See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/20225120

Psychological impact of sport on disabled athletes

Article  in  Psychological Reports · July 1985

DOI: 10.2466/pr0.1985.56.3.923 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS

45 285

4 authors, including:

Paul M. Valliant
Laurentian University
65 PUBLICATIONS   854 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

The Unwired (2020) View project

Non-Fiction View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Paul M. Valliant on 29 February 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 P s y c h o ~ o g i cReports,
~~ 1985, 56, 923-929. @ Psychological Reports 1985

PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF S P O R T ON DISABLED ATHLETES'

PAUL M. VALLIANT,' IRENE BEZZUBYK;

LORNE DALEY,' AND MARJATTA E. ASU6

Summary.--Of 161 physically disabled participants, 139 were actively in-

volved in athletic competition or were undergoing systematic training for an
athletic event. The participants were classified into 4 groups: 33 amputees,
46 blind persons, 15 cerebral palsied, and 22 disabled nonathletes. Multiple
d ~ s c r ~ m ~ nanalyses
ant suggested that group membership could be predicted with
8 1 1 % success for disabled athletes and 71 4 $6 for disabled nonathletes. The
results suggest that, when all variables are cons~dered,these disabled athletes
have s~gn~flcantly higher self-esteem, exhibit greater life satisfaction and happi-
ness, are mote externalized, and attain more education than disabled nonathletes.
Psychosocial functioning of disabled individuals might be enhanced through
active participation in athletic events.

For the physically impaired, sport has traditionally been advocated in

rehabilitation. More recently, through a greater awareness of the importance
of physical fitness, the concept of sport for the disabled has changed. Some
are beginning t o consider the impact of sport o n psychological well being of
disabled athletes (Carpenter, 1976; Collingwood & Willet, 1 9 7 1 ) .
I t is evident from the literature that physical gains acquired through
active involvement in sports are well documented (Davis, Shepard, & Jackson,
1981; Emes, 1981; Gass & Camp, 1979; Rhodes, McKenzie, Coutts, & Rogers,
1981; Stewart, 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e benefits derived are similar to those evidenced from
fitness programs, for regular physical activity is basic to physiological func-
tioning which is more important for disabled persons. Comparing persons in
wheelchairs and able-bodied individuals, Zwiren and Bar-Or ( 1 9 7 5 ) found
that unless actively involved i n sports, physically impaired subjects were more
obese and exhibited decreased cardiorespiratory endurance relative to t h e
general population. Others have noted that through participation disabled
persons showed increased muscular strength (Davis, Shepard, & Jackson,
1 9 8 1 ) , increased maximum oxygen consumption (Gass & Camp, 1979; Wicks,
Head, Oldridge, Cameron, & Jones, 1977), and improved balance and mobility
(Stewart, 1 9 8 1 ) .
'This study was supported by a Summer Access Student Federal Grant and by the De-
partment of Recreation, Sudbury, Ontario.
"lease request reprints from Paul M. Valliant Ph.D., Department of Psychology,
Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada P3E 2C6.
'Irene Bezzubyk is a fourth year Honors student in psychology at Laurentian University.
'Lorne Daley is Special Services Coordinator at the Department of Recreation, Sudbury,
Ontario.
"Marjatta Asu H.B.A., M.L.S., is enrolled part-time in the M.B.A. program at Laurentian
University.
924 P. M. VALLIANT, eT AL.

By improving physical capacity, sport acts as a vehicle for improving the

daily living conditions of disabled persons. With increased cardiorespiratory
endurance and muscular strength, environmental obstacles are less a barrier for
those who must depend on mechanical devices for movement. For amputees,
physical activity improves proprioception in limbs and increases proficiency
in the use of prosthetic devices (Stewart, 1981). With greater agility and
coordination, disabled individuals gain confidence and a better sense of physical
control.
Competitive and recreational sports are an effective means of projecting
disabled persons into the community (Grainger, 1978; Guttman, 1976;
Monnazzi, 1982; Shapira, 1974). By taking part in sporting events, indi-
viduals with handicaps acquire a sense of group belongingness (Ankenbrand,
1972). For those whose impairments are congenital, sport may serve as a
useful tool in developing social skills and self-discipline (Stewart, 1981).
In studying psychological implications of sport on disabled persons, some
have focused primarily upon alterations of self-concept, i.e., those characteristics
that define the individual's psychological identity (Wright, 1960).
Meyerson (1948) has noted that physical impairment is often evaluated
negatively. With the emphasis society places upon physical fitness, it is not
surprising that physically disabled persons often devaluate themselves (Brink-
mann & Hoskins, 1979). Through active involvement in sport, significant
changes in self-concept have been noted (Collingwood & Willet, 1971).
Following a 12-wk. program of physical conditioning, Brinkmann and Hoskins
( 1979) reported more positive and favorable self-evaluations and self-attitudes
of hemiplegic patients. Ankenbrand ( 1972 ) noted improvements of self-
concept among disabled college students who participated in 8 wk, of recrea-
tional bowling.
An important component of self-concept and one which is of particular
interest to this study is labelled self-esteem. Self-esteem indicates the extent
to which the person believes himself to be worthy and capable (Coopersmith,
1967). While a high level of self-esteem is indicative of a constant image
of abilities and distinctiveness as an individual, low self-esteem reflects feelings
of worthlessness or inadequacy. It is possible that an individual might be
"disabled" by a negative self-perception (Simon, 1978).
According to Beaver, Jackson, McCann, Messner, and Ryan (1976), sport
and recreation provide disabled persons with impetus to attain or to reestablish
self-esteem. In a study by Sloedefalke, Balke, Ryan, and Gale (1969), dis-
abled university students in a physical activity program not only improved
their physiological functioning but also significantly improved their self-esteem.
The second psychological construct of interesr to this study is locus of
control. Locus of control is an index of an individual's perception of contin-
gencies of reinforcement. When an event is interpreted to be mainly, if not
 SPORT FOR DISABLED ATHLETES 92 5

entirely contingent upon chance, luck, fate, or factors outside the person's con-
trol, this indicates a belief in external control. If the consequence of an event
is perceived by the individual as contingent upon his own decision or action,
this conviction may be labelled as a belief in internal control (Rotter, 1966).
Although no literature seemed to relate locus of control and participation
in sports by disabled persons, this construct is important to consider since it
has been related to the coping behaviors of an individual. Parks (1984), in a
review of the related literature, reported that internal scorers not only experi-
enced less distress than external scorers but that they also achieve better out-
comes. In terms of long-term disability, individuals with an internal orienta-
tion coped more effectively and were better able to adapt to their new situa-
tions than those who were externally controlled (Parks, 1984). Individuals
with internal control are more likely to take social action to improve their
social conditions. Clearly, locus of control has significant implications for
disabled persons especially in terms of their involvement in sporting activities.
The present study evaluated self-esteem and locus of control of disabled
athletes and nonathletic persons.

A total of 161 physically disabled persons participated in this study. Of

these, 139 were actively involved in athletic competition or undergoing syste-
matic training for an athletic event. These individuals were classified as Dis-
abled Athletes and included participants in regional, national, and international
events. The remaining 22 participants were neither competing in nor pre-
paring for athletic competition and were classified as Disabled Nonathletes.
Four main groups of physical disability were formed: wheelchair ( 4 6
men, 15 women), amputee ( 1 9 men, 14 women), blind ( 2 9 men, 17 women),
and cerebral palsy (6 men, 9 women). A control group consisted of disabled
nonathletes ( 11 men, 11 women) and included 6 amputees, 4 in wheelchairs,
4 blind, 2 cerebral palsied, and 6 having combined disorders.
All participants completed the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory, Rot-
ter's Locus of Control, and a social history questionnaire. This questionnaire
was used to determine some of the personal characteristics of the participants.
Included were questions concerning classification of disability, athletic in-
volvement, living arrangements, hobbies, employment, education, use of medi-
cation, yearly income, and levels of satisfaction and happiness. The ques-
tionnaire was modified for disabled nonathletes by removing references to
athletic competition. A question addressing involvement in recreational activi-
ties was added. All responses were number coded.
The Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory, Adult Form, was used to measure
self-esteem. This inventory has 25 items which can be answered as "like me"
92 6 P. M. VALLIANT, ET AL.

or "unlike me." Raw scores are converted to percentages. High scores are
indicative of high self-esteem while low scores are indicative of low self-
esteem (Coopersmith, 1975 ).
T h e Internal-External scale developed by Rotter ( 1 9 6 6 ) was used to
measure locus of control. T h e scale has 23 forced-choice items. Raw scores
d o not require transformation. High scores on this scale are indicative of
externality and low scores of internality.
Participation was voluntary. W i t h the permission of officials and coaches,
athletes participating at regional or national competitions held in the Sudbury
area were approached and asked to complete questionnaires concerning their
personal characteristics and training methods. T h e questionnaires were dis-
tributed to disabled athletes either by their coaches or the researchers follow-
ing the individual's event or through the mail following the competition.
Others were contacted through various physiotherapy clinics in the Sudbury
area.
W i t h the help of local organizations, physically disabled nonathletes
were informed of the study and asked to participate. Those who consented
were contacted either in person or by mail and asked to complete the ques-
tionnaire. Prior to completing the questionnaire, all subjects were informed
of the purpose of the srudy and ensured that responses would remain confi-
dential.
Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS; Nie, et al., 1975) software for analysis of variance, discriminant
analysis, and chi squared.

Means and standard deviations of significant variables are reported in

Table 1. SPSS programs for analysis of variance, chi squared, and discrim-
inant analysis for unequal groups were applied to compare the four disabled
athletic groups (wheelchair, amputee, blind, cerebral palsied, and disabled
nonathletes) .
The analysis of variance produced significant differences for Locus of
Control ( F = 2.92, df = 1/125, fi = .05)and Self-esteem ( F = 3.92, df =
5/145, p = .005). The data showed that disabled nonathletic groups were
more internalized than the disabled athletic groups, and disabled athletes had
higher self-esteem than the disabled nonathletes. There were no significant
differences on any other variables for sex.
Further analyses using chi squared were computed to estimate the dif-
ferences between the disabled athletes and nonathletes. O n education, a
significant difference (x" 25.11, df = 11, p = .01) was noted. Disabled
athletes had significantly more postsecondary education that disabled non-
athletes. significant differences were also obtained for Satisfaction ( x 2 =
 SPORT FOR DISABLED ATHLETES

TABLE 1
MEANS
AND STANDARD
DEVIATIONSON TWO SCALES
FOR DISABLED
ATHLETES
AND DISABLED
NONATHLETES
Wheelchair Ampuree
-- Blind Cerebral Palsied
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Locus of Control
Disabled Athletes
Men 8.9 8.8 6.9 2.6 8.9 3.7 11.6 4.8
Women 8.3 3.1 12.1 3.5 10.7 2.8 13.0 3.3
Disabled Nonathletes
Men 5.0 1.4 10.7 4,7 10.2 3.8 10.0 0.0
Women 7.0 2.6 9.8 4.3 6.0 0.0 10.0 1.4
Self-esteem
Disabled Athletes
Men 78.8 16.0 81.1 14.5 77.4 20.9 56.7 23.7
Women 73.7 16.0 68.0 17.4 72.8 11.0 66.1 22.4
Disabled Nonathletes
Men 72.0 22.6 78.8 19.7 45.0 20.0 48.0 0.0
Women 65.3 11.5 67.0 24.7 84.0 0.0 61.8 30.7

21.17, df = 4, p = .001) and Happiness (x' = 19.23, df = 4, P = .001)-

Disabled athletes were happier and more satisfied.
Stepwise multiple discriminant analyses were run to dete~minethe clus-
ters of variables that would produce maximal differentiation between groups.
Results of the analysis for disabled athletes and disabled nonathletes are re-
ported in Table 2. Rao's Criterion ( p = .05) was used to determine a step-
wise change. Seven variables were selected. The discriminant function cor-
rectly classified 81.1% of the disabled athletes and 71.4% of the disabled non-

TABLE 2
STEPWISE
MULTIPLE DISCRIMINANTANALYSIS FOR DISABLED
ATHLETES AND DISABLEDNONATHLETES
Step/Factor Wilkes' A Change in SCDFC P
Rao's V
1. Education 0.88 18.3 0.67 0.01
2. Living arrangement 0.83 9.0 -0.43 0.005
3. Self-esteem 0.80 5.3 0.24 0.05
4. Type of institution 0.79 2.6 1.21 0.10
5. Living in institution 0.74 9.3 -1.05 0.005
6. Happiness 0.73 2.4 0.26
7. Raised 0.73 1.5 -0.18
Eigenvalue Canonical r x2 df P % Correct
Classif.
92 8 P. M. VALLIANT, ET AL.

athletes. T h e discriminant function implies that, when all variables are con-
sidered, Self-esteem, Place an individual was raised, Level of happiness, Living
arrangements, Type of institution, Education, and Living in an institution
could be used as predictors of group membership. T h e results support our
hypothesis that che disabled athletes differ from the disabled nonathletes as
a result of involvement in athletic activities.
I n this study, disabled athletic groups had higher self-esteem, were better
educated, more satisfied with life, and happier than the disabled nonathletes.
Athletic involvement among disabled groups elevated mood, resulting in
greater satisfaction and happiness with their roles in life. Our findings are
consistent with those of Brinkmann and Hoskins (1979) and Ankenbrand
( 1 9 7 2 ) who reported favorable self-evaluations and self-attitudes for disabled
college athletes.
Physical activity appeared to serve a dual role. First, it provided these
disabled persons with a vehicle for escaping the aversive setting in which they
had become confined. Second, it allowed them to direct energy in a goal-
directed way. Interaction with new-found peers provided the necessary in-
centive to reshape their lives in a positive direction.
REFERENCES
ANKENBRAND, L. J. The self-concept of students physically handicapped and nonhandi-
capped related to participation in an individual sport. Unpublished Dissertation,
Univer. of Missouri--Columbia, 1972. (Sport Information Resource Centre,
333 River Road-Tower B, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada)
BRINKMANN, J. R., & HOSKINS,T. A. Physical conditioning and altered self-concept i n
rehabilitated hemiplegic patients. Physical Therapy, 1979, 59, 859-865.
CARPENTER, R. Integration, self-concept and recreation. Leirurability, 1976, 3, 31-36.
COLLINGWOOD. T. R.,& WILLET,L. The effects of physical t r a i n i n g upon self-concept
and body attirude. lournu1 o f Clinical Psychology, 1971, 27, 411-412.
COOPERSMITH, S. T h e antecedents o f self-esteem. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, 1967.
DAVIS,G. M., SHEPARD, R. J., & JACKSON, R. W. Cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular
srrengrh in the lower l i m b disabled. Camdian Jor/rnal o f Applied Sport Science,
1981, 6, 159-165.
EM=, G. Fitness and the physically disabled: a review. Canudian lournul o f Applied
Sport Science, 1981, 6, 176-178.
GASS,G. C., & WP,E. M. Physiological characteristics of trained Australian para-
plegic and tetraplegic subjects. Medicine and Science i n sport^, 1979, 1 1 , 255-
259.
GRAINGER,
D. H. Sports in the rehabilitation of the disabled. Central African Iousnal
o f Medicine, 1978, 24, 247-252.
G ~ A NL. , Significance of sport in rehabilitation of spinal paraplegic and tetraplegic.
lournal o f the American Medical Association, 1976, 236, 195-197.
MCDANIEL,J. W. Physical disability and human behavior. New York: Pergamon,
1969.
MEYERSON,
L. Physical disability as a social psychological problem. ]ournu1 o f Socid
Issues, 1948, 4 , 2-10.
MONNAZZI,G. Paraplegics and sports: a psychological survey. I n t e r d i o n a l Journal
o f Sport Psychology, 1982, 13, 85-95.
 SPORT FOR DISABLED ATHLETES 929

Nla, N . H., HULL, C. H., JENKINS,J. G., STEINBRENNER, K., & BENT, D. H. Statis-
tical package for the social sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.
PARKS,K. Locus of control, cognitive appraisal and coping in stressful episodes. Jourml
o f Personality and Social Psychology, 1984, 46, 655-668.
RHODES,E. G., MCKEINZIE,D. C., C o u r r s , K. D., & ROGERS,A. R. A field test for
the prediction of aerobic capacity in male paraplegics and quadraplegics. Canadian
Journal of Applied Sports Science, 1981, 6, 182-186.
ROTTER, J. B. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforce-
ment. Psychological Monographs, 1966, 80, No. 1 (Whole No. 609).
SHAPIRA, W. IS medicine catching up with the wheelchair athlete? Physician and
Sports Medicine, 1974, 2, 54-57.
SIMON, J. M. A comparison of the self-esteem of hearing impaired adolescents and a
hearing sibling. Unpublished Master's thesis, Univer. of Oregon, 1978. (Sport
Information Resource Centre, 333 River Road-Tower B, Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada)
SLOEDEFALKE, K. G., BALKE,B., RYAN, A. J., & GALE, J. B. Effect of dynamic physical
activity on handicapped university students. In D. B. Franks (Ed), Exercise and
fitners. Chicago, IL: Athletic Institute, 1969. Pp. 195-200.
STEWART,N. Value of sport i n rehabilitation of the physically disabled. Canadian
Journal o f Applied Sport Sciences, 1981, 6, 166-167.
WICKS,J. R., HEAD, C., OLDRIDGE, N. B., CAMERON, B., & JONES, N. L. Maximum
oxygen uptake of wheelchair athletes competing at the 1976 Olympiad for the
physically disabled. Medicine and Science i n Sports, 1975, 9, 58.
WRIGHT, B. A. Phy~icaldisability: a psychological approach. New York: Harper &
Row, 1960.
ZWIREN,L. D., & BAR-OR, 0. Responses to exercise of paraplegics who differ in con-
di tioning level. Medicine and Science in Sports, 1975, 7, 94-98.

Accepted April 10, 1985.

View publication stats