown in Fig. 4. However, pattern ‘c’ in Fig. 4
is the most critical because it poses an immense overturning force on the trees.
The critical bending moment for knocking trees greatly depends upon the debris

1650008-9
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Fig. 4. Patterns of debris interaction with forest. (a) Passed between trees, (b) trapped between
trees, (c) held parallel to the front line of trees, (d) pivoted with outer tree, and (e) passed beyond
forest after hitting outer trees.

accumulation height; the greater the height, the greater will be the bending moment
on the tree trunk or root anchorage zone which is usually destroyed at the tsunami
event [Tanaka et al., 2013]. Therefore, an inland forest designed to trap tsunami-
carried debris must catch the maximum debris at the foot of trees (Fig. 2(a)).
Wood debris may differ in shape and type of wood. Generally, debris generated
by uprooting trees has a cylindrical shape, while debris produced by destruction of
houses and buildings may be square or rectangular. The behavior of debris deposi-
tion greatly depends on the shape of the floating debris. In Table 1, Cases 26, 27,
and 28 show comparisons of three shapes using debris types e, f, and g (Table 2).
The dry specific gravity of wood debris in the three cases above was very low, and
thus all debris stayed on top because the weight of the debris was not sufficient
to overcome its buoyancy. Needless to say, the shape of debris is one important
factor to consider but the point of contact of debris with the inland forest is also
very important. Interaction patterns of floating debris with the trees may include
collision with a single piece of debris (Fig. 5(a)), multiple pieces of debris colliding

1650008-10
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Fig. 5. Patterns of debris collision. (a) Single debris, (b) multiple debris circular, (c) square,
(d) rectangular, and (e) behavior of rectangular debris after collision.

one after the other, or a mass of debris colliding at one time (Figs. 5(b)–5(d)).
The interaction behavior is different for each case. When the trapping forest is
located inland, chances for ‘a mass of debris colliding with the forest at one time’
to occur is rare. In that case it would be difficult for trees to remain in standing
position due to the immense force of colliding debris.
When the debris is circular, the height at which the first piece stays after hit-
ting the trees depends upon different factors including the Froude number, specific
gravity of the debris, forest density, and aspect ratio. The second piece of debris,
despite all the above-mentioned factors, rests on the first piece of debris. The third
piece of debris rests on the second, and so on. Due to their low specific gravity,
all pieces of floating debris hit the trees at the water surface. Eventually, they
will pile up one above the other, as shown in Fig. 5(b). Circular debris has much
less contact area with the tree, resulting in much less friction. In the experiment,
circular debris rolled down, while square and rectangular debris showed different
behaviors.
Square debris stuck at the point hit the tree. In order to move down it had
to turn along its edges or slide. Sliding involves greater friction due to its larger
contact area. When several pieces of debris collided with the forest at the same

1650008-11
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

time, then instead of piling on top of one another (as in the case of circular debris)
the debris mostly stuck with the trees or with other debris. The overlying debris
may also push the underneath debris down.
After hitting a tree, the rectangular piece of debris rotated 90◦ and attached to
the tree (Fig. 5(e)). Because its contact area is larger than that of the square piece
of debris, the friction is also larger. When several pieces of debris collided at the
same time, they stuck to one another instead of sliding down. The overlying debris
found it difficult to push the underlying debris down because of larger friction.
Therefore, most of the debris stuck where it hit the trees and found difficult to
slide down due to greater friction.

3.2. Effect of forest density and aspect ratio on tsunami

flow around forest
Increasing the density of a forest raises the maximum water level in front of the
forest, and the water surface slope inside the forest increases [Iimura and Tanaka,
2012]. On the upstream side of the forest model, the water level rises depending
on the forest conditions. This is due to the resistance offered by the trees to the
water flow. Both the aspect ratio and forest density greatly affect the water depth.
Because the forest used in the current study is of finite length, the water depth
did not remain constant throughout the cross-sectional length in front of the forest.
Therefore, the water level was measured at the front of the forest at five different
locations, denoted by black circles in Fig. 6(a), namely, the center of the forest,
end of the forest, between the center and end of the forest, and 5 cm and 10 cm
beyond the forest. In addition, the water level was measured at the center of the
water channel at 20 cm intervals (denoted by red squares in Fig. 6(a)).
Figure 7 shows the distribution of water levels for sparse (forest density: 0.24
cylinders/cm2 ), transitional (forest density: 0.48 cylinders/cm2 ), and dense forest
(forest density: 1.22 cylinders/cm2 ) cases without floating debris. The vertical axis
is the water level, and the horizontal axis is the distance from the beginning of the
water channel. It is also shown in Fig. 7 that the water depth certainly increased
in the channel after placing the forest model and was higher at forest front than
outside the forest. As the tree density increases, the spacing between the trees
becomes narrower, which increases the water level at the front of the forest, and the
water surface slope inside the forest becomes larger. Similarly, when aspect ratio
is increased, the water level is increased at the front of the forest. Figures 7(b),
7(d) and 7(f) also show that the water depth beyond the sides of the forest is
significantly larger than that without forest, even at some distance away from the
forest. However, it is considered that this increase in water depth depends mainly
on forest conditions (forest density and aspect ratio), whereas the increase in water
depth due to possible constriction was neglected in the current study because the
blockage ratio of most of the forest models was well below 20%. Since the flow

1650008-12
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

(a)

(b)
Fig. 6. (Color online) Location of velocity measurement. (a) Water level denoted by black (front
line of forest) and red dots (center of water channel). (b) The area of velocity measurement
(colored strips) from 0–1 cm (Strip 5), 1–2 cm (Strip 4), 2–3 cm (Strip 3), 3–4 cm (Strip 2), and
6–7 cm (Strip 1), respectively.

is steady and discharge remains constant, this increase in water level certainly
decreases the water velocity at the front of the forest.
Next the effect of aspect ratio on flow velocity at the perimeter of the forest
is discussed. The output locations of the flow velocity are shown in Fig. 6(b). The
velocity at 80% of water depth was measured using cross-direction PIV. Because
the variation in velocity in front of the forest is quite large, the average velocity
of a 1-cm strip was calculated (Fig. 6(b)). The output locations were arranged on
only one side of the central line (CL) because the forest is mounted at the center
of the water channel and conditions are symmetrical to CL. Figure 8 shows the
average velocity of the 1-cm strip when aspect ratio is 1, 1.7, and 2.4, for sparse,
transition, and dense conditions, respectively. As shown in Fig. 8, in all cases, flow
velocity started to decrease in strip 1, and it continued to decrease as it approached
the forest. Although the flow was steady, fluctuations were observed at the front of
forest due to reflection of the water. The reduction in the flow velocity is due to the
reflection and energy reduction inside the forest area, and the flow is accelerated at

1650008-13
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

(a) Water level along center line of channel (b) Water level at forest front from CL

(c) Water level along center line of channel (d) Water level at forest front from CL

(e) Water level along center line of channel (f) Water level at forest front from CL

Fig. 7. Water level variation along the channel. (a, b) Sparse forest, forest density: 0.24
cylinders/cm2 , (c, d) transition forest, forest density: 0.48 cylinders/cm2 , (e, f) dense forest, forest
density: 1.22 cylinders/cm2 , where AR denotes aspect ratio of forest.

the edge of the forest. In strip 5, the fluctuation in the case of a dense forest was
more than that in a sparse forest due to greater reflection of water in the dense
forest. As the aspect ratio increased, the reduction in flow velocity also increased.
This is because water has to travel farther in a large aspect ratio setup to reach
the edge of the forest from where it can accelerate.

1650008-14
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

(a) Aspect ratio - 1.0 (b) Aspect ratio - 1.0

(c) Aspect ratio - 1.7 (d) Aspect ratio - 1.7

(e) Aspect ratio - 2.4 (f) Aspect ratio - 2.4

Fig. 8. Ratio of average velocity with and without forest. (a, c, e) Sparse forest, forest density:
0.24 cylinders/cm2 , (b, d, f) dense forest, forest density: 1.22 cylinders/cm2 . Markers are placed
on a few data points only in order to avoid overlapping of markers.

3.3. Effect of forest density on debris accumulation height

In order to determine the effect of forest density on debris accumulation height,
cylindrical debris having dimensions 12.5 × 0.5 cm was selected to interact when the
aspect ratio is 1.7. The forest densities of 0.24 cylinders/cm2 and 1.22 cylinders/cm2
were selected to represent forest conditions of sparse and dense forests, respectively;
while forest densities of 0.34, 0.48, and 0.85 were taken to characterize conditions

1650008-15
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

Fig. 9. Ratio of debris accumulation height to water depth against different forest densities,
where SG denotes specific gravity.

Table 3. Standard deviation values for Fig. 9.

Specific gravity 0.70–0.79 0.80–0.89 0.90–1.05

Forest density 0.24 0.34 0.48 0.85 1.22 0.24 0.34 0.48 0.85 1.22 0.24 0.34 0.48 0.85 1.22
(cylinders/cm2 )
No. of counts 36 38 36 37 36 36 30 37 42 34 42 32 34 29 40
to find mean
Standard 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.04 — 0.03 0.21 0.35 0.31 0.31 0.29 0.33 0.27 0.20 0.21
deviation

of transitional forests between sparse and dense. In Table 1, cases 1 to 5 represent

the details for the forest density portion of the current study.
Figure 9 clarifies the relationship between forest density and height ratio
(Hd /Ho ), which is the ratio of debris accumulation height to water depth. The
trend lines are plotted by taking the mean values of height ratio for the three
groups of specific gravity (0.70–0.79, 0.80–0.89, and 0.90–1.05). At least 30 read-
ings were taken to calculate the mean value of the height ratio because the mean
value became almost constant beyond 30 readings. Table 3 shows standard devia-
tion values, which shows that the results are fairly acceptable. When the spacing
between trees was increased, i.e. forest density decreased, the height ratio became
larger due to the easy passage of the tsunami flow through the forest. For nearly the
same aspect ratio, i.e. 1.7, the overall trend shows that increasing the forest density
decreased the height ratio. The density of wood debris (ρd ) is less than density of
water (ρw ), and as a result, all debris was seen to float on the water surface when
released. The specific gravity of wood debris greatly affects the height of debris
accumulation after collision with the front row of trees.

3.3.1. Low specific gravity wood debris

Wood debris generated by tsunami destruction may have different specific grav-
ity depending upon the type of wood and its duration of interaction with water.

1650008-16
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

The wood debris with low specific gravity stayed at the top irrespective of the
forest density conditions. Figure 9 shows that the group of debris having spe-
cific gravity between 0.70 and 0.79 shows an almost straight line with a mean
value of height ratio equal to 0.90–0.95. Extremely low standard deviation depicts
that all the debris stayed at the top, and the results were almost the same for
every forest density. However, the above behavior of wood debris found during
laboratory experiments was not the same when the forest was dense. After col-
liding with the front row of dense forest trees, wood debris with a low specific
gravity started oscillating up and down instead of being confined to one specific
point.
When forest density is high, flowing water finds it difficult to pass through
the forest, which results in reflection of the water. This is also confirmed with the
study of Iimura and Tanaka [2012]. When the first stream of water carrying the
wood debris hit the forest, it flowed in the forward direction, forcing the debris to
remain at the top. After a while, the reflected water pushed the debris down. Since
the weight of wood debris is small compared to its buoyancy, it moved back to the
top. The subsequent reflected water pushed it down again, and the light weight of
debris pulled it to the top, therefore causing it to oscillate up and down (Fig. 10).
However, low forest density allowed water to pass through the staggered trees and
no major reflection of water was observed. Thus the debris floated where buoyancy
is equal to the weight of debris.

Fig. 10. Oscillation of wood debris of low specific gravity against dense forest (time = 0 to 3 s
approximately).

1650008-17
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

3.3.2. Medium to high specific gravity debris

The second and third groups (specific gravity: 0.80–0.89 and 0.90–1.05) showed
very similar trends with each other. As the forest density increased, the height
ratio decreased. In case of second group of specific gravity (0.80–0.89), when the
forest density was 0.24 cylinders/cm2 , the maximum debris remained at the top
due to the high velocity of flowing water around the debris. The mean height ratios
were 0.96 and 0.86 for the two groups (specific gravity: 0.80–0.89 and 0.90–1.05),
respectively. The oscillations of wood debris for the dense forest case continued till
the specific gravity reached 0.84. Beyond that, the weight of debris overcame its
buoyancy, and it started to roll down to the foot of trees.
For the third group of specific gravity (0.90–1.05), as the forest density was
increased from 0.24 cylinders/cm2 to 0.48 cylinders/cm2 , the change in the height
ratio was very drastic (Fig. 9) and reduced to a height ratio of 0.26. However, a
further increase in forest density, i.e. 1.22 cylinders/cm2 , did not cause a rapid
change in height ratio. From these results it can be deducted that increasing forest
density beyond 0.48 cylinders/cm2 does not change the results for debris with a
high specific gravity. The forest density of 0.48 cylinders/cm2 was sufficient to trap
maximum debris at the foot of the trees. The accumulation behavior of wood debris
greatly depends on the flow structure around forest.
All cylindrical wood debris came down by rolling along the trees. With smaller
forest density, the velocity of flowing water in front of the forest was high compared
to larger forest density (Fig. 8). Above the debris, flowing water having high velocity
forced debris to remain at the top, while below the debris the high velocity dragged
it down. In sparse forest, the velocity of flowing water was nearly the same above
and below the debris; therefore, debris stayed at a position where its weight became
equal to the buoyancy acting on it. Because wood is less dense than water, all the
debris floated before collision and it remained in that state until the amount of
displaced water was high enough to drag it down. The forest condition greatly
affected the amount of water displaced in front of the forest where the debris hit
the trees. For dense forest, due to reflection of the water, the amount of water
displaced above and below the debris was high (Fig. 11(b)). The reflected water
pushed the debris down. When the weight of the debris overcame the buoyancy
acting on it, then it stayed at the foot of the trees.

3.4. Effect of debris length to forest width ratio

on debris accumulation height
The dimensions of an inland forest to trap debris may vary with location, as some-
times it is not possible to provide a continuous length of forest due to existing
pathways. For such locations, a series of forests with a smaller aspect ratio with
open gaps has to be provided. However, previous studies showed that an open gap,
like a road, in a coastal forest has a negative effect on tsunami run-up behind the
forest. Mascarenhas and Jayakumar [2008] pointed out that roads perpendicular

1650008-18
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

(a) (b)
Fig. 11. Flow structure. (a) Sparse forest, and (b) dense forest. Arrows represent clear reflection
of water in the case of dense forest.

to the coast serve as pathways for tsunami to travel inland. Fernando et al. [2008]
demonstrated by laboratory experiments that the exit flow velocity from a coastal
perpendicular gap in submerged porous barriers simulating corals was significantly
higher as compared to the case with no gap. Thuy et al. [2009] investigated tsunami
run-up with different gap arrangements and found that as the gap width increases,
the flow velocity at the end of the open gap initially increases, reaches a maximum,
and then decreases, while the run-up height increases monotonously. Keeping its
negative impact into consideration, an attempt was made to clarify the behavior of
wood debris after collision with a smaller aspect ratio forest. In order to determine
the effects of debris length to forest width ratio on debris accumulation, four sets of
debris sizes [(12.5, 10, 7.5, 5) × 0.5 cm] were selected to interact with forest of nearly
same aspect ratio, i.e. 1.0 (Fig. 3(c)), but with different densities (0.24, 0.34, 0.48,
0.85, and 1.22). Cases 6 to 10 in Table 1 represent details of smaller aspect ratio
and debris length to forest width ratio portion.
Figure 12 shows the average value of height ratio against different lengths of
wood debris for specific gravity of 0.90–1.05. The aspect ratio was almost 1.0 for
all cases. Table 4 shows the values of standard deviation calculated for each value
of height ratio. When the forest density was very small, i.e. 0.24 cylinders/cm2 ,
the results were more prominent and diverse for all four sets of debris length to
forest width ratio (1.32, 1.05, 0.79, and 0.53). Almost 90% of debris sank below
half of water depth against ratio 1.32 (debris length is greater than forest width),
but as the ratio increased (the size of debris became less than the forest width),

1650008-19
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

Fig. 12. Relationship between the ratio of debris accumulation height to water depth and debris
length to forest width ratio for different forest densities (Dn) (specific gravity of floating debris:
0.90–1.05).

Table 4. Standard deviation values for Fig. 12.

Forest density
(cylinders/cm2 ) 0.24 0.34 0.48
Debris length to 1.37 1.09 0.82 0.55 1.49 1.19 0.89 0.60 1.43 1.14 0.86 0.57
forest width ratio
No. of counts 34 35 34 33 36 31 37 48 34 29 38 45
to find mean
Standard deviation 0.27 0.41 0.38 0.16 0.32 0.36 0.33 0.27 0.38 0.35 0.40 0.32
Forest density 0.85 1.22
(cylinders/cm2 )
Debris length to 1.47 1.17 0.88 0.59 1.41 1.12 0.84 0.56
forest width ratio
No. of counts 33 31 39 41 30 30 36 44
to find mean
Standard deviation 0.37 0.37 0.35 0.39 0.30 0.37 0.31 0.35

the percentage started to decrease as well. About 5% of debris hardly crossed the
center line mark, indicating lower efficiency of low forest density against smaller
length of debris. However, this trend was not seen for higher forest density values.
For a forest that falls into the category of the transition zone between sparse and
dense forest, the trend was not similar to that of sparse forest. Figure 12 shows that
the trend line of 0.24 cylinders/cm2 forest density, which was very steep, tended to
straighten up as forest density increases. It became almost constant when the forest
had a very high density (1.22 cylinders/cm2 ). This clearly shows that when forest
density is very high, then debris length will not affect the height ratio. When the
debris length to forest width ratio equaled 1.32, the average values of height ratio
were 0.25 for sparse forest and 0.62 for dense forest (Fig. 12). The higher height
ratio in the case of a dense forest was due to the reflection of water; low velocity
in front of the forest and high velocity of water outside the forest (open gap). Flow

1650008-20
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

(a) (b)
Fig. 13. Direction of flow. (a) Sparse forest and (b) dense forest.

structures of both sparse and dense forests are explained in Fig. 13. Debris sticks at
a height where equilibrium was attained between backwater of low velocity inside
the forest range and forward water of high velocity outside the forest range.
When the full length of uprooted trees interacts with a smaller aspect ratio
forest, some fraction of the tree may fall into an open gap, outside the forest range.
If more than 50% of debris length is found outside the forest range, then the debris
will float through the open gap. However, if debris is stuck partially in the forest
and partially in the open gap, then there would be different flow structures through-
out the length of debris. The velocity at the edge of a forest is higher than that
experienced in front of the forest and plays a vital role in determining the accu-
mulation height of debris. For debris length to forest width ratio of more then 1,
floating debris was trapped in such a way that it was being pivoted at the contact
point of trees. Sparse forest did not show a big difference in velocity inside and
outside the forest. In open gaps and below the debris, the velocity was quite high
and is responsible for the rolling of debris to the foot of trees. Because there is no
reflection of water in case of sparse forest, the counter force did not play apart.
However, if the forest is dense, then the velocity prevailing in the open gap will
rise along with fall of velocity in front of the forest. In case of a dense forest, there
would be a reflection of water from inside the forest. In such a situation, the full
length of debris interacts with two opposite flows:

(a) Forward flow in the open gap and

(b) backward flow in the forest range.

In order to design a forest that can trap maximum debris at the foot of trees,
a smaller aspect ratio with low density is suitable to catch full length trees having
lengths larger than the forest width. But low density forests do not show good
results for debris having lengths smaller than the forest width. Therefore, to catch

1650008-21
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

trees of all lengths, whether long and short, forest width should be more than
the maximum length of a tree that is likely to be up-rooted by tsunami currents.
However, when full-length uprooted trees are expected to be in the flow, then a
series of smaller aspect ratio forests with low density and gaps in between them is
recommended to trap maximum debris at the foot of trees.

3.5. Effect of forest aspect ratio on debris accumulation height

In order to determine the effect of aspect ratio on debris accumulation, debris having
sizes 5 × 0.5 cm, 7.5 × 0.5 cm, and 12.5 × 0.5 cm were selected to interact with aspect
ratios of 1, 1.7, and 2.4, respectively. For all three aspect ratio values, different
lengths of debris were selected in order to make the debris length to forest width
ratio almost identical, i.e. 0.49–0.58. Cases 11 to 25 in Table 1 represent details of
the forest aspect ratio portion.
Figure 14 clarifies the relationship between aspect ratio and height ratio for
debris whose specific gravity ranges from 0.90 to 1.05. Table 5 shows the values of
standard deviation calculated for each height ratio value. The general trend of all
five lines shows that when aspect ratio was increased from 1.0 to 2.4, there was
a slight decrease in the height ratio. The height ratio greatly depends upon the
velocity of flowing water. If the velocity of water inside the forest is high, then the
height ratio will also be high and vice versa. This variation of velocity is also related
to aspect ratio.
According to a study conducted by Iimura and Tanaka [2013], flow velocity is
decreased by reflection and energy reduction inside the forest area, and the flow
is accelerated at the edge of the forest, whereas a wave that accelerates on the
side of a forest diffracts behind the forest and results in a collision. This diffraction
decreases the flow velocity on the outside of the forest area and increases the flow
velocity in the region behind the forest. The point of wave collision changes with
aspect ratio.

Fig. 14. Ratio of debris accumulation height to water depth against forest aspect ratio, where
Dn denotes forest density.

1650008-22
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

Table 5. Standard deviation values for Fig. 14.

Forest density
(cylinders/cm2 ) 0.24 0.34 0.48 0.85 1.22
Aspect ratio 1.01 1.70 2.38 0.93 1.70 2.48 0.96 1.70 2.43 0.94 1.70 2.46 0.98 1.69 2.41
No. of counts 33 42 37 48 39 34 45 38 33 41 37 35 44 41 30
to find mean
Standard 0.16 0.27 0.36 0.27 0.33 0.34 0.32 0.27 0.32 0.39 0.29 0.27 0.35 0.32 0.26
deviation

When aspect ratio is small, the distance between forest and collision point is
small, and the flow velocity behind the forest does not decrease much. However,
when aspect ratio is large, then the distance between forest and collision point is
long. This results in a decrease in velocity behind the forest. This slower velocity
inside the forest also reduces the flow velocity at the forest front, which actually
decides the lower value of height ratio of attaching debris.
In Fig. 14, the difference between the values of maximum and minimum height
ratio is very prominent when the forest density was small. The average value
declined from 0.92 to 0.62 when aspect ratio was changed from 1.0 to 2.4. How-
ever, this difference in height ratio due to aspect ratio became less when the forest
density was increased because high forest density dominates aspect ratio.

4. Conclusions
Laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate the trapping function of an
inland forest. Tsunami-drifted wood debris models were floated in a steady flow
having a Froude number of about 0.7. Different patterns of debris accumulation
along with effect of ‘forest density’, ‘debris length to forest width ratio’, and ‘aspect
ratio’ on a limited length inland forest to trap debris can be summarized as follows:
(1) Five major patterns of debris accumulation were identified in the present study.
The debris caught perpendicular to the stream flow and parallel to the front line
of trees was the most critical because it exerted enormous overturning pressure
on the trees.
(2) When multiple pieces of debris collided at the same time, the circular wood
debris piled on top of each other, while the square and rectangular debris
adhered to each other or stuck to the trees. Frictional force offered by the
trees was highest for the rectangular debris because of its larger contact area,
and it was lowest for circular debris as it is in contact with the trees at one
point only. Circular debris came down by rolling while square/rectangle debris
had to slide down.
(3) While keeping the aspect ratio constant and increasing the density of the forest,
the amount of debris falling below half of the water depth increased and was
seen to be affected by the specific gravity of wood debris. Debris having a lower
specific gravity (up to 0.80) floated after collision, and even with increase in

1650008-23
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

forest density, it did not sink; instead, it oscillated up and down. The reason why
the debris sank to ground level was due to the reflected wave from the densely
arranged forest, but as the buoyancy acting on the debris is higher than the
debris weight, the debris is rolled up again, and makes it float. However, in case
of higher specific gravity of debris (0.90–1.05), increased forest density resulted
in lower height ratios, which became almost constant beyond a forest density
of 0.48 cylinders/cm2 .
(4) When the length of debris was larger than the width of the forest, then a reverse
phenomenon was observed, i.e. maximum debris fell at the foot of the trees in
sparse forest while the debris was caught between the upper half of water depth
in the case of dense forest. The higher height ratio in case of dense forest was
due to the reflection of water in front of the forest and high velocity of flowing
water outside the forest zone. Debris got stuck at a height where equilibrium
was attained between backward flow of low velocity inside the forest range and
forward flow of high velocity outside the forest range. However, sparse forest did
not produce much difference in velocity inside and outside the forest. Outside
the forest, the velocity is quite high and is responsible for the rolling of debris
at the foot of trees.
(5) When the forest density was fixed and aspect ratio increased, the water level in
front of the forest also increased, while the velocity of water decreased, which
resulted in a lower accumulated debris height ratio.
(6) To catch all lengths of trees, whether long or short, a forest width should be
more than the maximum height of a tree that is likely to be up-rooted due to
tsunami currents. An inland forest with forest density 0.48 cylinders/cm2 and
aspect ratio 1.7 produced the most favorable conditions to catch debris of all
lengths at the foot of trees.
The findings are important for design of inland forest to trap debris in front of
a tsunami evacuation refuge. In the future, more experimental study is required
for high Froude number flow in order to further investigate the phenomena. More-
over, the effect of tree branches and changed roughness of wood debris needs to be
studied.

Acknowledgments
This study is partially funded by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (No.
24310127). Thanks to Mr. Habib Saqib and Mr. Kai Miyahara for their help during
the experiments.

References
Danielsen, F., Sorensen, M. K., Olwig, M. F., Selvam, V., Parish, F., Burgess, N. D.,
Hiraishi, T., Karunagaran, V. M., Rasmussen, M. S., Hansen, L. B., Quarto, A. and
Suryadiputra, N. [2005] “The Asian tsunami: A protective role for coastal vegetation,”
Science 310, 643.

1650008-24
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

Effectiveness of Inland Forest in Trapping Wood Debris

Fernando, H. J. S., Samarawickrama, S. P., Balasubramanian, S., Hettiarachchi, S. S. L.

and Voropayev, S. [2008] “Effects of porous barriers such as coral reefs on coastal
wave propagation,” J. Hydro–Environ. Res. 1, 187–194.
Fraser, S., Raby, A., Pomonis, A., Goda, K., Chian, S.C., Macabuag, J., Offord, M., Saito,
K. and Sammonds, P. [2013] “Tsunami damage to coastal defences and buildings
in the March 11th 2011 Mw9.0 Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami,” Bull.
Earthq. Eng. 11, 205–239.
Hokugo, A., Nishino, T. and Inada, T. [2012] “Damage and effects caused by tsunami
fires: Fire spread, fire fighting and evacuation,” Proc. Int. Symp. Engineering Lessons
Learned from the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, Tokyo, Japan, 1–4 March,
pp. 43–62.
Hokugo, A., Nishino, T. and Inada, T. [2013] “Tsunami fires after the great east Japan
Earthquake,” J. Disaster Res. 8(4), 140–153.
Iimura, K. and Tanaka, N. [2012] “Numerical simulation estimating the effects of tree
density distribution in coastal forest on tsunami mitigation,” Ocean Eng. 54, 223–
232.
Iimura, K. and Tanaka, N. [2013] “Dangerous zone formation behind finite–length coastal
forest for tsunami mitigation,” J. Earthq. Tsunami 7(4), 1350034.
Ishigaki, A., Higashi, H., Sakamoto, S. and Shibahara, S. [2013] “The Great East–Japan
Earthquake and devastating tsunami: An update and lessons from the past great
earthquakes in Japan since 1923,” Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 229(4), 287–299.
Kathiresan, K. and Rajendran, N. [2005] “Coastal mangrove forests mitigated tsunami,”
Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 65(3), 601–606.
Mascarenhas, A. and Jayakumar, S. [2008] “An environmental perspective of the post–
tsunami scenario along the coast of Tamil Nadu, India: Role of sand dunes and
forests,” J. Environ. Manag. 89, 24–34.
Nandasena, N. A. K., Sasaki, Y. and Tanaka, N. [2012] “Modeling field observations of
the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami: Efficiency of artificial and natural structures on
tsunami mitigation,” Coastal Eng. 67, 1–13.
Okamoto, S. and Okamoto, T. [1984] “Theoretical study of blockage effect of wind-tunnel
on wake of two dimensional flat plate normal to plane wall,” Trans. Japan Soc. Aero.
Space Sci. 27, 134–144.
Okajima, A., Yi, D., Kimura, S. and Kiwata, T. [1997] “The blockage effects for an oscillat-
ing rectangular cylinder at moderate Reynolds number,” J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.
69–71, 997–1011.
Shuto, N. [1987] “The effectiveness and limit of tsunami control forests,” Coast. Eng. Jpn.
30(1), 143–153.
Spiske, M., Weiss, R., Bahlburg. H., Roskosch, J. and Amijaya, H. [2010] “The TsuSedMod
inversion model applied to the deposits of the 2004 Sumatra and 2006 Java tsunami
and implications for estimating flow parameters of palaeo–tsunami,” Sediment. Geol.
224, 29–37.
Suppasri, A., Koshimura, S., Imai, K., Mas, E., Gokon, H., Muhari, A. and Imamura,
F. [2012] “Developing tsunami fragility curves from the surveyed data of the 2011
Great East Japan tsunami in Sendai and Ishinomaki Plains,” Coast. Eng. J. 54(1),
1250008-1–1250008-16.
Takemura, T. and Tanaka, N. [2007] “Flow structures and drag characteristics of a colony-
type emergent roughness model mounted on a flat plate in uniform flow,” Fluid Dyn.
Res. 39, 694–710.
Tanaka, N. [2009] “Vegetation bioshields for tsunami mitigation: Review of the effective-
ness, limitations, construction, and sustainable management,” Landscape Ecol. Eng.
5, 71–79.

1650008-25
 2nd Reading
September 29, 2016 13:2 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 1650008

G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

Tanaka, N. [2012a] “Effectiveness and limitations of coastal forest in large tsunami: Con-
ditions of Japanese pine trees on coastal sand dunes in tsunami caused by Great East
Japan Earthquake,” J. Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng., Ser. B1 (Hydraul. Eng.) 68(4), II 7–II 15.
Tanaka, T. [2012b] “Characteristics and problems of fires following the Great East Japan
earthquake in March 2011,” Fire Saf. J. 54, 197–202.
Tanaka, N., Jinadasa, K. B. S. N., Mowjood, M. I. M. and Fasly, M. S. M. [2011] “Coastal
vegetation planting projects for tsunami disaster mitigation — Efectiveness evaluation
of new establishments,” Landscape Ecol. Eng. 7, 127–135.
Tanaka, N., Sasaki, Y., Mowjood, M. I. M., Jinadasa, K. B. S. N. and Homchuen, S. [2007]
“Coastal vegetation structures and their functions in tsunami protection: Experience
of the recent Indian Ocean tsunami,” Landscape Ecol. Eng. 3, 33–45.
Tanaka, N. and Suzuki, I. [2013] “Comparison between drag force on a house behind
coastal forest and impulsive force by tsunami–driven woody debris from the forest
at the Great East Japan Earthquake,” Proc. IAHR Congress 2013, Chengdu, China,
8–13 September, pp. 891–898.
Tanaka, N. and Yagisawa, J. [2009] “Effects of tree characteristics and substrate condition
on critical breaking moment of trees due to heavy flooding,” Landscape Ecol. Eng. 5,
59–70.
Tanaka, N., Yagisawa, J. and Yasuda, S. [2013] “Breaking pattern and critical breaking
condition of Japanese pine trees on coastal sand dunes in huge tsunami caused by
Great East Japan Earthquake,” Nat. Hazards 65, 423–442.
Tanaka, N., Yasuda, S., Iimura, K. and Yagisawa, J. [2014] “Combined effects of coastal
forest and sea embankment on reducing the washout region of houses in the Great
East Japan tsunami,” J. Hydro–Environ. Res. 8, 270–280.
Thuy, N. B., Tanaka, N. and Tanimoto, K. [2012] “Tsunami mitigation by coastal vege-
tation considering the effect of tree breaking,” J. Coast. Conserv. 16, 111–121.
Thuy, N. B., Tanimoto, K., Tanaka, N., Harada, K. and Iimura, K. [2009] “Effect of open
gap in coastal forest on tsunami run-up — Investigations by experiment and numerical
simulation,” Ocean Eng. 36, 1258–1269.
West, G. S. and Apelt, C. J. [1982] “The effects of tunnel blockage and aspect ratio on
the mean flow past a circular cylinder with Reynolds numbers between l04 and l05 ,”
J. Fluid. Mech. 114, 361–377.

1650008-26