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Family Structural Openness and

Communication Openness as
Predictors in the Adjustmentof
Adopted Children
a
David Brodzinsky PhD
a
Department of Psychology , Rutgers University , 53
Avenue E, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
Published online: 23 Sep 2008.

To cite this article: David Brodzinsky PhD (2006) Family Structural Openness and
Communication Openness as Predictors in the Adjustmentof Adopted Children,
Adoption Quarterly, 9:4, 1-18, DOI: 10.1300/J145v09n04_01

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 RESEARCH ARTICLES
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Family Structural Openness

and Communication Openness
as Predictors in the Adjustment
of Adopted Children
David Brodzinsky, PhD

ABSTRACT. The current study examined the relative contribution of

family structural openness versus communication openness in the ad-
justment of adopted children. Seventy-three adopted children, placed
predominately in inracial families within 18 months of their birth, were
the focus of the study. Parental ratings of family structural openness and
children’s ratings of communication openness served as the primary pre-
dictor variables and children’s ratings of their self-esteem and parental
ratings of children’s behavior problems were the outcome measures. Al-
though family structural openness and communication openness were
positively correlated, only communication openness independently pre-
dicted children’s adjustment. The findings are consistent with research
suggesting that family process variables generally are more predictive of
children’s psychological adjustment than family structural variables. Im-

David Brodzinsky is affiliated with Department of Psychology, Rutgers University,

53 Avenue E, Piscataway, NJ 08854 (E-mail: dbrodzinsk@comcast.net).
Portions of this article were presented at the annual conference of the International
Society for the Study of Behavioral Development in Ghent, Belgium in July 2004.
Adoption Quarterly, Vol. 9(4) 2006
Available online at http://aq.haworthpress.com
© 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1300/J145v9n04_01 1
 2 ADOPTION QUARTERLY

plications for social casework and clinical practice in adoption are dis-
cussed. doi:10.1300/J145v9n04_01 [Article copies available for a fee from
The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address:
<docdelivery@haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com>
© 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]
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KEYWORDS. Adopted children, open adoption, adoption communica-

tion, children’s adjustment

Of all the changes that have taken place in the field of adoption over
the past few decades, perhaps none has altered the face of adoption or
changed the nature of adoptive family life as much as the emergence of
open adoption. Researchers and practitioners have conceptualized open-
ness in adoption in two different, but related, ways (Brodzinsky, 2005).
The first, and most common, way of defining open adoption focuses on
a specific type of family structural arrangement existing between the
adoptive and birth families, involving mutual sharing of identifying in-
formation, plus some degree of contact between the parties, which may
or may not involve the child. Grotevant and McRoy (1998) refer to this
type of placement as a fully disclosed adoption. A second way in which
openness in adoption has been discussed is in terms of a communication
continuum involving the exploration of adoption issues, both within and
between adoption triad members (Brodzinsky, 2005; Wrobel, Kohler,
Grotevant, & McRoy, 1998, 2003).
A growing body of research has examined the relationship between
open adoption, as a family structural arrangement, and the adjustment
of adoptive parents, birth parents, and adopted children. Contrary to the
critics of open adoption who have postulated significant adverse con-
sequences associated with this type of family kinship system (Byrd,
1988; Cocozzelli, 1989; Kraft, Palumbo, Mitchell, Woods, & Schmidt,
1985a,b; Kraft, Palumbo, Woods, Schmidt, & Tucker, 1985), the data
suggest that adoptive parents who choose an open placement generally
are quite satisfied with the arrangement and have positive and empathic
relationships with their child’s birth relatives (Belbas, 1987; Gross,
1993; Grotevant & McRoy, 1998; Silverstein & Demick, 1994). In ad-
dition, they experience a greater sense of entitlement to their child
(McRoy & Grotevant, 1988; Siegel 1993), worry less about birth par-
ents reclaiming their youngster (Belbas, 1987) and feel more secure
about the attachment to their child compared with parents in more con-
fidential placement arrangements (Silverstein & Demick, 1994). Re-
 David Brodzinsky 3

search also suggests that adoptive parents in structurally open adoptions

communicate more with their child about adoption and are more em-
pathic regarding their child’s feelings and curiosity about his or her ori-
gin (Grotevant & McRoy, 1998). On the other hand, Siegel (1993)
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points out that adoptive parents in open placements tend to worry about
the impact of contact with birth family on their children.
Structurally open adoptions also appear to be quite satisfying to most
birth parents and to benefit them by increasing their sense of control, re-
ducing unresolved grief issues, and diminishing depression and other
postplacement adjustment difficulties (A. Brodzinsky, 1992; Grotevant &
McRoy, 1998; Henney, Ayers-Lopez, McRoy, & Grotevant, 2004).
Even when the adoption involves a nonvoluntary placement, there is
reason to believe that birth relatives may find contact with the adoptive
family to be helpful, comforting, and supportive of healthier emotional
adjustment (Young & Neil, 2004).
In contrast to the predictions of negative outcomes for children asso-
ciated with open adoptions as opposed to confidential placements (Kraft
et al., 1985), researchers have found either few adjustment differences
between the two groups of children (Berry, Cavazo, Dylla, Barth, &
Needell, 1998; Grotevant & McRoy, 1998; Kohler, Grotevant, & Mc-
Roy, 2002), or benefits associated with open adoption. For example,
compared with children with little or no contact with birth family, those
living in open placements have a better understanding of adoption
(Wrobel, Ayers-Lopez, Grotevant, & Friedrick, 1996), display more
curiosity about their origins and ask more adoption-related questions
(Wrobel, Kohler, Grotevant, & McRoy, 1998), and are more likely to
be actively involved in a search for birth family members (Wrobel,
Grotevant, & McRoy, 2004). In addition, one study of adopted children
coming out of the foster care system indicated that children who had
more contact with birth family were rated by parents as having fewer
behavioral problems (Berry, 1991). Although the latter finding is en-
couraging, Neil and Howe (2004) point out that contact between adopted
children and their birth family can be detrimental to these youngsters
when they have experienced trauma at the hands of birth family mem-
bers (see also Beek & Shofield, 2004; Selwyn, 2004; and Thoburn,
2004 for differing findings regarding contact between later-placed
adopted children and foster children and their biological families).
The concept of adoption communication openness derives from the
work of Kirk (1964) who was the first researcher to emphasize the im-
portance of open communication within the adoptive family system.
Specifically, he suggested that adoptive parents who are better able to
 4 ADOPTION QUARTERLY

acknowledge the inherent differences associated with adoptive family

life would be more likely to facilitate healthier adjustment in their chil-
dren, and the family as a whole, than parents who tended to deny or re-
ject these differences. The construct of communication openness has
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been supported by other recent theoretical trends in the adoption field,

most notably adoptive family life cycle theory (Brodzinsky, 1987;
Brodzinsky & Pinderhughes, 2002; Hajal & Rosenberg, 1991) and the
multisystemic, developmentally based work of Brodzinsky (2005) and
Grotevant, McRoy, Wrobel and their colleagues (Grotevant, Perry, &
McRoy, 2005; Wrobel et al., 1998, 2003).
Communication openness is assumed to occur on three separate lev-
els (Brodzinsky, 2005). The first level is intrapersonal, reflecting the
individual’s self-exploration of their thoughts and feelings about adop-
tion. For the adopted child, this process is assumed to emerge after they
have been informed about their adoption status and begin to understand
its implications; for the adoptive parent, the process begins when they
first consider adoption as an option for achieving parenthood; and for
the birth parents, the process is assumed to begin when they are con-
fronted with an unexpected and unwanted pregnancy and first consider
adoption as a solution for their dilemma. As Brodzinsky, Schechter, and
Henig (1992) suggest, the exploration of the personal meaning of adop-
tion for each of these groups of individuals is likely to be a lifelong
process. The second level of adoption communication is intrafamilial, re-
flecting the exploration of adoption issues among adoptive family
members, as well as among birth family members. The importance of
maintaining an open, active, and emotionally attuned dialogue between
adoptive parents and their children has been a reoccurring theme in the
writings of many adoption experts (Brodzinsky, 2005; Brodzinsky &
Pinderhughes, 2002; Kirk, 1964; Nickman, 1985; Wrobel et al., 2003).
The third level of adoption communication openness is interfamilial, re-
flecting the exploration of adoption issues between adoptive and birth
family members. Grotevant, Ross, Marchel, and McRoy (1999), in par-
ticular, have pointed out the importance of collaborative involvement
between these two family systems as a basis for the emotional well-be-
ing of the adopted child. Finally, adoptive communication theory em-
phasizes not only the mutual sharing of adoption information within the
adoption kinship system, but also the expression and support of adop-
tion-related emotions. For example, the ability of children to express
their feelings about being adopted, and the empathic sensitivity of par-
ents to those feelings, is viewed as a critical process in healthy adoption
adaptation (Kirk, 1964; Brodzinsky, 2005; Brodzinsky & Pinderhughes,
 David Brodzinsky 5

2002). For a more in-depth analysis of adoption communication theory,

the reader should consult Brodzinsky (2005) and Wrobel et al. (2003).
Although relatively little research has been conducted on the impact
of communication openness in adoption on adoption triad members, the
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data gathered, to date, generally support the notion that adopted individ-
uals who experience more open, direct, and nondefensive communica-
tion about adoption with their parents show more positive adjustment,
not just in the childhood years, but even into adulthood. For example,
Stein and Hoopes (1985) found that adoptive families with a more open
communication style had adolescents who manifested fewer identity
problems. Furthermore, Kohler, Grotevant, and McRoy (2002) found
that adolescent adoptees, who perceived greater communication open-
ness in the family, reported more trust of their parents, less alienation
from them, and better overall family functioning. On the other hand,
communication openness was not related to the extent to which the teen-
agers had contact with birth family or the degree to which these young-
sters were preoccupied with adoption issues. Still other research has
found that adult adoptees who grew up in families in which there was
greater openness in adoption communication reported being more satis-
fied with their adoption experience (Howe & Feast, 2000). Further-
more, open adoption communication has been related to adult adoptees
feeling closer to their adoptive parents (Sobol, Delaney, & Earn, 1994).
To date, research on structural openness and communication open-
ness in adoptive families has followed parallel paths. No study has di-
rectly examined the relationship between these two aspects of adoption
openness or compared their relative contribution with the adjustment of
adopted children. Because of the growing trend toward increased open-
ness in the adoption field (Brodzinsky, 2005; Grotevant et al., 2005) and
the continued controversy that surrounds this construct, it was consid-
ered important to examine both of these issues. Specifically, there were
two goals in the current study. The first was to examine the relationship
between the extent of structural openness characterizing adoptive fami-
lies and the extent to which these families supported open, direct, and
emotionally attuned communication about adoption. It was hypothe-
sized that adoptive parents who choose an open adoption placement
also would be more likely to facilitate greater communication openness
with their children. The second goal was to compare the relative influ-
ence of family structural openness versus communication openness as
predictors of adjustment of adopted children. It was hypothesized that
both aspects of openness would be related to positive adjustment in chil-
dren, but that communicative openness would carry greater predictive
 6 ADOPTION QUARTERLY

power than structural openness. This hypothesis was based on family

research suggesting that family process variables such as parental
warmth, emotional sensitivity, extent of parental involvement, disci-
plinary style, quality of marital relations, and family communication
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style generally are more predictive of children’s adjustment than the

specific type of family structure within which the child lives; for
example, single versus two-parent family, intact versus nonintact family,
mother-headed versus father-headed household, heterosexual-headed
versus homosexual-head household, and so forth (Hetherington & Stan-
ley-Hagan, 2002; Parke, 2002; Patterson, 2002; Weinrub, Horvath, &
Gringlas, 2002).

METHOD

Subjects

Seventy-three children (38 boys and 35 girls) between the ages of 8

and 13 years (M = 11.1 years; SD = 1.41) and their parents were in-
cluded in the study. With the exception of six children, all subjects lived
in intact, two-parent families. Three of the children were from divorced
families and lived primarily with their mothers; the other three children
were adopted by single women and lived in families with only one
parenting figure. The mean age of the adoptive mothers was 43.4 years;
for adoptive fathers, it was 47.6 years. Seventy-five percent of the chil-
dren were adopted within the United States and 25 percent from other
countries–primarily from Southeast Asia and Russia. Of the domesti-
cally born children, 85 percent were placed inracially and 15 percent
transracially. For those youngsters adopted from other countries, 39
percent were placed inracially and 61 percent transracially. All children
were placed in their family prior to 18 months of age, with a mean
age of placement of 3.8 months (SD = 3.65). Subjects were recruited
from adoption agencies, adoptive parents organizations, and by word of
mouth.

Procedure and Assessment Instruments

Data were collected during home visits as part of a larger study on

adoption adjustment. Initially, parents and children were seen together
during which time the goals of the study were explained, and consent
and assent forms were signed by the parents and children respectively.
 David Brodzinsky 7

After this meeting, each party was interviewed separately and was
asked to respond to the following assessment instruments:
Family Structural Openness Inventory. Family structural openness
was assessed with a newly developed 20-item, true-false, parent-report
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instrument measuring the extent to which adoptive family members had

information about and contact with the child’s birth mother and/or birth
father. Higher scores reflect a greater degree of structural openness
between the adoptive and birth family. Examples of items include: “I
know the name of my child’s birth mother; I know where my child’s
birth mother lives; I have met my child’s birth mother; I have communi-
cated with my child’s birth mother through the adoption agency or an-
other intermediary; I have communicated directly with my child’s birth
mother by telephone, e-mail, or letter; I have visited with my child’s
birth mother on one or more occasions within the past year.” Compara-
ble items were included in relation to the birth father, as well as items re-
lated to the child’s knowledge and contact with birth family members.
Pilot testing revealed a high degree of test-retest reliability for the in-
strument over a one-week time period, r = .82. Furthermore, for those
families in which both mother and father were available to fill out the
questionnaire (n = 43), a moderately high degree of interparental agree-
ment was achieved using this measure, r = .63. For purposes of this
study, only the mothers’ ratings of structural openness were used since
they reported more often being in contact with the birth family than did
fathers.
Although for data analytic purposes, structural openness was defined
numerically as the parent’s total number of affirmative responses on
this scale, to provide a categorical description of the families, and thus a
basis for comparison with other research on open adoption, these scores
were translated into the openness categories defined by Grotevant and
McRoy (1998). Adoptive families who had never met their child’s birth
mother or birth father and who had never been in contact with them fol-
lowing the placement, either directly or through an intermediary such as
the adoption agency, were considered to be involved in a confidential
adoption–even if they knew the birth parents names and where they
lived. Forty-five percent of the families fell into this category. Adoptive
families who had some type of contact with the birth mother or birth fa-
ther following the placement, either ongoing or not, through the adop-
tion agency or another intermediary, were considered to be involved in
a mediated adoption. Approximately 27 percent of the families fell into
this category. It may be noted that in some cases of mediated adoption,
the adoptive parents had met one or both birth parents prior to the place-
 8 ADOPTION QUARTERLY

ment, but none of these families maintained ongoing direct contact with
birth family members. Finally, adoptive parents who had met one or
both birth parents and maintained direct contact with these individuals,
either through the mail, by e-mail, and/or in person, were considered to
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be involved in a fully disclosed adoption. In most cases, but not all, the
children also were in contact with their birth parents. Approximately 27
percent of the families fell into this category.
One hundred percent of the fully disclosed adoptions, 85 percent of
the mediated adoptions, and 55 percent of the confidential adoptions in-
volved placements from within this country. As would be expected, the
vast majority of intercountry adoptions (94%) involved confidential
placements, although adoptive parents and/or their children often knew
the birth parents’ names, but seldom where they lived. Only one family
with a foreign born child had been in touch with birth family members,
with the aid of the adoption agency.
Adoption Communication Openness Scale. Adoption communication
openness was assessed with a newly developed 14-item, child-report
instrument, adapted from the Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale
developed by Barnes and Olsen (1984) [see Lanz, Iafrate, Rosnati, &
Scabini, 1999, for additional validity data on this scale in relation to
adoptive families]. Using a 5-point Likert-type scale, the instrument
measured the extent to which children experience their parents as being
open and sensitive in adoption communication, as well as the extent to
which children felt comfortable discussing adoption with their parents.
Children’s mean ratings across the 14-item scale represented their per-
ception of communication openness in the family, with higher ratings
reflecting a greater degree of openness. Examples of scale items in-
clude: “My parents are good listeners when it comes to my thoughts and
feelings about being adopted; My parents have difficulty understanding
adoption from my point of view; If there is something I need to know
about my adoption, my parents are always there for me, trying to answer
my questions.” Pilot testing revealed moderately high test-retest reli-
ability for children over a one week time period, r = .70. Cronbach’s al-
pha for the scale was .79.
Child Adjustment Measures. Two measures of children’s adjustment
were used in the study. The first was a child, self-report measure, the
Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985). The SPPC is a
well-regarded, reliable, and valid instrument frequently used by re-
searchers investigating children’s self-perception and consists of 36
items that yield scores for six domains of perceived self-adequacy:
scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical
 David Brodzinsky 9

appearance, behavioral conduct, and global self-worth. For each item,

two types of children are described and subjects must indicate which
type of child they most resemble and then decide whether they are “sort
of” or “really” like that child. Items are scored from 1 to 4, with higher
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scores reflecting greater levels of perceived self-competence. Items

within each subscale are averaged to yield six separate subscale scores.
For this study, only the global self-worth subscale was used.
The second measure of children’s adjustment was the parent-report,
Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991). The CBCL consists of
113 behavior problem items which convert to a number of narrow band
scales, two broad band scales (internalizing and externalizing behav-
iors) and a total behavior problem scale. For this study, only the t scores
for total behavior problems were used. The CBCL is the most widely
used research-based measure of children’s behavior problems and is
known to be reliable and to have good content and construct validity
(Achenbach, 1991).

RESULTS

Preliminary Analyses

No differences between boys and girls were found for any of the vari-
ables in the study. Consequently, the data were collapsed across gender.
As might be expected, children adopted from within the United States
were placed at an earlier age (M = 2.8 months; SD = 2.78) compared
with intercountry adoptees (M = 7.9 months; SD = 4.75), t(71) = 3.84,
p < .0001. They also experienced greater structural openness (M = 6.80;
SD = 4.51) than intercountry adoptees (M = 2.00; SD = 1.46), t(71) =
4.38, p < .0001, but not communication openness (M = 3.95; SD = .59
vs. M = 3.58; SD = .66). Given that the majority of intercountry adop-
tions involved transracial placements, it is not surprising that children
adopted tranracially also experienced less structural openness (M =
2.89; SD = 2.01) compared with those youngsters adopted inracially
(M = 6.57; SD = 4.57), t(71) = 3.25, p < .002. In addition, they experi-
enced less communication openness (M = 3.50; SD = .74 vs. M = 3.99;
SD = .56), t(71) = 3.14, p < .002, and lower self-esteem (M = 3.13; SD =
.39 vs. M = 3.34; SD = .41), t(71) = p < .05.
 10 ADOPTION QUARTERLY

Relationship Among Predictor and Dependent Variables

Pearson Product correlations were computed among the various pre-

dictor and dependent variables. Inspection of Table 1 indicates that chil-
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dren’s age was unrelated to any of the study variables. Age at adoption
placement, however, was negatively associated with structural open-
ness, but not communication openness or the two-child adjustment
measures. Thus, children placed at a younger age lived in families with
a greater degree of contact with birth family members than children
adopted at an older age. Structural openness also was positively corre-
lated with both communication openness and children’s self-esteem. In
short, the more contact children had with birth family, the more open the
communication about adoption within their family and the more posi-
tive they felt about themselves. No relationship was found between
structural openness and parental ratings of children’s behavior prob-
lems. In contrast, communication openness was significantly correlated
with both-child adjustment measures. Specifically, children experienc-
ing more open adoption communication in their family not only rated
themselves higher in self-esteem, but were rated by their parents as
manifesting fewer adjustment difficulties. Finally, as would be expec-
ted, a significant negative correlation was found between children’s
self-esteem and behavior problems.

Predicting Self-Esteem and Behavior Problems

Two separate hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test

the relative contribution of structural openness and communication open-

TABLE 1. Pearson Correlations Among Demographic Data, Adoption Open-

ness Measures and Child Adjustment Measures

PA SO CO SE BP
Child’s age ⫺.21 .16 ⫺.03 .20 ⫺.06
Placement age ⫺.24* .03 ⫺.20 ⫺.02
Structural openness .25* .24* ⫺.16
Communication openness .38** ⫺.40***
Self-esteem ⫺.59***

PA = Placement age; SO = Structural openness; CO = Communication openness; SE = Self-esteem; BP =

Behavior problems.
* < .05; ** < .001; *** < .0001.
 David Brodzinsky 11

ness as predictors of children’s self-esteem and behavior problems. To

control for the influence of children’s age, gender, placement age, type
of adoption (domestic versus intercountry), and family racial status
(inracial vs. transracial), these variables were entered first as a single
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block in each regression analysis (labeled demographics), followed by a

second block which included structural openness and communication
openness. Communication openness, but not structural openness, sig-
nificantly predicted children’s ratings of their self-esteem, as well as pa-
rental ratings of children’s behavior problems (see Table 2).

DISCUSSION

To the best of my knowledge, this is the first study to directly exam-

ine the relationship between family structural openness and communi-
cation openness in adoptive families, as well as the relative contribution
of these two variables for adopted children’s adjustment. As expected,
structural openness and communication openness were positively cor-
related, although the degree of the relationship was quite modest. What
might contribute to this positive relationship? On the one hand, it makes
sense that adoptive parents involved in open placements would find
themselves more often confronting adoption issues than parents in con-
TABLE 2. Adoption Openness as a Predictor of Children’s Self-Esteem and
Behavior Problems

Predictor Variables R R2 ⌬R2 ␤ ⌬F(df)

Self-Esteem
Demographics .20 .04 .04 2.05 (5,67)ª
Adoption openness .41 .17 .13 6.92 (2,65)***
Structural openness .15
Communication Openness .34**
Behavior problems
Demographics .15 .02 .02 .89 (5,67)
Adoption openness .42 .18 .16 6.94 (2,65)***
Structural openness ⫺.07
Communication Openness ⫺.39***

Note: Demographic variables (children’s age, gender, placement age, type of adoption and family racial
status) were entered first as a single block to control for their effects in predicting adjustment outcome mea-
sures, followed by a second block which included the two measures of adoption openness;
ª p < .06; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.
 12 ADOPTION QUARTERLY

fidential placements. For one thing, open placements, by definition, in-

volve direct communication between adoptive parents and birth family
members, which in turn is likely to facilitate greater adoption-related
communication within the family, especially as adoptive parents makes
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plans for contact with the birth family, prepare their child for such con-
tact, and respond to the child’s inevitable questions resulting from con-
tact. In short, structurally open adoptions are simply more likely to
require a greater level of openness in communication about adoption
issues than are more traditional, closed adoptions.
It is also possible that the relationship between structural openness
and communication openness derives, in part, from a common associa-
tion with parental characteristics that leads one to choose and embrace
openness in adoption. For example, Brodzinsky (2005) speculated that
adoptive parents with a more “open, empathic, and secure personality
style” may be more likely to choose an adoption arrangement that is
structurally open, as well as be more prone to explore adoption issues
within themselves and with others, including their children. In contrast,
individuals with a more “closed, cautious, and self-protective personal-
ity style” might be expected, on average, to choose a more confidential
placement arrangement that minimizes contact between adoptive and
birth family members, and to display more resistance to exploring adop-
tion issues or discussing them with their children. This speculation, of
course, requires empirical verification.
The current study provides additional support for the benefits of open
adoption for children (see also Grotevant & McRoy, 1998; Grotevant
et al., 2005; Wrobel et al., 2003). Children living in families with more
information about, and contact with, birth family members, and chil-
dren who experience more open and sensitive communication about
adoption within their family, displayed greater self-esteem and fewer
behavior problems. Of importance, however, is the finding that commu-
nication openness appears to be a stronger and more consistent predic-
tor of children’s adjustment than the extent of structural openness that
exists between the adoptive and birth families. In fact, structural open-
ness did not predict children’s adjustment independently of communi-
cation openness. This finding supports other research suggesting that
family process variables such as parent-child communication patterns,
parental disciplinary practices, interparental conflict, and quality of pa-
rental emotional attunement generally are more important for children’s
long-term adjustment than the type of family in which the child is raised
(Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan, 2002; Parke, 2002; Patterson, 2002;
Weinrub et al., 2002).
 David Brodzinsky 13

There are a number of important implications that follow from the

current findings. First, adoption researchers need to focus more on pa-
rental and family characteristics associated with communication style
and other process variables that are likely to account for the high degree
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of variability in psychological adjustment observed among adopted chil-

dren. Although it is well documented that adopted children are more at
risk for adjustment difficulties than their nonadopted agemates (Brodzin-
sky & Pinderhuges, 2002), it is also clear that, as a group, these young-
sters display a wide range of adjustment patterns, with the vast majority
well within the normal range. It is time for researchers to move beyond
questions focusing on the relative risk associated with adoption status
per se and to begin to examine those vulnerability and resilience factors
found within the general population of adoptees and their families that are
linked to varying patterns of psychological adjustment (Palacios & San-
ches-Sandoval, 2005).
The current data also suggest that adoption agency personnel and cli-
nicians should pay more attention to those parental and family charac-
teristics associated with communication style in their work with adoptive
families. Despite concerted efforts by adoption professionals over the
past two decades to better educate adoptive parents about the nature of
adoptive kinship dynamics, many parents continue to have difficulty ac-
knowledging and/or discussing the inherent differences associated with
adoptive family life, as well as the meaning of being adopted for their
children. Too often, children’s curiosity about their heritage goes un-
supported and their feelings about being adopted remain suppressed
because of parents’ discomfort in addressing these issues. In fostering
greater self-exploration about adoption issues within their clients, as well
as facilitating more open, direct, and empathic communication between
adoptive parents and their children, adoption agency personnel and cli-
nicians are likely to support better long-term adjustment in all adoption
family members (Grotevant et al., 2005; Wrobel et al., 2003).
Adoption professionals and mental health professionals also need to
ensure that structurally open adoptions are truly communicatively open
as well. One cannot assume that this will always be the case. In fact, the
current study suggests that these two factors are only modestly posi-
tively correlated. Clinical experience suggests that many families choos-
ing an open placement, although having good intentions regarding fos-
tering ongoing contact and communication about adoption issues, do
not consistently maintain a reasonably high level of openness with the
passage of time. Part of the reason for this shift in openness is that the
needs of adoption triad members change over time and not always in
 14 ADOPTION QUARTERLY

ways that are consistent with one another (Brodzinsky, 2005; Wrobel
et al., 2003). Whereas adoptive parents and birth parents may agree on a
certain level of contact and communication at the time of placement,
changes in life circumstances often result in one of the parties needing
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to change their involvement with the other–that is, either seeking to de-
crease contact or perhaps increase it. When confronted with this type of
conflict, adoption professionals need to help families understand the
normality of the changes taking place and, at the same time, help them
negotiate a level of contact and communication that preserves mutual
trust and respect. Similarly, although adoptive parents may begin by be-
ing very open with their children in the initial stages of telling them
about their adoption, especially when there is some degree of contact
between the adoptive and birth families, the child’s growing interest in
their origins sometimes is experienced as threatening to adoptive par-
ents, which may lead them to become more defensive and closed in their
communication, and perhaps even reduce the amount of contact with
the birth family. In this case, adoption professionals need to help adop-
tive parents recognize the basis for their discomfort and the importance
of maintaining open communication with their child about adoption is-
sues, as well as contact with birth family members. In short, adoption
professionals need to ensure that structurally open adoptions remain
communicatively open.
It is also important for adoption professionals to ensure that adoptive
parents who choose a confidential placement or an international adop-
tion–both of which usually are associated with limited information
about the child’s background–do not fall into the trap of believing that
the lack of information about their child’s origin precludes openness in
adoption. Adoptive parents not only need to recognize the fundamental
importance of open adoption communication, but also how to discuss
adoption with their child when there is a lack of information about the
birth family or when the available information is of a highly sensitive
nature (e.g., when the history includes abuse, abandonment, parental
psychopathology, etc.). For example, when there is a lack of verifiable
knowledge about the child’s birth history, adoptive parents need to en-
courage their child to share his or her thoughts, beliefs, fantasies, and/or
feelings about the birth parents and the reasons for the adoption place-
ment. Not only does this approach allow adoptive parents access to their
child’s mental and emotional life related to adoption, but it also implic-
itly normalizes the child’s curiosity about his or her heritage and facili-
tates greater openness in communication, even in circumstances when
there is limited information about the child’s birth history. In short,
 David Brodzinsky 15

adoptive parents must remember that a structurally closed adoption

need not be, and should not be, a communicatively closed adoption. This
is an area in which adoptive parents are likely to need much help from
adoption professionals and clinicians.
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All research is characterized by some limitations. This one is no ex-

ception. The sample size, although adequate for meaningful statistical
analyses, was somewhat small and raises the question of the generali-
zability of the findings to the broader population of adoptive families.
Another limitation is related to the diversity of the sample. Approxi-
mately 25 percent of the sample were adopted from foreign countries,
with the majority of these youngsters placed transracially. Although
regression analyses controlled for the influence of type of adoption (do-
mestic vs. international) and family racial status (inracial versus trans-
racial), it is possible that the diversity of the sample has influenced the
findings in some unknown way. Furthermore, the sample size is much
too small to adequately examine the question of whether adoption com-
munication differs within inracial adoptive families versus transracial
adoptive families. Our findings also are limited to children placed rela-
tively early in life. Although Neil and Howe (2004) suggest that in older
child placements, contact between adoptive and birth families can be
beneficial for the child, they also warn that when there has been a his-
tory of abuse at the hands of the birth family such contact can be trau-
matic. The current study also does not allow for an assessment of the
similarity or difference in parents’ and children’s perception of struc-
tural and communication openness, as well as the relationship between
perceived differences and children’s adjustment. Clinical experience
suggests that parents and their children often have quite different views
on the extent to which adoption issues are discussed in the family. Such
differences may have important implications for family adjustment. Fi-
nally, the current study also employed a limited range of outcome mea-
sures and, consequently, needs to be replicated with a focus on other
measures of adjustment, including those assessing quality of family re-
lationships, as well as parents’ and children’s adjustment to adoption
per se.
Despite these limitations, the current study provides new and valu-
able information on the relationship between openness in adoption and
children’s psychological adjustment. Moreover, it is the first study to
examine the relative contribution of family structural openness versus
communication openness in relation to child outcome measures. Future
research needs to expand on the current findings and examine its rele-
vance for social casework and clinical practice.
 16 ADOPTION QUARTERLY

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Received: 09/06/05
Revised: 01/02/06
Accepted: 03/31/06

doi:10.1300/J145v9n04_01