Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami

Vol. 14, No. 3 (2020) 2050012 (28 pages)

.c World Scienti¯c Publishing Company
#
DOI: 10.1142/S1793431120500128

Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump Formed on Upstream

Vegetation of Varying Density and Thickness

Ghufran Ahmed Pasha*,†,§ and Norio Tanaka*,‡,¶

*Graduate School of Science and Engineering
Saitama University
255 Shimo-okubo Sakura-ku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
†
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology
Taxila 47050, Pakistan
‡International
Institute for Resilient Society
Saitama University
255 Shimo-okubo Sakura-ku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
§
ghufran.ahmed@uettaxila.edu.pk
¶
tanaka01@mail.saitama-u.ac.jp

Received 18 March 2019

Accepted 5 November 2019
Published 28 January 2020

The e®ectiveness of coastal vegetation as a barrier to mitigate a tsunami greatly depends on the
magnitude of tsunami and vegetation structure. This paper summarizes a series of laboratory
experiments that investigated the upstream °ow structure and energy loss due to a hydraulic
jump in a steady super-critical °ow. The characteristics of the jump were determined against
vegetation of variable density (G=d, where G ¼ spacing of each cylinder in cross-stream di-
rection, d ¼ diameter of cylinder), thickness (dn, where d ¼ diameter of cylinder, n ¼ number of
cylinders in the stream-wise direction per unit of cross-stream width), and initial Froude
number (Fro , where Froude number is obtained from a model without vegetation in the °ume).
In super-critical °ow (Fro -1:67–1.83), a weak hydraulic jump formed on upstream side of veg-
etation. The height of the jump, its location, and the resulting energy loss were increased by
increasing both the vegetation density and thickness. Due to reduced re°ection at vegetation
front, the drag force against sparse vegetation (G/d ¼ 2:13) was higher compared to interme-
diate (G/d ¼ 1:09) and dense (G/d ¼ 0:25) vegetation. Under these conditions, the maximum
energy reduction due to a weak hydraulic jump reached 9.4% for dense vegetation while it was
8.1% and 7.8% for intermediate and sparse vegetation, respectively.

Keywords: Tsunami; vegetation; hydraulic jump; energy loss; drag coe±cient.

1. Introduction
A large tsunami is considered one of the most dreadful natural hazards in the world.
Despite the optimal tsunami mitigation measures, the 2011 Great East Japan
¶ Corresponding author.

2050012-1
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

tsunami had a devastating nationwide impact in Japan [Mori and Takahashi, 2012;
Ishigaki et al., 2013]. Many researchers have worked in recent years to ¯nd the best
possible method to reduce the destruction caused by a tsunami [Nateghi et al., 2016;
Rahman et al., 2017; Thuy et al., 2012]. For tsunami mitigation, both arti¯cial
methods (hard solutions: construction of sea walls and embankments, installment of
tsunami gates, and erection of breakwater structures) and natural methods (soft
solutions: coastal vegetation, sand dunes, and coral reefs) can be implemented
[Tanaka, 2009]. However, arti¯cial methods could prove to be di±cult for developing
countries because they require enormous capital investment [Tanaka, 2009] and have
greater chances of failure if a large tsunami arrives that exceeds the capacity of the
arti¯cial structure. Currently, natural methods such as coastal forests are widely con-
sidered to be an e®ective measure to mitigate tsunami damage from both economic and
environmental points of view [Osti et al., 2009; Tanaka, 2009; Yanagisawa et al., 2009].
Many previous studies recognized the e®ectiveness of coastal vegetation in miti-
gation of tsunamis in post-disaster surveys after the 1998 Papua New Guinea tsu-
nami [Dengler and Preuss, 2003], 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami [Danielsen et al., 2005;
Tanaka et al., 2007], and 2011 Great East Japan tsunami [Nandasena et al., 2012;
Tanaka et al., 2014]. Attempts to evaluate the e®ectiveness of a coastal forest were
also conducted in laboratory experiments [Iimura and Tanaka, 2012; Pasha and
Tanaka, 2016, 2017], and numerical simulations were made by changing the tsunami
and forest characteristics [Nandasena et al., 2008; Iimura and Tanaka, 2013]. The
e®ectiveness of coastal forests against tsunamis has also been investigated by Irtem
et al. [2009]; Yanagisawa et al. [2009], and Nateghi et al. [2016]. On the other hand,
limitations of the tsunami mitigation capacity of a coastal forest were also discussed
in terms of destruction of the coastal forest itself [Tanaka et al., 2007; Huang et al.,
2013], production of driftwood [Dengler and Preuss, 2003; Cochard et al., 2008],
de¯ciencies in coastal forests such as open gaps [Fernando et al., 2008; Thuy et al.,
2009; Nandasena et al., 2012], the breaking moment of the trees [Tanaka et al., 2013],
and the magnitude of the tsunami [Tanaka, 2009]. In the 2011 Japan tsunami,
although the coastal forest was destroyed, its role as a bioshield was not negligible
compared to that of a sea embankment in the mitigation of °uid force [Tanaka et al.,
2014] and in protecting houses by trapping °oating debris [Pasha and Tanaka, 2016;
Tanaka and Onai, 2017; Tanaka and Ogino, 2017].
Hydraulic resistance and re°ection of water by trees can reduce the energy of
°owing water, inundation depth, inundation area, and hydraulic force behind the
vegetation. The °ow resistance varies with the °ow velocity, concentration of trees,
their diameter, and elastic properties of the individual members [Noarayanan et al.,
2012]. Iimura and Tanaka [2012] investigated the e®ects of vegetation density both
experimentally and analytically and con¯rmed that both the level and velocity of the
water behind the vegetation are reduced considerably by increasing the density of
vegetation. The hydrodynamics related to discontinuous submerged vegetation
patches in an open channel were also investigated by Anjum et al. [2018]; Ghani
et al. [2019]; Zhao and Huai [2016]. Moreover, a few studies changed the tree density

2050012-2
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

distribution in a forest and investigated the energy reductions behind the forest
[Thuy et al., 2009; Iimura and Tanaka, 2012]. However, no one has reported the
e®ects of the °ow structure upstream of vegetation and possible energy reduction due
to the formation of a hydraulic jump on the upstream vegetation.
In open channels, the transition from supercritical to subcritical °ow is called a
hydraulic jump. The di®erent kinds of hydraulic jumps were described by
Chow [1959]. A jump is characterized by the development of large-scale turbulence,
surface waves, energy dissipation, and air entrainment. For Froude numbers between
1.7 and 2.5, a series of small rollers develop on the surface of the jump with a smooth
water surface in the downstream known as weak hydraulic jump Chow [1959]. Pasha
and Tanaka [2017] investigated the energy loss through vegetation and a down-
stream undular hydraulic jump for steady sub-critical °ow conditions with Froude
number less than unity. However, the Froude numbers of past tsunamis were esti-
mated at 0.7–2.0 from ¯eld measurements and theory [Kawata et al., 1999]. Thus, it
is equally important to determine the energy loss through vegetation with the su-
percritical °ow having a Froude number greater than 1. Many text books [Chow,
1959; Chaudhry, 2008] discussed the e®ect of a continuous, transverse sill at the
location of a hydraulic jump. Some researchers also studied control of a hydraulic
jump using a sill in a rectangular channel [Alikhani et al., 2010; Achour and Khat-
taoui, 2013] and in a triangular channel [Hamidifar and Omid, 2011]. Rajaratnam
and Hurtig [2000] found that screens or porous ba®les with 40% porosity could be
used as e®ective energy dissipaters below small hydraulic structures. However, the
control of a jump by the use of vegetation and possible energy loss have not been
reported. Therefore, the objective of this study was to clarify the characteristics of a
hydraulic jump controlled by emergent vegetation and the energy loss mechanism
under supercritical °ow conditions. Flume experiments were conducted to determine
the amount of energy lost through emergent vegetation of variable thicknesses,
changing density, and °ow conditions. The study will help in selecting an optimal
forest width in relation to di®erent °ow conditions and vegetation arrangements.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental procedure and °ume characteristics
2.1.1. Flume characteristics
Figure 1(a) shows a schematic ¯gure of the water channel. Laboratory experiments
using nine di®erent conditions (Table 1) were conducted in a glass-sided water °ume
at Saitama University that is 5 m in length, 0.7 m in width, and 0.5 m in height. In
the experimental channel, a constant 1/86 slope was set from the water inlet tank.
The ground conditions and tsunami characteristics implicated were not speci¯c to
any location but were considered in general. To set the °ow conditions, Froude
similarity was applied to set the model scale of the physical experiment. In many
previous studies, the tsunami-related problems have been investigated in a water

2050012-3
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

(a)

(b) (c)

(d) (e)

Fig. 1. Experimental set-up: (a) schematic ¯gure of channel with vegetation model, (b, c) set-up of load
cell at vegetation front, (d) details of vegetation arrangement and its de¯nition (e) dense, intermediate,
and sparse vegetation models (in inverted position), respectively.

°ume by producing a solitary wave [Huang et al., 2012; Iimura and Tanaka, 2012;
Tognin et al., 2019; Yao et al., 2015]. However, in an experimental °ume, the
representation of tsunami inundation can be done by a quasi-steady °ow as the
tsunami inundation does not include the wave crest and propagates inland with a

2050012-4
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

long period [Igarashi and Tanaka, 2016; Aniel-Quiroga et al., 2018; Rashedunnabi
and Tanaka, 2019]. Nandasena et al. [2012] estimated that the maximum Froude
number (Fr ¼ V =(gh)0:5 , where V ¼ depth-averaged velocity (m/s), g ¼
gravitational acceleration (m/s2), and h ¼ water depth (m)) was equal to 1.5 at the
time the tsunami reached the Misawa and Hachinohe shores in Japan. The range of
Froude numbers varied from 1.0 to 1.5 on the northeast coast (at Settai and Taro in
Iwate Prefecture) of Japan in the 2011 Great East Japan Tsunami (GEJT) [Foytong
et al., 2013]. Moreover, the range of Froude numbers of past tsunamis estimated by
Kawata et al. [1999] was 0.7–2.0. Because a tsunami current propagates with Froude
number > 1 near coastal regions, it can be replicated as a quasi-steady supercritical
°ow in the experimental °ume. This study de¯ned the initial Froude number (Fro )
when the reference velocity and water depth were used without a vegetation model.
For creating the steady super-critical conditions of an inundating tsunami against
the steep slope of a channel bed, the water depths [model without vegetation]
selected in the experiment were 1.57, 2.08, 2.62, 3.27 cm, setting the initial Froude
numbers approximately equal to 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, and 1.83, respectively. The scale of
the experiment was 1/100 [Pasha and Tanaka, 2016, 2017].

2.1.2. Experimental conditions

Vegetation models covering the full width of the channel were mounted in the water
°ume at the end of the water °ume about 3.7–4 m from the upstream inlet [Fig. 1(a)].
Due to limited channel length, the vegetation model was placed at the far end of the
channel to observe the hydraulic jump at the vegetation upstream. The water level
was measured throughout the center of the channel as marked in Fig. 1(a) by using a
point gauge at 2–5 cm intervals (depending on the variation in the water surface).
Before mounting the vegetation model in the channel, the discharge was measured
using a °ow meter (Signet 8150 Flow Totalizer) against each selected initial water
depth (ho ), and the discharge values against each initial water depth (ho ) were noted.
Subsequently, after placing the vegetation model in a channel, the discharge values
were changed according to four selected °ow conditions. The depth-averaged ve-
locity was computed using the measured water depth and discharge. A two-axis load
cell (force gauge) (SSK Co., model LB60) having a resolution of 1/1000 and capacity
to measure a maximum load of 1N was used to measure the drag force on an indi-
vidual cylinder [Fig. 1(b)]. The drag coe±cient Cd for each solid circular cylinder was
de¯ned as:
2F
Cd ¼ ; ð1Þ
V 2 dH

where F ðNÞ is the drag force on individual centrally positioned cylinders at the
vegetation front and vegetation back,  (kg/m3) is the °uid density, d (m) is
the diameter of the cylinder, and H (m) is the water depth in front of the cylinder.
V (m/s) is the calculated mean velocity against water depth H (m) and discharge

2050012-5
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

Q (m3/s). In addition, to measure the drag force, a gap is required between individual
cylinders and the bottom of the channel, as indicated in Fig. 1(c). The experiments
were conducted with the smallest possible gap, i.e. 0.001 m, similar to the mea-
surements taken by Takemura and Tanaka [2007]. The drag coe±cient of individual
cylinders was determined at both vegetation front and back, and the position of the
load cell is indicated in Fig. 1(a).

2.2. Vegetation conditions

The tree species selected for the vegetation model were the Japanese red pine (Pinus
densi°ora) and black pine (Pinus thunbergii) (average tree height ¼ 15 m and trunk
diameter ¼ 0:4 m) found on the Sendai Plain; the crown was high relative to the
tsunami height, and the trees can be considered as circular cylinders [Tanaka et al.,
2014]. For a 1/100 scale model, wooden cylinders with a diameter of 0.004 m were
used as tree models in a staggered arrangement. Figure 1(d) and Table 1 show details
of the vegetation arrangement, where D is the distance between cylinders and W is
the width of the vegetation model.
Flow structures di®er depending on the G/d arrangement of the vegetation model
(vegetation density) [Takemura and Tanaka, 2007; Tanaka and Yagisawa, 2010;
Pasha and Tanaka, 2019], where G represents the space between each cylinder in a
cross-stream direction, and d is the diameter of a cylinder [Fig. 1(d)]. The G/d ratio
indicates whether vegetation density is sparse or dense. In order to investigate the
energy loss due to vegetation, vegetation models with three di®erent G/d values
(0.25, 1.09, and 2.13) were made. A model with G/d of 0.25 represents dense vege-
tation, while G/d of 1.09 and 2.13 characterize intermediate and sparse vegetations,
respectively [Fig. 1(e)]. In the ¯eld, the intermediate and sparse vegetations of
G/d 1.09 and 2.13, respectively, can be planted using Japanese red pine trees
(P. densi°ora) and black pine trees (P. thunbergii). However, for making a dense
vegetation structure, trees that have aerial roots like Rizophora or Pandanus

Table 1. Experimental conditions.

Distance between Vegetation Vegetation

Case Initial Froude Vegetation cylinders width thickness Vegetation
No. number \Fro " density \G/d" \D" (cm) \W" (cm) \dn" (No.cm) type

1 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, 1.83 0.25 1 3.88 179.21 Dense

2 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, 1.83 1.09 1.67 10.55 174.72 Intermediate
3 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, 1.83 2.13 2.5 24.27 179.36 Sparse
4 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, 1.83 0.25 1 8.23 380.13 Dense
5 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, 1.83 1.09 1.67 23.60 390.85 Intermediate
6 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, 1.83 2.13 2.5 52.48 387.83 Sparse
7 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, 1.83 0.25 1 12.58 581.05 Dense
8 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, 1.83 1.09 1.67 35.2 582.96 Intermediate
9 1.67, 1.74, 1.79, 1.83 2.13 2.5 78.52 580.27 Sparse

2050012-6
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

odoratissimus can be selected. If a reference length that considers the crown diameter
of trees having a low crown height and dense crown, then G=d may be a small value.
In addition, if a vegetation is combined with an arti¯cial structure like timber, it
becomes possible to make such a dense structure.
D and W were determined under the same vegetation thickness: dn (No.cm),
which is expressed as a function of summed tree diameter and is de¯ned as the
product of the diameter of a tree (d) at breast height and the number of trees (nÞ in a
rectangle with a frontage of unit length along the shoreline and depth equal to the
width of the forest (W ) [Fig. 1(d)], [Shuto, 1987]. In this study, dn was calculated as:
2
dn ¼ pffiffiffi Wd  102 ; ð2Þ
3D 2
where 102 in the above equation adjusts a unit in Shuto's de¯nition of dn (No.cm),
because d, D, and W are in centimeters. In the experiment dn in real scale was set to
three values, i.e. 180, 380, and 580 (No.cm). Shuto [1987] classi¯ed the e®ec-
tiveness of a forest and the degree of damage to the forest and land in terms of
tsunami inundation depth, vegetation thickness, and presence of undergrowth. Re-
ferring to his study, here dn180 No.cm represents areas where some trees on weak
soil or at the forest fringe may be damaged and soil around the trees may be scoured,
dn380 No.cm corresponds to an area where soil in the forest may be scoured and
damaged to some extent, and dn580 No.cm represents an area where neither
damage to trees nor damage to soil occurs. Cases 1, 4, and 7 represent cases of dense
vegetation (G=d-0.25) with variable thickness (dn-180, -380, and -580 No.cm), while
cases 2, 5, and 8 are cases of intermediate vegetation (G=d-1.09) against dn-180, -380,
and -580 No.cm, respectively. The cases of sparse vegetation (G=d-2.13) include 3, 6,
and 9 with the three values of vegetation thickness, i.e. dn-180, -380, and -580 No.cm.

2.3. Nondimensional pi groups

Consider a vegetation model in an open channel with a super-critical °ow that
developed a forced hydraulic jump (Fig. 2). Flow conditions and vegetation ar-
rangement are the main parameters that decide the location of the hydraulic jump
and the resulting energy loss. The following functional relationship among signi¯cant
parameters is used to characterize the forced hydraulic jump due to the presence of
vegetation of varying density and thickness.
fðho ; y1 ; y2 ; y3 ; hj ; X; b; Vo ; V1 ; V2 ; V3 ; G; d; D; W ; dn; E1 ; Ej ; g; ; Þ ¼ 0; ð3Þ
where ho ¼ initial water depth without vegetation, y1 ¼ minimum water depth
before the jump (water depth at the toe of a hydraulic jump), y2 ¼ mean water depth
after the hydraulic jump, y3 ¼ mean water depth at downstream of vegetation, hj ¼
height of jump (y2  y1 ), X ¼ length of undulation upstream of vegetation/location
of jump, b ¼ channel width, Vo ¼ average velocity at ho , V1 ¼ average velocity at y1 ,
V2 ¼ average velocity at y2 , V3 ¼ average velocity at y3 , E1 ¼ mean total energy at

2050012-7
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

y1 (summation of height of channel bed from datum (z), normal water depth (y), and
velocity head (V 2 /2g)), Ej ¼ energy loss in the hydraulic jump (ðy2  y1 Þ3 =4y1 y2 ),
g ¼ gravitational acceleration,  ¼ density of water,  ¼ viscosity of water, HGL ¼
hydraulic grade line, and EGL ¼ energy grade line. (For the de¯nitions of G, d, D,
W , and dn see Sec. 2.2) [Figs. 1(d), 2(a)]. Using Buckingham's pi theorem, the
dimensionless parameters are summarized as:
 
y y hj X b V2 V3 G W Ej
f 2; 3; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; dn ; ; Fro ; Re ¼ 0: ð4Þ
y1 y 1 E 1 y 2 y1 V 1 V 1 d d E1
In the experiment, normal water depth was considered using a point gauge at the
center of a channel having walls of smooth glass, thereby excluding the e®ects of wall
roughness and channel width (b). Due to the channel limitation, the exact behavior
of the downstream vegetation °ow was not identi¯ed. Thus, the current study
focused mainly on investigating the upstream vegetation °ow structure, hence
ignoring y3 . Also, the viscosity and density of water were the same for every case and
Froude scaling is commonly used for free surface gravity °ows, and thus a fully
turbulent °ow independent of Reynolds number (Re) was assumed.
Therefore, the characteristics of hydraulic jump (relative height of jump (hj =E1 ),
and relative location of jump (X=y2 )), and relative energy loss due to jump
(Ej =E1 ) are function of vegetation density (G=dÞ, non-dimensional vegetation
width (dn ¼ dn/D) and initial Froude number (Fro ¼ Froude number against
water depth ho , and velocity Vo ).
 
hj X Ej G dn Vo
; ; ¼f ; ; pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð5Þ
E 1 y2 E 1 d D gho
However, by tradition, vegetation thickness (dn) is commonly used to express the
resistance of vegetation [Shuto, 1987; Iimura and Tanaka, 2012; Pasha and Tanaka,
2017]; thus, instead of nondimensional vegetation width (dn ), vegetation thickness
(dn) was used to plot the characteristics of the hydraulic jump.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Upstream of vegetation model 
 hydraulic jump
and its characteristics
In a °ow through vegetation, the maximum water level in front of the vegetation and
the water surface slope inside the vegetation is increased by increasing the density of
vegetation [Iimura and Tanaka, 2012]. In a sub-critical °ow, an undular hydraulic
jump is produced downstream of vegetation with a backwater rise at the upstream
vegetation [Pasha and Tanaka, 2017; Pasha et al., 2018]. However, when a super-
critical °ow interacts with the vegetation, a hydraulic jump is produced upstream of
the vegetation. Based on the experimental observations, a schematic ¯gure of the
cross-section of the °ow structure is plotted in Fig. 2(a). The initial water depth (ho )
without vegetation, which was constant throughout the channel, was raised

2050012-8
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2. (a) Flow structure scheme and de¯nition of various parameters, (b) Hydraulic jump formation on
upstream vegetation (Fro -0:86, G/d-1:09, dn-380 No.cm).

upstream of the vegetation model, and the supercritical nature of the °ow resulted in
a hydraulic jump on upstream vegetation. Thus, the water surface slope inside the
vegetation increased due to the resistance o®ered by the trees [Figs. 2(a) and 2(b)]
although the water °ows with almost uniform water depth (y3 ) at the downstream
vegetation. Pasha and Tanaka [2017] revealed that if the water depth (at the veg-
etation end) in a sub-critical °ow (upstream vegetation) is less than the critical
depth, then the °ow becomes supercritical, resulting in the formation of an undular
hydraulic jump. Pasha and Tanaka [2019] also de¯ned the critical resistance of
vegetation as \the resistance o®ered by vegetation that transforms a subcritical °ow
to supercritical". However, the current study focused mainly on investigation of the
upstream vegetation °ow structure. Thus, due to the channel limitation, the exact
behavior of the downstream vegetation °ow was not identi¯ed. The water pro¯les at
the center of the channel against the °ow conditions of (i) dense, (ii) intermediate,
and (iii) sparse vegetation against dn-180, -380, and -580 (No.cm) are shown in
Figs. 3(a)–3(c), respectively.

2050012-9
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

The location of a jump may be controlled by providing a number of appurte-

nances, such as ba®le blocks, a sill, or a drop or rise in the channel bottom. Just like a
sharp-crested weir or an abrupt rise [Forster and Skrinde, 1950], the location of a
hydraulic jump greatly depends on the arrangement of trees. Pagliara et al. [2008]
investigated the characteristics of the hydraulic jump by using a rough uniform and
non-homogeneous granular bed material and found that the non-uniformity of the
bed sediment a®ects the length of the jump and subsequent depth ratio. Under the
current experimental conditions, the location of a hydraulic jump formed on up-
stream vegetation mainly depends upon °ow conditions (initial Froude number,
Fro ), spacing between cylinders of vegetation (vegetation density, G/d), and the
width of vegetation in a cross-stream direction (vegetation thickness, dn).

3.2. Control of °ow by vegetation

Many text books [Chow, 1959] explain the control of water °ow in a long prismatic
channel against mild or subcritical, critical, and steep or supercritical slopes. If the

(a)

Fig. 3. Distribution of water level for vegetation thickness (a) dn-180 No.cm, (b) dn-380 No.cm, and
(c) dn-580 No.cm, and density (i) dense vegetation (G/d ¼ 0:25), (ii) intermediate vegetation
(G/d ¼ 1:09), and (iii) sparse vegetation (G/d ¼ 2:13).

2050012-10
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

(b)

(c)

Fig. 3. (Continued )

2050012-11
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

channel has a subcritical slope, the °ow initially remains subcritical, while in the
presence of a dam, the pool surface will rise farther for a long distance upstream from
the pool; this is called the backwater curve. This e®ect of water rising behind the dam
is known as a backwater e®ect. However, if the channel has a supercritical slope, the
°ow is initially supercritical, while in the presence of a dam, the backwater e®ect will
not extend far upstream. Instead, the °ow in the upstream channel will continue
downstream in a supercritical state until the water surface is actually below the pool
level. After that, it will rise abruptly to the pool elevation in the form of a hydraulic
jump. The backwater e®ect will not extend upstream through the hydraulic jump as
the °ow upstream from the jump is governed entirely by upstream conditions [Chow,
1959].
In order to clarify the °ow structure in subcritical slope conditions obstructed by
vegetation, Pasha and Tanaka [2017] conducted experiments in the conditions de-
scribed in Table 1. The results showed that the initial water depth without vege-
tation, which was constant throughout the channel, was raised upstream of the
vegetation model, and the water surface slope inside the vegetation became larger
due to the resistance o®ered by the trees [Figs. 4(a)-i] [Pasha and Tanaka, 2017].
However, no hydraulic jump was observed upstream of vegetation because the
condition remained subcritical. This increase in backwater rise was due to the °ow
resistance o®ered by the trees, similar to the case of a dam placed in a °ow. The
greater the vegetation density, thickness, and Froude number, the greater the
backwater rise. Even in case of a solitary wave interaction with rigid emergent
vegetation, the wave height upstream of the canopy increases before impacting the
vegetation and the wave height at the end of the vegetated area compared to the
incoming wave height signi¯cantly reduces by increasing of the vegetation density
[Tognin et al., 2019]. Huang et al. [2012] also suggested that the presence of vege-
tation may cause the maximum water level in front of a vegetated area to increase
due to backwater e®ects and/or wave re°ection. In the present study, supercritical
°ow conditions were created in an experimental channel by maintaining a steep
slope. The steep slope did not cause the formation of a hydraulic jump without the
vegetation model. After placing the vegetation model in a supercritical °ow, the °ow
was obstructed just as it would be by a dam or a weir placed in a channel. This
resulted in a backwater rise (h ¼ y2  ho ) and formation of a hydraulic jump
[Figs. 4(a)-ii]. A comparison of the relative backwater rises (h/ho ) in subcritical
conditions [Pasha and Tanaka, 2017] and supercritical conditions (present study) is
shown in Fig. 4(b) and marked as A and B, respectively. The variation in Section B
of Fig. 4(b) is due to the undulations upstream of vegetation. The resistance by
vegetation and the water surface gradient a®ects the inertia and increases the ve-
locity for a higher Froude number, i.e. a higher energy head for higher velocities,
consequently increasing the backwater rise. Similarly, the backwater rise was also
increased by increasing the vegetation density and thickness. Thus, it is considered
that the downstream conjugate depth of a hydraulic jump is a®ected by the

2050012-12
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

(a-i)

(a-ii)

(b)

Fig. 4. (a) Flow conditions in a long prismatic channel [Chow, 1959], and (b) relative backwater rise
(h=ho ) for various initial Froude numbers, Fro , for subcritical °ow conditions are marked \A" [Pasha
and Tanaka, 2017], and supercritical °ow conditions are marked \B".

vegetation to some extent. In the subsequent sections, control of the hydraulic jump
by vegetation in terms of its height and length is explained.

3.2.1. Height of jump

The di®erence between the depths before and after the jump is called the height of
the jump (hj ¼ y2  y1 ) [Fig. 2(a)]. The height of a jump relative to initial total
energy (hj =E1 ) is expressed against di®erent vegetation arrangements. The mean
value of the water depth downstream of the jump (y2 ) was considered because it was

2050012-13
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

Fig. 5. Correlation of experimental mean water depth after the jump (y2 ) with the analytical water depth
(y2 ) calculated by using Eq. (6).

very close to the analytical water depth y2 , calculated with the following equation:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
y
y2 ¼ 1 1 þ 8Fr 21  1 ; ð6Þ
2
where Fr1 = Froude number against water depth y1 and velocity V1 . Figure 5 shows
that the mean value of the experimental y2 is slightly higher than the analytical y2 .
However, the di®erence between the analytical y2 and the mean experimental y2 is
less than the water depth considered immediately in front of the vegetation model.
The total energy at channel section (E) as de¯ned by Chow [1959] is,
V2
E ¼hþyþ ; ð7Þ
2g
where E is total energy, h is the height of the channel bed from datum, y is normal
water depth, V is velocity, and  is a coe±cient to account for variations in velocity.
In the current study, the value of  is taken as 1. Similar to Pasha and Tanaka [2017],
the depth-averaged velocity against the known discharge (Q) was calculated using
the relationship V ¼ Q/A. (For de¯nitions of y1 and y2 , please see Sec. 2.3.)

3.2.1.1. E®ect of initial Froude number on relative height of jump

The initial °ow conditions without vegetation models placed in the channel varied
between Fro ¼ 1:67 and Fro ¼ 1:83. Figures 6(a) and 6(b) show the relationship
between the relative height of a jump with vegetation density and vegetation
thickness, respectively. Figure 6 shows that the height of a jump increased slightly
with di®erent Froude conditions. The increased velocity for the higher Froude
number, i.e. higher energy head for higher velocities, consequently increased the
height of a jump. Against all the vegetation thicknesses, the relative height of a jump
increased almost 10–14% when the initial Froude number was raised from 1.67 to
1.83. According to Chow [1959], the maximum relative height of a jump is 0.507,

2050012-14
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

(a) (b)

Fig. 6. Relationship between relative height of jump (hj /E1 ) for (a) vegetation density (G/d) (i) dn ¼
180 No.cm, (ii) dn ¼ 380 No.cm, and (iii) dn ¼ 580 No.cm, and (b) vegetation thickness (dn), (i)
G/d ¼ 0:25, (ii) G/d ¼ 1:09, and (iii) G/d ¼ 2:13. To improve readability, the trend line and R2 value are
included for the single °ow condition with Fro ¼ 1:74.

which occurs at Fr1 ¼ 2:77, whereas the maximum relative height of an undular
hydraulic jump is 0.40, which occurs at Fr1 ¼ 1:73. In the current study, for a given
Froude number, the range of relative height of jump is between 0.35 and 0.40.
However, the maximum values of the relative height of a jump were obtained against
Fro ¼ 1:83.

3.2.1.2. E®ect of vegetation density and thickness on relative height of jump

In addition to the Froude number, the height of a jump depends on the vegetation
arrangement, i.e. vegetation density and thickness. However, the di®erence in values
was not very prominent among di®erent vegetation conditions. Figure 6(a) shows the
relationship between the relative height of a jump (hj /E1 ) and vegetation densities

2050012-15
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

Table 2. Standard deviation values by relative height of jump (Fig. 6), where dn is in units of No.cm.

G/d-0:25 G/d-1:09 G/d-2:13

Fro dn-180 dn-380 dn-580 dn-180 dn-380 dn-580 dn-180 dn-380 dn-580

1.67 0.08 0.12 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.08 0.08
1.74 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.10
1.79 0.10 0.13 
 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.12
1.83 0.11 0.14 
 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.10 


(G/d ¼ 0:25, 1.09, 2.13) for three values of vegetation thickness: (i) dn-180 No.cm
(ii) dn-380 No.cm, and (iii) dn-580 No.cm. Figure 6(b) shows the relationship
between the mean value of the relative height of the jump (hj /E1 ) and vegetation
thickness (dn ¼ 180, 380, 580 (No.cm)) for three vegetation densities (i) dense
vegetation, G/d ¼ 0:25, (ii) intermediate vegetation, G/d ¼ 1:09, and (iii) sparse
vegetation, G/d ¼ 2:13. To improve the readability of Fig. 6, the trend line and R2
value are included for the single °ow condition with Fro ¼ 1:74. Table 2 shows the
standard deviation values of relative height ratios.
Figure 6(a) shows that the relative height of the jump was decreased by increasing
the distance between cylinders, i.e. decreasing the vegetation density (increasing
G/d) while keeping the vegetation thickness constant. A dense arrangement (small
G/d) of trees caused a higher °ow resistance than a sparse arrangement and con-
sequently resulted in slightly higher jump. However, the increase in the relative
height ratio ranges between 4% and 25%, observed when G/d ratio was reduced from
2.13 (sparse) to 0.25 (dense) against all three dn values i.e. 180, 380, and 580 No.cm.
Similarly, the greater the width of vegetation, the greater the resistance o®ered by
the trees. Figure 6(b) shows a slight increase in the relative height of the jump when
the vegetation thickness was increased from dn-180 No.cm to dn-580 No.cm, with an
increase of maximum 32%.

3.2.2. Location of jump

The location of a jump (X) is de¯ned as the distance between the start of a hydraulic
jump and upstream of the vegetation [Fig. 2(a)]. While designing the coastal vege-
tation for tsunami mitigation, it is very important to know the location of the
occurrence of a hydraulic jump. The vegetation should be designed in such a way
that the jump occurs far away from upstream vegetation. This will reduce the scour
length just before the vegetation and ultimately reduce the possibility of washout of
trees. The relative location of a jump with respect to mean water depth y2 (X/y2 ) is
explained in the subsequent sections.

3.2.2.1. E®ect of initial Froude number on relative location of jump

Like the relative height of a jump, the relative location of a hydraulic jump also
changes with the Froude number. Figures 7(a) and 7(b) show the relationship

2050012-16
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

(a) (b)

Fig. 7. Relationship between relative location of jump (X=y2 ) for (a) vegetation density (G/d) (i) dn ¼
180 No.cm, (ii) dn ¼ 380 No.cm, and (iii) dn ¼ 580 No.cm, and (b) vegetation thickness (dn),
(i) G/d ¼ 0:25, (ii) G/d ¼ 1:09, and (iii) G/d ¼ 2:13. To improve readability, the trend line and R2 value
are included for the single °ow condition with Fro ¼ 1:74.

between the relative locations of a jump by vegetation density and vegetation

thickness, respectively. Figure 3 shows that in unchanged vegetation conditions,
both the water depth in front of the vegetation and length of undulations (X)
increases with increasing Froude number. However, the relative location of the jump
(X/y2 ) is slightly reduced with an increase in the Froude number (Fig. 7). Figure 7
shows that the relative location of a jump is reduced by 5–12% by di®erent vege-
tation conditions when the initial Froude number was increased from 1.67 to 1.84.

3.2.2.2. E®ects of vegetation density and thickness on relative location of jump

Figure 7(a) shows the relationship between the relative location of a jump ðX=y2 Þ
and vegetation densities (G/d ¼ 0:25, 1.09, 2.13) for three values of vegetation

2050012-17
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

thickness: (i) dn-180 No.cm, (ii) dn-380 No.cm, and (iii) dn-580 No.cm. Figure 7(b)
expresses the relationship between the relative location of the jump ðX=y2 Þ and
vegetation thickness (dn ¼ 180, 380, 580 (No.cm)) for three values of vegetation
densities (i) dense vegetation, G/d ¼ 0:25, (ii) intermediate vegetation, G/d ¼ 1:09,
and (iii) sparse vegetation, G/d ¼ 2:13. Similar to Fig. 6, the trend line and R2 value
are included for the single °ow condition with Fro ¼ 1:74.
The relative location of a jump was increased by reducing the distance between
cylinders, i.e. increasing the vegetation density while keeping the vegetation thick-
ness constant [Fig. 7(a)]. In vegetation with a close arrangement of trees, the jump
shifts away from the vegetation on the upstream side. For a given Froude number, an
almost 30–55% increase in relative location of jump was observed when the G/d ratio
was reduced from 2.13 to 0.25. Likewise, the relative location of the jump was also
increased by increasing the vegetation thickness [Fig. 7(b)]. On average, a 46%
increase in the relative location of a hydraulic jump was identi¯ed by increasing the
vegetation thickness from 180 to 580 No.cm. The location of a jump is an important
parameter to identify because it a®ects the scouring region upstream of vegetation.
The higher the ratio X/y2 , i.e. the farther the jump is from upstream vegetation, the
less the scouring in front of vegetation occurs, which may lead to less damage to the
front line of tress.

3.3. Energy loss through a jump

In a supercritical °ow in a horizontal rectangular channel, the energy of the °ow is
dissipated through frictional resistance along the channel, resulting in a decrease in
velocity and an increase in depth in the °ow direction [Chow, 1959]. In comparison to
a solitary wave interaction with rigid emergent vegetation, the wave energy con-
tinuously dissipates by turbulence which is directly linked to the work done by the
drag forces [Huang et al., 2012]. Under the current conditions, the supercritical water
°ow interacting with vegetation resulted in formation of a hydraulic jump upstream
of the vegetation (Fig. 3). The type of the jump, e.g. undular, weak, oscillating,
steady, or strong, depends upon the Froude number of the approaching °ow. The
greater the intensity of a jump, the greater the energy loss. In this study, the initial
Froude numbers is 1.67–1.83; thus, according to classi¯cation of Chow [1959], the
hydraulic jump can be categorized as a weak jump (1.7–2.5). Although the intensity
of the hydraulic jump was small, it still contributed to energy loss. In the present
study, the energy loss due to a weak hydraulic jump is calculated as:
ðy2  y1 Þ 3
Ej ¼ : ð8Þ
4y1 y2
The di®erence between the total head upstream and downstream of the jump is the
energy loss in the jump. The important factors that a®ect the energy loss include the
initial Froude number, vegetation density, and thickness. (For de¯nitions of y1
and y2 , please see Sec. 2.3.)

2050012-18
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

3.3.1. E®ect of initial Froude number on energy loss due to hydraulic jump
As shown in to Figs. 6 and 7, the characteristics of a jump i.e. the height and location
of the jump relative to vegetation with a ¯xed density and thickness, change with
increasing initial Froude number. Figures 8(a) and 8(b) show the relationship be-
tween the relative energy loss due to a jump with vegetation density and vegetation
thickness, respectively. Table 3 shows the standard deviation values for relative
energy loss due to a jump. The relative energy loss due to a jump increased with the
increase in the initial Froude number. Figure 8 shows that the relative energy loss by
a jump increased by 30–50% in di®erent vegetation conditions when the initial
Froude number was increased from 1.67 to 1.84.

(a) (b)

Fig. 8. Relationship between relative energy loss due to jump (Ej /E1 ) for (a) vegetation density (G=d)
(i) dn ¼ 180 No.cm, (ii) dn ¼ 380 No.cm, and (iii) dn ¼ 580 No.cm, and (b) vegetation thickness (dn), (i)
G/d ¼ 0:25, (ii) G/d ¼ 1:09, and (iii) G/d ¼ 2:13.

2050012-19
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

Table 3. Standard deviation values for relative energy loss due to jump (Fig. 8), where dn is in
units of No.cm.

G=d-0.25 G=d-1.09 G=d-2.13

Fro dn-180 dn-380 dn-580 dn-180 dn-380 dn-580 dn-180 dn-380 dn-580

1.67 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03
1.74 0.02 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.04
1.79 0.04 0.06 
 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04
1.83 0.04 0.06 
 0.04 0.05 
 0.05 0.03 


3.3.2. E®ect of vegetation density and thickness on energy loss

due to hydraulic jump
Figure 8(a) shows the relationship between the energy loss due to a hydraulic jump
(Ej /E1 ) and vegetation densities (G/d ¼ 0:25, 1.09, 2.13) for three vegetation
thicknesses: (i) dn-180 No.cm, (ii) dn-380 No.cm, and (iii) dn-580 No.cm, whereas
Fig. 8(b) shows the relationship between the relative energy loss due to a jump
(Ej /E1 ) and vegetation thickness (dn ¼ 180, 380, 580 (No.cm)) for three vegeta-
tion densities: (i) dense vegetation, G/d ¼ 0:25, (ii) intermediate vegetation,
G/d ¼ 1:09, and (iii) sparse vegetation, G/d ¼ 2:13. The trend line and R2 value are
cited for the single °ow condition having Fro ¼ 1:74 in Figs. 8(a) and 8(b).
In the case of dense vegetation (G/d ¼ 0:25), the maximum energy loss by the
hydraulic jump calculated in terms of E1 , i.e. (Ej /E1 ), was around 9.4% against
dn-580 No.cm and was reduced to 8.8% and 7.7% for dn-380 No.cm and dn-180 No.
cm, respectively. However, increasing the spacing between vegetation cylinders re-
duced the intensity of the hydraulic jump, as well as its contribution to energy loss.
The hydraulic jump that was formed upstream of the intermediate vegetation
(G/d ¼ 1:09) contributed to maximum energy losses of 6.7%, 7.9%, and 8.1% against
dn-180, 380, and 580 (No.cm), respectively, whereas the contribution to energy loss
by a hydraulic jump in the case of sparse vegetation (G/d ¼ 2:13) was the least. In
sparse vegetation, the maximum energy loss by a jump relative to E1 was 7.8%
against dn-580 No.cm, while the contribution was reduced to 7.5% and 6.3%, for
dn-380 No.cm and 180 No.cm, respectively [Figs. 8(a) and 8(b)]. Many textbooks
[e.g. Chow, 1959] indicate a low energy loss due to a weak hydraulic jump. Moreover,
Streeter and Wylie [1979] speci¯ed that the fraction of energy dissipated by a weak
hydraulic jump is 5–15%. In the current study, in all the cases, the amount of energy
dissipation was between 5% and 10%.
From the ¯ndings of the current experimental study, it is evident that denser
vegetation resulted in greater energy loss due to a jump. In case of solitary waves
interaction with emergent, rigid vegetation, the reduction of wave energy behind the
vegetation in the dense case has become larger than that in the sparse case due to
increasing re°ection from the vegetation and force acting on the cylinders [Iimura
and Tanaka, 2012]. However, because it is very hard to construct dense vegetation in

2050012-20
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

the ¯eld, intermediate vegetation is better than sparse vegetation for dissipating
tsunami energy by utilizing a hydraulic jump on upstream vegetation.

3.4. Drag forces on vegetation model

In a unidirectional °ow conditions, the drag force induced by cylinders with
di®erent arrangements i.e. single cylinder [Kothyari et al., 2009], colony type model
[Takemura and Tanaka, 2007], vegetation patch [Cheng et al., 2019; Zhao et al.,
2014] have been investigated in previous studies. The drag coe±cient for a vegetation
patch greatly depends on its porosity [Nepf, 1999; Busari and Li, 2016; Cheng et al.,
2019]. For solitary wave, Huang et al. [2011] has identi¯ed a uniform drag coe±cient
(i.e. no dependence on the incident wave height) for interacting with the vegetation
on a horizontal bottom.
In this study, the vegetation model width is of in¯nite length i.e. it covers the full
width of channel; thus, the weight of the vegetation model exceeded the capacity of
available load cell. Therefore, the drag force on an individual cylinder located at the
center of the front row of a vegetation model with di®erent vegetation densities and
thicknesses was determined (Fig. 9). The drag force was measured for 80 s starting
from zero force (without water in the channel) to the point when it reached equi-
librium. For comparison, the drag force on an individual cylinder (without vegeta-
tion model) was also measured. From Fig. 9(a), it can be seen that against the
smaller value of vegetation thickness i.e. dn-180 No.cm, the drag force did not show
much di®erence between dense (G/d-0:25), intermediate (G/d-1:09), and sparse
vegetation (G/d-2:13), and the values were very close to the drag force on a
single individual cylinder. However, when the vegetation thickness was increased to
dn-380 No.cm, the drag force reduced slightly. The drag force also was less for dense
vegetation compared to intermediate and sparse vegetation [Fig. 9(b)]. Moreover,
further increasing the vegetation thickness to dn-580 No.cm, decreased the drag force
too. The greater the density and thickness of vegetation, the greater the resistance to
°ow, which resulted in reduced drag force acting on the cylinder. The re°ection of
water in front of vegetation occurred in dense vegetation; however, no re°ection of
water was observed during the experiments in sparse vegetation. As it can be seen
from Fig. 3, the undulations are formed on the upstream vegetation. However, due to
re°ection in the case of dense vegetation, the °uctuations on the water surface
were reduced just in front of the vegetation, which resulted in a smooth drag force
for G=d-0.25, as shown in Fig. 9. However, in the case of sparse vegetation, i.e.
G/d-2:13, there was no re°ection; as a result, the undulations were high in front of
the vegetation, thus causing large °uctuations in drag force.
Various studies suggested di®erent trends of drag coe±cients against density of
vegetation for cylinder arrays [Busari and Li, 2016; Nepf, 1999]. Figure 10 shows the
variation of drag coe±cients with di®erent °ow and vegetation conditions. Because
the water depth was changed greatly on the upstream side of vegetation by changing
vegetation conditions, the drag coe±cients were also measured. Table 4 shows the

2050012-21
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 9. Drag force (F ) on individual cylinder located at center of vegetation model front for Fro ¼ 1:74:
(a) dn-180 No.cm, (b) dn-380 No.cm, (c) dn-580 No.cm.

standard deviation values of drag coe±cient at (a) vegetation front and (b) vege-
tation back. Due to °uctuations in front of a cylinder, mean values of water depth of
5–10 cm were considered. The approach mean velocity was calculated by using the
measured water depth and known discharge. Figure 10 shows the relationship

2050012-22
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 10. Change of drag coe±cient (Cd ) on individual cylinder located at center of vegetation model and
°ume: (a) dn-180 No.cm, (b) dn-380 No.cm, (c) dn-580 No.cm. Where VF ¼ vegetation front, VB ¼
vegetation back.

between drag coe±cient and vegetation density (G/d) for (i) dn-180 No.cm,
(ii) dn-380 No.cm, and (iii) dn-580 No.cm. Similar to drag force, the drag coe±cient
was also high for sparse vegetation compared to intermediate and dense vegetation.
Although the di®erence between drag coe±cients of the three values of vegetation
thickness was not large, the drag coe±cient was higher for dn-180 No.cm compared

2050012-23
G. A. Pasha & N. Tanaka

Table 4. Standard deviation values for drag coe±cient (Fig. 10), (a) Vegetation front (VF),
(b) Vegetation back (VB). Where dn is in units of No.cm.

G/d-0:25 G=d-1.09 G=d-2.13

Fro dn-180 dn-380 dn-580 dn-180 dn-380 dn-580 dn-180 dn-380 dn-580

(a)
1.67 0.14 0.26 0.16 0.13 0.28 0.23 0.11 0.26 0.29
1.74 0.25 0.19 0.17 0.47 0.21 0.19 0.42 0.39 0.27
1.79 0.40 0.19 
 0.87 0.26 0.23 0.93 0.71 0.21
(b)
1.67 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02
1.74 0.17 0.04 0.05 0.15 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.05
1.79 0.33 0.09 
 0.14 0.07 0.14 0.08 0.07 0.08

to -380 No.cm and -580 No.cm. The greater the vegetation density and thickness, the
greater the °ow resistance. Thus, the drag coe±cient was higher for sparse vegeta-
tion, as also found by Nepf [1999]. In case of a vegetation patch, the drag coe±cient
gradually increases with the increase in patch porosity [Cheng et al., 2019]. Figure 10
also shows that the drag coe±cient at the vegetation back is slightly lower than at the
vegetation front. This is because, in a supercritical °ow, the drag force is higher at the
vegetation front, and as the water progresses, the drag force becomes smaller, thus
resulting in a smaller drag coe±cient. Also, post-tsunami surveys revealed that the
front line of trees su®ers more damage than trees located in the last line [Tanaka,
2009; Thuy et al., 2012]. However, an opposite trend was observed in the presence of a
steep hill because both the °ow depth and the bending moment acting on trees close
to the steep hill increases, thus causing destruction of coastal trees [Huang et al.,
2013]. In a solitary wave conditions, both the wave run-up and drag coe±cient were
decreased with the increase in the forest density; however, the tree distribution
(tandem arrangement and staggered arrangement) also counts [Yao et al., 2018].
Despite of di®erent tree densities and °ow conditions in laboratory setup, the current
experimental values of Cd are generally in range to those in the previous studies such
as Cd ¼ 1:5–2.5 for solitary wave over a horizontal bed [Huang et al., 2011], and
Cd ¼ 0:22:8 for solitary wave over a slope [Yao et al., 2018]. Due to °uctuation at
the vegetation front, the standard deviation values were also high at vegetation front
and they were low at the vegetation back (Table 4). In Fig. 10, for G/d-0:25, oscil-
lations were observed at the vegetation back, which increased the drag coe±cient,
even higher than the drag coe±cient at the vegetation front. During oscillations, the
additional mass acted on the cylinders and resulted in a higher drag force as a result of
a higher drag coe±cient.

4. Conclusions
The °ow structure around vegetation and the energy loss in a supercritical °ow
(Froude number 1.74–1.83) through emergent vegetation were investigated

2050012-24
 Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump

experimentally in a water °ume with variation in in°ow, vegetation density, and

thickness. The following conclusions were drawn from the current study:

(1) Upstream of the vegetation model, a weak hydraulic jump is formed when a
supercritical °ow interacts with vegetation. The characteristics of the hydraulic
jump, i.e. the height and location (distance between the toe of the jump and
vegetation upstream), changes with the change in vegetation density and
thickness. For a given Froude numbers, while keeping the thickness (width) of
vegetation constant and reducing the spacing between cylinders (density) from
G/d ¼ 2:13 to 0.25, the relative height of the jump and relative location in-
creased up to 25% and 55%, respectively. Similarly, they were also increased up
to 32% and 46% by increasing the thickness of vegetation from dn-180 to -580
(No.cm) while keeping the vegetation density constant. The greater the vege-
tation density and thickness, the greater the resistance o®ered to °ow, which
consequently results in a higher jump and location.
(2) In a supercritical °ow with Fro between 1.67 and 1.83, the amount of energy
dissipated by a weak hydraulic jump was between 5% and 10%. The denser and
wider the vegetation, the greater is the energy loss due to the jump. The maxi-
mum energy dissipated by the jump formed upstream of dense vegetation
(G/d-0:25) was 9.4%, which was reduced to 8.1% and 7.8% for intermediate
(G/d-1:09) and sparse (G/d-2:13) vegetations, respectively.
(3) The drag coe±cient is increased by increasing the spacing between cylinders and
by reducing the vegetation thickness. The drag coe±cient is also higher at the
vegetation front as compared to the vegetation back. The higher drag coe±cient
in sparse vegetation indicates a greater possibility of damaging trees at the front
of the vegetation.

These ¯ndings are important for optimum vegetation design. In the future, more
experimental study of °ow with Froude number between 1 and 1.7 is required in
order to further investigate the phenomena.

Acknowledgments
This study was funded by a JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scienti¯c Research (No.
15H02987).

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