CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY 

The dramatic increase in Public awareness and concern about the state of the global and

Local environments which has occurred in recent decades, has been accompanied and partly

prompted by an ever-growing body of evidence on the extent at which pollution has caused

severe environmental degradation. 

The introduction of harmful substances into the environment has been shown to have much

adverse effect on human health, agricultural productivity and natural ecosystems. Soils may

become contaminated by accumulation of heavy metals and metalloids through emissions

from the rapidly expanding industrial areas, mine tailings, disposal of  high metal wastes,

leaded gasoline and paints, land application of fertilizer, animal manures, sewage sludge,

pesticides, waste water irrigation, coal combustion residues, spillage of petrochemicals and

atmospheric deposition, Garbanno, et al.,1995. Some heavy metals like arsenic, cadmium and

lead have been reported to have no known bio-importance in human and physical and

consumption even at very low concentrations can be toxic, EU, 2012, Nolan, 2003. To a

small extent, trace metals enter the body system through food, air and water and bio

accumulate over a period of time, Lenntech, 2004; UNEP/GPA, 2004.    

This study investigates the level of selected heavy metals in soil samples within the vicinity

of tin mines area in Alhamis, Mada Station and Arikpa Areas of Nasarawa Eggon Local

Government of Nasarawa State.

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1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

In recent years, concern over the impossible effects of the increasing accumulation of

metallic contaminations in the environment is growing. Yahaya et al., 2009. For this reason,

the investigation of heavy metals in soil is essential since slight changes in their concentration

above the acceptable levels whether due to natural or anthropogenic factors can result in

serious environmental and subsequent health problems, Fanqueiro et al., 2004. The situation

of heavy metals pollution is more worrisome if the developing countries where research

effort toward monitoring the environment have not been given the desired attention by the

stake holder, (Yahaya et al., 2009. In Nigeria the situation is no better by the activities of

most industries and populace towards mining activities and management which usually lead

to increasing levels of heavy metals in the environment.

1.2 AIM OF STUDY 

The aim of the study is to determine the concentration of heavy metals on the overburden and

non-mining soil samples taken from mining areas within Nasarawa state,   

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY 

 To identify the impact of mining activities on soil and environment.

 To compare the concentration of the selected heavy metals between the mining and

non-mining vicinities of Alhamis, Mada Station and Arikpa Areas of Nasarawa Eggon

Local Government Area, Nasarawa state.

 To compare the results with WHO standard limits and to determine possible sources

of pollution in the study areas.

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1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

Research have been carried out on heavy metals determination in soil within mining areas

and have all indicated that heavy metals are present at different concentrations and in various

forms in the polluted and unpolluted soils. These metals affect lives, environment and plant

productivity if they are found exceeding the WHO (World Health Organization) standard for

regular intake. The results obtained in this research will create awareness as to the status of

the examined soil samples in terms of heavy metals.

1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY

The scope of this study involves the determination and comparison of the heavy metal’s

concentration on mining and non-mining soil. This research will provide database for risk

evaluation of metals levels of soil in Alhamis, Mada Station and Arikpa of Nasarawa Eggon

Local Government Area of Nasarawa state.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 

Several studies (research work) has been carried out on trace metal determination in soil

within mining areas, and have all indicated that trace metals or heavy metals such as Cd, Cu,

Zn, Hg, Pb are present at different concentrations and in various forms in the polluted and

unpolluted soils. The most important sources of heavy metals in the environment are the

anthropogenic activities such as mining, smelting procedures, steel and iron industry,

chemical industry, traffic, agricultural as well as domestic activities, Suciu et al., 2008,

Chopin et al., 2007; Stihi et al., 2006. Chemical and metallurgical industries are the most

important sources of heavy metals in soil, Panelica et al., 2008, Cojocanu et al., 2006. The

presence of heavy metals in soil can affect the quality of food, ground water, micro-organism

activity, plant growth e.t.c., Devries et al., 2007, Popescu et al., 2009.

Musa and Jiya (2011), and Olaniyan (2008) revealed that the indiscriminate mining on the

Jos Plateau led to many parts of the area being exposed to erosion and reduces the availability

of land for crop production. The volume of mineral tripped off during mining reduces the

nutrient present in soil. 

Nassarawa Eggon Local Government Area is an extensively mined area, which was

dominated by use of heavy earth moving equipment and draglines. As a result, the zone is

characterized by deep excavations and dumping of high overburden, mine ponds, mine tailing

and slurry wash deposits. 

According Gyang and Ashano (2010), the major problem of the area still remains the

devastated and de-vegetated land and mine spoils depriving the inhabitants of fertile farm

land Lavis (2011) explained that the deep mining which is an excavation of underlying sand

has created mining pits, man-made lakes, pools and ponds which have great effect on both
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the people and agricultural practices. Mining ponds have always been death traps for people

and animals.

Olaniyan (2008) reported that the area extents of devastated arable land by open-cast tin

mining is estimated at 316km2, which comprises of mine spoiled soil (overburden), pits

paddocks site of abandoned equipment’s mining scars tailing mine dumps and ponds,

especially along the river valleys. 

Balogun (2007) pointed out that the Jos mining region covers an area of approximately

3,670km2 about 43% of the total area of Jos Plateau. As a result of intensive mining activities,

the area is badly dissected by erosion gulies mined ponds and dumps. The original wood and

vegetation of the Jos region has long been cleared for mining and agricultural activities,

turning the region into one savannah grassland with widely spread eucalyptus and acacia

trees, and cactus hedges which are used for land boundary delineation. 

Wahla and Kirkham (2008) reviewed that Nickel, lead and mercury are the micro nutrient

essentially for the soil. They occur naturally in the plant and animal tissue. They are required

in only very small amount, if plants are supplied to these heavy metals more than they

required, it will lead to toxicity in them and ultimately death. The usually routes by which

human received exposure to these heavy metals are through skin or eye contact, as well as

inhalation of powders and dust.

Murray et al., (2004) pointed out that the natural and anthropogenically introduced

concentrations of metals in the near-surface soil can vary significantly due to different

physical and chemical processes operating within soils across geographical regions.

Migration of metals in the soil is influenced by physical and chemical characteristics of each

specific metal and by several environmental factors. The most significant environmental

factors appear to be;   

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6
 i. Soil type 

ii. Total organic content 

iii. Redox potential 

iv. pH  

Chaney et al., (2008) reviewed that one of the greatest concerns for human health is caused

by lead (Pb) contamination. Exposure to Pb can occur through multiple pathways, including

inhalation of air and ingestion of Pb in food, water, soil or dust. Excessive Pb can cause

seizures, mental retardation and behavioural disorders. The dangers of Pb is aggravated low

environmental mobility, even under high precipitations.

Elinder (2005) revealed that however, immobilized cadmium is available to plant life and can

easily enter the food supply. Cadmium in soil tends to be more available when the soil pH is

low (acidic). In surface water and ground water, cadmium can exist as hydrated ion or as

ionic complexes with other inorganic or organic substances. While soluble forms may

migrate in water, cadmium is relatively non-mobile insoluble complexes or absorbed to

sediments. Cadmium is taken up and retained by aquatic and terrestrial plants and is

concentrated in the liver and kidney of animal and plants. Water sources near cadmium –

emitting industries, both historic and current operations have shown a marked elevation of

cadmium in water sediments and aquatic organism, Amason and Fletcher 2009; Mason et al.,

2006.

In general, vegetables particularly leafy vegetables such as lettuce (0.051mg/kg) and spinach

(0.124mg/kg) have the highest concentrations of cadmium the concentrations of cadmium in

all vegetables ranged for 0.001 to 0.124mg/kg, FDA, 2010, Morrow, 2005. Peanuts,

soybeans, and sunflower seeds have naturally high levels of cadmium, Morros 2005; the

mean concentration of cadmium in legumes and nuts ranged from 0.001 to 0.054/kg, FDA,

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2010. Excessive levels of cadmium in food can have implications for human health and in

soils can restrict land use flexibility.

Kramer et al., (2007) discussed that, micronutrient such as Zn, concentrations of these ions

can be toxic. Commonly Mn, Ni and Cu are essential for plant growth and development; high

intracellular accumulator plants have evolved several mechanism to control the homeostasis

of intracellular ions such mechanism include regulation of ion flux (Stimulation of transporter

activity at low intracellular ion supply and inhibition at high concentrations) and extrusion of

intracellular ions back into the external solution. Metal hyper accumulator species, capable of

taking up metals in the thousands of ppm possess additional detoxication mechanism. 

Davis and White (2010) reported that the concentration of the cadmium and zinc in

vegetables grown on soils contaminated by the base metal mining varies by (<0.05 to

43mg/kg-IDW) for cadmium and zinc (39.0-710mg/kg-IDW).

D’ Amore et al., (2005) affirmed that the inability to determine metal species in soils

hampers efforts to understand the mobility, bioavailability and fate of contaminant metals in

environmental systems together with the assessment of the health risks posed by them, and

the development of methods to remediate metal contaminated sites. However, in some natural

soils developed from metal rich parent materials, as well as in contaminated soils, up to 30 to

60% of heavy metals occur in easily unstable forms. 

Francek (2008) investigated soil lead levels in small environment using A.A.S technique 1g

of the sieved soil samples were digested with a 1:1 HNO 3 solution, evaporated to dryness on

a hot plate and cooled. The procedure was repeated with 1:1 HCl solution. Extracts were

filtered and added to distilled water total 25ml and analyzed using A.A.S technique.

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Sovory et al., (2007) determined chromium in biological materials. The Cr present was

converted to trifluoroacetate, extracted into benzene and determined by electron capture has

chromatography.

Homer et al., (2009) investigated the effect of soil acidification on Zn Nd Cd phytoextraction

and proposed the use of (NH4)2 SO4 as a soil additive to provide nutrient (N and S) needed for

high yield and to acidify the soil for greater metal bioavailability. It should be noted that there

may be some negative side effects associated with soil acidification. Take for instance due to

increased solubility some toxic metal may leach into the ground water creating an additional

environmental risk. Further investigation indicated that, following metal phyto-extraction,

soil could be limed to elevate the PH near a neutral value premature liming may increase soil

capacity for metal binding and restrict the potential for phyto-extraction. A similar effect can

be expected following the addition of organic fertilizers. In addition, the raising of pH may

stimulate the formation of metal hydroxyl ions, such as ZnOH+, which is more strongly

sorbed soil solids than the uncomplexed ions. Phosphorus is major nutrient, and plants

respond favourably to the application of phosphorus fertilizers by increasing biomass

production. The addition of phosphorus fertilizer, however, can also inhibit the uptake of

some major metal contaminants, such as Pb, due to metal precipitation such as pyromorphites

and chloropyromorphites.

Aziz et al., (2004) confirmed that industries such as planting, ceramics, glass mining and

battery manufacture are considered the main sources of heavy metals in local water systems

causing the contamination of ground water with heavy metals. Heavy metals which are

commonly found in high concentration landfill leachate are also a potential source of

pollution of ground water. Large areas of agricultural land are countermined by heavy metals

that mainly originate form farmer or current mining activities, industrial missions or the

application of sewage sludge. 

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Egila and Nimyel (2002) reported for variation in heavy metal concentration in the sediment

of some dams in Plateau State. Among the metals detected. Pb has the lowest concentration

and the concentration was higher during the dry season for the two years, this way be as a

result of efficient sedimentation since the water is only disturbed by tidal current during the

dry season all the metals examined are below the world health organization (1993) standard

but the dams should be closely monitored since there is usually slight increase in the

concentration of the metals yearly.  

Appel and Ma (2007) state that the overall behavior of heavy metals in soil is said to be

governed largely by their sorption and desorption reactions with different soil constitution,

especially clay components. The chemical behavior of heavy metals in soils controlled by a

number of processes, including metal action realize from contamination source materials (e.g

fertilizer, sludge, smelter, dust, ammunition, sag) cation exchange and specific adsorption to

surface of minerals and soil organism matter, and precipitation of secondary minerals.

El-ghawi et al., (2008) studied the trace metal contaminations in some Libyan soils and found

that the concentration of clay surface soil is higher than in sandy soil. The multiple regression

analysis performed confirmed the importance of pH as well as other soil properties such as

texture electrical conductivity and organic matter or carbonates on the behavior of nutrient

and heavy metals. 

Egila et al., (2010) reported the effect of pH can heavy metal adsorption from aqueous

solutions. It was found that removal of heavy metals ions was P H dependents. For his reason,

the pH solutions were varied from 1 to 10 for the three investigated metal ions. It is clear that

Pb (II) ion was effectively absorbed in the pH range 4,5 and 6 with the highest percentage

removal is at pH while for cadmium (II) ion and cobalt (II) ion, maximum removal also

occurred t pH 6. The increase in the amount of metal ion adsorbed due to the increase in pH

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may be explained on the basis of a decrease in competition between proton (H +) and the

posted charged metal ion at the surface sites and by decrease in positive charge near surface

resulting in lower repulsion of the absorbing metal ion.

Filep (2008) stated that contaminants reaching the soil can be divided into two groups namely

micro-pollutants and macro-pollutants. Micro-pollutants are natural or anthropogenic

molecules, which are toxic at very low concentration. Macro-pollutants are present in the

environment locally and or temporarily to a much higher degree than normal level. The main

micro pollutants of the inorganic micro-pollutants are mainly the toxic and potentials toxic

heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Ni Cr, Hg, Cu, Zn e.t.c.) while the organic micro-pollutants includes

pesticides and certain non-pesticides organic molecules; e.g aliphatic solvents, monocyclic

aromatics, halogenated aromatics, pocychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s), surfactants, plastifiers.

Frequent macro-pollutants are:

 Inorganic (nitrogenous fertilizers) 

 Organic (crude oil and products of oils industry).

Khan (2005) reviewed that metal such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, copper, zinc, Nickel and

mercury are continuously being added to our soils through various agricultural activities such

as agrochemical usage and long-term application of urban sewage sludge in agricultural soil

industrial activities such as waste dispersal, waste incinerator and vehicle exhausts, together

with anthropogenic source. All these sources cause accumulation of metals and metalloids in

our agricultural soils and pose threats to food safety issues and potential health risks due to

soil to plant transfer of metals. 

El-qhawi et al., (2005) shows that trace metals concentrations in clay surface soils are higher

than in the sandy soils, humic and folic acid (organic matter) capture the elements. Heavy

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metals cations absorb to soil organic matter and other forms of humified natural organic

matter.

Carolna et al., (2007) stated that heavy metals in soil samples can be determined by highly

sensitive spectroscopic techniques such as atomic absorption spectroscopy (e.g flame atomic

absorption spectroscopy (FAAS) and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF

AAS) and inductively coupled Plasma (ICP) spectrometry (e.g KP atomic emission

spectrophotometry (KP-AES) and KP mass spectrometry (KP-MS)). 

These techniques require the transformation of a solid sample into solution from which metal

concentrations are determined. They also mentioned that heavy metals in soil samples are

usually converted to a soluble form through acid digestion methods.

The most important methods used for soil digestion consist of open vessel digestive by

digester block and closed vessel digest by micro wave over. Given that it is well known that

different digestion methods may lead to different result, a validation process is needed to

demonstrate data quality and select the most useful method according to the characteristics of

the study area and particularly soil properties. Result obtained applying theses digestion

methods are generally use to assess the degree of pollution in soil. Therefore, the choice of

the digestion method has to be suitable in order to provide information on the total content of

heavy metals in soils and consequently about the pollution levels. 

Slagle et al., (2004) measured the concentration of ten trace elements (AS, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu,

Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, Zn) which were determined by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission

spectroscopy (ICOAES) after microwave digestion by USEPA method 305, and HF method.

Trace element concentrations using USEPA 3051 were about 1.5 to 5 times lower than the

amounts extracted by the HF method, except for Mn, method 3051 of the USEPA used

concentrated HNO3 acid following solid waste procedure SW 846-3051 (S.U EPA 2007).

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This method involved a closed vessel using pressure and temperature-controlled microwave

heating for dissolution. The HF method used a combination of three concentration acids;

HNO3, HF and HCl with microwave digestion. The HF and HCl with Microwave digestion.

HF method should represent a “total” quality of trace elements present in the soil because

concentrated HNO3, HF and HCl acids cause soil components to dissolve, thereby releasing

the bound elements within their structure. 

Chen et al., (2009) made a comparison of EPA method 3050 (hot-plate, HNO3-HCl), 3051

(microwave, HNO3), 3051 (microwave, HNO3-HCl) and 3052 (microwave, HNO3-HCl-HF)

was thus conducted by digesting three Nist standard reference materials (SRIMS) and 40

representative florida surface soils. Fifteen trace metals (Ag, As, Ba, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn,

No, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, and Zn) and six elements (Al, Ca, Fem K, Mg and P) were analyzed using

and inductively coupled plasma spectrometer (ICP) or an inductively coupled plasma mass

spectrometer (ICP-MS) except for As, Cd, Pb, and Hg, which were analyzed either by a

graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer (CVAAS). They suggested that

concentrations of most trace metals in florida soils are primary controlled by soil properties.

The most effective and useful digestive method to be applied to agricultural soils devoted to

growing vegetable crop is open vessel digestion using a digester block with HNO 3, HClO4,

HCl and microwave assisted digestion using HNO 3, and HCl (Carolina et al., 2007). In site

immobilization is a promising approach that has the potential to remove metals from

solutions and or stabilize metal in soil (Me et al., 2005).

2.1 HEAVY METALS

The term heavy metals have different meaning according to various disciplines. It often

designates a group of elements that occur in natural systems in low concentrations. It can also

be defined as elements used by organisms in small quantities but are believed to be essentials

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to their nutrition, Adriano, 2001. The trace elements in soils are derived from both parents’

materials and anthropogenic inputs, Zhenli et al., 2005. 

The occurrence of heavy metals in soil can be geogenic or natural and anthropogenic origins.

It occurs naturally in the soil environment from the pedogenetic processes of weathering of

parents at levels that are regarded as (<1000mgkg-1) and rarely toxic, Kabata Pendis, 2001.

Due to the disturbance and acceleration of natures, slowly occurring geochemical cycle of

metals above by man, most soils of rural and urban environment may accumulate one or more

of the heavy metals above defined background values, high enough to cause ricks to human

health, plants, animals, ecosystem or other media, Amore et al., 2005. The anthropogenic

sources include mining, smelting fossil fuel combustion and various industrial activities,

Adekola et al., 2012. Industrial activities are the major sources of soil heavy metals

contamination, Chandia et al., 2005, Chen et al., 2005 Fayun et al., 2008 Olajire 200s. some

trace elements including Cn, Zn, Mn, Fe and Mo and B are essential for plant growth and are

called micronutrient, except for B, these elements such as Co and Se are not essential to plant

growth but are required by animals and humans. Other trace elements such as Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni

and Hg have toxic effects on living organism and are often considered as contaminants. Soil

contaminations by trace elements derived from parent materials or point sources often occur

in limited areas., the trace metals of soil are highly dependent on the rocks from which the

soil parent materials was derived and on the process of weathering that the soil forming

materials have been subjected, thus  the older the soil the less likely is influence of parent

rocks, Adriano, 2001. Normal concentrations of some trace metals in soils as well as

concentrations at which these elements become toxic, Ross, 2004 is as shown below:

Elements normal range in soil (total) (μ Concentration in soil considered toxic ( μ gg-1

gg-1dry weight  dry weight) 

Cr 5-1000 75-100
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 Mn 200-2000 1500-3000

Co 1-70 25-50

Ni 10-1000 100

Cu 2-100 60-125

Zn 10-300 70-400

Cd 0.01-7 3-8

Sn <5 50

Hg 0.02-0.2 0.3-5

Pb 2-200 100-400

2.1.1 Cadmium (CD) 

Cadmium a rare but widely dispersed element, is found naturally in the environment. Most

cadmium are (greenockite) existing as;

 Cadmium sulphide 

 Is refined during zinc production 

 Occurs in association with zinc 

It is released into the environment through manning and smelting, its use in various

industrials processes and enters food chain from uptake by plants from contaminated oil or

water. Apart from mining and smelting, other man – made routes include;

 Usage of phosphate fertilizers. 

 Presence in sewage sludge and various industrial uses such as Nicd batteries, plating

pigments and plastics. ATSDR, 2005. While the natural sources include underlying

15
 bedrock or transported parent materials such as glacial till alluvium, EPA, 2010;

Lenntech.com, 2008.

Cadmium occurs in the carth’s crust at an abundance of 0.1-0. 5ppm and is commonly

associated with zinc, lead and copper ores. It is also constituent of ocean water with average

level between <5 and 110mg/l: with higher levels reported near coastal areas and in marine

phostyphates and phosphorites, Morrow, 2005.

Cadmium can be released to the atmosphere through metal production activities, fossil fuel

combustion and waste incineration. The main cadmium compounds found in air are cadmium

coxide, chloride and sulphate and these compounds are expected to undergo minimal

transformation in the atmosphere, EPA, 2008. The major fate of cadmium is air through

transport and decomposition. Cadmium can travel long distance in the atmosphere and then

pesotie (wet or dry) into surface soil and water, which can in elevated cadmium levels even in

remote locations, Shevchenko et al., 2007. The main sources of cadmium to soil include

atmosphere deposition and direct application methods such as phosphate fertilizer use and

sewage sludge disposal. Some phosphate fertilizer can contain up to 300mgcd/kg, Alloy way

and Steinned, 2009. cadmium mobility in soil and the availability of organic matter. 

Generally, cadmium will bind strongly to organic matter and this will for the most part,

immobilize cadmium, Autier and white 2007.

2.1.2 Lead (Pd)   

Lead is the heaviest of the non-radioactive metals that naturally occurs in substantial qualities

in the earth surface. Lead is a soft, malleable ad stable metal, which is often used in the

manufacturing of storage batteries. Lead is present in all soils, rivers, lakes, and sea water via

the process of smelting, mining and refining. Despite it’s weight lead is also in the air, a

component of dust and of sea spray. Natural soils usually have less than 50ppm of level but

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are never lead free. Lead is present in all proportion of 16ppm in igneous rocks, and at an

average of about 10ppm in common soils that are far from sites of contamination. The main

health problems associated with chronic high levels of lead in blood and neurological

impairment in children (including permanent damage if exposed to high levels at an early

age) and hypertension in adults, Thomas, 2009, Slavin, 2008.

2.1.3 Copper (Cu)       

Copper is a trace element that is essential for most animals, including humans. The influence

of copper upon human health is due to the fact that it is part of enzymes, which aids proteins

that help biochemical reactions occur in every cell. Copper 1 involved in the absorption, stage

and metabolism of iron, copper may be absorbed by both the small intestine and mucosa,

with most absorbed by the small intestine. Copper is found in the blood bound to proteins.

Klevay and Medeires 2006. Copper is utilized by most cells as a component of enzymes

involve in energy production (Cytochrome Oxidase) and in the protection of cells from free

radical damage. It is also involved with enzymes involved in energy production and in brain

neurotransmitters (Dopamine hydroxylase and peptidyl alpha amidating moroxygenase). One

of the proteins ceruloplasmin transport copper as well as helps convert iron to form that can

be transported to other tissues, Medeiros and Wildman, 2007. Cases of copper toxicity are

rare but may occur; excess copper consumption may lead to liver damages. Intake of

supplements exceeding 3mg copper per day for a protected period of time may cause for

concern. Doses of long per day over several weeks may lead to toxic symptoms, such as

weakness and nauseas, Lee and Carr, 2010.

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2.1.4 Chromium (Cr)

This is a trace metal that exits in several forms. The forms in which chromium existence:

a. Chromium (III)

b. Chromium (IV)

c. Hexavalent (VI) Chromium 

People can be exposed to chromium through breathing, cating or drinking and through skin

contact with chromium compounds. The levels of chromium in air and water are generally

low. In drinking water, the level of chromium 1 usually is low as well as but contaminated

well water may contain dangerous chromium (IV). For most people eating food that contains

chromium III is the main raute of chromium uptake, as chromium (III) occurs naturally in

man vegetables, fruits, meat, yeats and grains, Douson and Velazuez, 2006.  

The toxic effect of chromium (III) as a result of chromium (III) deficiency are disruptions of

metabolism and diabetes while excess uptake of chromium (III) cause skin rashes. Chromium

(VI) is a danger to human health, mainly for people who work in the steel industry, people

who smoke tobacco also have a higher chance of exposure to chromium. The toxicity of

chromium (VI) results into the following health problems, skin rashes, pushes, upset stomach,

respiratory problems, weakened immune systems, kidney and liver damage, alteration of

genetic materials, lung cancer amongst others, Lindberg and Herdensteir Na, 2007.

2.1.5 Mercury (Hg)

Mercury is a heavy metal belonging to the transition series of the periodic table. Mercury is

widely spread on the environment as toxicant and [pollutant which induces severe alterations

in the body tissues and causes wide range of adverse effect on health. Both humans and

animal are exposed to various forms of mercury vapor (Hg0) organic mercury (Hg 1+),

18
mercuric (Hg2+) and the organic mercury compounds. Because mercury is ubiquitous in the

environment, humans, plants and animals are all unable to avoid exposure to some form of

mercury.  

2.1.6 Nickel (Ni)

Nickel (Ni) is the 24th most abundant element in the Earths crust, comprising about 3% of the

composition of the earth and is present in the air, water, soil and biological material (Cempel

and Nikel, 2005). Nickel is one of many trace metals widely distributed in the environment,

being released from both natural and anthropogenic activity (Cempel and Nikel, 2005). Most

of the Nickel in the human body originates from drinking water and food (Cempel and Nikel,

2005). Nickel is one of many carcinogenic metals known to be environmental and

occupational pollutant.

2.1.7 Zinc (Zn)

Zinc is an element of moderate abundance in the earth crust and the presence of zinc in the

environment is associated with mining and smelting which pollutes the air, water and soil

with fine particles (Tiimub et al., 2015). Zinc is an essential mineral that is naturally present

in some sources of zinc (Institute of Medicine, 2001). Gastrointestinal distress is a common

symptom following acute oral exposure to zinc compounds (USEPA 2009).

2.2 OVERBURDEN 

 Overburden (also called spoiled) is the materials that lies above an area that lends itself to

economical exploitation, such as the rock, soil and ecosystem that lies above the ore body.

Overburden is distinct from tailings, the materials that remains after mining of valuable

component have been extracted from the general finely milled ore. Overburden is removed

during surface mining.

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