ENGLISH PRÉCIS

You must make up your mind from the beginning that precis-writing means intensive brain
work. There is no easy short cut to summarize a passage. “To Tear the Heart Out of a Passage”
means concentrated thought, and you must be prepared for close attention and hard thinking.

 A precis is NOT a personal interpretation of a work or an expression of your

opinion of the idea; it is, rather, an exact replica in miniature of the work, often reduced to
one-third of its size.

 Do not copy a single sentence from the article! You may use key words and phrases only
when you are expressing ideas which are technically precise or when you feel comfortable
using the writer’s own words, i.e., you understand exactly he or she means, and there is really
no better way to express the concept.

 A precis is a short summary. It is not a paraphrase, which merely says in different and
simpler words exactly what the passage being paraphrased has to say. A paraphrase may be a
long as the passage itself. A precis rarely is more than one-third the length of the original
selection and may be only one-fourth as long.

 A precis gives only the "heart" of a passage. It omits repetition and such details as examples,
illustrations, and adjectives unless they are of unusual importance.

 A precis is written entirely in the words of the person writing it, not in the words of the
original selection. Avoid the temptation to lift long phrases and whole sentences from the
original.

 A well-written précis should be a serviceable substitute for the original work. The goal is to
preserve the core essence of the work in a manner that is both clear and concise. At a
minimum, the précis should include the topic or main thesis, what was studied.

1. Reading the original passage

 First read the passage thorough, carefully, but not too slowly, to get the general idea of its
meaning. If one reading is not enough to give you this clearly, read it over again, and yet
again. The more you read it the more familiar will it become to you, and the clearer will be
its subject, and what is said about that subject. Ask yourself, "What is it I am reading? What
does the author mean? What is its subject? What is he saying about it? Can I put in a few
words the pith of what he says?"

 Select the most important points contained in the article. Underline or highlight those points.

 Collect your key points.

 Usually you are required to supply a title for your precis. A title is simply what the
“Subject/Topic” of the passage is. This is a good stage at which to do this. Think of some
word, phrase or short sentence that will sum up briefly the main subject of the passage.
Sometimes it is supplied by what we may call a key-sentence. This may be found at the

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 beginning or at the end of the passage. In its absence, however, you must get a clear idea of
the subject from the passage as a whole, and then sum it up in a suitable heading. The effort
to find a suitable title at this stage will help you to define in your mind what exactly the
subject or main theme of the passage is.

 Further reading is necessary to ensure that you understand the details of the passage as well
as its main purport. Take it now sentence by sentence, and word by word. If the meanings of
any words are not clear, look them up in a dictionary. This is important because a phrase, a
sentence, or even a word may be of prime importance, and misunderstanding of it may cause
you took miss the whole point of the passage.

 You should now be in a position to decide what part/parts of the passage are essential and
what parts are comparatively unimportant and can be omitted without any loss. The process
of selection must not be in a haphazard or mechanical way. Discard identical and
unimportant details. Jot down your conclusions in brief notes of the subject, the title and the
details which you consider essential.

2. Writing

If you are told to reduce the passage to a third of its length, count the number of words in the
original passage and divide by three. Don’t exceed by more than 3, 4 words. It is not likely that
your first attempt will be a complete success. That will probably be too long. In fact you may
have to write several drafts before you find how to express the gist of the passage fully within the
limits set. A good deal of patience and revision is required. It is a good plan to write the first
draft without having the actual words of the original passages before one’s eyes.

a) Rough draft

You should now be ready to attempt the writing of the precis; but be sure of the limit within
which it must be compressed.

b) Important Points

1. The precis should be in your own words. It must not be a patchwork made up of phrases and
sentences quoted from the original.
2. The precis must be a connected whole. It cannot be divided into sections or paragraphs. The
main idea should be connected with an essence of the examples/generalizations/quotations
etc in a proper order of relative importance, joined together in such a way as to read
continuously.
3. The precis must be complete and self-contained, that is it must convey its message fully and
clearly without requiring any reference to the original passage to complete its meaning.
4. It is only the gist, main purport, or general meaning of the passage which you have to
express. There is no room in a precis for colloquial expressions, circumlocutions, periphrasis
or rhetorical flourishes. All redundancies of expression must be rigorously pruned. If faithful
reproduction of the main theme is the first essential of a precis, conciseness is the second.
5. The precis must be in simple, direct grammatical and idiomatic English.

c) The Art of Compression

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You are not bound to follow the original order of thought of the passage to be summarized, if
you can express its meaning more clearly and concisely by transposing any of its parts.
We may omit mere repetitions, illustrations and examples. We change figures of speech into
literal expressions, compress wordy sentences, and alter phrases to words.

d) Indirect Speech

A precis must be written in indirect narration, and in the past tense. For example:

Whether we look at the intrinsic value of our literature, or at the particular situation of the
country, we shall see the strongest reason to think that of all foreign tongues the English is that
which would be the most useful to our native subjects. Macualay

“England's noble literature and the universality of her language made English the foreign
language most useful for Indians.”

The change from direct to indirect narration needs the following attentions;

1. Correct sequence of tenses in the past tense.

2. Clear differentiation of the various persons mentioned in the passage. Care must be taken
with pronouns he, she and they. To avoid confusion proper names should be used
occasionally.
3. Correct use of adverbs and other words indicating time.
4. Proper choice of "verbs of sayings", to indicate questions, comments, warnings, threats or
exhortations.
5. Great care must be taken to avoid lapsing into direct speech.

Some passages however best be summarized in direct speech, rely on your own judgment for
such passages.

3. Revising

Revise the final draft, Take care of its length, Compare it with the original to see that you have
not omitted any important point, Correct mistakes in spelling, punctuation, grammar and idioms.
Then write out the fair copy neatly, prefixing the title you have chosen.

Precis Writing for CSS 2007

I know no place where the great truth that no man is necessary is brought home to the mind so
remorselessly and yet so refreshingly, as the House of Commons. Over even the greatest
reputations it closes with barely a bubble. And yet the vanity of politicians is enormous. Lord
Melbourne, when asked his opinion of men, replied, 'Good fellows, but vain very vain'.

There is a great deal of vanity, both expressed and concealed, in the House of Commons. I often
wonder why, for I cannot imagine a place where men so habitually disregard each other's
feelings, so openly trample on each other's egotisms. You rise to address the House. The speaker
calls on you by name. Hardly are you through the first sentence when your oldest friend, your

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college chum the man you have appointed guardian of your infant children, rises in his place,
gives you a stony stare and seizing his hat in his hand, ostentatiously walks out of the House, as
much as to say. 'I can stand many things, but not this'. Whilst speaking of the House I have never
failed to notice one man, at all events, who was paying me the compliment of the closest
attention, who never took his eyes off me, who hung upon my words, on whom everything I was
saying seemed to be making the greatest impression. But this solitary auditor is not in the least
interested either in me or in my speech, and the only reason why he listens so intently and eyes
me so closely is that he has made up his mind to follow me, and is eager to leap to his feet, in the
hope of catching the speaker's eye the very moment I sit down. Yet for all this vanity thrives in
the House - though what it feeds on I cannot say. We are all anxious to exaggerate our own
importance, and desperately anxious to make reputations for ourselves and to have our names
associated with some subject - to pose as its patron and friend. (317 words)

Difficult words and their meanings;

Remorselessly - without repentance; barely - hardly; enormous - huge; vain - proud; concealed -
hidden; disregard - paying no attention; trample - crush; stare - look fixedly; ostentatiously - in a
showy manner; compliment - praise; auditor - listeners; thrives - prospers; exaggerate – over
emphasize; pose - assume the role of.

First let’s discuss the paragraphs and then will move to its précis.

First Paragraph:

I know no place where the great truth that no man is necessary is brought home to the
mind so remorselessly and yet so refreshingly, as the House of Commons. Over even
the greatest reputations it closes with barely a bubble. And yet the vanity of politicians
is enormous. Lord Melbourne, when asked his opinion of men, replied, 'Good fellows,
but vain very vain'.

There are 4 sentences in the paragraph: that can be condensed in the following way,

-------- House of Commons bring home the truth that no man is necessary.
--------Reputation hardly matters.
-------- Yet politicians are vain.
-------- Lord Melbourne called men vain.

So we can easily separate topic points and supportive arguments from above analysis.
Topic Point: House of commons brings home the unimportance of man.
Supporting arguments: Reputation is disregarded; still politicians are vain though they think men
are so.

Second Paragraph:

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There is a great deal of vanity, both expressed and concealed, in the House of
Commons. I often wonder why, for I cannot imagine a place where men so habitually
disregard each other's feelings, so openly trample on each other's egotisms. You rise to
address the House. The speaker calls on you by name. Hardly are you through the first
sentence when your oldest friend, your college chum the man you have appointed
guardian of your infant children, rises in his place, gives you a stony stare and seizing
his hat in his hand, ostentatiously walks out of the House, as much as to say.

There are 5 sentences first two have the same meaning as the first paragraph but the last 3
sentences showing these two points:

------- Speaker calls the members by name.

------- Closest friends may not like views.

Now it’s easy to make an analysis.

Topic Point: In House of Commons there is no regard for other’s feelings

Supporting arguments: There are 2 illustrations of disregard; speaker calls the members by name,
closest friend may not like the views of others.

Third Paragraph:

'I can stand many things, but not this'. Whilst speaking of the House I have never failed to
notice one man, at all events, who was paying me the compliment of the closest attention,
who never took his eyes off me, who hung upon my words, on whom everything I was
saying seemed to be making the greatest impression. But this solitary auditor is not in the
least interested either in me or in my speech, and the only reason why he listens so
intently and eyes me so closely is that he has made up his mind to follow me, and is eager
to leap to his feet, in the hope of catching the speaker's eye the very moment I sit down.
Yet for all this vanity thrives in the House - though what it feeds on I cannot say. We are
all anxious to exaggerate our own importance, and desperately anxious to make
reputations for ourselves and to have our names associated with some subject - to pose as
its patron and friend.

There is an illustration from writer’s personal life, so we will generalize it. First and second
sentences can be condensed; those who pay compliments and attention to the speaker have some
motive like taking the floor after the speech. Third sentence tells that still politicians are vain.
Last sentence tells about the egotism in general terms. So the analysis goes like this,

Topic point: Members of the House of Commons are vain though there is no reason to be so.

Supporting arguments: Others pay attention to the speaker only to see that they may get a
chance.

After going through each and every point in detail we can say the title point of the passage is:
Members of the House of Commons are vain though there is no reason to be so.

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So title can be extracted as: Baseless vanity of English M.P’s
And here goes the précis;

Members of the House of Commons are vain though the proceedings of the House never
encourage it. No attention is paid to the reputation of the member; the speaker calls them by
name. Their feelings are ignored and even crushed. The closest friends may walk out as others
express their views. If any one pays attention or praises the speech of another member, it is with
the motive to get a chance to speak. In fact members are given no importance. Thus there is
nothing to feed their vanity, still they are vain. And House of Commons proves that no man is
necessary. (103 Words)

Correction

Quote:

The pride and arrogance of commoners and other politicians is at high, I know no place
then house where man brought so ruthlessly and also opinion of Lord Melbourane is very
much like. Pride of house is hidden and also open quite expressible, and it wonders me
why I cannot imagine place where there is great degree of arrogance and where your old
friend also shows arrogance to whom you have done much in past and which shows no
heed to you. But at the same time there is one man who always pays his concentration on
the matter, but all this because he wants to follow and to do such things as to get
someone’s attention. This is because we want to get some of aims and to make status
higher.
Title "Pride in house of commons"

The effort is good, but you exceeded the word limit it shouldn’t be more than 106 words and
there were some repetitions too. So you have to condense it further. Your title is good.
Here I have condensed your précis within the required limit.

Title "Pride in House of Commons”

Lord Melbourne shared the opinion that pride and arrogance of commoners and politicians is at
high, nowhere but in the House of Commons. Pride of house either concealed or open wondered
me why there is the great degree of arrogance that kills your deep friendship too, while no repute
matters there. The members are being called by their names so no reason for arrogance. If a man
has paid attention to all the matters, it’s only because he wanted to follow and to get someone’s
attention. Thus there is no motive for pride because the House of Commons proves that no man
is necessary. (104 words)

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 COMPREHENSION

Comprehension of a passage is generally difficult for most candidates because the topics are
varied. They may be about medicine, science and technology, religion or philosophy. Some of
the subjects discussed may not be familiar to you. Here speed as well as understanding of the
contents of the given passage is of the essence because in every competitive examination, several
such passages are given. Comprehension tests ascertain your ability to understand the passage
and remember its main points. Questions on the passage are mostly fact-based. In some cases,
the candidates are asked to draw inferences from what is stated or implied in the passage. Such
passages are difficult and need a lot of practice.

GUIDELINES

1. Read newspapers and magazines regularly.

2. Give yourself an environment of English; converse in English with your friends and peers.
3. Read the first few lines (or the paragraph) very carefully as this part generally contains the
central idea of the passage.
4. Develop a sense of urgency while reading the passage.
5. Practise at least one typical passage under test conditions every day. Give yourself five to
seven minutes to read a small passage and ten to fifteen minutes in case of a long passage.
6. Take random selection book test. This means take a good book and open it randomly at any
page. Select one paragraph. Give yourself five minutes to read the passage. Take a blank
sheet of paper and note down all the information you can recall from what you have just read.
Then, go back to the page and check what you have missed out. Do this at least twice a day.
Gradually try and reduce the time to three minutes per page.
7. Have a clear and logical thought process. Do not clutter your brain with unnecessary and
irrelevant thoughts and details.

IN THE EXAMINATION HALL

Read the passage at least twice and understand its contents well. This should not take more than
five minutes for a small and ten for long passages.

1. Do not read the questions first. This may tempt you to look for only particular information in
the passage and consequently, affect full comprehension. It is important to first understand
the passage before you go to the questions because if the questions are not very specific, you
may commit a lot of mistakes. Generally, the passages have a mix of implied ideas and
specific detail type of questions.
2. Eliminate regression, i.e., going back to the lines you have just read. This is out of habit
developed over years of wrong or half-hearted reading. This must be done away with as the
maximum time you should take to answer all the questions after reading a passage is about
seven minutes. Regression is the result of lack of concentration and assumptions.
3. Do not let your own knowledge (or lack of it) interfere with the contents of the passage. Do
not make any attempt to agree or disagree with the author.
a. Your principal task in attempting a comprehension passage should comprise:
Finding the topic. The topic must be precise. Generally the topic is found either in the
first or in the last line.

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 b. Finding the main idea. This can be a definition, a classification, a purpose or an
elaboration of the topic; often the topic and the main idea are the same.
c. Finding major supporting details. The supporting details modify, explain or elaborate the
main idea. You should learn to recognize these supporting details that explain, illustrate,
compare and contrast show cause-effect relationship or merely restate the main idea in
other words.
4. Underline the words you don’t know the meaning of. Try to relate them to the given context.
5. Resort to sentence analysis and break a sentence into parts, looking for answers to who, what,
whom, when, where, which, why and how.
6. Locate reference words and check what they refer to.
7. Underline signal words and look for what they indicate.
8. If the passage contains more than one paragraph, resort to paragraph analysis in the manner
given above (5 to 10).

A SOLVED EXAMPLE

Long ago Emerson wrote.” A man’s task is his life preserver.” This seems to be remarkably
correct in our modern life. The man without a task is like a ship without ballast and anchor; he is
all too often merely a drifter. Very few men seem to have initiative enough to choose a task for
themselves if they do not need to work. When the inevitable disappointments come, as they
assuredly will, they are completely overwhelmed. But the man who has his task has no time for
vain regrets; he escapes the disastrous fate which over takes his less fortunate brothers. Work is
one of the greatest safety-valves which was ever invented, and the youths especially need it.

We sometimes pity the man who is a slave to his task, and perhaps we are right; but a man who
has no task is a slave to his ennui, which is very much worse. Even a disagreeable task is better
than none; the man who does work which is disagreeable to him will yet live more happily, than
if he had had no task at all.
And the man with the task is easier to live with, and will prove a more contented citizen, and a
more valuable one, than the one who lacks such a task. Even so-called invalids are often the
better for some task which is suited to their powers, and they often live all the longer if they
work hard. The man who starts life with a solid task which taxes his powers had better thank
God, and does his best, for this is one of humanity’s greatest boons.

Questions:

1. What disadvantages will a man without a task suffer?

2. Why even disagreeable task is considered better than none?
3. In what ways is a man with some task the better for it?

Answers:

1. A man without a task, that is, purposeful work, will lack both will and direction. He will
not be able to engage himself in any useful activity. Consequently he will neither work
nor achieve anything. He will simply stagnate, suffer disappointments, and bring ruin
upon himself.
2. A man without any work to do will inevitably lead a life of boredom and lethargic
inactivity. Such a life will be one of unchanging monotony and misery. It is, therefore,

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 better to be engaged in any task whatsoever, even if it be an unpleasant one, than to have
nothing to do and suffer endless boredom and unhappiness.
3. A man who has some work, or who is usefully employed, will be a more contented
person and also easier to live with than a man without any work. Work has a therapeutic
value in the case of invalids, for if they are purposefully employed, according to their
capabilities, they will add years to their life. Work is a life preserver; it helps a man to
live longer and more happily than a man who has no task in life.

COMPREHENSION

Comprehension of an unseen prose passage forms quite an important part of CSS/PCS English.
You may be asked to answer given questions on it or make a précis of it.

In either case you will have to comprehend it thoroughly and interpret it correctly. You will have
to read the passage twice or thrice in order to grasp its meaning. The first reading of the passage
will enable you to know its theme; its second reading will enable you to find out the author’s
approach. The third reading will give you the salient points the passage contains.

While reading the passage for the first time, mark all the words and phrases of which the exact
significance is not known to you. Consult a good dictionary to know their meaning. Take note of
all the similes, metaphors, and other figures of speech and find out their significance in the
context.

After having done all this, you will have thorough understanding of the passage. This is
comprehension. You are now in a position to interpret it, i.e. to explain certain points in the
passage by answering given questions.

You may be asked to explain what the author means by a certain sentence. You may be asked to
show its significance in the context. You may be asked to comment on the passage as a whole.
You may be asked to criticize the general argument of the passage, stating whether or not you
agree with the author’s argument and your reasons for doing it. You may be asked to write a note
on the style and character of the author as revealed in the passage. You may be asked to explain
certain words and phrases and to use them in sentences of your own. You may be asked to
explain certain points in the passage. If the passage is one of reasoned argument, you may be
asked to point out flaws, if any, in the argument.

Generally speaking, you are asked to answer questions on the given passage. Your answers
should be clear and concise. Write them in simple, idiomatic English. Never forget that the
answers must be written in your own English. Let your answers be relevant and to the point. Say
just what the question asks and say it in complete sentences.

Here is a solved example.

A classless society does not mean a society without leaders. It means rather one in which every
citizen becomes for the first time eligible for leadership, if he has the power to lead. It means a
society in which everyone is given, as far as possible, the chance to develop this power by the
widest diffusion of educational opportunities in the broadest sense, and by keeping the career

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wide open to talents of every useful kind. It is often said that a community of equals will not
allow itself to be led. But, in fact, most men are, in most things, very willing to be led, and in
danger of giving their leaders too rather than too little authority, especially if they are free to
choose them, and assured that the leaders cannot exploit them for personal economic advantage;
leadership so far from disappearing, will come into its own in a truly democratic society. But it is
likely to be a more diffused leadership than we are used to; for a better nurtured people will have
more citizens with strong wills and minds of their own wishful to lead, some in politics, some in
industry, and some in the professions and arts of life.

This is the idea of the classless society. Some will reject it as contrary to their interests, some as
Utopian and “against human nature”, for there are some who deny, indeed if not in word, that the
aim of society should be to promote the greatest happiness and welfare of the greatest number,
and others who hold, with pessimistic honesty, that most men must be driven and not led.

Read the above passage and answer the following questions in your own words:

Q.1. What is a “classless society” according to the writer of the above passage?
Q.2. Does the write believe that “a community of equals” will refuse to follow a leader?
Q.3. How will different types of people receive the idea of the classless society?

Solution:

Ans.1. A classless society, according to the writer, does not mean a leaderless society or a
society that will reject a leader. It means a society in which everyone will find adequate
opportunities of developing his qualities of leadership to be used for the benefit of society.

Ans.2. The writer does not believe that a community of equals will refuse to follow a leader. The
writer believers, on the contrary, that most men are quite willing to follow their leaders if only
they are assured that they will not become authoritarian and selfish. Indeed, when people are free
to choose their leaders, and are confident of their social commitment, they are likely to give their
leader too much rather than too little authority to lead them. Indeed, in a classless society,
leadership will become truly democratic.

Ans.3. Different types of people will reject the idea of a classless society for different reasons.
Some will reject it as it will go against their vested interests. Since their position is likely to be
affected by it, they will oppose it. Others will think it to be Utopian, unrealistic impracticable, or
unrealizable, because such an idea militates “against human nature” which supports inequality
and difference. They, therefore, do not agree with the view that society should aim at promoting
the greatest happiness and welfare of the greatest number. Finally, there are those who will reject
the idea of a classless society because their experience has made them cynical in their view of
human beings. With “pessimistic honesty”, that is with honesty and without any hope of
improvement, they believe that most men are unfit for enlightened leadership and that they are fit
only to be driven, or forced to do things.

PARAPHRASE

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When you paraphrase, you are explaining your source's argument, following its line of reasoning
and its sequence of ideas, in your own words. The paraphrase should give the reader an accurate
understanding of the author's position on the topic. The purpose of a paraphrase is to convey the
meaning of the original message and, in doing so, to prove that you understand the passage well
enough to restate it. Remember, your job is not to prove yourself correct, but to uncover and
explain all the facts and arguments involved in your subject.

To paraphrase, first substitute synonyms for the passage's more important terms. These
synonyms should be accurate both in denotative and connotative meaning. It does not matter yet
whether you agree or disagree with the passage; it only matters that you comprehend what the
show that you understand what the passage says.

This restatement preserves both the original meaning of the passage and the author's position on
the matter, but it may be difficult to read at some points. Fine tune the sentence construction,
possibly even adding a phrase here and there to illustrate a point more clearly or show a
connection between two ideas.

The paraphrase alters the wording of the passage without changing its meaning. It retains the
basic logic of the argument, its sequence of ideas, and even the examples used in the passage.
Most importantly, it accurately conveys the author's meaning and opinion.

Tips of Comprehension

1. Read carefully the proverb, statement, until you grasp the meaning. do not opt the
proverb or statement that you do not clear about it.
2. Start expanding the proverb or the statement by elucidating the meaning of the proverb or
the statement.
3. Explain the proverb or statement by mentioning the uses, advantages, or the demerits.
4. Give the suitable examples from the daily life, precedence of the Holy prophet (PBUH),
Quran, Quid-a-e- Azam or the famous leader or the other personalities.
5. At the end conclude the whole story in one or two sentences by supporting the proverb or
the idea while reproducing the title.
6. Do not use the repeated words, statements.

Some Expansions by Prof Muzaffar Bokhari

Truth is Beauty, Beauty Truth

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“Truth is beauty, beauty truth. That is all ye know on earth and all you need to know.”
These lines occur in Keats's famous poem 'Ode on a Grecian Urn.' In these lines, the poet
emphasizes the identity of beauty and truth. According to him, only truth represents beauty, a
fact all humans should bear in mind. Great truths are communicated by works of art: literature,
sculpture, architecture, paintings, films or other effective media. Every portrait painted is either a
truth or a lie or a mixture of the two. Its beauty depends on the degree of truth, and honesty
depicted in it. An artist who puts his heart and soul in his work and applies true tones of colour,
theme and dedication, is able to produce a beautiful piece. It would be a synthesis of beauty and
truth. In fact, beauty and truth, like arts and sciences, form together a kind of commonwealth in
which each serves the other. Whatever else truth may be, there is no doubt as to its being
valuable, not merely in the sense that it is good to look at, but also it does good to those who see
it, know it and act upon it. Like truth, beauty is dynamic and vital; no wonder the poet links them
to be the same.

That truth is beauty, beauty truth, is most significantly illustrated by the beauty that lies in the
creative arts. Truth when depicted in a piece of art — a painting, a poem, a musical lyric or a
symbolic dance — becomes a personified beauty. The painter, the poet, the musician or the
dancer makes the truth so beautiful that it permeates the whole being of the viewer, the reader or
the listener. It leaves a life-long impression on the mind provided one is receptive and the
message conveyed by the artist is infinitely true. Thus, beauty is truth and truth is beauty. This is
the basic truth which all humans should know. Without the realisation of the beautiful, without
the refinement of the heart and consciousness, earthly existence would become cruel and deadly.
However, enchanting from outside, falsehood is ugly inside. Truth, even if bitter at times, is
essentially and ultimately beautiful.

OUR DEEDS DETERMINE US AS MUCH AS WE DETERMINE OUR DEEDS

I think therefore I am,” said Descartes, the famous French philosopher. For him our thoughts
determine us as entities. This is true to a very large extent, as our actions are preceded by
thoughts, either at the conscious or unconscious level. However, thoughts being at an abstract
level are not tangible enough to be taken notice of. Hence, we are judged only by our deeds. A
person is known by his deeds. If a person is helpful, polite and considerate in his actions towards
his fellow-beings, he is known as a kind person. The converse is equally true. A mean, rude and
selfish person is regarded as bad. Our behaviour, 'good' or 'bad', certainly shapes our persona and
determines our personality. Thus, our deeds determine us as they condition our behaviour and
pre-dispose us to act in a certain way. Some believe that “man is master of his destiny.” This
means by will-power alone we can fully determine and control our actions and thereby change
the course of fate. This brings us to the central question of philosophy — free-will vs. pre-
determination. But many people believe in the inscrutable hand of fate before which man is
helpless. However, the philosophical tradition of deeds determining fate cannot easily be
dismissed. The old Biblical saying may be quoted here — “As you sow, so shall ye reap.” This
concept implies that we are a product of our actions — both past and present. This boils down to
the fact that our deeds determine us. On the other hand, if we believe in the existence of free-
will, then we alone determine our deeds and are completely in control of our lives. This implies
that we determine our deeds.

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“As you sow, so shall ye reap.” This concept implies that we are a product of our actions — both
past and present. This boils down to the fact that our deeds determine us. On the other hand, if
we believe in the existence of free-will, then we alone determine our deeds and are completely in
control of our lives. This implies that we determine our deeds.

Perhaps both concepts are equally true and it depends on the immediate circumstances.
Sometimes we may determine our deeds and at other times our deeds may determine us. We may
say that we and our deeds are inextricably linked, and determined and governed by each other. It
means a good deed determines that we become good and by becoming good we determine that
our future deeds are good, and the wheel comes full circle.

TRUTH MAY BE ECLIPSED BUT NOT EXTINGUISHED

The word 'truth' is an abstract noun, but we use many adjectives to describe it: the plain truth, the
simple truth, the honest truth, the sober truth, the exact truth, etc. From these phrases it emerges
that truth is associated with plainness, simplicity, honesty, sobriety, accuracy, etc. — all
desirable, ethically correct virtues.

However, we also use expressions like the bitter truth and the naked truth and this hints at the
fact that truth is not always palatable. It is often an impediment, an embarrassment, a
disappointment or even a threat. When truth becomes an unwanted stumbling block, man resorts
to a cover-up, called a lie. If we probe the anatomy of a lie we come up with all that is
undesirable, imperfect, corrupt, negative and vicious in human nature. Truth is light and every
falsehood symbolises darkness and every time we lie we are actually attempting to obscure light
and bring on darkness

What we must discover is whether one can succeed in snuffing out the candle of truth altogether.
Is the prevailing darkness final or does the darkness at noon give way to light as is observed in
an eclipse? An eclipse is a natural phenomenon when a temporary shadow is cast on the sun or
the moon. After a predictable time-span, the shadow passes and the sun or the moon begins
shining in all its glory. It is to be seen whether the same is the case when an untruth tries to
eclipse the truth. History gives us countless examples proving that truth has sometimes been
obscured, but never obliterated. Shakespeare's plays often underscore the triumph of good over
evil, virtue over vice, truth over falsehood. Tolstoy believed that truth, beauty and goodness
combined was a force potent enough to vanquish evil forever. In the modern everyday world too
there is fresh evidence daily of the subversion of truth for various reasons. Scams and scandals
rock economic and political foundations at frequent intervals but the very fact that they are
labelled as such indicates that the eclipse will be over and the truth will soon be out. Philip Lee
Ralph says: People still believe, deep in their hearts, that truth is stronger than falsehood and will
triumph over it: that integrity is better than expediency that right is better than might.

KNOWLEDGE OF POWER

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People may think that it is might that rules. Indeed, even now there are many worshippers of
brute power. But a little thinking will show that it is knowledge that rules the world. A man of
knowledge possesses immense influence. He has the knowledge of the men and matters around
him which mystify or baffle the ignorant. If he is a scientist, he studies the phenomena of nature
and chains the mighty forces of nature and enlists them to human service. Thus today the forces
of nature give us light, energy, comfort and power. A man of knowledge understands his fellow
men and judges them rightly. That is why it becomes easy for him to lead them. He inspires
confidence which an ignorant man, however, powerful he otherwise may be, is incapable of
doing. In times of danger the man of knowledge proves himself to be a man of resource. Lastly,
such a man knows himself and understands himself. There is no knowledge greater than the
knowledge of self. Knowing oneself means mastering one’s passions and controlling one’s
faculties. These give one immense power.

So the men of knowledge have always achieved wonders. Ulysses, the Greek hero, contributed
more to the capture of troy by his wisdom than Ajax did by his strength, or Achilles did by his
courage. It was Archimedes the savant, (a very knowledgeable person) who saved Syracuse from
Marcellus and his soldiers when the combined efforts of the army and fleet of King Hiero of
Syracuse could do very little. Roger Bacon, the medieval scientist, was thought to have
supernatural powers, because of his immense knowledge. The Bible says ‘Wisdom strengthens
the wise more than ten mighty men which are in the city.’ Hence, it can safely be said that
‘Knowledge is Power’.

IF YOU WOULD HAVE PEACE,MUST YOU PRERARE FOR WAR?

In the era of superpower rivalry, it was felt that to be prepared for war was one of the most
effective means of preserving peace. At first hearing, this piece of advice sounds plausible. It
means that if a nation is well-armed and ready for war, other nations will be chary of attacking it.
In this way it will avoid war and have peace. Whereas an unarmed nation will be an easy prey to
any enemy. No doubt there is an element of truth in it. But does preparation for war really make
for peace? Let us examine this statement. A tree must be judged by its fruit. In 1914, all the big
nations of Europe (except, perhaps, England) were armed to the teeth.

What was the result? Peace? No, war _____ the most widespread and devastating war in the
world’s history. It was the enormous enlargement of armies and fleets, the crushing burden of
ever-growing armaments, and the mutual fear and suspicion engendered thereby, which finally
resulted in the explosion of the first Great War. The lesson of that Great War is that if you
prepare for war you will have war. This has since been proved time and again renew in the
Second World War, in the wars between India and Pakistan, in the Gulf War. That method of
securing peace has failed miserably.

We must take another motto: If you would have peace, prepare for place. Let the nations prepare
for peace, by cultivating mutual goodwill, by the amicable settlement of disputes by arbitration,
by agreeing to universal disarmament by friendly co-operation instead of suspicious rivalry.
Ultimately to preserve peace, the causes of war need to be eliminated. The disparities between
the rich and the poor, between the exploiters and the exploited, have to be eliminated. It is not

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arming oneself with weapons, but arming oneself with knowledge, development and belief in the
unity of mankind which can herald an era of peace.

THE DOCTRINE THAT THE CURES FOR THE EVILS OF DEMOCRACY IS MORE
DEMOCRACY IS LIKE SAYING THAT THE CURE OF CRIME IS MOR CRIME.

Democracy has been described as the best form of government. But the best may not be good.
When we say that something is good, it means it possesses intrinsic goodness, an absolute
quality. Something which is “the best” is always in relation or comparison to other things.
Democracy may be the best form of government but only in relation to various other forms of
government hitherto tried by man. Democracy is certainly not a flawless or ideal system of
government. Man is still groping in the dark to discover an ideal system. The ideal may be
unachievable but man, as a result of his continued search, may discover a vastly improved
system in place of the democracy we know of today. Democracy has obvious evils though the
nature and magnitude of these evils may differ from country to country. Democracy can’t
effectively deal with evils originating from economic insecurity, inherent weaknesses of
capitalism, liberty taken as licence, exploitative and dictatorial tendencies of “democratic” rulers,
religious extremism, corruption, and the character and mindset of the rulers as well as the ruled.
According to certain ‘sages’ the cure for the evils of democracy is more democracy. “Like curing
the like” may be a golden principle of Homeopathy, but it does not certainly apply to politics.
Here the therapy has got to be different. ‘Unlike curing the unlike’ would be more to the point.

Those who believe in the doctrine of ‘more democracy’ are either naïve, self-styled intellectuals
for whom simplistic solutions to grave problems are perfectly satisfactory or those clever vested
interests who wish to continue, election after election, their loot and plunder. We, in Pakistan;
have seen many general elections and each time the brand of rulers these elections throw up
happens to be worse than the previous one. I do not wish to suggest that democracy should be
done away with. What I emphasize is that the evils of democracy should be dealt with an iron
hand. They should be crushed as and when they raise their head. If we do not nip the evil in the
bud, it will assume menacing proportions by the time next elections and held. ‘More democracy’
theory is simply casuistry _______ the use of clever arguments to trick people. Surely one would
not advise a diabetic to eat more sweets if he wishes to get rid of diabetes.

LIBERTY IS NOT A PERSONAL AFFAIR; IT IS A SOCIAL CONTRACT

His religion, his political beliefs, the way he lives his life so long as it does not affect others
adversely, are one his personal affairs. But the bounds of his liberty do not extend beyond that.
He can claim liberty but not license. Immunity from all law and all restraint is anarchy. It
jeopardizes liberty rather than preserve it. In the absence of laws made by the State, the law of
jungle is likely to prevail. That would hardly be conducive to the promotion of liberty. The
freedom one demands ought to teach one to respect the freedom of others. If an individual does
not respect the freedom of others, they will not respect his. By challenging their freedom, he will
only be putting his freedom in peril. He is free to believe in what he likes but if his views clash
with the views held by others, he must allow them the freedom to hold theirs.

The liberty of one individual has always to be restrained so that the liberty of others may be

15
adequately accommodated, for liberty is not a personal affair only but a social contract. One has
the liberty to play a guitar in one’s house, but one must play it in such a way that one does not
disturb others, for they have the liberty to enjoy uninterrupted hours of work or sleep. John Stuart
Mills gives a very apt remark, “The liberty of the individual must be thus far limited, and he
must not make himself a nuisance to other people.” Charles, Baron de Montesquieu clinches the
whole issue when he says, “Liberty is the right to do everything which the laws allow.”

LIFE IS ACTION, NOT CONTEMPLATION

It was the well known German poet and philosopher Goethe, who wrote this thought provoking
line which inspires us to know the real meaning of life. Ordinarily, life appears to us as an
admixture of similarities and dissimilarities, birth and death, sorrow and happiness. Similarly
contemplation and action are two important facts of life. One is likely to get a contemplative
mood every now and then, followed by an urge to go for instantaneous action.

Contemplation can be interpreted in two ways. According to the first interpretation, it is akin to
meditation and is a positive quality. It helps one to acquire peace of mind and tranquility.
Particularly, when a person faces adverse circumstances and is denied hope, he has no course left
open to him but to derive sustenance from contemplation and meditation in order to recover his
confidence and recharge the battery of his mind. On the other hand, contemplation can also
imply just brooding over the past happenings. This is the worst kind of mental exercise which
any sensible person should dislike performing. Such a state of mind makes him utterly inactive.
He loses all initiative, desire and enthusiasm, Goethe referred to as bad. Every great man’s story
of success is a story of his actions. All the great statesmen, builders of nations, scientists
explorers, navigators, mountaineers, sportsmen have been men of action. Similarly, business and
trade have developed tremendously simply because some men of action have worked in this
field. All these people did not just brood over their failure, nor did they just spend their lives in
idle contemplation. They rose to the occasion, fought the challenges of life valiantly and
ultimately succeeded in their objectives. These great men learnt the secret of success which,
according to them, consists in action, and not in idle contemplation.

COWARDS DIE MANY TIMES BEFORE THEIR DEATH THE VALIANT NEVER TASTE
OF DEATH BUT ONCE

This famous quotation occurs in Shake-speare's play Julius Caesar. These lines reflect Caesar's
attitude to death. Death is a necessary and inevitable end of life. Nobody has ever conquered
death. Death comes to all — kings and beggars, rich and poor, princes in their castles and
destitute in their huts. Death lays its icy hands upon all creatures without distinction or
discrimination. Knowing the omnipotence of death, it is the height of folly for a man to tremble
with fear at the thought of death. It is extreme cowardice to shrink from the dangers of life, and a
mark of bravery to face them. A coward lives in constant dread; his heart sinks at the prospect of
death which like the sword of Damocles is hanging over his head. The outbreak of war, a riot,
the tremors of an earthquake, the prospect of a famine or a flood, a minor illness — all these
make the coward shudder with fear because he thinks that he is the first target for these
instruments of death. He eyes his food with suspicion lest there should be poison in it. If he
stands on the sea shore or a river bank, a wave of fear sweeps over him at the idea of being

16
accidentally drowned. As he walks along a road, he is over-careful not to step down the
pavement lest he should be run over by some vehicle. He knows that death pounces upon a man
suddenly and in a variety of ways and therefore his life becomes a continuous nightmare. Surely,
he suffers a thousand times more pain and agony at the imaginary approach of death than by the
event itself.

A brave man, on the contrary, maintains an attitude of defiance towards death. He realises the
fact that death must come sooner or later and that it is no use lamenting this fact. Besides, with
courage and resolution, one may well evade death many times. A brave man experiences death
only when it actually overtakes him, and even then he makes light of the pain that accompanies
death. Robert Browning, in one of his poems, throws a challenge at death which he regards as the
arch enemy of man. We should learn to adopt a stoical attitude towards death and not suffer the
torments of death in our imagination when we are still alive and kicking.

WHAT IS THIS LIFE SO FULL OF CARE WE HAVE NO TIME TO STAND AND STARE

Life is not worth living if it is full of worries and anxieties and if all the time we are working or
thinking about our work. Life becomes worth living only if, besides the performance of our
duties, we save enough “time to stand and stare.” Leisure is essential for the true enjoyment of
life.
The world is full of beauty and charm. If we are all the time occupied with work we are bound to
miss all that beauty and charm. The rainbow in the sky, the moonlight, the dew drops on flowers
and grass, the fascinating spectacle of sunrise and sunset — these are all marvels of Nature. But
if we have no time to see and enjoy them, we are denying to ourselves some of the greatest
pleasures of life. These rights should send a thrill through our bodies. They should increase our
interest in life and gladden our hearts. But that is possible only if we have time to see them. It is,
in fact, criminal on our part not to find time for the enjoyment of the beauties of nature.

Apart from Nature, there is much in life to interest us provided we have leisure for the purpose.
We are often in too much haste and hurry to stand anywhere and observe the things and people
around us. The variety of people, the variations in their moods, the different expressions on their
faces, these are all interesting to an observant onlooker. But the onlooker must not be in a hurry
to reach his office or the place of his business. Nor must we forget feminine beauty and fashion.
Then there are beautiful objects of art and the artistes themselves. All these deserve our
wholehearted attention and appreciation. We shall only be enhancing our enjoyment of life if we
find time to stand and stare at them. Our minds will be soothed and calmed. The irony of fate in
case of today's man is that in a bid to make his life pleasant and pleasurable with the help of
wealth, he has unwittingly deprived himself of true enjoyment of life. Material pursuits do not
guarantee happiness. 'Return to Nature' is the right remedy for the shattered nerves of the modern
man.

TRUTH IS STRANGER THAN FICTION

There is a general tendency to read fiction (novels and short stories) in order to find thrill and
excitement and thus to relieve the boredom of life. What people don't realize is that truth or
actual happenings of life provide more excitement and thrill than fiction. We read stories of
crime and detection because we feel the need for sensation. This is somehow our psychological

17
requirement. But crimes actually committed, their gory details, the difficult but interesting
process of their investigation, are more sensational than fictional crimes and their detection. In
ingenuity, planning and brutality, actual crimes surpass the crimes committed in the fiction.
Matricide, patricide, homicide, suicide are all reported by newspapers and the accounts of these
are hair-raising. Bank hold-ups, highway robberies, smuggling, abduction, kidnapping, rape
these are similar other outrages as reported by newspapers are more sensational and fascinating
than imaginary account of these happenings given by story writers. The assassination of
president Kennedy followed by the murder of the alleged assassin and subsequent happenings
were far more breath-taking, sensational, and baffling than anything in fiction. Indeed, real life
offers stranger things than the ones invented by the imagination of the creative writers. When we
study fiction, we unconsciously suspend our disbelief and, for the time being, begin to take
fictional accounts as truths. These accounts appear to us to be very strange. Romantic literature
contains this element of strangers in a high degree. 'Alice in Wonderland' and 'Gulliver's Travels'
can be quoted in this regard. But when we come across actual truths in the world of men, we
realise that these truths are strangers than fictional accounts. A mentally mature person always
prefers reality to fiction which in the ultimate analysis remains a figment of the imagination.
There can be no substitute for reality which is always stranger than fiction.

EMOTIONAL PROBLEMS CAUSE PROLONGED FATIGUE

Emotional problems and conflicts, especially depression and anxiety, are by far the most
common causes of prolonged fatigue. Fatigue may represent a defence mechanism that prevents
you from having to face the true cause of your depression, such as the fact that you hate your job.
It is your body's safety valve for expressing repressed emotional conflicts, such as feelings
trapped in an ungratifying role or an unhappy marriage. When such feelings are not expressed
openly, they often come out as physical symptoms, with fatigue as one of the most common
manifestations. “Many people who are extremely fatigued don't even know they are depressed,”
Dr. Bulette says. “They are so busy distracting themselves or just worrying about being tired that
they don't recognise their depression.”

One of these situations is so common it has been given a name — tired housewife syndrome. The
victims are commonly young mothers who day in and day out face the predictable tedium of
caring for a home and small children, fixing meals, dealing with repairmen, and generally having
no one interesting to talk to and nothing enjoyable to look forward to at the end of their boring
and unrewarding day. The tired housewife may be inwardly resentful, envious of her husband's
job, and guilty about her feelings. But rather than face them head-on, she becomes extremely
fatigued.

Emotionally induced fatigue may be compounded by sleep disturbance that results from the
underlying psychological conflict. A person may develop insomnia or may sleep the requisite
number of hours but fitfully, tossing and turning all night, having disturbing dreams, and
awakening, as one woman put it, feeling as if she “had been run over by a truck.”

Understanding the underlying emotional problem is the crucial first step toward curing
psychological fatigue and by itself often results in considerable lessening of the tiredness.
Professional psychological help or career or marriage counseling may be needed.

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 HABIT: GOOD SERVANT BUT BAD MASTER

So long as a habit, even if it is not so good or not generally approved of by the society, remains
within control, it may not be very harmful. There are certain habits which, if not carried to
excess, may serve as good pastime. They may keep one interested in life and serve as good
diversion. They may be welcome relief from hard struggle for survival which is necessary for all
of us. Kite-flying, playing different games, keeping pets, playing cards, keeping pigeons,
enjoying the company of friends, visiting restaurants or clubs, even smoking moderately,
participating in literary meetings, writing poetry, listening to music, etc. are some habits which,
if not indulged in excess, make life enjoyable, interesting, happy and worth living. They serve as
one's servants. So long as they remain one's servants, they do not cause any positive harm.
Society may not entirely approve of these habits, but they are generally accepted and tolerated.
Society gives some latitude to all of us. Now, it is up to us to keep these habits within limits.
These very habits, when they go beyond reasonable limits, become harmful and evil. Then we
justly deserve the disapproval of society. A person, slave to one or more habits, is bound to
suffer greatly. He loses respect in the eyes of even his own kith and kin. His life becomes
miserable and he becomes a pariah in society. A person who has thus made these habits his
masters, may realise that these habits are ruining his health, character and reputation and involve
great financial loss. At a certain stage, he may like to get rid of his bad habit or habits. But he
will soon find, to his dismay, that these habits have become his masters. He will know how
helpless he is before an ingrained habit or habits. Deep-rooted habits become second nature. It
becomes almost impossible to get rid of them. The end of these servants of habits is generally
very tragic.

SOME BOOKS ARE TO BE TASTED, OTHERS TO BE SWALLOWED, AND SOME FEW

TO BE CHEWED AND DIGESTED

Francis Bacon's famous classification of books into three categories is, indeed, true and
convincing. All books do not deserve the same attention from readers. Some books deserve only
to be tasted, that is, to be read in parts and then to be dismissed. These books enjoy a temporary
vogue and are then forgotten. Travel books, books of true adventure, accounts of voyages and
exploration, political commentaries, books describing past social customs and the like belong to
this category, Life is short, art is long. We cannot, therefore, devote much time to such books.
We can only browse through these books. Then, there are books which are to be swallowed, that
is, to be read through hastily for the sake of entertainment and diversion. To this category belong
novels, short stories, anthologies of lyrical poems and ballads, short biographies, etc. These
books are just to be read through without much thought and reflection. Nor do they leave any
permanent mark or impression upon the mind. Finally, there are the masterpieces of the world,
great books written by great minds.

These books deserve a close study. Every sentence in them deserves attention. They are to be
studied with full concentration of one's mental powers. They contain the wisdom and experience
of great thinkers, philosophers, poets and sages. Dante's Divine Comedy, Shakespeare's tragedies
like Hamlet and Macbeth, Goethe's Faust, the works of Tolstoy, Ghalib's Deewan, Iqbal's works,
Milton's Paradise Lost and above all the revealed books, the Quran and the Bible which contain
the word of God Himself. Essays of Bacon whose quotation is under review, belong to this

19
category. The reader feels a spontaneous desire to meditate upon what he reads in these books to
allow the ideas of these great writers to sink into his consciousness so that they may become part
of his mental equipment.

A LITTLE KNOWLEDGE IS A DANGEROUS THING

An inadequate knowledge of any matter can prove very harmful. It may even prove to be
disastrous. A radio or an automobile mechanic having a little knowledge of his work may ruin
the machinery instead of being able to repair even a minor fault. A man with a meagre
knowledge of law may land himself or another person in serious trouble as a result of his
ignorance. Not knowing all the implications of the legal postion, he may take a decision or make
a commitment that has serious consequences. An unqualified doctor may cause deterioration in
the condition of his patient by his wrong prescription. Indeed quacks have been known to cause
the death of their patients by their incompetent handling of the cases. In this sphere, a little
knowledge is certainly a dangerous thing which could prove to be fatal. It is better not to have
even a rudimentary knowledge of medicine than to know a little. When one has acquired a little
knowledge of anything one feels tempted to make use of that knowledge for the satisfaction of
one's ego. But the exercise or practical application of a little knowledge is likely to lead to many
complications. In politics, if one is not fully conversant with facts, and if one has just gathered
crumbs of information, one may cause a riot by retailing imperfect, and therefore, misleading,
information regarding certain matters to a mob of people. A rumour generally starts on the basis
of someone's inadequate knowledge of some matter. Certain rumours thus started can prove very
mischievous and harmful. It would not be untrue to say that complete ignorance is preferable to a
little knowledge. He who is ignorant will, if the worst comes to the worst, be regarded as a fool.
But he who has only a little knowledge may do a great damage.

COMPASSION IS THE BASIS OF ALL MORALITY

“There is no need to define morality, let man be simply compassionate.” This sentence expresses
the basic essence of morality. For when we think about it, is not that truly human feeling of
compassion the basis of all morality?

Morality rests for its very meaning on the concepts of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ where good refers to all
thoughts and deeds that do not involve an attempt to inflict suffering on others. Thus, morality is
based on man’s ability to understand, to be able to sympathise, feel kindness and sorrow for and
identify himself with the sufferings of his fellow-men. So, only compassion can give rise to
moral thoughts and feelings. Depriving a person of what belongs to him, taunting or insulting
others through words or actions for the purpose of self-gratification, indulging in violence or
killing, contradict morality as well as the inner feeling of kindness and compassion. When we
talk about social morality, what comes into play is our ability to feel for the well-being of our
society. A certain moral code of conduct is ultimately necessary to ensure that the society does
not fall prey to degeneration of values which would lead to rampant sufferings and ultimately
chaos in the society. That moral code of conduct cannot come into existence unless and until
there is a relationship of compassion and sympathy among the members of a society. This
relationship would furnish the foundation on which to build the edifice of morality. There is the
need to realise that man must continue to feel compassion for the sake of himself as well as the

20
society. But like any other human trait, compassion ought to be continually exercised if it is to
remain a dominant force, serving as true basis for morality. Unfortunately, in modern society, we
witness a complete lack of kindness and sympathy. What remain are material values that look
only towards immediate personal gains. But it need not be so if only we would realise that
compassion is the underlying principle of all morality. Without compassion human society
cannot prosper in the real sense.

--------------------------------------------------The End--------------------------------------------------------

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 ADVANCE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PARTS OF SPEECH

Noun

A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea.

Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

Common nouns refer to common, everyday things.

The dog sleeps in her own bed. His friend is crazy about popcorn. My cousin went to college.

A proper noun refers to specific things that are unique or have names. Proper nouns begin with
capital letters.
My friend Miranda is from Wyoming. In 2001 Halloween falls on a Wednesday. Most
Ecuadorians practice Christianity.

Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns

A concrete noun names something you can experience with at least one of your senses (sight,
hearing, touch, taste, and smell). Most nouns are concrete nouns.

My ice melted in the sun. Darrel's kitten tore apart the yarn. Thunder rattled our windows.

An abstract noun names something you cannot experience with your senses. Sometimes abstract
nouns are called "idea nouns."
Sandra's courage and curiosity made her a good explorer. It's important to have respect in a
friendship. Honesty is usually the best policy.

Pronoun

A pronoun is used in place of a noun or nouns. Common pronouns include he, her, him, I, it, me,
she, them, they, us, and we. Here are some examples:

INSTEAD OF: Luma is a good athlete. She is a good athlete. (The pronoun she replaces Luma.)

INSTEAD OF: The beans and tomatoes are fresh-picked. They are fresh-picked. (The pronoun
they replaces the beans and tomatoes.)

Often a pronoun takes the place of a particular noun. This noun is known as the antecedent. A
pronoun "refers to," or directs your thoughts toward, its antecedent.
Let's call Luma and ask her to join the team. (Her is a pronoun; Luma is its antecedent.)

To find a pronoun's antecedent, ask yourself what that pronoun refers to. What does her refer to
in the sentence above—that is, who is the “her”? The “her” in the sentence is Luma; therefore,
Luma is the antecedent.

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Verb

A verb tells about an action or a state of being. There are three types of verbs: action, linking,
and auxiliary.

Action Verbs

An action verb expresses action. It tells what a person or a thing does.

Muskrats swim in marshes. We built a fantastic sandcastle.
To find out whether a word is an action verb, ask yourself whether that word expresses
something you can do. Can you muskrat? No! Can you marsh? No. But can you swim? Yes—
swim is an action verb.

Linking Verbs

A linking verb links the subject of the sentence with information about it. Sometimes linking
verbs are called "state-of-being verbs."
Jeremy is tired. This apple tastes so sweet.
In the first sentence, is links Jeremy to information about him-the fact that he is tired. That is his
state of being.
In the second sentence, tastes links apple to information about it—its sweetness. Did you think
taste was an action verb? Well, it is—when the subject is doing the tasting. But here, the apple
isn't doing any tasting. The apple itself tastes sweet. That is its state of being.

Auxiliary Verbs

An auxiliary verb goes with another verb. Sometimes auxiliary verbs are called "helping verbs"
because they introduce or "help out" the main verb.
Ms. Sothros is reading our stories. We should dig for buried treasure.
In the first sentence, the auxiliary verb, is, helps out the main verb, reading, by telling when the
action is taking place—right now.
In the second sentence, the auxiliary verb, should, helps out the main verb, dig, by telling about
its importance—digging must be important, if it is something that should happen.
Be, have, and do are the most common auxiliary verbs. Other common auxiliary verbs include
can, could, should, would, may, might, and must.

Adverb

An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. In this case, "modifies" means "tells
more about." An adverb tells more about how the verb is being done. Many adverbs end in "-ly."
Susan writes quickly and well. Herbie will visit tomorrow. Let's go home. That was a very funny
joke.
Adverbs can answer questions like these: "How?" (quickly and well) "When?" (tomorrow)
"Where?" (home) "To what extent?" (very funny).

Interrogative Adverbs

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An interrogative adverb asks a question. The interrogative adverbs are how, when, where, and
why.

How did you get here? Where are you going next?

Conjunctive Adverbs

A conjunctive adverb joins two ideas. It can give emphasis to one of the ideas, or answer the
question "How are they related?" Some common conjunctive adverbs are besides, however,
indeed, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, and therefore.
I am allergic to cats; nevertheless, I love them. It might rain later; therefore, we should pack our
umbrellas.
A semicolon is used before a conjunctive adverb, and a comma is used after it.

Adjective

An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun. In this case, "modifies" means "tells more about."
Adjectives are words that describe things.
I planted orange flowers in the round pot. The long-eared rabbit nibbled the little carrots.

Adjectives can answer the question "What kind?" (orange flowers; little carrots)

Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective modifies a noun by telling whom it belongs to. It answers the question
"Whose?" Possessive adjectives include his, her, its, my, our, their, and your.
You can share my rice. Have you seen their house?

Demonstrative Adjectives

The demonstrative adjectives that, these, this, those, and what answer the question "Which?"
I'm going to open that present. Those socks look warm.
A demonstrative adjective may look like a demonstrative pronoun, but it is used differently in the
sentence: it is an adjective, used to modify a noun or pronoun.

Interrogative Adjectives

The interrogative adjectives what and which are used in a question. They help to ask about
something.
What movie do you want to see? Which leaves turn color first?
An interrogative adjective may look like an interrogative pronoun, but it is used differently in the
sentence: it is an adjective, used to modify a noun or pronoun.

Indefinite Adjectives

An indefinite adjective gives indefinite, or general, information. Often, it answers the question

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"How much?" Some common indefinite adjectives are all, any, each, every, few, many, and
some.
Many children like dinosaurs. Did you want some bananas?
An indefinite adjective may look like an indefinite pronoun, but it is used differently in the
sentence: it is an adjective, used to modify a noun or pronoun.

Conjunction

Conjunctions connect words or groups of words.

Coordinating Conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction is a word that connects two words or two groups of words that are
used in the same way—that is, they are the same part of speech or they are grammatically alike.
The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet.
Do you want to play checkers or cards? We're going to be Calvin and Hobbes this Halloween.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They connect two words or two groups of
words that are used in the same way—that is, they are the same part of speech or they are
grammatically alike. They include both . . . and; either . . . or; neither . . . nor; not only . . . but;
and whether . . . or.

Both Andy and Rex are coming to dinner. I would like either a red marker or an orange marker.

Subordinating Conjunctions

A subordinating conjunction is a word that connects two groups of words that are not used in the
same way—that is, they are not the same part of speech and they are not grammatically alike.
Some common subordinating conjunctions are after, because, before, how, if, since, than,
though, until, when, where, and while.

Bobby played in the park until it got dark. The movie was funnier than I had expected.
Sometimes a subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of a sentence.
Since you are here, let's rehearse. After Margaret had lunch, she took a nap.
Interjection

An interjection expresses an emotion. It might show excitement or surprise.

Wow! That is a giant pumpkin! Ouch, you stepped on my toe! Yippee! We won! Whoa! Hold
your horses! Bravo, you did a great job!
An interjection often appears at the beginning of a sentence. It is usually followed by an
exclamation point or a comma.

Conjunction
Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, clauses or sentences. e.g. and, but, or, nor,

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for, yet, so, although, because, since, unless, when, while, where are some conjunctions.
Examples.
She tried but did not succeed. He does not go to school because he is ill. John and Marry went to
the cinema. He thought for a moment and kicked the ball. I waited for him but he didn’t come.
You will be ill unless you quit smoking. We didn’t go to the market because it was raining
outside.

Single word Conjunction: Conjunction having one word

e.g. and, but, yet, because etc.

Compound Conjunction: Conjunction having two or more words

e.g. as long as, as far as, as well as, in order that, even if, so that etc.

There are three types of conjunctions

1. Coordinating Conjunction
2. Subordinate Conjunction
3. Correlative Conjunction

1. Coordinating Conjunction.

Coordinating conjunctions (called coordinators) join words, phrases (which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure) or independent clauses. Coordinating conjunctions are
short words i.e. and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet. Coordination conjunction joins two equal parts of a
sentence.

Word + word: She likes tea and coffee.

Phrase + phrase: He may be in the room or on the roof.
Clauses + clause: What you eat and what you drink affect your health.
Independent clause + independent clause: The cat jumped over the mouse and the mouse ran
away.
In the following examples, coordinating conjunctions join two words of same importance.
She likes pizza and cake. (pizza and cake)
I bought a table and a chair. (table and chair)
He may come by bus or car. (bus or car)
In the following examples, conjunction joins two independent clauses. Independent clause is a
clause which can stand alone as a sentence and have complete thought on its own.
I called him but he didn’t pick up the phone.
I advised him to quit smoking, but he didn’t act upon my advice.
He became ill, so he thought he should go to a doctor.
He shouted for help, but nobody helped her.
He wants to become a doctor, so he is studying Biology.
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. A comma is
used with conjunction if the clauses are long or not well balanced.
If both clauses have same subjects, the subject of 2nd clause may not be written again. See the
following examples
She worked hard and succeeded.
The player stopped and kicked the ball.

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He became ill but didn’t go to doctor.
Marry opened the book and started to study.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions (called subordinators) join subordinate clause (dependent clause) to
main clause. e.g. although, because, if, before, how, once, since, till, until, when, where, whether,
while, after, no matter how, provided that, as soon as, even if,

MAIN CLAUSE + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE

Subordinate clause is combination of words (subject and verb) which cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence. Subordinate clause is also called dependent clause because it is dependent on
main clause. Subordinate clause usually starts with relative pronoun (which, who, that, whom
etc). Subordinate clause gives more information in relation to main clause to complete the
thought.
Subordinating conjunction joins subordinate clause to main clause. Subordinating conjunction
always come before the subordinate clause, no matter the subordinate clause is before main
clause or after the main clause.

Examples.
He does not go to school because he is ill. I will call you after I reach my home. I bought some
cookies while I was coming from my office. They played football although it was raining.
Although it was raining, they played foot ball. As far as I know, this exam is very difficult.
I have gone to every concert since I have lived in New York. You can get high grades in exam
provided that you work hard for it.

3. Correlative Conjunction.
These are paired conjunctions which join words, phrases or clauses which have reciprocal or
complementary relationship. The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are as follows

either … or
neither … nor
whether … or
both … and
not only … but also

Examples.
Neither John nor Marry passed the exam. Give me either a cup or a glass.
Both red and yellow are attractive colours. I like neither tea nor coffee. He will be either in the
room or in the hall. John can speak not only English but also French.

Punctuation
End Marks

Use a period after a declarative or imperative statement: I went to the library.

Sign your name here.

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Use a question mark after a direct question or to indicate uncertainty: What is your name?
Chaucer's dates are 1340?–1400.
Do not use a question mark after an indirect question: I asked them what time they were leaving.
Use an exclamation point after an exclamatory or emphatic sentence or an interjection: Give me
a break!
Hey! Ouch! Wow!

Comma

Use a comma:
To separate words in a list or series: The baby likes grapes, bananas, and cantaloupe.
To separate two or more adjectives that come before a noun when and can be substituted without
changing the meaning: He had a kind, generous nature. The dog had thick, soft, shiny fur. Do not
use the comma if the adjectives together express a single idea or the noun is a compound made
up of an adjective and a noun: The kitchen had bright yellow curtains. A majestic bald eagle
soared overhead.
To set off words or phrases in apposition to a noun: George Eliot, the great 19th-century
novelist, was born in 1819. Do not use commas when the appositive word or phrase is essential
to the meaning of the sentence: The novelist George Eliot was born in 1819.
To set off nonessential phrases and clauses: My French professor, who has an odd sense of
humor, has been teaching for some 30 years. Do not use commas when the phrase or clause is
essential to the meaning of the sentence: The professor who teaches my French class has an odd
sense of humor.
To separate the independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction in a compound
sentence: He lives in New York, and she lives in London. Some people like golf, but others
prefer tennis.
To set off interrupters such as of course, however, I think, and by the way from the rest of the
sentence: She knew, of course, that he was lying. By the way, I'll be away next week.
To set off an introductory word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of a sentence: Yes, I'd like to
go with you. After some years, we met again. Being tall, she often gets teased.
To set off a word in direct address: Thanks, guys, for all your help.
How was your trip, Kathy?
To set off a tag question: You won't do that again, will you?
To introduce a short quotation: The queen said, “Let them eat cake!”
To close the salutation in a personal letter and the complimentary close in a business or personal
letter: Dear Mary, … Sincerely, Fred
To set off titles and degrees: Sarah Little, Ph.D.Robert Johnson, Jr.
To separate sentence elements that might be read incorrectly without the comma: As they
entered, in the shadows you could see a figure lurking.
To set off the month and day from the year in full dates: The conference will be held on August
6, 2001. Do not use a comma when only the month and year appear: The conference will be
held in August 2001.
To set off the city and state in an address: Sam Green 10 Joy Street
Boston, MA 02116 If the address is inserted into text, add a second comma after the state:
Cincinnati, Ohio, is their home.

Colon (: )

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Use a colon:

To introduce a list, or words, phrases, and clauses that explain, enlarge upon, or summarize what
has gone before: Please provide the following: your name, address, and phone number.
“No honest poet can ever feel quite sure of the permanent value of what he has written: He may
have wasted his time and messed up his life for nothing.”—T. S. Eliot
To introduce a long quotation: In 1780 John Adams wrote: “English is destined to be in the next
and succeeding centuries more generally the language of the world than Latin was in the last or
French is in the present age…”
To separate hour and minute(s) in standard time notation:
The train arrives at 9:30.
To close the salutation in a business letter: Dear Sir or Madam:

Semicolon (;)

Use a semicolon:
To separate the independent clauses in a compound sentence not joined by a conjunction: Only
two seats were left; we needed three. The situation is hopeful; the storm may lift soon.
To separate two independent clauses, the second of which begins with an adverb such as
however, consequently, moreover, and therefore: We waited an hour; however, we couldn't hang
around indefinitely.
To separate elements already punctuated with commas: Invitations were mailed to the various
professors, associate professors, and assistant professors; the secretary of the department; and
some of the grad students.

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