Kalafatis

Journal of Consumer Marketing
Green marketing and Ajzen’s theory of planned behaviour: a cross-market examination

Stavros P. Kalafatis Michael Pollard Robert East Markos H. Tsogas
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Stavros P. Kalafatis Michael Pollard Robert East Markos H. Tsogas, (1999),"Green marketing and Ajzen’s theory of planned
behaviour: a cross-market examination", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 16 Iss 5 pp. 441 - 460
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An executive summary for
managers and executive Green marketing and Ajzen's
readers can be found at the
end of this article theory of planned behaviour: a
cross-market examination
Stavros P. Kalafatis
Professor of Business Marketing, Kingston Business School, Kingston
upon Thames, Surrey, UK
Michael Pollard
Researcher, Kingston Business School, Kingston upon Thames,
Surrey, UK
Robert East
Professor of Consumer Behaviour, Kingston Business School,
Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, UK
Markos H. Tsogas
Lecturer, Kingston Business School, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey,
UK
Keywords Green marketing, Consumer behaviour, Consumer marketing, Environment,

United Kingdom, Greece
Abstract Examines the determinants that influence consumers' intention to buy

environmentally friendly products. Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour (TPB) provides
the conceptual framework of the research and the appropriateness of the theory and is
tested in two distinct market conditions (UK and Greece). Although the findings offer
considerable support for the robustness of the TPB in explaining intention in both
samples, there is some indication that the theory is more appropriate in well established
markets that are characterised by clearly formulated behavioural patterns (i.e. the model
fitting elements of the UK sample are superior to the corresponding ones obtained from
the Greek sample). The results are consistent with previous research on moral behaviour.
Introduction
Consumer environmental The last three decades have seen a progressive increase in consumer
consciousness environmental consciousness, as the environment moved from a fringe, to a
mainstream issue. This has been driven by a number of factors including
increased media coverage, greater awareness of environmental problems, the
rise of pressure group activities, stringent legislation (both national and
international) and the impact of major industrial disasters on public opinion
(McIntosh, 1991; Butler, 1990; Tapon and Leighton, 1991; Charter, 1992;
Wagner, 1997). Consequently, consumers have become more concerned
about their everyday habits and the impact that these can have on the
environment (Krause, 1993).
Marketers viewed this phenomenon as offering business opportunities, and a
number of organisations developed and implemented long-term, proactive
environmental strategies (Pujari and Wright, 1995). At the same time
companies launched environmentally friendly (EF) products many of which
were clothed in confusing and misleading half truths, made false and trivial
promises (Davis, 1991), with some companies exaggerating or even
fabricating the environmental qualities of their products (Garfield, 1991).
Emerging evidence (Wong et al., 1996; Aspinall, 1993) suggests a curious
paradox. Despite evidence to suggest that society is increasingly sympathetic
towards the environment many EF products have not achieved the level of
market success that would have been expected. In many consumer product
categories, EF producers have achieved disappointingly low levels of market
share. This is supported by the findings of recent UK surveys which indicate
that, although consumers' concern with the environment continues to
JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999, pp. 441-460, # MCB UNIVERSITY PRESS, 0736-3761 441
increase (albeit at a decreasing rate) their willingness to buy EF products has
declined (Mintel, 1991; 1995). Thus the above are believed to support the
claim that UK consumers are reluctant to change their purchasing patterns
despite their expressed concern about the environment.
We use Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to provide an
insight into the determinants of intention within the green marketing domain.
Furthermore, the stability of these determinants is examined through a cross-
market examination.
Research background and theoretical framework

An account of research that links level of environmental consciousness and
EF behaviour is presented first and given that the research is firmly placed
within the consumer behaviour domain a brief review of the chosen
behaviour model, i.e. the TPB, follows.
Environmental consciousness and EF behaviour

Environmental damage As a result of environmental damage caused by products, production
processes and environmental disasters, environmentalism has, over the past
three decades, become an important issue (Easterling et al., 1996). For
consumers, the 1960s may be described as a time of `àwakening'', the 1970s

as a ``take action'' period, the 1980s as an `àccountable'' time, and the
1990s as a ``power in the marketplace'' era (Makower, 1993). During this
period consumers appear to have became aware of the fact that the
environment is more fragile than they once believed, and that there are limits
to the use of natural resources (Krause, 1993). This, in turn, stimulated a
widespread feeling that the time for corrective action has arrived (Buttel and
Flynn, 1974; Lipsey, 1977; Roper Organisation, 1990; Ladd, 1990;
Shabecoff, 1993).
By the end of the 1980s, increasing numbers of consumers described
themselves as environmentalists (Fisher, 1990; Cross, 1990; Donaton and
Fitzerald, 1992) and a number of opinion polls indicating an expressed desire
to protect the environment emerged (Carlson et al., 1993). Despite the
obvious limitations of such publications (Denzin, 1989; Oskamp et al, 1991;
Phillips, 1971) there is clear evidence of an upward trend in consumers'
environmental concern, with the period between 1972 and 1991 exhibiting
an accelerating pattern (Roberts and Bacon, 1997). In more recent years
there is evidence to suggest that a plateau has been reached (Stisser, 1994).
The 1986 NOP study indicated an 8 per cent level of environmental concern
while the corresponding percentages of the 1989 NOP, and the 1991 and
1993 Guardian/ICM studies were 33 per cent, 69 per cent and 71 per cent.
Environmental concern Heightened environmental concern has been reflected in increased intention
to purchase EF products. More specifically it has been suggested that
consumers with a higher level of environmental concern will be more likely
to engage in EF consumer behaviour (Antil, 1984; Roberts, 1991; Sheltzer
et al., 1991; Shabecoff, 1993). These claims have been supported by a
number of surveys carried out between 1989 and 1990 which reported a
dramatic increase in the number of consumers expressing environmental
concerns and claiming to have purchased EF products (see Gerstman and
Meyers Inc., 1989; Gallup, 1990; Mandese, 1991).
Nevertheless, a number of post 1990 studies have produced results that do
not fully support the above. For example, the 1991 Simmons Market
Research Bureau's (SMRB) study reported low correlation between
environmental concern and consumers' willingness to change their buying
442 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999

behaviour in favour of EF products. Such findings are in line with research
carried out by, among others, Kleiner (1991), Schlossberg (1991), and
Winski (1991), who concluded that there is little evidence to suggest that
positive attitudes towards environmental issues are manifested in the form of
actual purchase behaviour.
Relevant literature Examination of the relevant literature points towards two possible
explanations:
(1) Authors such as Downs (1972), Lipsey (1977), and Corrado and Ross
(1990), and a report produced by Harris and Associates (1989) suggest
that during times of recession, economic issues replace environmental
issues as more immediate concerns for consumers. This is believed to
explain the apparent cyclical pattern in terms of consumers' EF
behaviour.
(2) The complexity of environmental concern is offered as an alternative
explanation by authors such as Albrecht et al. (1982), Noe and Snow
(1990), Shetzer et al. (1991), and Zimmer et al. (1994), Roberts and
Bacon (1997). It is claimed that environmental concern may be more
influential for some behaviours than others and/or that environmental
concern itself may be multifaceted, and consequently may reflect and/or

be reflected in a wide spectrum of consumer activities.
In conclusion we can say that, despite the existence of some evidence to link
attitudes and EF behaviour, extant literature provides very little information
regarding the determinants of intention to buy EF products. The TPB is
employed in order to redress such omission.
The theory of planned behaviour

Explanatory theories A variety of explanatory theories of consumer behaviour have been put
forward over the years. Some derive from the social sciences: psychology,
sociology, or economics. Others concentrate more on the effects of
marketing variables, and stress the effects of external stimuli, such as
advertising, physical product differentiation, packaging, promotion, retail
availability, point of sale display, direct selling and so on (Ehrenberg and
Goodhart, 1979). The major theories are highly eclectic, taking into account
both personal and environmental variables (e.g. Nicosia, 1966; Howard and
Sheth, 1969; Engel et al., 1995).
Although such theories provide an understanding of alternative brands or
products are compared, they do not explain how such comparisons are
translated into buying decisions. To account for this process and to develop a
comprehensive theory of consumer behaviour, many researchers turned to
social psychological research in attitude formation (Ajzen and Fishbein,
1980). A class of theories commonly referred to as expectancy-value models
(e.g. Rosenberg, 1956; Fishbein, 1963) appeared to be of particular relevance
because they provided a theoretical link between evaluative criteria and the
concept of attitude. In addition, these models formalised the widely held
view that consumers' anticipated satisfaction with a product (and hence the
purchase of that product) is determined by their beliefs that the product
fulfils certain functions and that it satisfies some of their needs. Over the past
40 years expectancy-value models have developed from the original Fishbein
(1963) consumer expectancy-value behaviour model to the theory of
reasoned action (TRA) (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), to the theory of planned
behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985;1991).
JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999 443

Theoretical framework The TPB forms the theoretical framework of this paper because it offers a
clearly defined structure/model that allows the investigation of the influence
that attitudes, personal and cultural determinants and volitional control have
on consumers' intentions to buy EF products. Furthermore, a review by East
(1997) has indicated that, in recent years, the TPB has been applied to a wide
variety of topics (e.g. physical activities, quitting cigarette smoking, blood
donation, complaining, Internet use etc.) and that the model has provided
robust estimates.
Symbolically, the TPB model is presented in Figure 1 where it is illustrated
that each of the determinants of intention, i.e. attitude to behaviour (AB),
subjective norm (SN) and perceived control (PBC) is, in turn, determined by
underlying belief structures. These are referred to as outcome beliefs,
normative beliefs and control beliefs which are related to AB, SN and PBC
respectively. More specifically:
. Attitudes to behaviour (AB): AB is determined by the sum of the expected
outcomes, and is weighted by an evaluation of the desirability of the
outcome. The expectancy is measured as a likelihood (b) of the outcome
occurring if the action is taken and the value measured as an evaluation
(e) of the outcome when it does occur; thus the sum of the expected
values (Sbiei determines AB. This analysis is part of a general theory of

attitude developed by Fishbein (1963) and rests on work by Dulany
(1961). A distinctive aspect of Fishbein's approach is that the outcomes
affecting AB are restricted to those that are salient, i.e. those that are
easily brought to mind by respondents. Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) argue
that thoughts that do not readily come to mind in an elicitation are
unlikely to affect behaviour.
. Subjective norm (SN): The SN, like AB, are also based on salient beliefs,
called normative beliefs, about whether particular referents think the
respondent should or should not do the action in question. Like expected
values these referent influences are covered by two measures: (n) the
likelihood that the referent holds the normative belief and (m), the
motivation to comply with the views of the referent. Thus Snimi is the
determinant of SN.
Subjective norm Subjective norm controls that behaviour that is instigated by the desire to
act as others think you should act. Sometimes, socially worthy acts, e.g.
recycling of paper and bottles, bring internally generated feelings of self-
respect or pride, while failure to act in this way may invoke feelings of
shame or self-reproach. SN is therefore, internally controlled, it does not
operate through external reinforcement such as the overt congratulations
or hostility of others. The different referents involved in the SN may be
friends, parents, doctors, political parties, religious organisations, etc.
For example, in purchasing of EF clothes washing detergent products,
Outcome Beliefs Attitude to behaviour (AB)
Referent Beliefs Subjective Norms (SN) Intention Behaviour
Control Beliefs Perceived Control (PC)
Figure 1. Theory of planned behaviour

consumers might be influenced by the messages of environmental
pressure groups who claim that packaging and product formulations can
adversely affect the environment. The SN is ``subjective'' because it is
what the agent thinks, and a ``norm'', because it is the agent's
understanding of what others think he or she should do (East, 1997).
Perceived behavioural . Perceived behavioural control (PBC): PBC is also underwritten by
control specific beliefs, called control beliefs. Control beliefs can be measured
as the product of two measures: the power (p) of a factor to assist the
action and perceived access to the factor (c). Thus Scipi is posited to
measure PBC. PBC is included in the TPB as a determinant that has both
a direct effect on behaviour and an indirect effect on behaviour through
intentions.
The indirect effect of PBC is based upon the assumption that PBC has
motivational implications for behavioural intentions. Individuals who
believe they lack the necessary resources or opportunities to perform a
particular behaviour are unlikely to form strong behavioural intentions
despite the fact that their attitude and SN may be favourable. Bandura
et al. (1980) provide empirical evidence that people's behaviour is
strongly influenced by the confidence that they have in their ability to

perform the behaviour. Thus, PBC is expected to contribute to the
prediction of intention over and above the effects due to the other major
independent variables of the model. At the same time its influence on
behaviour will also be mediated by intention.
The research setting

Parallel research It was decided to carry out parallel research in two EU countries. This was
prompted by findings indicating that:
. the degree of green marketing varies considerably between countries
(Lazaro, 1993), and
. demand and attitudes for green products is likely to be uneven across
different market segments and cultures (Ottman, 1992a; 1992b; Peattie,
1992).
The UK and Greece were chosen as representing countries positioned close
to the two extremes of public awareness and debate on green issues.
The actual research environment was timber based products and in particular
dining tables and chairs. The choice reflects:
. the ongoing debate about the destruction of the tropical forest, and
. the fact that purchasing decisions for such products represent free and
voluntary choice and consequently consumers are expected to be able to
have reasons for their actions.
Given the issues under examination, attention was paid to the problem of
social desirability, i.e. the tendency by some respondents to provide answers
that they deem to be socially desirable or acceptable rather than their own
feelings or responses (Crowne and Marlowe, 1964). In order to overcome
such tendencies we decided not to elicit direct measures of intention but
rather to infer measures of intention through utilities attached to a specific
element of timber based furniture. More specifically, through conjoint
analysis we obtained utility measures attached to the provision or not of
information related to the actual source of the timber, i.e. whether or not the
timber used to produce the specific furniture originated from sustainably

managed forests. For the purpose of this paper furniture made out of timber
from sustainably managed forests is termed `Èco Labelling''.
Aim and objectives

Research into attitude The main aim of the research presented here is to provide an insight into the
attitude dimensionality/determinants that influence consumers' intentions
towards EF products. More specifically, the objectives of the research follow
the general framework suggested by East et al. (1997) and are:
. To explore the boundary conditions of the TPB, i.e. to test its
appropriateness, within a given marketing domain, i.e. green marketing.
. To examine the stability of the model and the structure of the construct
relationships across different market conditions, i.e. to understand and
contrast the determinants that enter into the decision making of two
distinct market settings.
Methodology
The research took the form of a cross-sectional self-completion survey
among UK and Greek consumers. In addition, a general section on socio-
demographics was used for matching the two samples. The eventual
questionnaire comprised two main sections. Section A was related to beliefs

associated with measures of the TPB model, while Section B comprised the
conjoint part of the research. The main methodological issues under
consideration are debated below.
Constructs
Procedures The procedures employed in obtaining the beliefs that were to form the TPB
part of the research and the approach followed in defining and designing the
stimuli to be incorporate in the conjoint section of the study are debated
below:
. Elicitation of beliefs: In accordance with Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), a
pilot study was carried out to elicit the salient beliefs of the population
under consideration concerning buying timber furniture carrying `Èco
Labelling''. In particular a series of in-depth interviews with households
were carried out (18 such interviews were carried out in the UK and 11
in Greece). During these interviews elicitation procedures, described by
East (1990), were used and Table I indicates the number of statements
generated for all the belief constructs except intention (for the latter see
Product Attributes section). The NEWACT program was used in order to
produce appropriate questioning formats for each statements (East,
1991a).
. Product attributes: As stated in the Research Setting section, conjoint
analysis was employed in order to obtain utility values which in turn
were used as surrogate measures of intention. In addition to the
Determinants of intention Antecedents to the determinants

AB (2 statements) OB (5 statements ± paired measures for each
statement, i.e. likelihood and value for each
statement)
SN (2 statements) RB (6 statements ± as above)
PBC (2 statements) CB (3 statements ± as above)
Table I. Constucts of the TPB model

justifications provided above the adoption of conjoint analysis reflects
our efforts to present the green aspects under examination within a
realistic context, i.e. as part of an overall product offering. Conjoint
analysis is a well established technique and the reader is directed to Hair
et al. (1998) for a detailed explanation of the process and to Louvier
(1994) for a debate of its theoretical foundations and conceptual
shortcomings.
The definition and design of the experimental stimuli was an important
consideration. As a result of the in-depth sessions and supported by contents
analysis of the promotional material of manufacturers of dining tables and
chairs the following attributes and levels were selected (Table II).
Data collection
Product definitions The above constructs and product definitions were formulated into a self-
completion questionnaire which was pre-tested with 15 respondents. This
highlighted a number of defects in the survey instrument. Bohlen et al.
(1993) experienced similar problems in the development of a questionnaire
dealing with environmental issues, and they attribute such problems to
ambiguous wording and problems with vocabulary. In order to ensure that
the problems with the initial questionnaire had been addressed, the revised
version was also pre-tested with ten respondents. In addition to the pre-
testing, five protocol and five debriefing sessions were conducted.
Following further minor modifications, the final questionnaire was
developed by utilising the Tull and Hawkins (1993) model of questionnaire
Product
attributes Attribute levels
Price: Three levels, high, mid and low:
UK ± £1,800; £900; £300
Greece ± Dr. 2,000,000; Dr. 1,000,000; Dr. 350,000
Species used Three timber species, to represent the most commonly used ones:
UK ± Oak; Pine; Mahogany
Greece ± Oak; Walnut; Mahogany
The differences in species reflect country specific preferences.
Style Three styles, common to both the UK and Greece ± Traditional;
Modern; Classic
In order to ensure uniformity of replies the styles were presented in
the form of actual pictures which were not labelled (Loosschilder
et al., 1995). As with species, differences in tastes between the two
counties were accounted for.
Information Two levels, common to both UK and Greece ± Material from
(for the rest of sustainably managed forests; No information about source of
this paper materials.
referred to as As with style, uniformity of replies was ensured by providing the
Eco Labelling) following definition to the respondents:
We define timber that comes from sustainably managed forests as
those materials which originate from forests which are managed in a
way that does not harm the ecosystem. The logging and extraction
process followed does not damage the environment, the forests are
not in biologically sensitive areas, the production provides
employment to the local community and the materials have an
internationally recognised label of approval as being
environmentally friendly.
Table II. Product attributes and experimental levels

construction. The procedures were similar for both the UK and Greece and in
formulating the final, common, questionnaire good practices in international
research as specified by Douglas and Craig (1983) were followed.
Conjoint analysis In terms of the main issues related to the application of conjoint analysis the
following procedures were adopted:
. Choosing a presentation method: Given that a self-completion approach
was followed it was decided to use the self-explicated model.
. Survey method: Although conjoint analysis is a reasonably complex
technique for respondents to participate in there is evidence that it can
reliably be carried out without personal interviews, i.e. by telephone and/
or by mail (Akaah, 1991). Our experience has indicated that a carefully
designed postal survey, supported by explanation of the aims of the
research and access to the research team in case of queries can be
employed with considerable success.
. Measurements: Another decision that needs to be made is whether to use
rankings or ratings as a response scale. We followed Green and
Srinivasan (1978) who suggested that rating data are easier to administer
and are more suitable when a non face-to-face data collection technique
is employed.
Population and sampling

The population under consideration was consumers who, at the time of the
research, were actively looking into buying furniture made of timber. Sample
compatibility between the two countries was safeguarded by strict adherence
to comparable socio-economic classifications (Douglas and Craig, 1983). To
this effect the assistance of professional recruitment agencies was sought in
both countries.
The surveys were carried out in the London area of the UK and the Athens
area of Greece and respectively resulted in 175 and 170 usable replies. The
sample sizes do not quite fulfil the 10:1 ratio of sample size to number of
parameters (Bentler and Chou, 1987) and have not reached the recommended
cut-off point of 200 (Boosman, 1987; Hair et al., 1998). Nevertheless, they
are close enough to the above guidelines to provide some confidence in the
results. The smaller than desired samples were the result of problems
associated with identification of appropriate respondents and matching the
cross-cultural samples.
Analytical approach
Specified model As already stated, conjoint analysis was used to obtain utility values
attributed to the attribute levels. The specified model was a simple additive
one and with the exception of the level of price which was designated as
linear less (i.e. respondents were expected, for identical products, to prefer
the one with the lowest price) the levels of the other attributes were treated as
being discrete. As to the analysis of the data, disaggregate analyses were
carried out.
For the modelling of the TPB model structural equation analyses, Arbucle's
(1996) EMOS program was employed. Given that this study is concerned
with testing theory and making comparisons between samples the respective
covariance matrices were used for estimation purposes (Joreskog and
Sorbom, 1989). Furthermore, following recommendations put forward by
Bagozzi (1994), estimation was based on a full model with measurement

error taken into account for the AB, SN and PBC constructs while the first-
order factors (i.e. OB, RB and CB) were allowed to correlate (Figure 2).
For further debate, explanation and justification of the actual analytical
approach followed, see Terry and O'Leary (1995).
Results
The measurement instrument
Given that the data collected comprised an interval scale, the properties of
the data sets were examined in order to determine their suitability for the
intended analysis (Bagozzi, 1994; Joreskog and Sorbom, 1989). This step
was considered especially important since it was expected that respondents
were likely to provide high positive scores because of the social acceptance
of the issues under consideration.
Examination of the measures of skewness and kurtosis of each construct
indicated that most of the values fell within the recommended lower
boundary (Tabachnick and Fidell, 1996; Churchill, 1995).
Construct reliability and intercorrelations

Reflective constructs The reliability of the reflective constructs was examined for
unidimensionality. Confirmatory factor analysis was employed for those

constructs that comprised more than four items, i.e. AB, SN and PBC. On the
other hand, Cronbach's alpha was computed for constructs with fewer than
four items, i.e. CB, AB, SN and PBC. Finally, since intention was a single
item scale (i.e. utility values) no reliability analysis was possible.
The analysis provided satisfactory solutions for all the constructs and for
both populations (Table III). The reliability values obtained from the
ζ1
γ11
Outcome Beliefs Attitude
ξ1 η1
β41
φ12 ζ2 ζ4
γ22 β42
φ13 Referent Beliefs Subjective Norms Intention
ξ2 η2 η4
φ23 ζ3
β43
γ33
Control Beliefs Perceived Control
ξ3 η3
Figure 2. Path diagram of the model
Construct reliability
Constructs Number of items UK Greece
OB 5 0.965 0.982
RB 6 0.951 0.914
CB 3 0.787 0.818
AB 2 0.847 0.746
SN 2 0.942 0.973
PBC 2 0.887 0.757
Table III. Construct reliability

confirmatory analysis were all above the acceptable level (Hair et al., 1998)
and the same applied to the alpha values (Churchill, 1979; Nunally, 1967).
Descriptive statistics of the constructs are presented in Table IV. We can see
that, in terms of intention, the mean value placed on Eco Labelling was
negative in the Greek sample while positive in the UK sample. Furthermore,
the correlation patterns appear to be quite different, e.g. intention in the
Greek sample appears to be correlated with CB and SN while in the UK
sample the highest correlations are with RB, AB and SN. Finally, the fact that
none of the correlations approached the reliability values of the constructs is
an indication of lack of multicollinearity in the data sets (Campbell and
Fiske, 1959).
Estimation of the TPB model

Identification problem As suggested in Hair et al. (1998) checks were performed for symptoms of
an identification problem (e.g. large standard errors, high correlation among
estimated coefficients etc.) and we were satisfied that identification was not
a problem for both samples. The results of the analysis are presented in
Table V:
. Overall model fit: Before examining the structural pattern of the
constructs the overall fit of the proposed model needs to be assessed.

Following the procedure proposed by Hair et al. (1998) three types of
goodness-of-fit measures are examined.
. Absolute fit measures: Given the well documented sensitivity and limited
usefulness of the w2 statistic we turn to other proposed measures (see
among others Joreskog and Sorbom, 1989; Steenkamp and Trijp, 1991;
Bagozzi and Baumgartner, 1994). The GFI measures of the two samples
(0.961 and 0.926) are both above the recommended threshold level of
0.90. On the other hand, the RMSE value obtained from the Greek
sample (0.142) is above the acceptable value of 0.08 while the
corresponding value of the UK sample (0.077) is within acceptable
Mean SD Intent OB RB CB AB SN PBC

UK
Intention 0.27 1.17 ±
OB 114.69 43.70 0.216* (0.965)
RB 114.11 43.72 0.300** 0.399** (0.951)
CB 60.41 29.38 0.089 0.308** 0.482** (0.787)
AB 8.88 3.08 0.269** 0.330** 0.223* 0.203* (0.847)
SN 8.03 3.14 0.354** 0.255** 0.478** 0.219* 0.410** (0.942)
PBC 7.42 3.35 0.194* 0.039 0.232* 0.405** 0.155 0.181 (0.887)
Greece
Intention ± 0.03 1.18 ±
OB 173.77 45.77 0.154 (0.982)
RB 131.04 42.54 0.195 0.348** (0.914)
CB 13.81 4.88 0.472** 0.227* 0.477** (0.818)
AB 18.61 4.26 0.213* 0.499** 0.337** 0.170 (0.746)
SN 9.59 3.29 0.454** 0.256* 0.499** 0.280** 0.316** (0.973)
PBC 7.35 3.58 0.237* 0.132 0.228* 0.361** 0.70 0.057 (0.757)
Notes: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01
Figures in parentheses represent either Cronbach's alpha coefficient or the GFI
values obtained from the confirmatory factor analysis. For the single item
construct of intention no measures are possible.
Table IV. Descriptive statistics for aggregate measures

UK Greece
Parameter estimation Estimates T-values Estimates T-values
Regression weights
Structural equations
g11 (OB?AB) 0.030 5.228*** 0.031 5.112***
g22 (RB?SN) 0.032 6.435*** 0.043 7.513***
g33 (CB?PBC) 0.069 6.353*** 0.068 6.355***
b41 (AB?Intention) 0.058 1.869 0.074 2.474*
b42 (SN?Intention) 0.109 4.036*** 0.046 1.784
b43 (PBC?Intention) 0.045 1.873 0.074 3.076**
Covariances
j21 (OB/ ?RB) 455.331 4.516*** 451.746 4.233***
j23 (OB/ ?CB) 418.128 5.972*** 343.648 4.664***
j13 (RB/ ?CB) 160.959 3.193** 203.015 3.270**
Modification indices
SN?AB 11.255 9.055
AB?SN 6.394 5.075
PBC?SN 4.922
RB?AB 5.218
CB?Intention 21.198
RB?Intention 9.057
Goodness of fit statistics

w2 24.411 52.984
df 12 12
p 0.018 0.000
GFI 0.961 0.926
RMSE 0.077 0.142
ECVI 0.324 0.503
Incremental fit measures

AGFI 0.910 0.896
TLI 0.896 0.666
NFI 0.894 0.775
Parsimonious fit measure

PGFI 0.412 0.397
Normed w2 2.034 4.415
PNFI 0.511 0.443
AIC 56.411 84.984
Notes: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001
Table V. Unstandardised estimates of the TPB model
range. Further indication of superior fit obtained from the UK sample is

provided by the ECVI measure which, although it has no specified range
of acceptable values, indicates that the measure from the UK sample
(0.324) is lower than the corresponding measure from the Greek sample
(0.503).
Incremental fit measures . Incremental fit measures: Looking at the incremental fit measures (i.e.
evaluation of the model against the null model) we can see that the AGFI
measure of the UK sample (0.910) is above the recommended threshold
of 0.90 while the corresponding measure of the Greek sample (0.896) is
marginally acceptable. In terms of the TLI and NFI measures (both with
recommended thresholds of 0.90) we can see that the UK sample appears
to be marginally acceptable while the Greek sample has provided
measures considerably below both thresholds.

Over fitting . Parsimonious fit indices: Finally, we examine indices related to the issue
of `òver-fitting'' the model. The normed w2 measures are both within the
recommended 1.0 to 5.0 range. On the other hand the difference of the
two samples in terms of their respective PNFI indices is 0.068 which is
inside the 0.06-0.09 range that indicates substantial model differences.
Further evidence of differences is provided by the PGFI and AIC indices
for which the UK sample has provided lower values than the Greek
sample.
. Structural model fit: Examination of the estimated coefficients presented
in Table V indicates that, although the basic structure of the TPB model
holds true for both sample, differences are evident in terms of the
significance of the coefficients. Figure 3 presents those parameters that
have been found to be significant in each of the samples and also
incorporates the indirect effects associated with modification indices
above the suggested 3.84 value (Hair et al, 1998). We shall now deal
with each solution separately (a 1 per cent level of significance is
adopted).
UK sample: All the regression coefficients linking the antecedents and

the determinants of intention have been found to be significant. This we

believe provides support as to the internal validity of the TPB. In terms
of the path coefficients between the determinants and intention only SN
UK – Significant Pathways and Modification Indices
Referent Beliefs Subjective Norms Intention
GREECE – Significant Pathways and Modification Indices
Referent Beliefs Subjective Norms
Intention
Figure 3. Significant parameters

was found to be significant. The centrality of SN is further highlighted
by the fact that significant modification indices between this determinant
and AB and PBC were detected. Finally, significant correlations between
all the antecedents were found to exist.
Greek sample: The relationship between antecedents and determinants

was confirmed as was the correlations between the antecedents.
Although the only determinant that was significant at the 0.01 level was
PBC the solution provides evidence of indirect effects between intention
and CB and RB (see modification indices).
Conclusions and discussion

The research presented here was designed to investigate two main issues.
First, it was the intention to test the appropriateness of the TPB within the
domain of green marketing. Second, we aimed to examine the stability of the
TPB and the structure of the construct relationships across two different
market conditions.
First objective Looking at the first objective the results provided considerable support in
terms of the robustness of the TPB in predicting and explaining intention to
buy EF products. The model provided especially good measures of fit for the
UK sample (all relevant measures and indices were found to be within
acceptable limits) while some model fitting elements were found to be
problematic in the Greek data. Although we do not have any empirical
evidence to support our arguments, we suggest that these differences in
model fit reflect the relative maturity of the two countries as manifested in
their respective level of public awareness and debate about environmental
issues. Accepting this interpretation leads us to the tentative conclusion that
the TPB may be more appropriate in established markets that are
characterised by well formulated consumer perceptions and clearly defined
behavioural patterns.
Turning to the second of the research objectives, i.e. the cross-market/setting
stability of the determinants of intention and their corresponding underlying
beliefs structures, the results provide considerable support of this proposition
(all the g and j coefficients were found to be significant in both samples). On the
other hand, differences were found to exist in the significance of the estimated
coefficients between the two samples[1]. Such findings are consistent with
earlier research that has highlighted the significant impact that social influences
have on the formation of behavioural intention (Lee and Green, 1991).
UK sample Looking at the UK sample, we can see that social norms (SN) dominate the
solution, i.e. SN was found to be the only determinant associated with a
significant direct effect on intention. These findings appear to be in line with
the proponents of the situational approach (see, for example, Widaman and
Little, 1985) and are consistent with the results obtained by Vallerand et al.
(1992) in their research on moral behaviour. As for the Greek sample, the
pattern appears to be more complicated, i.e. although perceived control
(PBC) is the only determinant that is associated with a significant direct
effect on intention, the modification indices indicate significant indirect
effects of both referent and control beliefs. We refer to the work by
Vallerand et al. (1992), Terry et al. (1993), Ajzen (1985) and Saltzer (1981)
for possible explanation. These studies have indicated that generalised
control beliefs can moderate the effects of intention (i.e. support for the
Referent beliefs ? Intention pathway) and that some individuals exhibit a

tendency to attribute control of events to internal factors (i.e. support for the
Control beliefs ? Intention pathway).
A finding consistent across the two samples that is worth discussion is the
significant reciprocal causality between personal (attitudinal ± AB) and
social (normative ± SN) determinants. These results are consistent with
moral behaviour patterns identified by Vallerand et al. (1992) who stated that
``... expectancies of obtaining valued consequences and avoiding unwanted
consequences play an important role in the emission of moral behaviour''. In
addition, we hypothesise that, given the uncertain nature of the subject
matter, objectively derived information is not easily available and
consequently both AB and SN are partly formed through the acquisition and
processing of externally provided information (e.g. pressure groups):
something that leads to a convergence of these two determinants.
Conclusion In conclusion we can say that the TPB has been shown to represent a reliable
(i.e. results exhibited both acceptable internal fit and external consistency
with other findings) predictive model of intention to purchase EF products.
However, we should not overlook the fact that the model has also proved
useful in identifying cross-market/setting commonalities and differences.
The results indicate that across the two samples behavioural attitudes are
formed through the development/learning of beliefs. At the same time the
cross-market differences, i.e. significance of the SN ? Intention pathway in
the UL sample and corresponding dominance of the PBC ? Intention
pathway in the Greek sample, have been highlighted. We return to issues of
relative market maturity in search of an explanation. The UK is characterised
by the presence of a number of high profile pressure groups (e.g. Friends of
the Earth, Greenpeace etc.) and a wide variety of EF products are available.
On the other hand the presence of pressure groups in Greece is marginal and
very few EF products are available in specialist shops. We therefore argue
that in the UK societal influences play a determinant part in forming
intention to purchase EF products while personal influences are dominant in
the Greek market. A final merit of the TPB relates to its ability to shed light
in the formation and development of attitudes, subjective norms and
perceived control, e.g. importance of shared information, indirect effect of
antecedents to determinants etc.
Limitations
Behavioural intention Although the findings presented here provide a new insight into the
determinants of behavioural intention towards EF products the results may
be confounded by the following issues which merit further investigation:
. No actual measure of behaviour was obtained and intentions were
measured vicariously by utility values obtained through the application
of conjoint measurements.
. The model fit results associated with the Greek sample are at best
marginal and consequently there is some doubt as to their generalisability.
. Other determinants that are posited to have a significant impact on
behaviour, e.g. personal norms (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1969; East, 1991b);
and past experience (Bentler and Speckart, 1979; Bagozzi, 1981; Marsh
and Matheson, 1983; Sutton et al., 1987; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980;
Ajzen, 1985) have been omitted from the study.
. Cultural factors (see for example Hofstede, 1980) and significance of
consumer products in terms of cultural meaning, i.e. the notion of

cultural categories (see McCraken, 1986; Applbaum and Jordt, 1996)
have not been included in the study.
Note
1. Although the strength of the hypothesised pathways was different between the UK and
Greek samples, testing the equivalence of all corresponding g and Z coefficients indicated
a marginally significant difference between the samples for only the SN ? Intention
pathway.
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&

This summary has been Executive summary and implications for managers and
provided to allow managers executives
and executives a rapid
``Green'' products, environmentalism and individual action
appreciation of the content
``Green'' marketing has been the subject of much controversy in recent
of this article. Those with a years. The most significant criticism levelled at marketers by some
particular interest in the environmentalists is that their activities are exploitative. And, by including
topic covered may then read ``green'' messages in marketing, the marketer is exploiting environmental
the article in toto to take concerns as well as the environment itself.
advantage of the more
comprehensive description Kalafatis et al. report that ``green'' products have failed to achieve the market
of the research undertaken success that levels of environmental concern reported by consumers would
indicate. Put simply, consumer actions ± the purchase of environmentally
and its results to get the full
friendly products ± do not match their reported preference for such products.
benefit of the material
Several reasons might be cited for this difference including:
present
. Consumer mistrust of environmental claims
. Reluctance to change purchasing habits
. The effect of economic recession on purchasing behaviour
. The level of perceived price differentials between ``green'' and other
products.
Kalafatis et al. examine whether one theory of consumer behaviour ± the

Theory of Planned Behaviour ± provides insights into this seeming
reluctance of consumers to opt for the environmentally friendly option.
Funny folk, consumers!

The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) argues that consumers' actions relate
to ``...underlying belief structures''. Three areas of ``belief'' are involved:
(1) How likely an outcome is if we take a particular action and our
evaluation of that outcome
(2) The desire to act as others expect us to act regardless of direct
persuasion
(3) Whether we perceive ourselves to have the resources or ability to
perform a particular action.
These beliefs ± it is argued ± help determine how we behave when faced with
a particular choice. And therefore statements relating to these beliefs can be
used to examine why there exists a gap between reported preference for
``green'' products and the actual purchase of such products.
If we speculate on the basis of these three areas of belief we can put up the
following thoughts as to why consumers are slow to switch to ``green''
products:
. The beneficial aspects of me buying a ``green'' product are very small. It
is the collective action of many that will ``save the earth''. My decision is
± to all intents and purposes ± so insignificant as to be irrelevant.
. Since most other people share this attitude there is little societal
pressure to conform to the environmentalist message. Moreover, the
``green'' campaigner focuses on the effects of ``faceless'' industry or
government rather than on the individual wastefulness of the consumer.
Criticisms are levelled at our materialist culture rather than at how we,
as individuals, act.
. Because we are cynical about ``green'' claims we do not believe that the
purchase of ``green'' products will ``make a difference''. Although the

effects of individual actions in a modern society are the most important
element we cannot grasp this because governments, politicians and the
``green'' movement all assure us that more environmentally friendly
behaviour will not affect our lifestyle.
In summary, we feel that ``green is good'' but believe that a better
environment is predicated on actions by others.
Becoming more ``green'' ± will society's attitude eventually change?
There is an argument that the liberal, capitalist paradigm will always
triumph because it is founded on human behaviour and does not seek to
impose an artificial structure onto normal human society. The current
position of environmentalists runs counter to this inevitable outcome since it
finds fault with laissez-faire society and seeks to establish the sociological
imperative of environmental responsibility.
However, if we characterise environmentalism as a moral issue rather than a
political or economic concern, then it becomes compatible with liberal
economics. The focus shifts to individual moral behaviour from regulatory
action. The problem is that ``green'' issues are not seen from a moral
standpoint but from a political or economic standpoint. Since collectives are
essentially amoral, we can only achieve the shift in behaviour when we focus
on individual morality rather than the actions of government or industry.
Where individuals believe in the moral rightness of environmentalism the

market will respond regardless of the decisions that governments take.
Given the gap between the purchase of ``green'' products and people's
support for environmentalist statements we can suggest that people's views
are characterised by the general ± ``we should be concerned about the
environment'' ± rather than the specific ±`Ì will be environmentally
responsible in my behaviour''.
``Green'' products ± cart or horse?
The question of ``green'' products' success (or rather lack of success) raises
the question of whether product manufacturers respond to the market or lead
the market. In Kalafatis et al.'s research we see the example of timber
products used to illustrate ``green'' product marketing. Yet we don't ask
whether that existence of environmentally friendly timber products reflects a
response to market demand or an attempt by manufacturers to differentiate
themselves through an environmentalist message.
Furniture has been one area where the ``green'' message has sunk into
people's consciousness ± at least in the UK. Kalafatis et al.'s suggest that
this consciousness is reflected by the fact that social norms (and the desire to
conform to these norms) are a significant influence on the purchase of
``green'' products. Under such circumstances there is pressure on
manufacturers to use ``green'' raw materials since these are what society
expects. We should note that the societal norms influence those involved in
manufacturing the furniture as well as those buying.
In contrast, Greek consumers in Kalafatis et al.'s study base their actions on
more personal beliefs. The pressure to act in an environmentally responsible
manner is less significant. Consumers make their own decisions about
``green'' products uninformed by pressures from the wider society.
Manufacturers selling ``green'' products are, we can contend, acting ahead
of the market. It may well prove to be a successful strategy if we expect
Greek environmentalism to follow a similar pattern to that in the UK.
(A preÂcis of the article ``Green marketing and Ajzen's theory of planned

behaviour: a cross-marketing examination''. Supplied by Marketing
Consultants for MCB University Press.)

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Journal of Consumer Marketing

Green marketing and Ajzen’s theory of planned behaviour: a cross-market examination

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Keywords Green marketing, Consumer behaviour, Consumer marketing, Environment,

Abstract Examines the determinants that influence consumers' intention to buy

Research background and theoretical framework

Environmental consciousness and EF behaviour

consumers, the 1960s may be described as a time of ``awakening'', the 1970s

442 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999

concern itself may be multifaceted, and consequently may reflect and/or

The theory of planned behaviour

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values (Sbiei determines AB. This analysis is part of a general theory of

Outcome Beliefs Attitude to behaviour (AB)

Referent Beliefs Subjective Norms (SN) Intention Behaviour

Control Beliefs Perceived Control (PC)

Figure 1. Theory of planned behaviour

444 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999

strongly influenced by the confidence that they have in their ability to

The research setting

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Aim and objectives

questionnaire comprised two main sections. Section A was related to beliefs

Determinants of intention Antecedents to the determinants

Table I. Constucts of the TPB model

446 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999

Table II. Product attributes and experimental levels

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999 447

Population and sampling

448 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999

Construct reliability and intercorrelations

unidimensionality. Confirmatory factor analysis was employed for those

Figure 2. Path diagram of the model

Table III. Construct reliability

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999 449

Estimation of the TPB model

constructs the overall fit of the proposed model needs to be assessed.

Mean SD Intent OB RB CB AB SN PBC

Table IV. Descriptive statistics for aggregate measures

450 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999

Goodness of fit statistics

Incremental fit measures

Parsimonious fit measure

Table V. Unstandardised estimates of the TPB model

range. Further indication of superior fit obtained from the UK sample is

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999 451

UK sample: All the regression coefficients linking the antecedents and

the determinants of intention have been found to be significant. This we

Outcome Beliefs Attitude

Referent Beliefs Subjective Norms Intention

Control Beliefs Perceived Control

GREECE – Significant Pathways and Modification Indices

Outcome Beliefs Attitude

Referent Beliefs Subjective Norms

Control Beliefs Perceived Control

Figure 3. Significant parameters

452 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999

Greek sample: The relationship between antecedents and determinants

Conclusions and discussion

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999 453

454 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 16 NO. 5 1999

Marketing Science, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 309-14.

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