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xviii The Roots of Calculus

THE ROOTS OF CALCULUS

Today’s exciting applications of calculus have roots that can
be traced to the work of the Greek mathematician Archimedes,
but the actual discovery of the fundamental principles of cal-
culus was made independently by Isaac Newton (English) and
Gottfried Leibniz (German) in the late seventeenth century.
The work of Newton and Leibniz was motivated by four major
classes of scientific and mathematical problems of the time:
• Find the tangent line to a general curve at a given point.
• Find the area of a general region, the length of a general
curve, and the volume of a general solid.
• Find the maximum or minimum value of a quantity—for
example, the maximum and minimum distances of a planet
from the Sun, or the maximum range attainable for a pro-
jectile by varying its angle of fire.
• Given a formula for the distance traveled by a body in any
specified amount of time, find the velocity and acceleration
of the body at any instant. Conversely, given a formula that
specifies the acceleration of velocity at any instant, find the
distance traveled by the body in a specified period of time.
Newton and Leibniz found a fundamental relationship be-
tween the problem of finding a tangent line to a curve and
the problem of determining the area of a region. Their real-
ization of this connection is considered to be the “discovery
of calculus.” Though Newton saw how these two problems
are related ten years before Leibniz did, Leibniz published
his work twenty years before Newton. This situation led to a
stormy debate over who was the rightful discoverer of calculus.
The debate engulfed Europe for half a century, with the scien-
tists of the European continent supporting Leibniz and those
from England supporting Newton. The conflict was extremely
unfortunate because Newton’s inferior notation badly ham-
pered scientific development in England, and the Continent in
turn lost the benefit of Newton’s discoveries in astronomy and
physics for nearly fifty years. In spite of it all, Newton and
Leibniz were sincere admirers of each other’s work.

ISAAC NEWTON (1642–1727)

Newton was born in the village of Woolsthorpe, England. His father died
before he was born and his mother raised him on the family farm. As a youth
he showed little evidence of his later brilliance, except for an unusual talent with
mechanical devices—he apparently built a working water clock and a toy flour
mill powered by a mouse. In 1661 he entered Trinity College in Cambridge
with a deficiency in geometry. Fortunately, Newton caught the eye of Isaac
Barrow, a gifted mathematician and teacher. Under Barrow’s guidance Newton
immersed himself in mathematics and science, but he graduated without any
special distinction. Because the bubonic plague was spreading rapidly through
London, Newton returned to his home in Woolsthorpe and stayed there during
the years of 1665 and 1666. In those two momentous years the entire framework
of modern science was miraculously created in Newton’s mind. He discovered
calculus, recognized the underlying principles of planetary motion and gravity,
and determined that “white” sunlight was composed of all colors, red to violet.
For whatever reasons he kept his discoveries to himself. In 1667 he returned to
Cambridge to obtain his Master’s degree and upon graduation became a teacher
at Trinity. Then in 1669 Newton succeeded his teacher, Isaac Barrow, to the
Lucasian chair of mathematics at Trinity, one of the most honored chairs of
[Image: Public domain image from http://commons.wikimedia.org/
mathematics in the world.
wiki/File:Hw-newton.jpg. Image provided courtesy of the University Thereafter, brilliant discoveries flowed from Newton steadily. He formulated
of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin.]
the law of gravitation and used it to explain the motion of the moon, the planets,
and the tides; he formulated basic theories of light, thermodynamics, and hydrodynamics;
and he devised and constructed the first modern reflecting telescope. Throughout his life
Newton was hesitant to publish his major discoveries, revealing them only to a select
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GEOMETRY FORMULAS
A = area, S = lateral surface area, V = volume, h = height, B = area of base, r = radius, l = slant height, C = circumference, s = arc length

Parallelogram Triangle Trapezoid Circle Sector

h r
h h s
u
b b b r
1 1 A = 12 r 2 u, s = r u
A = bh A= 2
bh A= 2
(a + b)h A = pr 2, C = 2pr
(u in radians)

Right Circular Cylinder Right Circular Cone Any Cylinder or Prism with Parallel Bases Sphere

h l h h r
h
r r B B

1 4
V = pr 2h , S = 2prh V= pr 2h , S = prl V = Bh V= 3
pr 3, S = 4pr 2
3

ALGEBRA FORMULAS

THE QUADRATIC
FORMULA THE BINOMIAL FORMULA
The solutions of the quadratic n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are (x + y)n = x n + nx n−1 y + x y + x y + · · · + nxy n−1 + y n
1·2 1·2·3
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
x= (x − y)n = x n − nx n−1 y + x y − x y + · · · ± nxy n−1 ∓ y n
2a 1·2 1·2·3

TABLE OF INTEGRALS

BASIC FUNCTIONS



un+1 au
1. un du = +C 10. a u du = +C
n+1 ln a



du
2. = ln |u| + C 11. ln u du = u ln u − u + C
u



3. eu du = eu + C 12. cot u du = ln |sin u| + C



4. sin u du = − cos u + C sec u du = ln |sec u + tan u| + C
13.  

= ln |tan 41 π + 21 u | + C
5. cos u du = sin u + C


csc u du = ln |csc u − cot u| + C
14.
6. tan u du = ln |sec u| + C = ln |tan 21 u| + C




7. sin−1 u du = u sin−1 u + 1 − u2 + C 15. cot−1 u du = u cot−1 u + ln 1 + u2 + C




8. cos−1 u du = u cos−1 u − 1 − u2 + C 16. sec−1 u du = u sec−1 u − ln |u + u2 − 1| + C




9. tan−1 u du = u tan−1 u − ln 1 + u2 + C 17. csc−1 u du = u csc−1 u + ln |u + u2 − 1| + C
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RECIPROCALS OF BASIC FUNCTIONS

1 1
18. du = tan u ∓ sec u + C 22. du = 21 (u ∓ ln |sin u ± cos u|) + C

1 ± sin u
1 ± cot u
1 1
19. du = − cot u ± csc u + C 23. du = u + cot u ∓ csc u + C

1 ± cos u
1 ± sec u
1 1
20. du = 21 (u ± ln |cos u ± sin u|) + C 24. du = u − tan u ± sec u + C

1 ± tan u
1 ± csc u
1 1
21. du = ln |tan u| + C 25. du = u − ln(1 ± eu ) + C
sin u cos u 1 ± eu

POWERS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

26. sin2 u du = 21 u − 41 sin 2u + C 32. cot 2 u du = − cot u − u + C



27. cos2 u du = 21 u + 41 sin 2u + C 33. sec2 u du = tan u + C



28. tan2 u du = tan u − u + C 34. csc2 u du = − cot u + C





1 n−1 1
29. sinn u du = − sinn−1 u cos u + sinn−2 u du 35. cot n u du = − cot n−1 u − cot n−2 u du

n n

n−1

1 n−1 1 n−2
30. cosn u du = cosn−1 u sin u + cosn−2 u du 36. sec u du =
n
secn−2 u tan u + secn−2 u du

n
n
n−1 n−1

1 1 n−2
31. tann u du = tann−1 u − tann−2 u du 37. cscn u du = − cscn−2 u cot u + cscn−2 u du
n−1 n−1 n−1

PRODUCTS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

sin(m + n)u sin(m − n)u cos(m + n)u cos(m − n)u
38. sin mu sin nu du = − + +C 40. sin mu cos nu du = − − +C

2(m + n) 2(m − n) 2(m + n) 2(m − n)
sin(m + n)u sin(m − n)u


sin m−1 u cosn+1 u m−1
39. cos mu cos nu du = + +C 41. sinm u cosn u du = − + sinm−2 u cosn u du
2(m + n) 2(m − n) m+n m+n


sinm+1 u cosn−1 u n−1
= + sinm u cosn−2 u du
m+n m+n

PRODUCTS OF TRIGONOMETRIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

eau eau
42. eau sin bu du = 2 (a sin bu − b cos bu) + C 43. eau cos bu du = (a cos bu + b sin bu) + C
a + b2 a2 + b2

POWERS OF u MULTIPLYING OR DIVIDING BASIC FUNCTIONS

44. u sin u du = sin u − u cos u + C 51. ueu du = eu (u − 1) + C




45. u cos u du = cos u + u sin u + C 52. un eu du = un eu − n un−1 eu du




un a u n
46. u2 sin u du = 2u sin u + (2 − u2 ) cos u + C 53. un a u du = − un−1 a u du + C


ln a ln a
u
u
e du e u 1 e du
47. u2 cos u du = 2u cos u + (u2 − 2) sin u + C 54. =− +



u n (n − 1)u n−1 n − 1
un−1
a u du au ln a a u du
48. un sin u du = −un cos u + n un−1 cos u du 55. =− +



u n (n − 1)u n−1 n−1 un−1
du
49. un cos u du = un sin u − n un−1 sin u du 56. = ln |ln u| + C

u ln u
un+1
50. un ln u du = [(n + 1) ln u − 1] + C
(n + 1)2

POLYNOMIALS MULTIPLYING BASIC FUNCTIONS

1 1 1
57. p(u)eau du = p(u)eau − 2 p  (u)eau + 3 p  (u)eau − · · · [signs alternate: + − + − · · ·]

a a a
1 1 1
58. p(u) sin au du = − p(u) cos au + 2 p  (u) sin au + 3 p  (u) cos au − · · · [signs alternate in pairs after first term: + + − − + + − − · · ·]

a a a
1 1 1
59. p(u) cos au du = p(u) sin au + 2 p (u) cos au − 3 p  (u) sin au − · · · [signs alternate in pairs: + + − − + + − − · · ·]
a a a