CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW

Industrialization has contributed immensely to the economic development of the world,

but in its wake has caused environmental degradation. Since humans have to live within their

environment, the process of development should be sustainable so that environmental quality is

maintained within the safe limits. It is only through the integration effort of the environmental

aspects into planning and management of industrial development that the significant progress

towards sustainable society can be made (Dean, 1986).

Some decades ago, due to the fast growing economy, there was an increased demand in

road transportations in Nigeria. This forced governments both federal and state to build more

roads and interstate highways. On the other hand, the presence of problematic clay deposits at

various sites and the need for their replacement with a suitable material imposed great costs on

the highway construction projects. In such problematic soils, chemical stabilization techniques

proved to be effective (Ingles and Metcalf, 1972). The treatment of clayey soils by incorporation

of calcium-based stabilizers such as lime is a technique widely used throughout the world.

Mine waste dumps consists of overburden material, reject ore, sub grade or mix of all

these and tailings from beneficiation plant. The physical and chemical composition of the waste

varies considerably according to the rock/ ore mined and the nature of the geological formation

containing the deposit. Thus mine waste (called overburden) consists of coarse-grained waste,

weathered rock, freshly exposed rock fragments, silt and clays. Test analysis is required to

identify the suitability of various fractions or combinations of them as construction material

(Dean, 1986).

1
 Mine Site

Mining Topsoil, Overburden

Waste rock

Ore

Processing Tailings & Mill

Processing wastes

Marketable
Product

Figure 1: Schematic representation of waste generation in mines

Soil (aggregates) and binding materials (cement, bitumen, lime, etc.) are the most

important constituents used in civil engineering construction or construction industry. This

inevitably led to a continuous and increasing demand of natural materials used for construction

particularly production of base and subbase materials. Parallel to the need for the utilization of

the natural resources emerges a growing concern for protecting the environment and a need to

preserve natural resources, such as aggregate (fine or coarse), by using alternative materials that

are either discarded as a waste.

Aggregate is cheaper than cement and it is, therefore, economical to put into the mix much

of the former and as little of the latter as possible. Nevertheless, economy is not the only reason

for using aggregate: it confers considerable technical advantages on concrete, which has a higher

volume stability and better durability than hydrated cement paste alone (Neville, 1995).

According to Kumaran et al. (2008), the goal of sustainability is that life on the planet can

be sustained for the foreseeable future and there are three components of sustainability:

environment, economy, and society. To meet its goal, sustainable development must ensure that

2
these three components remain healthy and balanced. Furthermore, it must do so simultaneously

and throughout the entire planet, both now and in the future. At the moment, the environment is

probably the most important component and an engineer or architect uses sustainability to mean

having no net negative impact on the environment.

Among the many threats that affect the environment are the wastes which are generated in

the production process or discarded after a specific material ends its life time or the intended

use. The wastages are divided as solid waste, liquid waste and gaseous wastes. There are many

disposal ways for liquid and gaseous waste materials. Some solid waste materials such as

plastic, bottles, papers, steel, etc. can be recycled without affecting the environment. However,

studies on how to dispose some solid wastes such as waste mineral mining such as iron ore

tailings in the most beneficial ways are not yet fully exhausted.

Aggregate, or mineral aggregate, is any hard, inert, construction material, such as sand,

gravel, crushed stone, shells, or other material, used for mixing in various-sized fragments with

a cement or bituminous material to form concrete or mortar, or used alone for railway ballast,

road building or other construction. Aggregates composed of rock materials, which are used in

their natural state, are referred to as natural aggregates, in contrast to artificial aggregates, which

are by-product (e.g. slag) or manufactured (e.g. expanded clay or shale) aggregates. The term

aggregate has its origins in the 15th century from the Middle English aggregat, derived from

Latin aggregatus, past participle stem of aggregare “to add to,” literally “to bring into the

flock,” ultimately from the stem greg- “flock”. As the name indicates, aggregates are rock

fragments that are together in a mass.

According to Little (1995), the clay–lime reactions are divided into two distinct reactions

known as modification and stabilization. Modification is referred to the ion exchange process

that occurs immediately after lime is added to the clay, causing considerable change to the clay's

texture (flocculation). Pozzolanic reaction is the main part of the stabilization process and is

between the clay minerals and calcium hydroxide (lime). This reaction is continued for long
3
time periods and different types of cementing products such as calcium silicate hydrate (CSH)

and calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH) are formed (Bell, 1996; Eisazadeh et al., 2012;

Narasimha and Rajasekaran, 1996; Rogers et al., 1996).

The supplies of lime in the form of hydrated lime are relatively high in Nigeria, making

lime an economically viable option for the treatment of tropical soils. However, due to an

extensive variability in amount of impurities dictated by extreme weathering conditions, for

instance, the high amounts of iron hydroxides present in laterite clays, the effectiveness of lime

stabilization technique is rather conflicting (Eisazadeh et al., 2012). Furthermore, the acidic

nature of tropical soils raised doubts about the success of soil–lime reactions in a low pH

environment and hence the long term improvement.

Most mine tailings mass-produced worldwide are dumped in large surface impoundments

(tailings dams). The embankments forming these impoundments are earth fill dams. Over the

years these earth fill dams have had several serious spilling problems, some even fatal. Two

examples of the disasters originating from tailings dams spilling are; the Merriespruit dam

tailings failure that resulted in the killing of 17 people and caused extensive damage to a

residential township in South Africa in 1994 (Fourie and Papageorgiou, 2001 and Fourie et al.,

2001) and disaster occurred in the Philippines in 2002 where tailings spilled into Mapanuepe

Lake and eventually into the Saint Tomas River. Low lying villages were flooded with mine

waste. At least 250 families were evacuated from that area (Fahey et al., 2002).

Hence it was necessary to devise another approach for the storage and disposal of mine

tailings with the aim of eliminating the hazards and risks associated with mine tailings dams.

Research on mine tailings stems from the necessity to prevent the danger posed by mine tailings

to the environment. This danger is characterized by the tendency of mine tailings to release acids

and heavy metals once in contact with oxygen and water (Gautam et al., 2000). In 1978,

Robinsky published what was probably the first detailed paper suggesting that tailings could be

economically disposed of after being extensively dewatered (Robinsky, 1978). He suggested the

4
word ‘thickened tailings’ and even produced a schematic showing the development of a conical

deposit of high-density tailings (Fourie, 2002).

Mine tailings are the waste materials generated from the mining industry. These tailings

are the residue of the milling process that is used to extract metals of interest from mined ores.

During metallurgical process toxic chemicals are added to ore, which remains in tailings after

the extraction process. Due to the above reason tailings are hazardous in nature. Leaching of

heavy metals is another concern associated with tailings. Due to this the disposal of mine tailing

is a serious environmental issue for any mining projects. In order to minimize the hazardous

effect of mine tailing on the environment, remediation is found to be one of the effective

methods. When remediation is achieved by addition of stabilizing agents they improve the

overall characteristics of tailings and prevent environmental leaching. There by the tailing

material dump yards can be effectively utilized for civil/geotechnical engineering constructions

as well as to prevent the environmental hazards.

Tailings are the waste materials (by-products) of the mining industry like National Iron

Ore Mining Company (NIOMCO) Itakpe. Tailings contain all other constituents of the ore but

the extracted metal, among the heavy metals and other toxic substances that are either added to

the tailings in the milling process. However, an attempt to blend this waste with weak soil in the

presence of lime could be of benefit.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The aim of the study is to evaluate the geotechnical and environmental effect of lime-

cement stabilization on treated soil-mine tailings mixtures for highway construction.

The proposed objectives of the study are to:

a) stabilize the soil-mine tailings mixtures with lime-cement in varying proportions by

weight of the mixtures;

b) evaluate the strength characteristics of lime-cement (L-C) stabilized blended Laterite-

Mine Tailings (LMT) mixtures;

5
c) determine the microstructural/mineralogical characteristics of lime-cement (L-C)

stabilized blended Laterite-Mine Tailings (LMT) mixtures; and

d) assess the long term environmental performance of lime-cement (L-C) stabilized blended

Laterite-Mine Tailings (LMT) mixtures using leaching tests.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT

Many Nigeria highways failed as a result of portions of the roads deposited with weak soil

apart from substandard materials being used to construct the highway which eventually causes

damage to pavement and causes road accident. A good example is the weak lateritic soil along

Okene – Lokoja axis which is of high plasticity, high compressibility and low strength under

loading. Most highway agencies, private organization and researchers are working tireless on

waste materials and research projects concerning the possibility and environmental friendly.

1.4 EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

The expected contribution of this project to civil engineering is the identification and

provision of an alternative material for the construction of road pavement i.e subbase. Other

contributions include the provision of an alternative means of reducing waste from our

environment and use it in highway construction.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Highway constructions are major consumer of soil and where this material is weak in

terms of strength, alternative material becomes inevitable or stabilization must be perform on it.

Mine-tailings have been traditionally stored in ponds surrounded by tailings dams for many

years but since many accidents, including fatal ones, took place that involved tailings dams, a

new approach has become necessary for their storage or utilization. An approach devised by

Robinsky in the early 1970s for the storage and disposal of mine tailings suggests that it is more

advantageous environmentally to strengthen the tailings before disposal.

Nguyen and Boger (1998) described two case studies where the measurement and use of

rheological properties have assisted in solving large-scale tailings disposal problems in the

Australian mining and mineral industry. The results have been used to develop a new waste

disposal strategy whereby many technical, economical and environmental problems associated

with the current disposal technology can be minimized.

Another study was detailed by Theriault et al. (2003) describing the surface disposal of

paste tailings at the Bulyanhulu Gold mine in Tanzania managed by a subsidiary of Barrick Gold

Corporation. Some clear goals of this process were, as stated by the authors, to conserve water,

manage runoff, reduce risk and minimize containment dyke construction. The tailings slurry was

thus dewatered and then transported to the paste plant where process water is added in the paste

conditioner to produce a paste of the desired consistency. The authors ascertained that the

cycling of the tailings deposition in thin layers has been successful in generating a stable paste

stack. It was concluded that paste stack can be engineered to meet the required geotechnical and

environmental objectives (Theriault et al., 2003).

Results presented herein are part of an ongoing research program into the behavior of

solidified mine tailings with the aim of determining the applicability of the use of tailings as

7
base materials for temporary access roads. This will be approached by determining the

unconfined compressive strength of several mine tailings-binder combinations.

2.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Soil stabilization has been widely used as an alternative to substitute the lack of suitable

material on site. Soil stabilization is a process of treating a soil in such a manner as to maintain,

alter or improve the performance of the soil as a construction material. The changes in the soil

properties are brought about either by the incorporation of additives or by mechanical blending

of different soil types (Ali, 2013).

Soil-Aggregate Mixtures; as the name implies is a material in which soil and aggregate

particles are mixed in suitable proportions such that the resulting mixture conforms to a dense

and stable mix when properly compacted. This technique is used in many countries for the

construction of base courses, and in the case of low-traffic roads for the surface course as well.

The aggregates should be so graded that a grain-to-grain contact exists, producing internal

friction. Rapjul (2005) stated that for a high value of density to result, the grain-size distribution

should follow the Fuller’s curve given by the equation:

d n
P=100 ( ) (1)
D

where,

P = percentage passing any sieve

d = aperture of the sieve in question

D = the maximum size of the aggregate

n = exponential, whose value can be taken as 0.5.

Tailings consist of ground rock and process effluents that are generated in a mine

processing plant. Mechanical and chemical processes are used to extract the desired product

from the run of the mine ore and produce a waste stream known as tailings. This process of

product extraction is never 100% efficient, nor is it possible to reclaim all reusable and
8
expended processing reagents and chemicals. The unrecoverable and uneconomic metals,

minerals, chemicals, organics and process water are discharged, normally as slurry, to a final

storage area commonly known as a Tailings Management Facility (TMF) or Tailings Storage

Facility (TSF). Not surprisingly the physical and chemical characteristics of tailings and their

methods of handling and storage are of great and growing concern.

Tailings are generally stored on the surface either within retaining structures or in the form

of piles (dry stacks) but can also be stored underground in mined out voids by a process

commonly referred to as backfill. Backfilling can provide ground and wall support, improve

ventilation, provide an alternative to surface tailings storage and prevent subsidence (Pettbone &

Kealy, 1971).

The challenges associated with tailings storage are ever increasing. Advances in

technology allow lower grade ores to be exploited, generating higher volumes of waste that

require safe storage. Environmental regulations are also advancing, placing more stringent

requirements on the mining industry, particularly with regard to tailings storage practices. This

ultimately places added pressure on the operators of a tailings facility who carry out the day to

day roles of tailings discharge and water management. The majority of historical tailings related

incidents have been influenced by poor day to day management, which has resulted in the

strengthening of regulations controlling tailings storage today. The research carried out in the

Ph.D. thesis submitted at the University of Leeds in 2006 has targeted the management roles to

improve day to day operations and reduce the risks associated with surface tailings storage

(Mian, 2006).

Tailings are a waste product that has no financial gain to a mineral operator at that

particular point in time. Not surprisingly it is usually stored in the most cost effective way

possible to meet regulations and site specific factors. Dams, embankments and other types of

surface impoundments are by far the most common storage methods used today and remain of

primary importance in tailings disposal planning. The particular design of these retaining

9
structures is unique to a particular environment and mineral processing operation (Mahmood et

al., 2007).

When considering the design of a tailings storage facility there are many parameters which

impact on the optimum site selected and the storage and tailings discharge methods used (Means

et al., 1989). The environment and ground conditions are the most crucial parameters that

control tailings storage methodology which ultimately affects the way a facility is designed,

built, operated and closed. For this reason a range of alternate methods of tailings storage and

discharge techniques need to be considered when designing a facility for a particular location.

The process of beneficiation of run of the mine ores and subsequent disposal to surface

containment facilities exposes elements to accelerated weathering and can consequently increase

their mobilisation rates. The addition of reagents used in mineral processing may also change the

chemical characteristics of the processed minerals and therefore the properties of the tailings and

waste rock ((Pettbone & Kealy, 1971).

The disposal of tailings is commonly identified as the single most important source of

environmental impact for many mining operations (Ramesh & Krishnaiah, 2013). This is not

surprising when considering that the volume of tailings requiring storage can often exceed the

in-situ total volume of the ore being mined and processed. Over the last century the volumes of

tailings being generated has grown dramatically as the demand for minerals and metals has

increased and lower grades of ore are being mined through advances in extraction and

processing technology. In the 1960’s, 10’s of thousands of tonnes of tailings were produced each

day and by 2000 this figure had increased to 100’s of thousands (Qiu & Sego, 2001). Today

there are individual mines producing in excess of 200,000 tonnes of tailings per day.

Understanding the mineral processing techniques can help to determine how tailings are

produced and the challenges associated with their storage.

A simple mineralogical examination can hold the key to identifying the most

advantageous extraction methods to use. The examination can also determine other minerals of

10
economic interest, the type and quantities of reagents required to separate the concentrate from

the gangue materials and the necessary storage methods for the tailings (Means et al., 1989).

Pilot plant tests can also be useful to determine optimum particle size, processing reagents

required and the final tailings characteristics. However, such pilot tests may not be an exact

representative of the tailings that will be produced from the full scale plant. This means that the

final design of any tailings facility is always provisional and must be confirmed once tailings

production is underway (Blight et al., 1998).

Gravity and magnetic separation techniques are also used to win the economic product

from the ground ore. Gravity separation is used in gold processing to recover the coarser

particles, the finer being recovered by leaching (Pettbone & Kealy, 1971).

Tailings characteristics can vary greatly and are dependent on the ore mineralogy together

with the physical and chemical processes used to extract the economic product. (Means et al.,

1989) reported that tailings of the same type may possess different mineralogy and therefore will

have different physical and chemical characteristics. The tailings characteristics have to be

determined to establish the behaviour of the tailings once deposited in their final storage location

and the potential short and long term liabilities and environmental impacts. Once the likely

characteristics of the tailings are determined from laboratory and pilot plant tests, the necessary

design requirements can be identified to mitigate environmental impact as well as determine

optimum operational performance.

Lateritic soils are generally regarded as good foundation materials and are used in various

civil engineering projects such as road and earth dam constructions (Gidigasu, 1976; Lemougna

et al., 2011; Ugbe, 2011). The term Laterite is derived from the Latin word “later”, meaning

brick. The dominant process of laterite formation consists of intensive and long lasting tropical

rock weathering which results in iron and aluminum enrichment and a decrease in silica and

highly soluble alkalis (Mitchell and Soga, 2005). A reddish laterite clay (LC) rich in iron (hydro)

oxides excavated from a hillside located in the Eika Ohizenyi will be used for this investigation.
11
2.2 PRESENT STATUS OF RESEARCH

Several investigations were carried out to assess the chemical properties and the adhesive

interactions between lime and clay minerals (Baronio & Binda, 1997; Murat, 1983; Narasimha

et al., 1996). These studies demonstrated that the interaction between the clay mineral surface

and calcium hydroxide is chemical, with the formation of new composites.

During the last twenty-five years, the use of soil-lime stabilization has gained in

popularity in USA, Africa, Australia and India. Soil-lime mixtures are used as sub base or base

courses. The addition of cement to soil to improve its strength is now in vogue for the past forty

years or so. The material is very popular in the USA, UK and in Africa countries. The principal

advantages with soil-cement are that almost all soils are amendable to this technique. It is a

scientifically designed engineering material and cement itself is a standard material whose

quality is tested and assured. Because of its very high flexural strength, it has a very high load

spreading property. Thus soil-cement is able to spread the load over a wider area and bridge over

locally weak spots of the underlying subgrade or sub-base. In view of its high flexural rigidity, it

is often classed as a semi-rigid pavement, something which is intermediate between a flexible

pavement and a rigid pavement (Boardman, 2001).

Lime stabilization is a widely used means of chemically transforming unstable soils into

structurally sound construction foundations. Lime stabilization is particularly important in road

construction for modifying subgrade soils, subbase materials, and base materials. The improved

engineering characteristics of lime-treated materials provide important benefits to both portland

cement concrete (rigid) and asphalt (flexible) pavements (Arioglu, 1986).

Lime stabilization creates a number of important engineering properties in soils, including

improved strength; improved resistance to fracture, fatigue, and permanent deformation;

improved resilient properties; reduced swelling; and resistance to the damaging effects of

moisture. The most substantial improvements in these properties are seen in moderately to

12
 highly plastic soils, such as heavy clays. Although lime is generally used to transform fine-

grained soils permanently, it may be used for shorter-term soil modification or longer-term soil

stabilization (Rogers et al., 1996).

Lime-cement-soil stabilization; both lime and cement produce cementitious products in

the presence of clay minerals and water. A mixture of lime and cement is sometimes used for

stabilization. The combined lime and cement content can normally be around 10 – 15 per cent,

and the ratio of lime to cement can be between 1:3 and 3:2 depending upon the soil type and

strength desired (Asma, 2013).

Cement hydrates when water is added, producing cementitious compounds

independently of the soil. These products are calcium silicate hydrates, calcium aluminate

hydrates and hydrated lime. The first two products constitute the major cementitious

components, whereas the lime is deposited as a separate crystalline solid phase. The increase in

strength is due to the development of cementitious linkages between these hydration products

and soil particles the lime released during the hydration of the cement may react with any

pozzolanic material e.g clay present in the soil, to form a secondary cementitious material which

also contributes to inter-particle bonding (Ola, 1983).

In white lime stabilization, there is no direct hydration to form cementitious compounds.

There is a physical and chemical component to the reaction of lime with clay. The physical

reaction is one of cation absorption, calcium first replacing any other ion present as a base

exchange ion. This is followed by the flocculation into groups of coarse particles which produce

an immediate increase in strength (Ola, 1983).

The iron (hydro) oxides present in the soil environment coated and bound the clay

particles together.

2.3 Benefits of tailings

A wide range of potential sectors which can benefit from using tailings are identified. The areas

were grouped into three classes (Groom et al., 2005).

13
 a) Civil engineering, glass

b) Civil engineering, unpaved road

c) Civil engineering, infrastructures

The proposed benefits of using mine-tailings in construction are in three-fold:

a) They can offer distinct engineering benefits over traditional fine aggregates.

b) They can be used as an alternative to primary materials thereby reducing an environmental

burden on extraction.

c) Their use can help to reduce burden of waste disposal (including illegal stockpiling and

disposal, such as fly-tipping, with their associated risks) and the impacts on the environment

waste (Wallis, 2005).

14
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 SITE BRIEF DISCRIPTION

3.1.1 LATERITIC SOIL

The unsuitable lateritic soil chosen for this study was gotten from a site located along

Okene-Abuja highway axis in Okehi Local Government Area of Kogi State, which lies between

Imanu and Osara within the geographical coordinates of Latitude 7.587 oN and 7.588 oN and

Longitude of 6.268 oE and 6.269 oE.

3.1.2 MINE-TAILINGS

Itakpe Iron Ore Mine-Tailings was used for this study. The site is located in Kogi State of

Nigeria and it is called National Iron Ore Mining Company (NIOMCO). This company was set

up by Decree No 60 of 19th September, 1979 which dissolved the Nigeria Steel Development

Authority and established Six Companies, one of which was the Associated Ores Mining

Company (AOMC). AOMC was later renamed NIOMCO in February 1987 and its activities

were streamlined to exploration, mining, processing and supplying of iron ore concentrates to the

major Steel plants at Ajaokuta and Aladja (near Warri). NIOMCO mines 7 MT of iron ore and

28 MT of associated waste annually.

3.1.3 BINDER

The binder used for this study was lime-cement binder. Hydrated lime-Ca(OH) 2 bought

from John Holt Investment in Okene and Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of the common one

(Dangote Cement) from Obajana will be mixed together in a ratio of 3:4 respectively. This was

based on the work of several researchers who said that lime is better at 6 % and cement at 8 % as

shown that lime as a stabilizer is poor in term of strength in most soil except in A-2 soil at 6 %

(Ola, 1983).
15
Fig. 1: Map showing the Source of Mine-Tailings used for the Research

3.2 BASIC/INDEX PROPERTY TEST ON MATERIALS

3.2.1 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The BS sieves was used in analyzing the grain sizes of the materials in accordance with

BS 1377-2: 1990 in Geotechnical Engineering laboratory of Federal University of Technology,

Akure.

The sieve analysis was conducted to determine the percentages of different sizes of

particles in the mine waste. For this purpose, BS Sieves was used for determining the various

fractions. The mine tailing sample was batched in cement bags from the mine dump site

weighing on an average of 30 kg, air-dried and partly oven-dried to determine its moisture

content. The air-dried samples were sieved through the above BS sieves and variation found in

the percentage fraction for the samples was recorded.

Certain critical sizes were considered for reporting the sieve analysis results which

represent the average particle size distribution for the mine-tailings used. The data generated
16
was then plotted on a semi-log scale. Furthermore, a combined plot was drawn to represent

cumulative particle size analysis of mine-tailings.

3.2.2 PROCTOR’S COMPACTION TEST

The optimum moisture content (OMC) and the maximum dry density (MDD) of the

mixtures were obtained using the Standard Proctor compaction test carried out according to BS

1377-1: 1990. The test was performed by the compaction of the soil into a mould filled at a fixed

moisture content in three, approximately, equal layers of soil. The compaction was achieved by

a standard number of blows (27 blows) from a hand rammer of 2.5 kg dropping from a height of

300 mm.

Compaction equipment of cylindrical metal mould (internal diameter of 101.60 mm and

effective height of 115.50 mm with a volume of 0.000944 mm 3), a metal rammer (weight of 2.5

kg and a free fall height of 300 mm), a balance, a BS sieve No 4 and a large metal tray all

available in Geotechnical Laboratory were used.

3.2.3 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST (CBR)

The strength of the subgrade is the main factor in determining the thickness of the pavement.

The CBR test was carried out in the laboratory on the remoulded samples of the subgrade or

sub base in accordance with BS 1377-4: 1990.

3.2.4 MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION

The moisture content of the soil samples was determined according to BS 1377-2: 1990 in

Geotechnical Engineering laboratory of Federal University of Technology, Akure.

3.2.5 ATTERBERG LIMIT TEST

The Atterberg limit was conducted in accordance with BS 1377-2: 1990, the liquid limit

(LL), the plastic limit (PL) and difference between LL and PL to obtain plasticity index in

Geotechnical Engineering laboratory of Federal University of Technology, Akure.

17
3.2.6 DENSITY TEST

Density is expressed in terms of mass and volume. This was determined in accordance

with BS 1377-2: 1990 in Geotechnical Engineering laboratory of Federal University of

Technology, Akure.

3.2.7 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

Specific gravity will be conducted in accordance with BS 1377-2: 1990 in Geotechnical

Engineering laboratory of Federal University of Technology, Akure.

3.3 DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLING

The method used in the sample collection of the lateritic soil was the trial pit method. A

trial pit is simply a hole dug in the ground that is large enough for a ladder to be inserted, thus

permitting a close examination of the sides. With this method, relatively undisturbed samples of

soils were collected for the analyses.

3.3.1 PREPARATION OF SOIL-TAILINGS-BINDER MIXTURES

Mine-tailings and laterite (poorly) were used as blended soil measuring in five different

percentages: 90 – 10 %, 80 – 20 %, 70 – 30 %, 60 – 40 % and 50 – 50 % measure of 3000 g and

the mixture of lime with cement as a binder used to stabilize the newly formed sample (mine-

tailings-laterite) was 6 % lime to 8 % cement, that is, 3:4 where 4 %, 6 %, 8 %, and 10 % of the

mixed binder were applied in various percentage of the design sample to form category A. Table

6 depicts the labeling for laterite with the mine-tailings.

The best three results from category A were subjected to strength tests. In category B, the

pure laterite soil was subjected to the aforementioned percentages of binder. The microstructure

and elemental composition of the samples with the best strength performance from category B

were determined through x-ray diffraction and x-ray fluorescence respectively. The

environmental performance of the samples were also investigated.

18
Table 6: Labeling for laterite with various percentage of mine-tailings
Label Composition
LMT90-10 90% of Laterite mixed 10% of mine-tailings of total weight
LMT80-20 80% of Laterite mixed 20% of mine-tailings of total weight
LMT70-30 70% of Laterite mixed 30% of mine-tailings of total weight
LMT60-40 60% of Laterite mixed 40% of mine-tailings of total weight
LMT50-50 50% of Laterite mixed 50% of mine-tailings of total weight

The prepared LMTs were mixed with 4 %, 6 %, 8 % and 10 % lime-cement binder. arch

For this research, 3,000g of the mixed soil (LMT) was used with 8,400 g of lime-cement binder

(3,600 g of lime and 4,800 g of cement).

Table 7: Labeling for pure laterite stabilized with various degree of binder (Category B)
Label Composition
Lb4 100% of lateritic soil and 4% of prepared binder
Lb6 100% of lateritic soil and 6% of prepared binder
Lb8 100% of lateritic soil and 8% of prepared binder
Lb10 100% of lateritic soil and 10% of prepared binder

3.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

In order to investigate the effect of hydrated lime-cement on the physical and engineering

properties, both untreated and treated soil were subjected to similar laboratory tests. These tests

were Atterberg limits, compaction, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and x-ray diffraction

(XRD) tests. The effect of curing time and water content on the UCS and microstructure of lime-

cement treated soil were also studied. Stabilization of the soil samples with lime-cement was

done by evaluating the highest strength performance, determining microstructure/mineralogy and

environmental evaluation for long-term.

Table 8: Labeling for soil, LMT and added degree of binder, LC (Category A)

19
Label Composition Label
LMT90-10 90% of laterite and 10% of LMT90-10
mine tailing having 4% of
binder, for stabilization
LMT80-20 80% of laterite and 20% of LMT80-20
mine tailing having 4% of
binder for stabilization
LMT70-30 70% of laterite and 30% of LMT70-30
mine tailing having 4% of
binder for stabilization
LMT60-40 60% of laterite and 40% of LMT60-40
mine tailing having 4% of
binder for stabilization
LMT50-50 50% of laterite and 50% of LMT50-50
mine tailing having 4% of
binder for stabilization
LMT90-10 90% of laterite and 10% of LMT90-10
mine tailing having 6% of
binder for stabilization
LMT80-20 80% of laterite and 20% of LMT80-20
mine tailing having 6% of
binder for stabilization
LMT70-30 70% of laterite and 30% of LMT70-30
mine tailing having 6% of
binder for stabilization
LMT60-40 60% of laterite and 40% of LMT60-40
mine tailing having 6% of
binder for stabilization
LMT50-50 50% of laterite and 50% of LMT50-50
mine tailing having 6% of
binder for stabilization
Table 9: Dosing Matrixes of the Samples
3.4.1 DIRECT SHEAR TEST
The direct test was performed in accordance with BS 1377-7: 1990 in Geotechnical
Engineering laboratory of Federal University of Technology, Akure.
20
Composition
90% of laterite and 10% of
mine tailing having 8% of
binder for stabilization
80% of laterite and 20% of
mine tailing having 8% of
binder for stabilization
70% of laterite and 30% of
mine tailing having 8% of
binder for stabilization
60% of laterite and 40% of
mine tailing having 8% of
binder for stabilization
50% of laterite and 50% of
mine tailing having 8% of
binder for stabilization
90% of laterite and 10% of
mine tailing having 10% of
binder for stabilization
80% of laterite and 20% of
mine tailing having 10% of
binder for stabilization
70% of laterite and 30% of
mine tailing having 10% of
binder for stabilization
60% of laterite and 40% of
mine tailing having 10% of
binder for stabilization
50% of laterite and 50% of
mine tailing having 10% of
binder for stabilization
3.4.2 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION STRENGTH TEST

The UCS testing was performed according to BS 1377-7: 1990. For this test, the sample

mixtures of soil-tailings and binder were compacted at optimum moisture content (OMC) and at

wet and dry side of OMC by hand in three layers in cylindrical moulds of 100 mm in diameter

and 200 mm in height. All specimens were taken out from the moulds and cured at 20 ℃ for 7,

14 and 28 days. After the specified curing time, the cylindrical specimens were subjected to a

gradually increased axial compression load until failure occurred.

3.4.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION DETERMINATION

The x-ray fluorescence analyzer was used for the elemental analysis (percentage of

compositional metals) of the materials. This was done in the Central Research Laboratory in

Federal University of Technology, Akure.

3.4.4 MINERAL COMPOSITION DETERMINATION

The x-ray diffractometer helps determine the mineral composition of the materials as

outlined by (Brown and Brindley, 1989). This was carried out in Chainese General Construction

Company, Abuja. The x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was done to observe the influence of

lime-cement addition on the microstructure of the studied soil mixtures. After UCS testing, the

samples with best strength performance were dried for XRD. Small specimens of both untreated

and treated lateritic samples were prepared for analysis.

3.4.5 pH VALUE TEST

pH of the material was determined in accordance with BS 1377: 1990 in the Department

of Crop Soil and Pest Management laboratory of Federal University of Technology, Akure.

3.4.6 LEACHING TEST

A leaching test is a test during which material is put into contact with a leachate and

some constituents of the material are extracted. The SPLP and TCLP were developed for use in

the assessment of waste disposal facilities rather than mining operations. The TCLP (USEPA

21
Method 1311) evaluates metal mobility in a sanitary landfill, while the SPLP (USEPA Method

1312) was developed to evaluate the fate and transport of metals in an engineered land disposal

facility from which municipal solid waste is excluded (Price, 1997). The SPLP method (also

known as Column test Characterization was adopted for this research work.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

The test results of the samples were analyzed with Microsoft Excel software and compared

with the respective control.

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS OF BASIC TESTS ON LATERITIC SOIL

22
Table 4.1 shows the preliminary studies conducted on the lateritic soil sample. The natural

moisture content was 31.0 %. Atterberg limits consisting of Liquid limit and Plastic limit

were 50.6 % and 22.4 % respectively, plasticity index of the lateritic soil sample was 28.2 %

which indicated that the soil was medium plastic. Specific gravity, pH and CEC for the

lateritic soil sample were 2.93, 7.83 and 14.26 meq/100g respectively. The organic matter

present in the soil was 6.7 g/kg. According to AASHTO classification, the soil was classified

into group A-2-7 with a group index of 2. Figure 4.1 below shows the Particle Size

Distribution Curve for the Soil. Approximately 26 % of the soil passed through Sieve No

200.

The X-ray fluorescence tests was used to determine the chemical composition of the lateritic

soil, the main oxides present were silicon oxide (SiO2) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) which

were 55.49 % and 18.63 % respectively.

Table 4.1: Summary of the Preliminary Analysis on Lateritic Soil Sample

Engineering & Physical Values Chemical Values (in % oxides)
Properties composition
CEC (meq/100g) 14.26 SiO2 55.49
pH (liquid/solid = 2.5) 7.83 Al2O3 18.63
Specific Gravity 2.93 Fe2O3 9.67
Liquid Limit, LL (%) 50.6 TiO2 0.47
Plastic Limit, PL (%) 22.4 CaO 0.77
Plasticity Index, PI 28.2 P2O5 0.02
Natural Moisture content (%) 31.0 K2O 1.84
Linear Shrinkage (%) 12.4 MnO 0.04
Bulk Density (g/cm3) 1.78 MgO 1.25
Organic Matter (g/kg) 6.7 Na2O 0.46
AASHTO Classification A-2-7(2) Loss on ignition, LOI 7.88

Table 4.2: Particle Size Distribution Result of the Lateritic Soil Sample

Sieve No (mm) Percentage Passing

4.75 100.00
2.36 78.30
1.70 66.10

23
 1.18 59.35
0.6 52.15
0.5 48.75
0.425 46.50
0.212 35.85
0.150 32.70
0.075 25.55
Pan 0.00

4.2 RESULTS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ITAKPE MINE-TAILINGS

Table 4.3 shows the summary of the chemical analysis of Itakpe iron ore mine-tailings and

binder (hydrated lime and cement) using X-ray fluorescence spectrophotometry.

Table 4.3: Chemical Composition of Itakpe Iron Ore Mine-Tailings

Oxides Values (%) Heavy Metals Values (ppm)

Iron(iii)oxide (Fe2O3) 31.32 Nickel (Ni) 13.32

Iron(ii,iii)oxide (Fe3O4) 18.95 Zinc (Zn) 10.25
Silicon oxide (SiO2) 41.95 Lead (Pb) 6.81
Calcium oxide (CaO) 1.12 Copper (Cu) 10.30
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 3.40 Chromium (Cr) 12.34
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.42 Barium (Ba) 145.15
Titanium oxide (TiO2) 0.18

Loss on ignition (LOI) 2.65

The main constituent oxides in the mine-tailings were silicon(iv) oxide (SiO2), iron(ii)oxide

(Fe2O3) and iron(ii,iii)oxide (Fe3O4) which were 41.95 %, 31.32 % and 18.95 % respectively

while the main constituent heavy metals were barium (Ba), nickel (Ni) and chromium (Cr) of

145.15 ppm, 13.32 ppm and 12.34 ppm.

4.2 RESULTS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BINDER

Table 4.3 shows the summary of the results of the X-ray fluorescence tests to determine the

chemical composition of the hydrated lime and cement. The main constituent oxide for the

hydrated lime and cement was calcium oxide (CaO) which made up 79.79 % of hydrated lime

and 58.27 % of cement respectively.

24
Table 4.3: Chemical Composition of Hydrated Lime and Cement

Chemical Composition Values (%) Chemical Composition of Values (%)

Hydrated Lime Cement

CaO 79.79 CaO 58.27

SiO2 0.09 SiO2 18.99
Al2O3 0.16 Al2O3 3.65
Fe2O3 0.36 Fe2O3 6.75
MgO 0.74 MgO 1.36
CaSO4 0.12 SO3 1.65
P2O5 0.49 P2O5 0.24

LOI 18.24 K2O 1.09

LOI 7.99

4.3 STRENGTH TESTS RESULTS ON LIME-CEMENT STABILIZED LATERITE-

MINE-TAILINGS (LMT) MIXTURE

The Standard Proctor Compaction test conducted on the laterite-mine-tailings (LMT) mixture

and their binder (lime-cement [L-C]) addition is presented in Table 4.4 below and the effect

of varying the percentage of L-C binder on the maximum dry density of the LMT mixtures is

shown in Figure ….

Table 4.4: Standard Proctor Compaction Test on Lime-Cement Stabilized LMT Mixture
Sample Binder percentage (%) wopt (%)
γdmax(kN/m3)
4 16.68 19.6
6 16.95 19.5
LMT90-10
8 17.07 14.8
10 17.03 20.6

4 17.19 8.8
LMT80-20 6 17.0
17.13
8 17.23 11.2
10 17.42 16.4

25
 4 17.78 13.4
LMT70-30 6 12.0
17.85
8 17.54 9.0
10 17.72 10.2

4 18.44 16.6
LMT60-40 6 12.0
19.15
8 18.86 7.9
10 17.54 8.3

4 17.83 11.2
LMT50-50 6 10.9
18.44
8 18.96 9.8
10 19.11 13.2

19.5

19
Maximum Dry Density, γdmax (kN/m3)

18.5

18

17.5
4 percent lime-cement binder
17
6 percent lime-cement binder

16.5 8 percent lime-cement binder

16 10 percent lime-cement
binder

15.5
LMT90-10 LMT80-20 LMT70-30 LMT60-40 LMT50-50
Lime-Mine Tailings Mixture

Fig. B2: Effect of L-C Binder on the Maximum Dry Density of the LMT Mixtures

Figure 5.2, showed the values of the Maximum Dry Density, MDD (in kN/m 3) of the laterite-

mine-tailings mixture with varied percentage of lime-cement binder addition. Table … and

26
Figure 5.2 showed that with an increment in the percentage of the lime-cement binder, there

was an increase in the MDD of the samples. The increase in MDD was gradual as there was

increase in the laterite sample (control), from … at no binder addition to 19.15 kN/m 3 for

LMT70-30 at 8 % binder addition.

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test conducted on the laterite-mine-tailings (LMT)

mixture and their binder (lime-cement [LC]) addition is presented in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4: CBR Test on Lime-Cement Stabilized LMT Mixture

Sample Binder percentage (%) CBR (%)

Laterite (Control) 0 64.4

4 74.1
6 76.3
LMT90-10
8 78.6
10 82.3

4 94.3
LMT80-20 6 96.5
8 98.8
10 100.3

4 107.8
LMT70-30 6 112.2
8 116.0
10 118.2

4 122.7
LMT60-40 6 124.1
8 125.7
10 127.2

4 136.2
LMT50-50 6 137.7

27
 8 140.7
10 178.1

180

160 4 percent lime-

cement binder
Caalifornia Bearing Ratio, CBR (%)

140 6 percent lime-

cement binder

8 percent lime-
120 cement binder

10 percent lime-
100 cement binder

80

60
LMT90-10 LMT80-20 LMT70-30 LMT60-40 LMT50-50
Laterite-Mail Tailings Mixture

Fig. B2: CBR of the LMT Mixtures with Variation in the Percentage of the L-C Binder

Figure 5.2, showed the values of the California Bearing Ratio of the laterite-mine-tailings

mixture with varied percentage of lime-cement binder addition. Table … and Figure 5.2

showed that with an increment in the percentage of the lime-cement binder, there was an

increase in the CBR of the samples. The increase in CBR was gradual as there was increase

in the laterite sample (control), from 64.4 % at no binder addition to 178.1 % for LMT50-50 at

10 % binder addition. This may be due to the fact that, the mine-tailings having a higher

shearing resistance when compared to laterite, might have added to the CBR of the soil-mine-

tailing mixture. The CBR values for laterite-mine-tailings (LMT) mixture increased as the

percentage of mine-tailings added to the mixture increased. The CBR values of LMT90-10

(laterite of 90 % and mine-tailings of 10 %) ranges from 74.1 % at 4 % binder addition to

82.3 % at 10 % binder addition; LMT80-20 (laterite of 80 % and mine-tailings of 20 %) ranges

from 94.3 % at 4 % binder addition to 100.3 % at 10 % binder addition; LMT 70-30 (laterite of

28
 70 % and mine-tailings of 30 %) ranges from 107.8 % at 4 % binder addition to 118.2 % at 10

% binder addition; LMT60-40 (laterite of 60 % and mine-tailings of 40 %) ranges from 122.7 %

at 4 % binder addition to 127.2 % at 10 % binder addition; and LMT 50-50 (laterite of 50 % and

mine-tailings of 50 %) ranges from 136.2 % at 4 % binder addition to 178.1 % at 10 % binder

addition. This showed that the CBR increased as the binder increased from 4 % to 10 % at 2

% increment.

The unconfined compressive strength [UCS] test conducted on the laterite-mine tailing

[LMT] mixtures (chosen from the CBR test) and their binder (Lime-Cement [L-C]) addition

is presented in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4: UCS Result of the Stabilized Laterite-Mine Tailing Mixtures

Curing Percentage of Binder [L-C] (% by weight of UCS value (kN/m2)
Ages LMT)

7 4 83.27
6 83.27
8 142.76
10 154.65

15 4 132.69
6 148.25
8 151.91
10 172.04

30 4 194.00

6 203.15

8 270.87

10 285.51

Figure 5.2, showed the values of the unconfined compressive strengths of the laterite-mine

tailing mixtures and their binder addition. Figure 5.2 showed that there was an increase in the

strength of the laterite-mine tailing mixtures as the percentage of lime-cement binder

increased. The increase in strength was gradual as there was increase in the curing age, from
29
83.27 kN/m2 after 7 days curing age at 4 % lime-cement binder addition to 285.51 kN/m 2

after 30 days curing age at 10 % lime-cement binder addition. This may be due to the fact

that the increased particle size of the lime-cement, which was in granular form, might have

added to the strength of the soil sample.

Figure 5.2 also showed the effect of the 4, 6, 8 and 10% by weight of sample binder additions

to the strength of laterite-mine tailing mixtures. On adding the binder to the laterite-mine

tailing mixtures, its strength increased. The strength of the laterite-mine tailing-binder mixes

increased as the binder increased. This was due to the binder (Lime-Cement) added which

had cementitious properties solidifying the soil matrix, thereby increasing the strength of the

samples. The strength increased as the binder was increased from 4% to 6% to 8 % to 10%,

the strength increased from the range of 83.27 – 154.65 kN/m2 to the range of 132.69 –

172.04 kN/m2 to the range of 194.00 – 285.51 kN/m2 at 7, 15 and 30 days curing age

respectively.

30