Investigating the effects of gemstone mining on the environs

ABSTRACT

Mining engineering practice involves energy generating operations, and they have influences on

the environment. This research examines the effects of gemstone mining on a mining community

by investigating soil and water samples from the community for concentration of heavy metals,

micro nutrients and physio-chemical parameters. The results for heavy metals concentration

obtained from the soil samples are 0.30, 0.90, 0.09, 0.995 and 39.40 mg/kg for Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn and

Fe respectively. The values of micro nutrients concentration in the soil are 4.90, 5.29 and 0.97

mg/kg for Na, Mg and Al respectively. The results of physio-chemical parameters obtained from

the water samples are 7.495 mg/L, 187.00 mg/L, 233.414 mg/L, 70.00 mg/L, 16.52 mg/L, 6.28

mg/L, 14.65 mg/L and 10.25 mg/L respectively for pH, hardness, chloride, alkalinity, total solids,

total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, sodium and potassium. The concentrations of all the

parameters tested are lower than permissible limit except for cadmium and Iron.

Keywords: Gemstone mining; environment; pollution; WHO standards; soil analysis; water
analysis
1 Introduction

Mining operation is naturally destructive and even the influences of a single mining operation have

a great effect on the surroundings and the wildlife that lives nearby (Ahirwal et al., 2017; Gu, 2018;

Kumar and Maiti, 2015). Even though there are regulations in place that are expected to reduce

the damage, they are insufficient to permit mining activities to be practiced without effects on the

environs particularly in cases where the regulations are difficult to be implemented. Mining

activities pollute soils over a significant area surrounding the mine (Shen et al., 2017; Zhao et al.,

2017). Agricultural activities close to mining sites are mostly affected. These operations regularly

change the surrounding landscape by exposing earlier undisturbed earthen materials (Abdul-

Rahmon et al., 2014). Erosion of exposed soils, extracted ores, tailings, and fine material in spoil

heaps can result in significant sediment loading to surface waters and drainage paths (Antwi-Agyei

et al., 2009; Cai et al., 2015). Additionally, disclosures of hazardous materials and the deposition

of polluted windblown dust can result into soil contamination (Akala and Lal, 2001; Nickson et

al., 2005; Song et al., 2017).

The potential of soil and sediment eroding into and degrading the quality of surface water

is a major concern in most mining operations (Dang et al., 2002; Johnson and Skousen, 1995;

Mukhopadhyay et al., 2016). Due to the large area of land disturbed by mining activities and the

large amounts of earthen materials exposed at sites, erosion is a major challenge at hard rock

mining sites. Therefore, erosion control must be carefully considered from the start of operations

through completion of reclamation. Erosion causes loading of sediments and any entrained

chemical pollutants to close waterbodies, particularly during severe storm events. (Askaer et al.,

2008; Bouma, 2014; Liu and Lal, 2013).

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 The major factors affecting erosion includes the amount and velocity of runoff from

precipitation occurrence, the level of precipitation infiltration downward through the soil, the

quantity of vegetative cover, the slope distance from the point of source of overland flow to the

point where deposition starts, and operational erosion control structures (Gu, 2018;

Mukhopadhyay et al., 2016; Nude et al., 2012; Zhu et al., 2018). The main causes of erosion

loading at mining sites include waste dumps, spoil heaps, abandoned mine, equipment

maintenance areas, exploration and mine out areas, tailings pile and dams, haul and access roads,

stockpile areas and reclamation areas (Abdul-Rahmon et al., 2014; Antwi-Agyei et al., 2009; Song

et al., 2017). Additionally, exposed materials from mining activities (mine workings, spoils,

contaminated soils etc.) contributes to sediments with chemical pollutants, predominantly heavy

metals (Akala and Lal, 2001; Dang et al., 2002; Obiadi et al., 2016). The instability in natural site

conditions such as atmospheric condition, vegetation, topography, geology and closeness to and

physical characteristics of surface waters together with differences in the amounts and physical

characteristics of exposed materials at mine sites, prevent the overview of the amounts and

characteristics of sediment loading (Gu, 2018; Kumar and Maiti, 2015; Liu and Lal, 2013). The

kinds of effects related to erosion and sedimentation vary, naturally producing both short-term and

long-term effects. In surface waters, high amounts of particulate matter in the water column

generate both chronic and severe toxic impacts in aquatic animals (Nude et al., 2012; Zhu et al.,

2018). Furthermore, sediments transported and deposited in layers in terrestrial ecosystems

produce many effects related with terrestrial ecosystem and both surface and ground waters

(Nickson et al., 2005; Shen et al., 2017). Minerals associated with deposited sediments reduces the

pH of surface runoff, thus mobilizing heavy metals that can penetrate into the nearby subsoil or

can be carried away to nearby surface water (Maiti, 2013).

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 It is well-known that mining operations have influences on water, as both surface and

groundwater supplies are unsafe to support human consumption (Appiah, 1998; Johnson and

Hallberg, 2005; Shen et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2017). Previous studies showed that elements like

arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead and mercury pollute water and improved

sediment levels in streams and acid mine drainage (Cai et al., 2015; Nickson et al., 2005; Nude et

al., 2011; Shen et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2017). Mining activities cause abnormally high

concentrations of chemicals like mercury, arsenic and sulfuric acid around the mine environs

causing the water unsuitable for consumption. Once water is contaminated, it influences plants,

tailing ponds, underground mines, waste-disposal areas, active or abandoned surface mines. The

sources of water pollution due to mining include processing plants, tailing ponds, underground

mines, waste-disposal areas, active or abandoned surface or haulage roads (Akala and Lal, 2001;

Bouma, 2014; Dang et al., 2002; Song et al., 2017). The sediments are from increased soil erosion

thereby causing siltation of stream beds. Siltification caused by mining influences irrigation,

swimming, fisheries, domestic water supply, and other uses of streams. Mining activities causes

an unnaturally high concentrations of chemicals like mercury, arsenic and sulfuric acid over a

significant area surrounding the mine (Dang et al., 2002; Gu, 2018; Nude et al., 2012; Zhu et al.,

2018).

Airborne emissions occur during various stages of the mine cycle, but mostly during

exploration, development and planning, construction, and operational activities. Mining operations

mobilize great volumes of material, and spoil heaps consisting fine-size particles are simply

circulated over a wide area by the wind (Nude et al., 2011; 2012). As soon as pollutants are exposed

to the atmosphere, they undergo physical and chemical changes before reaching a receptor. These

pollutants can cause severe impacts to people’s health and to the environment (Ahirwal et al.,

3
2017; Maiti, 2013). Large-scale mining has the likelihood to contribute to air pollution, particularly

in the operation stage. All activities during mineral extraction, processing, handling, and hauling

operations depend on equipment, generators, processes, and materials that create hazardous air

pollutants such as particulate matter, heavy metals and etc.

The environmental degradation as a result of mining operations occurs mostly due to

unsuitable and uneconomical working practices and rehabilitation measures (Gu, 2018; Nude et

al., 2012). A number of stages is involved in mining which has serious impacts on the natural

environment, society and cultural heritage, the health and safety of mine workers, and communities

based in close proximity to mining activities (Nude et al., 2012; Shen et al., 2017; Zhao et al.,

2017). The harmful materials released during mining and their effects depend on a variety of

factors, such as the sensitivity of local terrain, the composition of minerals being mined, the type

of technology employed, the skill, knowledge and environmental commitment of the company in

compliance with environmental regulations. There is pollution of soil and water caused by various

operations prior to mining and poor mining practice by the mine workers and these releases heavy

metals into soil and affect the physiochemical properties of water (Appiah, 1998; Johnson and

Hallberg, 2005; Obiadi et al., 2016). It is therefore important to determine their concentration in

the soil to ascertain their effects on the environment by comparing with internationally acceptable

standard set by the WHO (2002).

This study evaluates the effects of gemstone mining due to reports from communities

around Komu area of Nigeria suffering from irresponsible environmental management practices

that are linked to gemstone mining activity affecting both water and soil. Therefore, it is crucial to

investigates these effects taking into consideration; a) the concentration of heavy metals (Pb, Cu,

Cd, Zn and Fe) and micro-nutrients (Na, Mg and Al) in the soil; b) determine the physio chemical

4
parameters (pH, alkalinity, hardness, chloride, total solid, total dissolved solid, total suspended

solid, sodium and potassium) of water sample; and c) evaluate the effect of (a) and (b) on the

farmland using WHO standards.

2 Materials and methods

To investigate the effect of gemstone mining on environs, this study adopts a mining community

named Komu in Southwestern Nigeria. Soil and water samples were taken from the community

for laboratory analysis, to assess the impact of mining activities on the living condition of the

community dwellers.

2.1 Sample collection and preparation

The soil samples were collected from the 20-cm topsoil, air-dried and sieved through a 2mm non-

metallic sieve. Soil physicochemical properties were carried out using well described methods by

Alvarenga et al. (2008), while particle-size distribution was determined by the pipet method (Gee

& Bauder, 1986). Soil and water samples were collected at 20 different points over a significant

area of Komu site. Auger was used to obtained soil samples and water samples were collected

from the surrounding dams and wells.

2.2 Soil analysis

2.2.1 Determination of heavy metals concentration and micro-nutrients in the soil samples

A 10g of 2mm air dried soil sample was weighed in a digesting tube and digested using Aqua-

regia (HNO3 + HCL) for about one hour. The digest was allowed to cool and make up to 100ml

volume with distil water thereafter filtered using Whatman filter paper. The heavy metals and

5
micro-nutrients present in the soil samples were determined spectrometrically using 210 VGP

atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS).

2.3 Water analysis

2.3.1 Determination of pH of a water sample

The pH of the water sample was determined using Jen way 30.5 meter at known temperature. The

standard for the pH was prepared using buffer tablet 4 and 7.

2.3.2 Determination of the hardness of a water sample

25ml of water sample was diluted with 50ml distilled water in an Erlenmeyer. 1ml buffer solution

was added and titrated with ethylene-tetra-acetic acid (EDTA). The absence of sharp blue end

point indicates the presence of some interfering agents. A masking reagent was added and the

titration continued until the reddish tinge disappears from solution. The last few drops of EDTA

were added at 3- 5 sec-intervals until the final end point was blue.

2.3.4 Determination of the dissolved carbon (iv) oxide of a water sample

A 500ml pyrex bottle was filled with water sample. The water sample was siphoned into a 100ml

graduated cylinder and until it overflowed. 10 drops of phenolphthalein indicator were added to

the water sample. When the sample turns red, the free -CO2 was absent, while the sample remained

colourless when the pink colour persists for about 30 seconds.

2.3.5 Determination of the chloride content in a water sample

50ml of the neutralized sample was added to 1ml potassium chromate indicator and the water

sample was titrated with 0.0282M silver nitrate solution until the reddish-brown colour occurred

6
at the end point. A blank titration of 50ml of distilled water was also conducted. Cl- concentration

(mg/l) was calculated from difference in volumes between samples.

2.3.6 Determination of the alkalinity of a water sample

100ml of water was put into a clean conical flask. One drop of 0.05M sodium thiosulphate solution

was added to remove free residual chlorine present. Two drops of phenolphthalein indicator were

added to the water sample. When the solution remains colourless, the phenolphthalein alkalinity

was zero, while the solution turns red, the phenolphthalein alkalinity was present. Thereafter,

titration with the solution of 0.02M standard HCl was carried out until the colour disappears.

2.3.7 Determination of total solids in a water sample

A 250ml of water sample was pipette into an evaporating dish and evaporated to dryness on a

steam bath. The outside of the dish was wiped and the residue was dried in an oven for an hour at

105oC. The dish was quickly transferred into a desiccator, cooled to room temperature and

weighed. The dish was returned to the oven, dried further for 10 to 20 minutes, reweighed after

cooling to room temperature. The process was repeated until the weight of the dish and residue

were made constant (0.05mg). The weight of the dish was subtracted to obtain the weight of the

total solids.

2.3.8 Determination of the total suspended solids in a water sample

A glass fibre filter paper of 5.5cm in diameter was dried to constant weight at 105oC in an oven

and cooled to room temperature with the use of a desiccator. Then Gooch funnel and rubber adapter

were prepared and fixed to a filtering flask. The glass fibre was placed into the Gooch funnel

carefully with the aid of a pair of tongues. The water sample was mixed thoroughly and withdrawn

using a 250ml pipette and filtered. The glass fibre was removed carefully from Gooch by using a

7
pair of tongues and then dried to constant weight at about 105oC. The weight of suspended solid

was obtained by subtracting the constant weight from the weight of filter paper.

3 Results and discussions

3.1 Heavy metals concentration

The results of heavy metals concentration obtained from the soil samples are presented in Table 1.

The average concentrations obtained for the heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn and Fe) are 0.30, 0.90,

0.05, 0.99 and 39.40 mg/kg in the soil. The sequence of occurrence for the heavy metals is Fe >

Zn > Cu > Pb > Cd in the soil samples. In addition, Figure 1 plots the results of Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn

and Fe obtained from the analysis of the ten samples. Figure 1 also includes the WHO standard for

each of the heavy metals. Furthermore, the average concentrations obtained for the heavy metals

(Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn and Fe) are compared with the WHO standard in Table 2.

Table 1 Results of heavy metals concentration (mg/kg) for the soil samples.
Samples Pb Cu Cd Zn Fe
1 0.30 0.89 0.05 1.01 38.70
2 0.30 0.91 0.04 0.98 40.10
3 0.29 0.88 0.06 1.02 39.40
4 0.31 0.92 0.04 0.96 38.60
5 0.32 0.87 0.05 0.94 40.20
6 0.28 0.89 0.05 1.04 40.10
7 0.33 0.90 0.03 1.02 39.20
8 0.28 0.89 0.06 1.01 40.40
9 0.29 0.91 0.03 0.98 38.10
10 0.30 0.84 0.04 0.92 39.20
Ave. 0.30 0.90 0.05 0.99 39.40

8
Figure 1 Heavy metal concentrations in soil samples
2,4 0,1
Pb concentration in soil Cd concentration in soil

Heavy metal conc. (mg/kg)

2,2
Heavy metal conc. (mg/kg)

WHO permissible limit in soil

0,09
2 0,08 WHO permissible limit in soil
1,8
0,07
1,6
1,4 0,06
1,2 0,05
1 0,04
0,8 0,03
0,6
0,02
0,4
0,2 0,01
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number Sample number
(a) lead (Pb) (b) Cadmium (Cd)
12 80
Cu concentration in soil
Heavy metal conc. (mg/kg)
Heavy metal conc. (mg/kg)

WHO permissible limit in soil 70 Zn concentration in soil

10
60 WHO permissible limit in soil
8
50
6 40
30
4
20
2
10
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number Sample number
(c) Copper (Cu) (d) Zinc (Zn)
100
Heavy metal conc. (mg/kg)

90 Fe concentration in soil
80 WHO permissible limit in soil
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number
(e) Iron (Fe)

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Table 2 Comparisons of the heavy metal concentration in the soil samples with the WHO
Standard (2002)

Heavy metals Pb Cu Cd Zn Fe
Concentration in soil (mg/kg) 0.30 0.90 0.05 0.99 39.40

WHO permissible limit in soil (mg/kg) 2.00 10.00 0.02 50.00 20.00

The concentration of lead in the soil samples is lower than the WHO permissible limit. The

plot of the results in Figure 1(a) shows that all the results obtained fall below the WHO maximum

limit. Also, the average concentration of Pb (see Table 2) of 0.30 mg/kg is well below the 2.00

mg/kg permissible limit set by WHO. This implies that the mining environment is free from lead

poisoning and all other health hazards that may arise due to high lead concentration in the soil.

The low-level environmental exposure to lead may be related with multiple sources (such as petrol,

industrial processes, water pipes) and pathways (such as air, household dust, soil, water, food).

Hence, evaluation of the relative contributions of sources is complex and therefore, differ between

areas and population groups (Von, 1999).

The concentration of copper in the soil samples is lower than WHO permissible limit. The

plot of the results in Figure 1(b) shows that all the results obtained fall below the WHO maximum

limit. Also, the average concentration of Cu (see Table 2) of 0.90 mg/kg is well below the 10.00

mg/kg permissible limit set by WHO. This indicates that the soil is good for agriculture since high

concentration of copper in the soil can lead to decrease in the bacterial content, thus improving

crops or plant growth. Copper accumulation within soil occur through anthropogenic inputs such

as application of Cu-containing fungicides, Cu-related mining and manufacturing, and application

of liquid or solid waste residuals (Kumar and Maiti, 2015).

10
 The concentration of cadmium in the soil sample is higher than the WHO permissible limit.

The plot of the results in Figure 1(c) shows that all the results obtained greater than the WHO

maximum limit. Also, the average concentration of Cd (see Table 2) of 0.05 mg/kg is higher than

the 0.02 mg/kg permissible limit set by WHO. This implies that the soil is toxic and not good for

agriculture purposes. Cadmium is a non-essential and toxic element for humans and has no use for

plants or animals either. It can damage the kidneys and causes excess production of proteins in the

urine. The duration and level of exposure to cadmium determines the severity of the effect.

Cadmium is also carcinogenic if inhaled. Around 90% of cadmium exposure in non-smokers is

through food. Crops take in cadmium from soils and the rate of uptake is influenced by factors

such as soil pH, salinity, humus content, crop species and varieties and the presence of other

elements e.g. zinc (European Commission, 2013).

The concentration of zinc present in the soil sample is very low when compared with WHO

permissible limit. The plot of the results in Figure 1(d) shows that all the results obtained fall below

the WHO maximum limit. Also, the average concentration of Zn (see Table 2) of 0.99 mg/kg is

well below the 50.00 mg/kg permissible limit set by WHO. Infact, the concentration of Zn can

almost be neglected compared to the permissible limit set by WHO. The indication is that the soil

is useful for agriculture purpose as zinc is one of the main micro nutrients needed in the soil for

proper yield of crop. Zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient and has specific physiological

functions in all living systems which includes, the maintenance of structural and functional

integrity of biological membranes and facilitation of protein synthesis and gene expression

(Andreini et al., 2006).

Iron is the one most abundant element on earth, and most soil typically contains 1%-5%

total iron. The concentration of iron present in the soil samples is beyond WHO permissible limit.

11
From Figure 1(e), it is observed that all the results obtained of analysis for Fe fall below the WHO

maximum limit. Also, the average concentration of Zn (see Table 2) of 39.40 mg/kg is well below

the 20.00 mg/kg permissible limit set by WHO. This high concentration could be a result of silicate

minerals that occurs together with gemstone. The higher concentration of the iron in the soil sample

can render the soil unsuitable for agriculture purposes due to acid mine drainage occurrence.

Excess amount of iron (more than 10 mg/kg) in body causes rapid increase in pulse rate and

coagulation of blood vessels, hypertension and drowsiness. Iron has been associated with genetic

and metabolic diseases and repeated blood transfusions (Meral et al., 2015).

3.2 Micro nutrients concentration

The results of micro nutrients concentration obtained from the soil samples are presented in Table

3. The average concentrations obtained for the micro nutrients (Na, Mg and Al) are 4.90, 5.29, and

Table 3 Results of micro nutrients (mg/kg) for the soil samples

Samples Na Mg Al
1 4.70 5.31 1.08
2 5.10 5.28 0.86
3 4.80 5.24 1.04
4 4.60 5.36 0.94
5 5.30 5.10 0.88
6 5.10 5.40 1.20
7 4.88 5.24 1.02
8 5.20 5.50 0.84
9 4.98 5.20 0.97
10 4.34 5.30 1.04
Ave. 4.90 5.29 0.97

12
0.97 mg/kg in the soil. The sequence of occurrence for the micro nutrients is Mg> Na > Al in the

soil samples. Direct comparison with WHO standard was not made since WHO standards are

unavailable for the concentration limit in soil. This can be related with the fact that Na, Mg and Al

contribute greatly to the improvement of plants and agricultural products. They are also essential

for production of fertilizers, thus their effects on soil could be little or with no traceable effect even

at high concentration.

The concentration of sodium present in the soil sample does not have much effect on the

soil because of the influence of sodium to soil. Although it is usually agreed that sodium is

important to human life and there is no agreement on the minimum daily requirement. However,

it has been estimated that a total daily intake of 120 - 400 mg will meet the daily needs of growing

infants and young children, and 500 mg for the adults (National Research Council 1989-1995). In

general, sodium salts are not very toxic because of the efficiency with which mature kidneys

excrete sodium. However, acute effects such as nausea, vomiting, convulsions, muscular twitching

and rigidity, and cerebral and pulmonary edema and death have been reported following accidental

overdoses of sodium chloride (Euro Reports and Studies, 1979; Ottawa, 1992). Magnesium is also

one of most important micro nutrients needed in the soil for proper germination and rapid growth

of crop. Abundant amounts of magnesium do not have much influence on farmland rather benefits

the growth of agricultural products. Aluminum is the most abundant metal on the earth’s crust,

comprising about 7% of its mass. Since many plant species are sensitive to micromolar

concentrations of aluminum, the potential for soils to be aluminum toxic is considerable. It is

known that aluminum is bound by ligands or occurs in other nonphytotoxic forms such as

aluminosilicates and precipitates. However, solubilization of aluminum is enhanced by low pH

and aluminum toxicity is a factor affecting plant production on acid soils. Soil acidification

13
develops naturally when basic cations are leached from soils, but it can be accelerated by some

farming practices and acid rain. Strategies to maintain production on these soils include the

application of lime to raise the soil pH and the use of plants that are tolerant of acid soils.

3.3 Physio chemical parameters of water samples

The results of the concentrations of physio chemical parameters in the water samples are presented

in Table 4. The average concentrations obtained for pH, hardness, chlorine, alkalinity, total solids,

total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, sodium and potassium are 7.50, 187.06, 233.41,

70.00, 22.80, 16.52, 6.28, 14.65 and 10.25 respectively. In addition, the WHO permissible limits

for the physio chemical parameters are compared with the results from the water analysis in Table

5.

Table 4 Results of physio chemical parameters (mg/L) for the water samples

Sample pH H Cl A TS TDS TSS Na K

1 7.25 84.00 209.45 30.00 7.20 2.70 4.50 16.20 10.50
2 7.74 290.00 257.38 110.00 38.40 30.30 9.06 13.10 10.00
3 7.90 180.80 204.80 60.50 12.20 18.40 10.50 14.75 10.20
4 7.10 228.50 190.50 90.30 42.40 14.80 4.10 14.55 11.00
5 7.48 160.40 276.80 60.20 11.20 12.80 3.70 14.65 10.58
6 7.56 205.70 240.50 140.30 42.10 16.40 5.40 14.85 10.46
7 7.52 195.60 230.34 42.10 13.90 24.30 6.10 13.40 10.54
8 7.53 152.40 198.00 28.40 16.20 11.60 6.70 16.70 9.80
9 7.44 178.50 282.10 93.10 16.0 17.10 5.80 13.80 10.60
10 7.47 194.70 244.18 45.10 28.40 16.80 6.94 14.50 8.82
Ave. 7.50 187.06 233.41 70.00 22.80 16.52 6.28 14.65 10.25
H is hardness, Cl is chlorine, A is alkalinity, TS is total solids, TSD is total dissolved solids, TSS
is total suspended solids, Na is sodium and K is potassium.

14
Table 5 Comparisons of the results of physio chemical parameters in the water samples with
the WHO standard (2014)
Physio chemical parameters Concentrations in water samples WHO permissible limit
(mg/L) (mg/L)
pH 7.495 6.5 – 8.5
Hardness 187.00 600
Chlorides 233.414 1000
Alkalinity 70.00 600
Total solids 22.80 2150
Total dissolved solids 16.52 2000
Total suspended solids 6.28 150
Sodium 14.65 NA
Potassium 10.25 75

It was found that the concentrations of all the physio chemical parameters are within the WHO

permissible limit which implies that the water is good for consumption and other domestics use.

Comparison could not be made for sodium because the permissible limit is not available in the

WHO standard due its significance in drinking water. Most water supplies contain less than 20 mg

of sodium per litre, but in some countries the limit can exceed 250 mg/L. Saline intrusion, mineral

deposits, seawater spray and sewage effluents can all contribute significantly to the quantities of

sodium in water. In addition, water-treatment chemicals, such as sodium fluoride, sodium

bicarbonate, and sodium hypochlorite, can together result in sodium levels as high as 30 mg/L.

4. Conclusions

This research investigated the effect of gemstone mining in Komu environ, Nigeria. Samples of

water and soil samples were collected over a significant areas of the environment and within the

subjected to laboratory tests. The analysis shows that gemstone mining has environmental effects

15
on soil but little or no effects on water. The sequence of occurrence for the heavy metals is Fe >

Zn > Cu > Pb > Cd, while for the micro nutrients is Mg > Na > Al in the soil samples. The

concentrations of heavy metals like Pb, Cu and Zn were lesser than the WHO acceptable limit.

However, the concentrations of Fe and Cd are greater than the permissible limit recommended by

WHO. The high concentrations of Fe and Cd can lead to greater health hazard through soil

ingestion and inhalation. Furthermore, the analysis shows that the mining activities have no effect

on the soil micro nutrients. The concentrations for the physio chemical parameters in the water are

7.50, 187.06 (mg/L), 233.41 (mg/L), 70.00 (mg/L), 22.80 (mg/L), 16.52 (mg/L), 6.28 (mg/L),

14.65 (mg/L) and 10.25 (mg/L) for pH, hardness, chlorides, alkalinity, total solids, total dissolved

solids, total suspended solids, sodium and potassium. The study discovered that the concentrations

of all the physio chemical parameters in the water samples are within the range of WHO

permissible limit, therefore indicating the water is suitable for consumption and other domestics

uses. More research work should be carried out to study the effects of mining gemstone on air

quality.

Mining activities have the potential to influence the environment creating problems such

as loss of biodiversity, erosion, contamination of surface water, ground water, and soil. Mining

can also influence the surrounding population's health due to contamination caused by the leakage

of chemicals. Though mining companies should provide resources and financial benefit to confirm

that the environment is returned to its natural condition after closure of the mine, however this not

always the case. The impacts of mining in most Africa countries have left large-scale devastation

when mines do not fulfil their duties and responsibilities to the surrounding communities. Since

the mine areas are left in an unsustainable condition, plant species and wildlife are threatened and

these areas are at risk of becoming lifeless wastelands. It is therefore recommended to enforce law

16
for mines to leave areas in a better state than what it was prior to mining starting. Advocates of

mining projects should ensure that the basic rights of affected individuals and communities are

supported and not invaded on. These include rights to control and use land, the right to clean water,

and the right to livelihood. Such rights may be protected in national law, based on and expressed

through a range of international human rights instruments and agreements.

17
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