Of And: Olume Umber Ovember

Journal of
Arts
Science and
Technology
VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 NOVEMBER 2018
Editorial / vii
Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency

or a ‘slap on the wrist’? / 1
A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical

Tool for Young People / 14
Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean / 38
Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective / 52
Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica:

The Devil and the Details / 65
Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources) at the

University of Technology, Jamaica / 80
Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity / 94
Continues on inside front cover
A PUBLICATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA

Notes on Contributors / 125
The Journal of Arts Science and Technology:

Submission Guidelines / 128
Journal of
Arts
Science and
Technology
Vol. 11, No. 2 November 2018
A P U B L I C AT I O N O F T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F T E C H N O L O G Y, J A M A I C A
Published by
The University of Technology, Jamaica
237 Old Hope Road
Kingston 6, Jamaica, West Indies
Tel: 876-927-1680-8
Website: http://www.utech.edu.jm
e-mail: jasteditor@utech.edu.jm
© 2018 University of Technology, Jamaica
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form, or by any means electronic, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the
prior permission of the publisher.
ISSN: 0799-1681
Set in Adobe Garamond 11.5/15 x 30

Cover and journal design by Robert Harris
Printed in Jamaica
ii Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief Martin Henry

Managing Editors Cynthia Onyefulu and Heather ompson
Technical Support Tashoya Streete
MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE
Martin Henry School of Graduate Studies, Research and

Entrepreneurship
Dr. Cynthia Onyefulu Faculty of Education and Liberal Studies
Heather ompson Calvin McKain Library, UTech, Ja.
Janet James Calvin McKain Library, UTech, Ja.
Camille Jackson College of Business and Management
Tashoya Streete School of Graduate Studies, Research and
Entrepreneurship
Shaneka Campbell School of Graduate Studies, Research and
Entrepreneurship
INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD
Dr. Moji Christianah Adeyeye University of Pittsburgh, USA

Dr. Srikanth Beldona University of Delaware, USA
Professor M. Brian Blake University of Miami, USA
Professor omas Calderon e University of Akron, USA
Dr. Omar Christian North Carolina Central University, USA
Professor Dr. Ir. Arch Tom Coppens University of Antwerpen, Belgium
Professor Roberto Escarre University of Alicante, Spain
Dr. Jeff Garis Florida State University, USA
Professor Timothy Lewis University of the West Indies, St. Augustine,
Trinidad and Tobago
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 iii

JOURNAL OF ARTS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Professor Henry Lowe Bio-Tech Research and Development

Institute, Jamaica
Dr. Motlalepula Matsabisa University of the Free State, South Africa
Dr. Mohammed Mohammed Federal University of Technology, Nigeria
Ndamitso
Professor Dan Ramdath Agriculture and Agri-Food, Canada
Dr. Jianwei Ren HySA Infrastructure Competence Center,
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR), South Africa
Dr. Cliff Riley Scientific Research Council, Jamaica
Dr. Christopher Ross Concordia University, USA
Dr. Michael G. Spencer Cornell University, USA
Dr. Craig Watters Oklahoma State University, USA
Dr. Keith Waugh Southern Illinois University, USA
Dr. W. Alan Wright University of Windsor, Canada
ProfessorPeter York University of Bradford, United Kingdom
iv Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Contents
Editorial / vii
Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a ‘slap on the wrist’? / 1

Shanice N. Trowers
A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical

Tool for Young People / 14
Andrew P. Smith
Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean / 38

Fitzroy Henry, Deonne Caines and Sheerin Eyre
Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective / 52

Anetheo Jackson
Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica:

The Devil and the Details / 65
Ellen Campbell Grizzle and Rasheed Perry
Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources) at the University of

Technology, Jamaica / 80
Heather Thompson, Kerry-Ann Rodney Wellington and Janet James
Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity / 94

Dahoma South and Sonia Richards-Malcolm
Notes on Contributors / 125
The Journal of Arts Science and Technology:

Submission Guidelines / 128
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 v

THE JOURNAL OF ARTS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Editorial
Beginning this year (2018), the Journal of Arts Science and Technology (JAST)
publishes two issues per year. e first issue was published in March. is issue,
Volume 11 Number 2, carries seven papers ranging over a number of disciplines.
JAST is an international, multi-disciplinary, peer-reviewed journal published by
the University of Technology, Jamaica in both hard copy and online on
EBSCOHost at http://bit.ly/2cc9STt and on the University’s own website at
http://www.
utechjamaica.edu.jm/academics/sgsre/publications-1. e journal carries papers
across the diverse fields covered by the University.
“Sentence Reduction Day-Judicial Efficiency or a ‘slap on the wrist’?” a Law
paper, opens this issue. In it the author examines the novel concept of Sentence
Reduction Day as it has developed recently in Jamaican law and critically explores
whether the initiative in its present form contributes to judicial efficiency, and also
provides recommendations for its improvement.
e next paper is a “Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool”.
Findings show that as a pedagogical tool for young people, Photovoice is highly
successful in using photography to educate students across the globe. e
methodology overrides barriers of language, culture, social settings, gender and
location, and its interactive and participatory nature results in it effectively tackling
a multiplicity of issues face by young people around the globe.
e third paper on food policy and chronic disease identifies priority food
commodities that should be promoted to impact health. It further shows particular
foods that confer additional health benefits. While this link between food policy
and health is highlighted, the study also points to the challenge of exploiting this
link given that the overall costs of healthier foods are outside the purchasing range
of the poorest in society.
e paper which follows offers a philosophical perspective on the agenda of the
right to adequate housing for all. e conclusion is drawn that the market driven
approach to housing lacks the relevant mechanism to deliver a ‘right’ to adequate
housing for all. In this regard, it is concluded that an appropriate synthesis of the
state and market driven approaches to housing is a more plausible apparatus to
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 vii

Editorial
address the ideal of a right to adequate housing for all in any context. erefore, a
deliberate application of dialectical thinking in designing and developing housing
policies, practices and procedures is proposed in order to achieve housing justice.
e next paper investigates the prospects of “Mining Medicines from Cannabis
in Jamaica” following the legal establishment of the Medical Cannabis industry.
Based on chemical analyses carried out, the paper presents “promising results from
the first fledgling fruits of effort through international and national alliances despite
barriers and challenges.”
e sixth paper in this issue is an assessment of “Faculty Use of Electronic
Resources (E-resources)” in a university which has been promoting staff use of
its growing body of e-resources. e researchers found that a large percentage of
faculty indicated that using e-resources was too time consuming and they lacked
competency on their usage. It was also revealed that the most effective method of
creating awareness was through interaction with a Librarian.
Finally, in this issue there is a paper which explores the “Impact of Workplace
Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity” among academic, non-academic and
technical employees at two local universities. Finding significant levels of conflict
and a negative impact on staff performance, the investigators have recommended
that “all employees should be trained in resolving conflicts, the organizational
culture and structure should allow employees to resolve their differences, and all
employees should be held accountable to use conflict-resolution competencies.
Once conflict resolution is made a core competency in organizations costs will be
lowered, be more productive and increase profitability.”
viii Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Sentence Reduction Day

Judicial Efficiency or a ‘slap on the wrist’?
SHANICE N. TROWERS
University of Technology, Jamaica
Abstract
e crime rate in Jamaica has spiralled out of control. e increase in crime has
resulted in an increase in criminal cases being tried in the courts. Due to
infrastructural deficiencies, the judicial system in its present state is currently unable
to efficiently manage the high volume of criminal cases being brought before the
courts, which results in there being a significant backlog of cases. It has, in fact, been
reported that many accused persons have been waiting for, in some instances, more
than a decade for a criminal trial to start. As such, in an effort to ease the pressure
on the judiciary and to assist with the clearing of backlogged cases, the Sentence
Reduction Day programme was implemented by the Criminal Case Management
Steering Committee and was supported by the Ministry of Justice in May 2017.
Under this initiative, there is the possibility that an accused person may receive up
to a whopping 50% reduction in their sentence upon entering a guilty plea. Several
persons in the legal arena have embraced the initiative and are of the opinion that
it can yield great benefits to our justice system. However, on the other hand, Sentence
reduction Day has also been the victim of harsh criticism and significant public
dissent, with many arguing that it will do more harm than good to our society.
is article critically examines the novel concept of Sentence Reduction Day as it
has developed in the Jamaican society and critically explores whether the initiative
in its present form contributes to judicial efficiency, and provides recommendations
for its improvement.
Keywords: Sentencing, sentence reduction day, judicial efficiency, law, judges’

discretion, plea bargaining
Corresponding author: Shanice N. Trowers:
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 1

Introduction
Sentencing is an intricate and delicate exercise that judges undertake on a daily

basis. It has often times been said that the process of arriving at a just and
appropriate sentence is an art and not an exact science.1
Law is an abstract concept and as such, arriving at an appropriate sentence
should never be viewed as one that has a mathematical formula.2 In handing down
a sentence, it is pertinent that judges take into consideration the general principles
of sentencing as were established in the case of R v Beckford and Lewis.3 In that
case, it was illustrated that the four “classical principles of sentencing” were
retribution, deterrence, prevention and rehabilitation.4
It has been noted that in other jurisdictions such as Bermuda and New Zealand,
they have maintained these core principles but have added other core objectives
and principles such as having offenders acknowledge the wrong done to society,
which helps to promote a sense of responsibility in these said offenders.5 In addition
to these four classical principles, the sentencing judge also has to ensure that the
sentence given is proportionate to the crime that the defendant committed. e
judge has to take care when balancing the fragile scale of justice when sentencing,
as he has to consider the competing interests of both the offender and the victim.6
e judge must therefore ensure that when considering what sentence he should
hand down, he takes into account the antecedents of the defendant, the offender’s
degree of blameworthiness, and the gravity of the crime amongst other things.7
In order to properly analyze the whole concept of Sentence Reduction Day, it is
critical to discuss the general legal principles surrounding reductions in sentences
generally. At common law, it is a known fact that generally when an accused person
pleads guilty to the commission of a crime, he will receive a reduction in his
sentence.8 Additionally, the scale of the reduction in sentence at common law is
usually greater, the earlier that the accused pleads guilty.9 In the case of R v Cain
1. Sentencing guidelines for use by judges of the Supreme Court of Jamaica and the Parish
Courts Retrieved from< http://supremecourt.gov.jm/sites/default/files/Jamaica%20Sentenc-
ing%20Guidelines.pdf>
2. Ibid.
3. (1980) 17 JLR 202.
4. R v Beckford and Lewis (1980) 17 JLR 202.
5. Ibid. (n.1).
6. Ibid.
7. R v Everald Dunkley, RMCA No 55/2001, judgment delivered 5 July 2002; See also Delroy
Barron v R [2016] JMCA Crim 32.
8. John Sprack A Practical Approach to Criminal Procedure (1st edn, OUP Oxford, 2011).
2 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a 'slap on the wrist'?
and Schollick10, it was stated that defendants should be made known of the fact
that guilty pleas attract lesser sentences.11 Lord Widgery had in fact stated in that
said case that ‘Any accused person who does not know about it should know about it.’12
e rationale behind this is that it provides some incentive to defendants who plead
guilty, as they would have not wasted the courts’ time and financial resources and
would prevent witnesses who sometimes are victims themselves, from having to go
through the grueling experience of a trial.13 is arguably also contributes
significantly to judicial efficiency as the courts’ resources can be redirected into
addressing other substantial matters.
In Jamaica, the Criminal Justice (Amendment) Act 2015 has codified the
position at common law whereby an accused person could benefit from a reduction
in their sentence, upon entering a guilty plea. e Act creates provisions for a
reduction in the sentence upon entering a guilty plea of between 15–50%
depending on the stage that the accused enters the said guilty plea.14
Overview of Sentence Reduction Day
e first Sentence Reduction Day that took place in Jamaica, occurred in or around
May 22, 2017.15 is programme was implemented by the Criminal Case
Management Steering Committee upon receiving the approval for same from the
Ministry of Justice of Jamaica.16 Under section 42A of the Criminal Justice
(Administration) (Amendment) Act 2015 (hereinafter referred to as the CJAA Act),
there is reference made to a “first relevant date.”17 e said CJAA Act indicates
that the first relevant date means the first date on which the defendant, regardless
of whether he is represented by an attorney-at-law or elects not to be represented
by an attorney-at-law, is brought before the Court after the Judge or Resident
9. Andrew Ashworth, Sentencing and Criminal Justice (6th edn, Cambridge University Press,
2015).
10. [1976] QB 496.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN05974 <Accessed on
April 21, 2018>
14. See Criminal Justice Administration (Amendment) Act 2015 of Jamaica.
15. http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20171017/accused-persons-urged-take-advantage-
sentence-reduction-day <Accessed on April 15, 2018>
16. Ibid.
17. See section 42A of the Criminal Justice Administration (Amendment) Act 2015 of Jamaica.

Magistrate is satisfied that the prosecution has made adequate disclosure to the
defendant of the case against him in respect of the charge before the Court. Section
42D of the CJAA Act illustrates that where the defendant indicates to the court
on the first relevant date that he wishes to plead guilty, the sentence may be reduced
by up to 50 percent. Sentence reduction day, for the purposes of the CJAA Act
operates as the first relevant date18 which means that if an accused takes advantage
of sentence reduction day, regardless of whether he was brought before the court
on days prior to sentence reduction day and did not plead guilty, but decides to
plead guilty on sentence reduction day, he or she may receive up to 50 percent
reduction on their sentence.
Since its introduction, there are several notable cases of individuals who have
successfully pleaded guilty and have benefited from sentence reduction day. ere
is the Omar Graham case. In that case, Mr. Graham violently chopped to death
his employer, Barbara Moncrieffe and injured her husband Vassell Moncrieffe and
two other employees on March 24, 2017 at Moncrieffe’s Patio Shop in Kingston
Jamaica.19 On October 19, 2017, Mr. Graham pleaded guilty to murder and three
counts of wounding with intent on that particular Sentence Reduction Day.20 On
February 22, 2018, he was sentenced to only 20 years for murder and 10 years for
the wounding with intent. He was also made eligible for parole in 15 years.21
Another highly controversial sentence that was handed down at a sentence
reduction day relates to the case of Phillip Brown. In that case, Mr. Phillip Brown
hammered his pregnant girlfriend, Ms. Kerry-Ann Wilson to death and wrapped
her body in a tarpaulin.22 Mr. Brown attempted to throw the body of Ms. Wilson
through a railing leading to a gully at the Crystal Towers in Kingston Jamaica,
where Ms. Wilson then resided.23 On October 19, 2017, he also pleaded guilty to
murder on Sentence Reduction day.24 He was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment
18. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/dpp-explains-concept-of-sentence_122058?pro-
file=1373&template=MobileArticle <Accessed on April 15, 2018>
19. http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20170330/26-year-old-groundsman-charged-mur-
der-barbara-moncrieffe <Accessed on April 16, 2018>
20. http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20171019/sentence-reduction-day-employee-
deadly-moncrieffe-attack-pleads-guilty <Accessed on April 16, 2018>
21. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Accused_in_murder_of_Moncrieffes_Patio_
Shop%26%238217;s_owner_gets_30_years?profile=1228 <Accessed on April 16, 2018>
22. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/UPDATE—Phillip-Brown-charged-with-common-
law-wife-s-murder <Accessed on April 16, 2018>
23. http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20161211/ex-boyfriend-murdered-st-andrew-
woman-surrenders-police <Accessed on April 16, 2018>
24. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Man_who_hammered_girlfriend_to_death_
gets_15_years?profile=1228< Accessed on April 16, 2018>

for her murder and will have to serve 10 years of hard labour before he can be
eligible for parole. Needless to say, in both cases, the courts of public opinion
enunciated that they would have sentenced both defendants to much harsher and
longer periods of imprisonment.25
The Distinction between Sentence Reduction Days and Plea

Bargaining Agreements
e reader may ponder how is Sentence Reduction Day different from that of a
plea bargaining agreement and as such, this author will now seek to distinguish
between the two concepts.
Plea bargain agreements can occur informally, as they do occur at common law,
and they can also occur formally as they occur at statute.26 At common law,
informal plea agreements usually occur under these two circumstances:
1. Where an accused offers to plead guilty to a lesser offence other than the one
for which he is charged. This only occurs in particular circumstances where
the facts may disclose a lesser offence, such as murder to manslaughter;27 and
2. Where multiple persons are charged with an offence, one or more may plead
guilty to the offence and the prosecution can then choose to offer no evidence
against the other accused OR one or more accused who participated in the
offence may offer to plead guilty and testify against his co-accused.28
Formal Plea Bargain agreements however were codified by the Jamaican
Parliament through the introduction of the Plea Negotiations and Agreements Act
2017.29 is Act requires that before a formal plea agreement is concluded, there
must be a written agreement between the prosecution and the defence.30. It also
most importantly, states that the victim or where the victim is deceased, the victim’s
family, may be contacted by the prosecutor to obtain their views, prior to the
conclusion of negotiations.31
From the above, the reader should be able to appreciate the fact that there are
25. Ibid.
26. Richard L. Lippke ‘e Ethics of Plea Bargaining’ (1st edn, Oxford University Press, 2011)
27. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/dpp-explains-concept-of-sentence_122058?pro-
file=1373&template=MobileArticle <Accessed on April 12, 2018>
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
30. See Plea Negotiations and Agreements Act 2017 of Jamaica.
31. See section 7 of the Plea Negotiations and Agreements Act 2017 of Jamaica.

some similarities between the concepts of sentence reduction day and plea
bargaining agreements but should be able to understand that there are differences.
e main differences between the two concepts is therefore that sentence reduction
day does not provide for any consultation with the victim prior to the conclusion
of negotiations and with sentence reduction day, there is no formal written
agreement between the prosecution and the defence which takes place after a series
of discourse and consultation with the defence, prosecution and victims.
Arguments in support of and against Sentence Reduction Day
With this background clearly outlined and explained, it is now imperative at this
interval to discuss whether sentence reduction day can be considered as a concept
that contributes to judicial efficiency. It is this author’s opinion that there are
several arguments that could be advanced in support of the view that Sentence
Reduction Day leads to judicial efficiency. Firstly, it is this author’s view that
sentence reduction day will help to dispose of cases quickly through the judicial
system. Secondly, sentence reduction day will help to reduce and/or clear the
backlog of cases that currently exists in the Jamaican courts island wide. irdly,
it will place less burden or pressure on the prosecution as when a case is disposed
of by a guilty plea that is one less case for the prosecution, who has the burden of
proof, to prove.
However, while one is able understand and appreciate the benefits that sentence
reduction day may yield, it is also easy to understand that many commentators
share the view that Sentence Reduction Day is simply a “slap on the wrist for the
accused.” It is this author’s view that there are several arguments that could be
advanced to support the view that Sentence Reduction Day is a” slap on the wrist”.
Firstly, a person can commit an extremely gruesome act and simply attend Sentence
Reduction Day, plead guilty and receive a significant reduction in their sentence,
sometimes of up to 50%. Secondly, having regard to the fact that some accused
may be remanded or be in custody for a while prior to sentence reduction day, it
is possible that on sentence reduction day, they may plead guilty and with the
addition of time already spent, he may walk out a free man. irdly, it may not act
as a deterrent as persons may be of the opinion that they can simply commit a
crime, plead guilty on sentence reduction day and receive a light sentence.
In an article published by the Jamaica Observer on December 25, 2017, titled
‘Justice System for Sale’, retired Judge of the Court of Appeal e Hon. Mr.
Clarence Walker who is an ardent advocate against Sentence Reduction Day, stated
that sentence reduction day is “a diabolical, misguided concept which smacks of the

distasteful commercialisation of our hallowed, sacrosanct justice system”.32 is article

received tremendous comments online from many persons who generally support
the view of the Hon Mr. Clarence Walker. ey perceived sentence reduction day
in a negative light and many expressed that they do not have confidence in the
programme.33
However, notwithstanding this, several legal luminaries have openly supported
the concept. Attorney-at-law, C.J Mitchell, has stated in an article published in the
Jamaica Observer on April 22, 2018, that Sentence Reduction Day is nothing but
a formalization of what already exists in our judicial system, as even without
Sentence Reduction Day, defendants were entitled to a reduction in their sentence
upon entering a guilty plea at the judge’s discretion and have expressed his support
for the Sentence Reduction Day initiative.
Similarly, it has been reported that the Director of Public Prosecution, Ms. Paula
Llewellyn and the Minister of Justice, Delroy Chuck, “firmly believe that the
programme will result in a dramatic reduction in the backlog of cases blamed for the
painfully slow pace at which cases meander through the overburdened court system.”34
Important Considerations for Sentence Reduction Day
It is this authors’ view that Sentence Reduction Day is a workable concept but one
that is far from perfect. As such, the author will now critically examine some
important considerations relating to sentence reduction day as well as give
suggestions for its improvement.
Sentence Reduction Day and Victim Involvement
It has been said that sentence reduction day is not victim inclusive. is is due to
the fact that with sentence reduction day, there is no requirement that there be any
consultation with the victim or the victim’s family prior to sentencing. As such, it
is this author’s view that sentence reduction day could borrow from the Plea
Negotiations and Agreements Act 2017 the requirement that the prosecutor may
32. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/article/20171225/ARTICLE/171229829/1373 <Accessed

on April 10, 2018>
33. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/editorial/-8216-the-arc-of-the-moral-universe-is-long-
but-it-bends-toward-justice-8217-_120994?profile=1100 <Accessed on April 8, 2018>
34. Ibid.

consult with the victim or if the victim is deceased, the victim’s family, prior to
sentencing.35 Consultation with the victim or victim’s family would enable the
court to have an understanding of the kind of sentence the victim or his family
would deem as satisfactory. After consultation with the victim or victim’s family
the court would take this into account when sentencing the accused.
Upon close examination of this particular section of the Plea Negotiations and
Agreements Act, one will observe that it uses the word “may”36 and as such, it is
in the prosecutor’s discretion whether they wish to consult with the victim or the
victim’s family as it relates to plea negotiations. e author however would state
that in the case of sentence reduction day that these victim consultations should
be mandatory and should not be a discretionary feature.
The scale of reduction
As illustrated earlier in this academic paper, once someone pleads guilty on

sentence reduction day, they may get up to as high as 50% reduction in their
sentence. Although the degree of reduction in sentence is solely in the judges’
discretion, it is still this author’s opinion that perhaps 50% reduction in any
sentence is too high a threshold for the reduction. Perhaps between 10%–30%
reduction would be more appropriate so as to operate as a deterrent to other
potential wrongdoers. e author find’s support in her argument from another
Attorney-at-law, Kerry-Ann Duhaney who in an article in the Jamaica Observer
published on April 22, 2018 stated that
The fact that a criminal enters a guilty plea for the sole purpose of a reduction of
his sentence will always be appreciated by criminals, but will serve as a dagger to
the hearts of the victims. To combat this, I strongly believe that only a third or a
quarter of the sentence should be shaved off . . .37
Additionally, it is also this author’s suggestion that sentence reduction day should
also for some crimes have a restitution element, where persons who receive a
reduction in their sentence should be mandated to pay some money to the victim
or the victim’s family as compensation for the harm done where possible.
35. Ibid (n 31).

36. Ibid (n 31).
37. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/despite-justice-walker-8217-s-appeal-lawyers-firm-
on-sentence-reduction-day_131220?profile=1373 <Accessed on April 23, 2018>

Withdrawal of a guilty plea made on Sentence Reduction Day
It is a known fact in criminal law that an accused can withdraw his guilty plea
before he is sentenced. In the case of S (An Infant) by Parsons (His Next Friend) v
Recorder of Manchester and Others (H.L.E)38, it was illustrated that in a court of
summary jurisdiction a plea of guilty may be changed at any time before the case
is finally disposed of by passing sentence. It was also stated in R v Plummer39, that
an unequivocal plea of guilty may be withdrawn, with the leave of the court, before
sentence. It was noted however, in the case of Shadrach Momah v R40, that to allow
a change of plea was a matter for the absolute discretion of the magistrate and once
an unequivocal plea had been entered the discretionary power should be exercised
judicially, very sparingly and only in clear cases41.
e author of this paper ponders on whether a defendant who pleads guilty on
sentence reduction day will be afforded the opportunity to withdraw his plea of
guilty at a later date before the court delivers its sentence. It is the author’s opinion
that a judge should be very reluctant in exercising its discretionary power to allow
a defendant to change his guilty plea after he pleaded guilty at sentence reduction
day. e author states this because one of the objectives of Sentence Reduction
Day is that it should assist tremendously with getting cases disposed of quickly.
erefore, if a defendant can easily withdraw his or her plea after pleading guilty
on sentence reduction day and before sentencing is handed down, and many
defendants are taking this course of action, it will only result in additional time
wasted and waste of the courts resources. erefore, the author suggests that
acceptance of a withdrawal of a guilty plea made on Sentence Reduction Day
should not be forbidden but should only be used in extremely rare cases.
The exercise of the judge’s discretion on Sentence Reduction Day
As discussed earlier in this academic paper, retired judge of the Court of Appeal
e Hon. Mr. Clarence M. Walker has chided the concept of Sentence Reduction
Day.42 He has stated in a letter to the editor in the Jamaica Observer dated April
16, 2018 that with the introduction of Sentence Reduction Day, judges are basically
38. [1971] A.C. 481.

39. [1902] 2 K.B. 337.
40. [2011] JMCA Crim 54.
41. Ibid.
42. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/letters/sentence-reduction-days-make-judges-8216-one-
handed-8217-_130678?profile=1326&template=MobileArticle.

obliged to reduce a defendant’s sentence, even where the circumstances of the case
does not justify or warrant the need for a discounted or reduced sentence.43 He
has stated further that judges no longer have the discretion whether or not to
discount or reduce a sentence on Sentence Reduction Day as it has been
substantially abridged by recent legislation in Jamaica.44 Respectfully, the author
does not agree with the view of the learned judge as on close examination of the
Criminal Justice Administration (Amendment) Act 2015, it states that a judge may
reduce a sentence where the defendant pleads guilty to an offence with which he
has been charged.45 It is this author’s opinion therefore that a judge still has a
discretion as to whether he should or should not discount a sentence on sentence
reduction day and is of the view that there may be in the future situations in which
based on the circumstances of the particular crime, the judge does not believe he
should exercise his discretion and grant a reduction in sentence any at all upon the
defendant entering a guilty plea.
Refusal of a guilty plea on Sentence Reduction Day
e Hon. Mr. Clarence M. Walker also stated in his letter to the editor on April
16, 2018 in the Jamaica Observer that it is still the law that a judge is not bound to
accept a guilty plea and may decline to do so where, in the opinion of the judge,
the circumstances of a particular case does not justify the court’s acceptance of such
a plea.46 e learned judge opined that our limited salvation from this whole
concept of Sentence Reduction Day may lie within this law. is prompted the
author to investigate under what circumstances will a court generally refuse to
accept a guilty plea. Generally, the most common reason in which a judge refuses
to accept an unequivocal guilty plea is if the judge is of the opinion that the
defendant does not understand the plea.47 Outside of these fitness to plea issues,
the author cannot fathom under what other circumstances a judge would arbitrarily
refuse to accept a defendants plea on Sentence Reduction Day. e author therefore
does not agree that the judge still having this discretion to reject a guilty plea would
really be the savior of our justice system from sentence reduction day.
e author is of the view that arbitrary refusal to accept a guilty plea on sentence
reduction day would run contrary to the objectives of the whole scheme and would
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid (n 42).
45. See section 42D of the Criminal Justice Administration (Amendment) Act 2015.
46. Ibid (n 42).
47. See the case of Glenroy Mitchell v R [2016] JMCA Crim 27.

simply place undue pressure on the court’s resources if it happened on a wide-scale

basis. e author also posits that a judge arbitrarily refusing to accept a guilty plea
in the absence of a good reason would most certainly face backlash from the legal
fraternity.
Introducing Alford Pleas on Sentence Reduction Days
In any society, it is a known fact that many accused persons who are actually
innocent plead guilty so that they may receive a lesser sentence.48 In Jamaica and
other Commonwealth territories, a defendant/accused is only entitled to plead
guilty or not guilty with no qualifications or explanations. With the advent of
Sentence Reduction Day with reductions of up to 50% on any given sentence being
possible, it is quite possible that there will be individuals who will plead guilty to
a crime because they are of the view that the prosecution has a wealth of evidence
against them to convict them and they would want to just easily get the case
disposed of than going through a trial. In the United States of America, defendants
who find themselves in this position are often afforded the opportunity to make
an Alford Plea.49 An Alford plea is in essence, a defendant pleading guilty while
protesting his or her innocence.50 To offer some amount of balance to the system,
the author is of the opinion that the Ministry of Justice could consider whether
Alford Pleas should be introduced in Jamaica, particularly on sentence reduction
days, as there will often times be a few persons who are innocent but chooses to
plead guilty because they believe that their chance of proving their innocence at a
trial is unlikely.
Conclusion
e author’s final thoughts on the concept of Sentence Reduction Day is that it is

a workable initiative but is one that at present is too centered around the accused.
e fact that sentence reduction day focuses so much on the accused has led many
persons to lack confidence in its integrity and the integrity of the justice system.
e author believes that in any aspect of the law, the aim should be to strike a
proper balance between competing interests and that sentence reduction day should
48. Brandon Garrett Convicting the innocent (1st edn, Harvard University Press, 2011).
49. omas J Gardner et al. Criminal Evidence: Principles and Cases (2nd edn, Cengage Learning,
2016).
50. Ibid.

be no different. As such, the author is of the opinion that considering and possibly
implementing some of the suggestions made in this analytical paper should
certainly assist with balancing the scales of justice between the accused and the
victims on sentence reduction day. is would ultimately assist with sentence
reduction day being viewed more strongly as a judicially efficient programme than
a mere “slap on the wrist” for the accused.
References
Cases
Delroy Barron v R [2016] JMCA Crim 32

Glenroy Mitchell v R [2016] JMCA Crim 27
R v Beckford and Lewis (1980) 17 JLR 202
R v Cain and Schollick [1976] QB 496
R v Everald Dunkley, RMCA No 55/2001, judgment delivered 5 July 2002
R v Plummer
S (An Infant) by Parsons (His Next Friend) v Recorder of Manchester and Others (H.L.E)
Shadrach Momah v R
Legislation
Criminal Justice (Amendment) Act 2015.

Plea Negotiations and Agreements Act 2017.
Books
Ashworth A, Sentencing and Criminal Justice (6th edn, Cambridge University Press, 2015).
Gardner T et al, Criminal Evidence: Principles and Cases (2nd edn, Cengage Learning,
2016).
Garrett B, Convicting the innocent (1st edn, Harvard University Press, 2011).
Lippke A, The Ethics of Plea Bargaining (1st edn, Oxford University Press, 2011).
Sprack J, A Practical Approach to Criminal Procedure (1st edn, OUP Oxford, 2011).
Websites
Sentencing guidelines for use by judges of the Supreme Court of Jamaica and the Parish
Courts.
http://supremecourt.gov.jm/sites/default/files/Jamaica%20Sentencing%20Guidelines.pdf
<Last accessed on April 10, 2018>

http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN05974<Last accessed
on April 21, 2018>
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20171017/accused-persons-urged-take-advantage-
sentence-reduction-day <Last accessed on April 15, 2018>
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/dpp-explains-concept-of-
sentence_122058?profile=1373&template=MobileArticle <Last accessed on April 15,
2018>
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20170330/26-year-old-groundsman-charged-
murder-barbara-moncrieffe <Last accessed on April 16, 2018>
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20171019/sentence-reduction-day-employee-
deadly-moncrieffe-attack-pleads-guilty <Last accessed on April 16, 2018>
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Accused_in_murder_of_Moncrieffes_Patio_Shop%26
%238217;s_owner_gets_30_years?profile=1228 <Last accessed on April 16, 2018>
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/UPDATE—Phillip-Brown-charged-with-common-
law-wife-s-murder <Last accessed on April 16, 2018>
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20161211/ex-boyfriend-murdered-st-andrew-
woman-surrenders-police <Last accessed on April 16, 2018>
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Man_who_hammered_girlfriend_to_death_gets_15_ye
ars?profile=1228< Last accessed on April 16, 2018>
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/dpp-explains-concept-of-
sentence_122058?profile=1373&template=MobileArticle <Last accessed on April 12,
2018>
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/article/20171225/ARTICLE/171229829/1373 <Last
accessed on April 10, 2018>
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/editorial/-8216-the-arc-of-the-moral-universe-is-long-
but-it-bends-toward-justice-8217-_120994?profile=1100 <Last accessed on April 8,
2018>
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/despite-justice-walker-8217-s-appeal-lawyers-firm-
on-sentence-reduction-day_131220?profile=1373 <Last accessed on April 23, 2018>
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/letters/sentence-reduction-days-make-judges-8216-one-
handed-8217-_130678?profile=1326&template=MobileArticle

A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a

Pedagogical Tool for Young People
ANDREW P. SMITH
Abstract
is systematic review was undertaken to identify and assess an interactive

pedagogical tool which uses photography to educate young people, with the
participatory action research methodology, Photovoice being so identified. Photovoice
involves participants photographically documenting a specific issue, then using the
images to drive discussions with relevant policy and decision makers. is review
analyses literature that examines the use of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool among
young people aged from 13 to 19 years old in a variety of educational conditions
around the globe.
Research studies published between 2012 and 2017 that meet inclusion criteria
were analysed in order to answer the research question: how effective is Photovoice
as a pedagogical tool among young people in a variety of multicultural settings?
Literature was searched in two academic databases, based on search terms derived
from the research question. e Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews
and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guided the selection of the articles, which resulted in
14 studies meeting the criteria.
Findings show that as a pedagogical tool for young people, Photovoice is highly
successful in using photography to educate students from across the globe. e
methodology overrides barriers of language, culture, social settings, gender and
Keywords: Photovoice, pedagogy, participatory action research, education, youth
Corresponding author: Andrew P. Smith: andrew.smith@utech.edu.jm

A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People
Introduction
is systematic review was undertaken to identify and assess a participatory

pedagogical tool which uses photography to educate young people. is arose from
the researcher’s personal desire as a photographer and educator to find a method
of using photography as a tool to develop young peoples’ critical thinking and
investigative abilities in both formal and informal education settings. is is fuelled
by the researcher’s personal belief that photography, as a visual medium, is an
effective means of teaching. is is supported by Ewald and Lightfoot, (2001) who
state that “participatory photography has potential as a means of engaging with
different stakeholder groups and sharing perspectives cross culturally… as it is not
entirely dependent on traditional literacy skills” (as cited in Kaplan, Miles, &
Howes, 2011, p. 195). Kaplan et al., adds that participatory photography “is a
process which is intrinsically educational and is therefore well-suited to overtly
educational practice” (2011, p. 195).
e researcher also believes that this study can result in the effective use of young
people’s mobile cameras as a learning tool. is is supported by the research of
Hartnell-Young and Vetere (2008), who state “mobile camera phones would be
particularly useful in capturing the stories and other experiences that students bring
to their learning” (p. 285). erefore this research seeks to identify and assess a
photography-based educational methodology that can be used as a pedagogical
tool. e participatory action research methodology Photovoice has been so
identified and so this systematic review has been undertaken to examine and analyse
its use as a pedagogical tool by other educators, to determine its effectiveness.
e Photovoice methodology was conceptualised by health researchers Caroline
Wang and May Ann Burris in 1994 as “a process by which people can identify,
represent and enhance their community through a specific photographic technique”
(Wang & Burris, 1997, p. 369). It originated as a participatory needs assessment
methodology to gain information about women’s public health issues in the
Chinese village of Yunnan (Wang & Burris, 1997, p. 378) and the methodology
involves community members photographically documenting particular issues in
their communities in order to make a change. e goals of Photovoice are “(1) to
enable people to record and reflect their community’s strengths and concerns, (2)
to promote critical dialogue and knowledge about important community issues
through large and small group discussions of photographs, and (3) to reach
policymakers” (Wang & Burris, 1997, p. 370).
Since its inception, Photovoice has been adapted as a participatory action
research (PAR) methodology. is adaptation is in line with Wang and Burris

(1997) who recognised that “Photovoice is highly flexible and can be adapted to
specific participatory goals, different groups and communities and distinct public
health issues” (p. 370), adding that “people can use Photovoice as a tool for
participatory research” (Wang & Burris, 1997, p.370). is flexibility led the
researcher to investigate if Photovoice is a suitable PAR methodology that can be
used as a pedagogical tool. e research question that guided this systematic
literature review is, how effective is Photovoice as a pedagogical tool among young
people in a variety of multicultural settings? e corresponding research objectives
are to: 1) analyse literature that examines the use of Photovoice as a pedagogical
tool among young people aged from 13 to 19 years old, and 2) determine the
effectiveness of the use of Photovoice under a variety of educational conditions
around the globe.
Methods
is systematic literature review was conducted according to Preferred Reporting

Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. e criteria
for the articles selected were that they had to: 1) utilise Photovoice as a teaching
tool. is could either be in the formal educational school system or in informal
educational setting at the community level, 2) include young people of secondary
school age of between 13 to 19 years old. If a study was composed of students
within this age range along with students either above or below, the study was
included, 3) be published between January 2012 to November 2017, 4) be
published in English, and 5) be research studies, and not essays, reviews, discussions
or similar writings.
A systematic search took place on two databases. ese were Ebsco’s Academic
Search Complete database and a Basic search on the Academia.edu website, as shown
in Figure 1. Studies that were considered were peer-reviewed articles, book chapters,
and unpublished postgraduate theses and dissertations. e search terms that were
used were: Photovoice, education, and pedagogy and were selected in order to attain
studies that would answer the research question which focuses on multicultural
settings. ese terms were combined to search the databases as follows: Photovoice
and pedagogy, Photovoice and education; Photovoice and education and pedagogy.
e screening process was based on the titles and abstracts of the studies where
it was clear that Photovoice was not being used with a pedagogical aim, even if
they took place in an educational setting. Also excluded were studies that took
place in higher education settings, due to the students’ age.

Figure 1: e process of selection of articles, including reasons for exclusion as per PRISMA
guidelines
Pedagogical use of Photovoice
Although all researchers in the selected studies used the Photovoice participatory
action research methodology to teach young people, the ways that it was used as a
pedagogical tool varied (Table 1). Bellino (2015) used Photovoice in a formal
classroom setting to “re-imagine an environmental science class” (p. 378), adding
that she worked with her students to create “an environmental science class that
does not use a textbook or follow a structured curriculum” (p. 379). Chonody et
al. used Photovoice in a high school that focused on project-based learning, in
order to “improve critical thinking and writing skills through the medium of
photography” (2012, p. 35). In addition to this, they also “sought to create a critical

dialogue about community concerns and provide a way for participants to present
their perspectives” (Chonody et al., 2012, p. 36). Graham et al. (2013) used
Photovoice in a community-based project in inner-city Detroit that “sought to
address violence and its possible solutions in Detroit youth communities” (p. 42)
by allowing “youth to contribute to the production of knowledge about ways to
address sexual, domestic, gang, and other acts of violence” (p. 50).
Haglund et al. (2016) used Photovoice with young Latin American females in
a midwestern American town “to provide ground work for the development of
interventions that support healthy dating relationships among Latina adolescents”
(p. 131). Harkness & Stallworth (2013) used Photovoice in order to improve their
ability to teach mathematics to young creative females. e girls were asked to use
the cameras to answer the following questions: “1) What is mathematics? 2) What
is your ideal learning environment? 3) What things impede your learning of
mathematics?” (p. 331). Ingram (2014) worked with adolescent girls in Toronto,
and used Photovoice to “explore girls’ ideas about their roles as females and citizens
within their families, schools and society at large” (p. 308).
Khanare (2012) used the Photovoice methodology with HIV-infected school
children in rural KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. e participants were told to
“‘Take photos to represent your experiences of coping with the adversities of HIV
and AIDS in your school’” (p. 253). Markus used Photovoice to address health and
relationship issues among young people in a community based project with
American Indians in Wyoming. e participants used Photovoice “to learn about
the role of healthy relationships in the prevention of HIV, STIs and unintended
pregnancy” (2012, p. 103).
Mattouk and Talhouk (2017) used Photovoice with school children in rural
Lebanon in order to achieve an understanding of how the participants perceived
“harmony with nature” (p. 2), with the aim being to address the participants’ “own
understandings of nature and provides an opportunity to present children as key
agents of change for nature conservation” (p. 2). Shah (2015) used Photovoice to
empower school girls in rural India, using the methodology to “enable the girls to
articulate their thoughts on the role their educational experiences may play in better
understanding, confronting, and eventually challenging their marginalization” (p.
55).
Suffla et al. (2012) utilised the Photovoice methodology in two rural
communities in the Western Cape of South Africa to address issues of community
safety. Participants were told to photograph “things, places and people that make
me feel safe in my community” (p. 519) and the aim of the project was to “include
young people’s perspectives and knowledges in the development of safety and peace

promotion programmes” (p. 518). Tomita (2015) worked with youth delinquents
in Romania, with the participants using Photovoice to “to make those photos that
they consider representative to suggest the harmfulness of drugs and the fight
against them” (p. 228). e researcher’s aim is to identify “new types of
interventions compatible with the age and education of delinquent child through
activities that lead to decreased aggressiveness specific custodial environment where
they are located” (Tomita, 2015, p. 225).
Warne et al. (2012) used Photovoice among high school students in Sweden to
“help students actively participate in shaping healthy school environments” (p.
300). e researchers believe that “it is important for students to be actively
involved in shaping their context, and that each school setting is unique, requiring
an orientation to genuine participation if health-promoting learning environments
are to be achieved” (Warne et al., 2012, p. 300).
Zenkov and his team were driven to find a “non-language-based” method for
literacy instruction in various schools across in Ohio and Virginia in United States,
resulting in the use of “photographs as text and a photovoice method, which has
proven effective for engaging diverse youth and providing them with authentic
means to share their perspectives” (Zenkov et al., 2017, p. 153). Student
participants in their rough Students’ Eyes (TSE) Photovoice project took
photographs “to illustrate and describe what they perceive as the purposes of school
and writing and reading, the supports for their school and literacy achievement
and engagement, and the obstacles to their literacy and school success” (Zenkov et
al., 2017, p. 154).
Results
Ninety-two studies were selected for in-depth examination to determine if they

met the criteria for inclusion in the systematic literature review. Seventy-eight of
these studies did not meet the inclusion criteria, as shown in Figure 1. erefore,
14 studies published from January 2012 to November 2017 were selected for this
review. As shown in Table 1, data extracted from the studies is categorised according
to the: 1) location and setting of the study, 2) participant details, 3) length of the
project, 4) facilitators’ research focus, 5) issue addressed, 6)pedagogical use of
Photovoice (detailed previously), and 7) indicators of successful use of Photovoice
as a pedagogical tool.

Background of Photovoice Projects
Eight of the studies are based in North America, one in the Greater Toronto area
of Canada (Ingram, 2014) and seven in the United States of America. A detailed
breakdown of the location of these studies is given in Table 1. Two studies are set
in Europe, one in Romania (Tomita, 2015) and the other in Sweden (Warne,
Snyder, & Gillander Gadin, 2012). Two are set in South Africa, one in KwaZulu-
Natal (Khanare, 2012) and one in Western Cape (Suffla, Kaminer, & Bawa, 2012).
One study each was undertaken in Lebanon (Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017) and in
India (Shah, 2015).
Regarding the setting of the studies, seven of the studies took place in formal
school settings (Warne et al., 2012; Chonody, Martin, & Welsh, 2012; Bellino,
2015; Shah, 2015; Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017; Khanare, 2012; Harkness &
Stallworth, 2013) and five were community-based projects (Graham, Matiz Reyes,
Lopez, Gracey, Snow, & Padilla, 2013; Markus, 2012; Suffla et al., 2012; Ingram,
2014; Haglund, Belknap, Garcia, Woda, & O’Hara, 2016). One study occurred
in a re-educational centre for at-risk juveniles (Tomita, 2015), and Zenkov, Taylor
and Harmon (2017) incorporated both high schools and community projects.
Eight of the studies were in urban settings (Bellino, 2015; Chonody et al., 2012;
Graham et al., 2013; Haglund et al., 2016; Ingram, 2014; Harkness & Stallworth,
2013; Warne et al., 2012; Zenkov et al., (2017). Five studies took place in rural
settings (Khanare, 2012; Markus, 2012; Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017; Shah, 2015;
Suffla et al.,2012) and one in a re-educational centre (Tomita, 2015). Five of the
studies used more than one location in their research. (Suffla et al., 2012; Zenkov,
2017; Warne et al., 2012; Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017; Harkness & Stallworth,
2013).
e lengths of the projects varied from a minimum of three days (Markus, 2012)
to two years (Bellino, 2015). Generally, the longer studies were based in formal
educational settings and the shorter ones were community-based projects as seen
in Table 1. Out of the 12 studies that disclosed the group size, five conducted their
research with less than 10 students (Haglund, et al., 2016; Harkness, & Stallworth,
2013; Ingram, 2014; Markus, 2012; Warne, et al., 2012) and five with between 10
and 20 students (Khanare, 2012; Shah, 2015; Tomita, 2015; Mattouk & Talhouk,
2017; Suffla, et al., 2012). Two of the studies had an average group size of over 20
participants (Bellino, 2015; Zenkov et al., 2017).
e focus of the researchers varied, with five having an educational focus,
(Bellino, 2015; Haglund et al., 2016; Harkness & Stallworth, 2013; Ingram, 2014;
Zenkov et al., 2017), four a health focus (Khanare, 2012; Warne et al., 2012;

Table 1: Global studies that use Photovoice as a pedagogical tool for young people
Author’s Name Location & Participants Length of Facilitators’ Issue Pedagogical use of Indicators of
& Date Setting Project Research Focus Addressed Photovoice successful use of
Photovoice as a
pedagogical tool
Bellino (2015) New York, USA. 24 high school 2 years Education: En- Developing a Creation of “an Young people are
College credit studentsAge vironmental critical approach environmental able to use Pho-
Environmental not stated science to environmental science class tovoice to criti-
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Science class education that does not cally investigate
use a textbook their local envi-
or follow a ronments; Able
structured to contextualise
curriculum” these places as lo-
(p. 379). cations where
global and local
environmental is-
sues are present.
Chonody et al. North-east USA. “A small 10 weeks Social work Educating urban Improving stu- For one of the re-
(2012) Project-based al- group”. 15–18 youth through dents “critical searchers,
ternative high y/o project-based thinking and the process
school learning writing skills confirmed the
through the importance of
medium of learning by doing
photography” – “experiential
(p. 35). learning” (p. 43).
Table 1 continue
21
Table 1: Global studies that use Photovoice as a pedagogical tool for young people (cont'd)
22
Photovoice as a
pedagogical tool
Graham et al. Detroit, USA. “Youth” Age 5 hrs/ week Community- Addressing Participants are to ere was in-
(2013) Urban inner-city and number during summer based organi- violence in “contribute to the creased aware-
of partici- sation inner-city production of ness among
JOURNAL
pants not focused on communities knowledge about policy makers of

OF
stated at-risk mi- ways to address violence towards

norities sexual, domestic, youth.
gang, and other
acts of violence”
(p. 50).
Haglund et al. Small city in 7 Latin fe- 8 weeks Nurse Developing Latina adolescents Information ob-
ARTS SCIENCE
(2016) mid-westUSA. males education healthy dating were to “provide tained can be
14–18 y/o relationships ground work for used to create
AND
among Latinas the development interventions for

of interventions healthy relation-
that support ship lifestyles
healthy dating rela- among Latin
tionships” (p. 131) youth.
TECHNOLOGY
Table 1 continue

Photovoice as a
pedagogical tool
Harkness & 3 high schools in 4 females. Not stated Mathematics Meeting the Students were to an- Photovoice en-
Stallworth Greater Cincin- 16–17 y/o education challenge of swer the following abled the re-

(2013) nati and North- learning mathe- questions: “1) What searchers to
ern Kentucky, matics by cre- is mathematics? 2) understand how
USA ative females What is your ideal the participants
learning environ- perceived and
ment? 3) What “came to know
things impede your mathematics”
learning of mathe- (p. 346)
matics?” (p. 331).
Ingram (2014) Greater Toronto, 7 females. 10 months Education Identifying per- Participants were to Participants un-
Canada 14–19 y/o sonal views on explore ideas about derwent critical
gender, school “their roles as females reflection, which
and citizenship and citizens within resulted in a pos-
their families, schools itive result on
and society at large” participants
(p. 308). “self-concepts,
sense of agency
and self-confi-
dence” (p. 322).
Table 1 continue
23
24
Photovoice as a
pedagogical tool
Khanare (2012) uMgun- 10 male and 4 months Vulnerable Providing sup- Participants were told to Participants were
gundlovu female. children; port for HIV in- “represent…experiences able to express
JOURNAL
district, 16–18 y/o HIV and fected children of coping with the ad- and identify how
OF
KwaZulu-Natal, AIDS; rural versities of HIV and they were able to

South Africa communi- AIDS in your school’” cope with having
ties (p. 253). HIV while at
school.
ARTS SCIENCE
Markus (2012) Wind River In- 6 male and 3 days Health of Developing Participants were to 4 lessons learned
dian Reserva- female. Native healthy relation- “learn about the role of were: let the
AND
tion, Wyoming, 18–19 y/o Americans ships among healthy relationships in youth be heard,
USA HIV infected the prevention of HIV, continue learn-
youth STIs and unintended ing, incorporate
pregnancy” (p. 103). cultural heritage
into work, and
TECHNOLOGY
allow for “non-

verbal creative
expression”
(p.117).
Table 1 continue

Photovoice as a
pedagogical tool
Mattouk & Five schools in 77 male and 7 days Nature Identifying To address partici- Children have a
Talhouk (2017) five rural villages female. Ave. conservation perceptions of pants’ “own under- diverse perception
in Lebanon of 14 students nature and its standings of nature of nature, and so

7–16 y/o use. and provides an op- education about
portunity to pres- biodiversity
ent children as key should be formal,
agents of change informal and at
for nature conserva- the home, with
tion” the focus being on
(p. 2). local biodiversity.
Shah (2015) Gujarat, Western 13 females; 15 months Gender in- Educating mar- Students were to Photovoice allows
India 14-16 y/o equality ginalised rural “articulate their the participants to
females thoughts on the find out for them-
role their educa- selves how school-
tional experiences ing can empower
may play in better them.
understanding,
confronting, and
eventually challeng-
ing their marginal-
ization” (p. 55).
Table 1 continue
25
26
Photovoice as a
pedagogical tool
a
Suffla et al. (2012) Two rural sites 20 male & 2 months Health and Addressing Students were told to Photovoice allows
in Western female; 10 at each site safety safety vis-a-viz photograph “ings, for local knowledge
JOURNAL
Cape, South at each community vi- places and people that to be prioritised
Africa site13–15 olence. make me feel safe in and for the har-
OF
y/o my community” nessing of the

(p. 519) abilities of
marginal youth.
Tomita (2015) Re-education 12 (Gender 5 days Juvenile Rehabilitating Students were to Increased cohesion
ARTS SCIENCE
centre in Ro- not stated) delinquency adolescent “make photos that among group
mania 16-18 y.o delinquents they consider repre- members; positive
AND
and drug users sentative to suggest response by the

the harmfulness of participants is
drugs and the fight shown by their in-
against them” volvement and in-
(p. 228). terest to continue
TECHNOLOGY
the Photovoice ac-

tivities.
Table 1 continue

Photovoice as a
pedagogical tool
Warne et al. (2012) 2 schools in Oster- 55 male & 5 months Public health Addressing a Participants were to Teachers are
sund, Northern female. Ave. in each lack of stu- “actively participate moved from
Sweden 7 per group school dent partici- in shaping healthy “being an expert to

16–20 y/o pation in the school environ- being a facilitator”
classroom. ments” (p. 300). (p. 308) so that
they can stimulate
students’ critical
thinking skills.
Zenkov et al. Ohio & Virginia, Over 1000 Over 10 Education: Addressing Participants were to Photovoice allows
(2017) USA. Schools and male & fe- years English & gaps in “illustrate and de- for the breaking of
community centres male; Ave. Literacy literacy. scribe what they preconceived as-
30 per class perceive as the pur- sumptions of how
13–19 y/o poses of school and literacy should be
writing and read- taught. Photovoice
ing… and the ob- requires the partic-
stacles to their ipation of all par-
literacy and school ties – educators,
success” ( p. 154). community mem-
bers and policy-
makers.
27
Markus, 2012; Suffla, 2012), three in social work (Chonody et al., 2012; Graham
et al., 2013; Tomita, 2015) and one each in gender inequality (Shah, 2015) and
natural heritage conservation (Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017).
Issues Addressed
e issues that are addressed using the Photovoice methodology fall into the
categories of: education, personal development, community violence, ecology, and
empowering at-risk youth. Five studies examine educational issues. Bellino (2015)
used Photovoice to document the development of a critical approach to
environmental education over a two year period. Chonody et al. (2012) examined
the viewpoints of inner-city urban youth in a school that specialises in project-
based learning, while Harkness and Stallworth (2013) used Photovoice to find how
creative females in three different schools tackled the learning of mathematics.
Warne et al. (2012) used Photovoice to address the lack of student participation in
decisions related to their well-being in two Swedish high schools, and Zenkov et
al. (2017) addressed gaps in literacy education.
Two studies used Photovoice to examine personal development issues of young
people. Haglund et al. (2016) researched the developing of healthy relationships
among young Latinas, and Ingram (2014) examined the personal viewpoints of
young females towards gender, school and citizenship, within the context of wider
societal viewpoints. Both Graham et al. (2013) and Suffla et al. (2012) used
Photovoice to address the effects of community violence on youth. e former in
Detroit, United States and the latter in Western Cape, South Africa. Mattouk and
Talhouk (2017) appraised the perceptions of high school students in five rural
Lebanese villages towards nature.
e Photovoice studies that focused on at-risk youth are varied. Tomita (2015)
incorporated Photovoice in the rehabilitation of adolescent drug users in a
re-education centre in Romania. Shah (2015), used Photovoice to empower young
females in rural India to embrace their education. Both Khanare (2012) and
Markus (2012) used Photovoice with HIV infected schoolchildren, in South Africa
and on a Native American reservation in the United States respectively. Khanare
(2012) use Photovoice to enable young people to cope with having the virus, while
Markus (2012) used Photovoice to help develop healthy relationships among young
people with HIV.

Indicators of successful use of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool
With regards to the degree of success of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool for the
participants, Bellino believed that Photovoice “allowed students to develop research
skills including developing research questions, collecting data, analyzing data, and
sharing new knowledge” (2015, p. 379). In addition, the participants were able to
“critically investigate their local environments as places that embody many global
and local environmental issues, issues that imprint on their personal and social
identities” (2015, p. 379) after using the Photovoice methodology. For example,
the students “highlighted the impacts of globalization on local communities and
discussed the tension experienced from the benefits of globalization and the reality
that these forces are changing communities” (Bellino, 2015, p. 372) after taking
photograph that illustrated this issue.
Chonody et al. (2012) found that during the Photovoice experience, some of
the participants were able to view the activities as “schoolwork – brainstorming,
writing, and thinking about the interrelationship of issues at the social level”
(p. 38). For example, while documenting abandoned buildings in Philadelphia,
“the youth still expressed a desire for change in the community even though these
empty shells were the norm. To them, the buildings represented opportunities to
create jobs, community centers, and outlets for recreation“(Chonody et al., 2012,
p. 37).
In their work to address violence in Detroit, the young people that worked with
Graham’s team photographed images representing education, recreation and
development. e participants stated that “they feel empowered when they learn
about their history and are able to exercise their creativity through art” (Graham
et al., 2013, p. 47). ey added that “if more youth had such opportunities, those
youth would be less inclined toward violence, and would learn nonviolent forms
of resistance to oppression” (Graham et al., 2013, p. 47).
Haglund et al. found that while illustrating healthy relationships, the Latina
girls used photographs to describe “elements that made relationships healthy
whether they existed between romantic partners, siblings, friends, people and pets,
children and parents, or people and God” (2016, p. 133). At the end of the project
they stated that the knowledge gained during the project “would help them
establish healthy romantic relationships devoid of violence” (Haglund et al., 2916,
p. 133).
Harkness and Stallworth found that the participants photographed a variety of
subjects in order to answer the questions posed to them about mathematics. For
example, to answer the question: What is mathematics, one participant

photographed a house and commented that “it just has symmetry with everything.
And it has a bunch of shapes, like triangles and the Pythagorean eorem and all
of that good stuff” (Harkness & Stallworth, 2013, p. 339). Another participant’s
answer to the question: What is your ideal learning environment, photographed a
car, stating “that you are never too old to go on field trips” (Harkness & Stallworth,
2013, p. 337).
e themes that arose from the girls involved in Ingram’s Photovoice project
centred on self, gender, citizenship and school. An example of a photograph that
illustrated gender issues was an image of telephones shaped as headless women that
were sold in the local mall. e photographer said
It made me think about the objectification of women and in society how we are
always surrounded by pictures of females looking a certain way. There is no respect
towards them and no one sees these images as people, they see them as objects
(Ingram, 2014, p. 312).
Ingram believes that “with the girls directing the camera’s lens, and having the
space to share their experiences, perspectives and opinions, the collaborative,
visually informed research process served to validate the participants and their roles
as citizens, participants, researchers and activists” (2014, p. 322).
Khanare’s use of Photovoice with HIV-infected children in KwaZulu-Natal
revealed some enlightening findings. Participants took photographs that
represented situations that, 1) enabled them to cope with HIV in school, and 2)
situations that discouraged them at school. An example of the latter is a photograph
of a participant with her head down on a chair, with the following narrative “is
is me . . . I was so sad to what has been said to my friend whom I know they have
problems at home. Sometimes teachers ask funny questions in the class and other
learners laugh at you” (Khanare, 2012, p. 256). Khanare believes that the
Photovoice activity was important because participants
were able to create and recreate their coping strategies within the school context.
This tool provided a social setting where the participants individually and collec-
tively discussed what worked for them and what could work for them in terms of
coping with HIV-related issues (Khanare, 2012, p. 257).
e narratives that arose from the participants’ photographs in Markus’ research
in the Wind River Indian Reservation were also informative. One narrative
attempted to rubbish claims of warring tribes within the reservation, stating “there
is a belief that the Northern Arapaho and Eastern Shoshone tribes . . . are ‘warring
tribes’ and that we can’t get along. But . . . we all support each other and we are

like brothers and sisters, all one family. We are peaceful” (Markus, 2012, p. 113).
Markus (2012) states that participants “engaged in storytelling through
photography and written narratives and, in turn, are sharing their stories for disease
prevention and health promotion with their peers and community members”
(p. 103).
Mattouk and Talhouk used Photovoice to determine participants’ perceptions
of nature and its use in Lebanon. 36% of the participants associated nature with
positive family experiences, as reflected in the following narrative: “I am grateful
for my dad who made me love and care for nature. is love was developed because
I used to go with my dad to the bush to mulch and care for trees and cherries”
(Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017, p. 9). 14% of the participants referred to nature
through biological facts, such as “I would like my generation to care for as many
trees as possible so that we can increase them instead of decrease them for the
generation to come” (Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017, p. 9).
Shah’s Photovoice activity in Gujarat, India, involved the participants taking
photographs guided by two prompts. e first was “take pictures of anything at
the school or in the village, in any way you want, that will help me understand
something about your life” (Shah, 2015, p.59), and the second prompt was “take
photographs that help me understand what women and girls do” (Shah, 2015,
p.59). An example of a narrative that arose from a photograph taken to illustrate
the second prompt was entitled “Boy with swing”. An excerpt of the discussion
follows:
In the hammock is a baby girl, and next to her is her older brother. See how he is
swinging her and taking care of her while his mother is cooking? Usually, boys are
out playing with the other boys in the evening. They do not stay at home and help
the mother, and they usually do not help take care of younger sisters. I really like
that this older brother is helping out (Shah, 2015, p. 62).
Shah believes that this Photovoice project “has the potential to support the
development of some of the dimensions of empowerment and act as an insightful
analytical heuristic to investigate the potential for a schooling-empowerment link”
(2015, p. 70).
Suffla et al. directed their students to photograph subjects that made them feel
safe in their Southern African communities. e resulting images included
photographs of home, church, school, road traffic signals, police officers, and
neighbourhood watch (Suffla et al., 2012. p. 521). e participants were then asked
a number of questions to describe the outcomes of the Photovoice project. When
asked what was the best thing about the project, answers included “learning how

to face my problems and fears” and “seeing that people care about us, we are not
alone” (Suffla et al., 2012. p. 523). When asked, what they learned, one of the
answers was “how to make my community a safer/better place and how to help
others in the community” (Suffla et al., 2012. p. 523).
e participants in Tomita’s Photovoice study in a Romanian re-education centre
for juvenile delinquents were not given specific subjects to photograph, but instead
“were left the freedom to make those photos that they consider representative to
suggest the harmfulness of drugs and the fight against them” (Tomita, 2015, p.
229). In addition, the photographic activity was implemented “as a healthy
alternative of spending leisure time” (Tomita, 2015, p. 229). Tomita believes that
the most important aspect of this research is how the participants responded to the
Photovoice project, in terms of “their involvement and great availability,
appreciation and desire to continue such activities, knowing that, these children
have often faced inadequate punitive responses… as a response to their own
aggression or violent behavior, responses that include physical aggression,
suspension, incarceration” (Tomita, 2015, p. 232).
e participants in the study undertaken by Warne et al. in Sweden were asked
to take photographs to answer the question “What are important to you in making
you feel well and work well in school?” (2012, p. 302). Suggestions that arose from
answering this question included: 1) implement more group work to improve in-
classroom relationships, 2) increase teacher training, 3) increase the amount of
working computers, 4) make sports facilities available for everyone, not just elite
athletes, and 5) increase the quality of food available at school. (Warne et al, 2012,
p. 304). e researchers found that the use of the Photovoice methodology helped
to “stimulate students’ critical thinking and knowledge about society”, adding that
“participating students wanted to have influence and make a difference” (Warne et
al, 2012, p. 308).
Zenkov and his team have used Photovoice for over a decade in their rough
Students’ Eyes project in Ohio and Virginia in order to address issues related to
literacy of students that “had been born into families and communities in which
formal education too often seemed as foreign an institution as English was a
language” (Zenkov et al., 2017, p. 149). Participants are to take photographs to
answer the following questions: “1) What is the purpose of school/ reading /writing?
2) What helps you to be successful in school or with reading/writing? and 3). What
gets in the way of your school/reading/writing success?” (Zenkov et al., 2017, p.
154). An example of the answer to the first question is an image of furniture in the
back of a pick-up truck entitled “Mobile Home”. e participant’s reason for taking
the photograph is:

I don’t want to grow up to be a homeless person. I want to set a strong and stable
foundation for my family and live in a nice wonderful home that’s safe for me and
my family, and the way I’m going to start building that foundation is to finish
school and go to college (Zenkov et al., 2017, p. 158).
Success of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for

Facilitators and Policy-Makers
e Photovoice methodology incorporates not just the student participants, but

also the project facilitators and the policy-makers relevant to the issue being
queried. e findings from the Photovoice studies with regards to the facilitators,
show that Photovoice has resulted in a change in the way that they instruct. Warne
et al. (2012) speaks of moving from “being an expert to being a facilitator” (p. 308)
so that the team can stimulate students’ critical thinking skills. Chonody et al.
(2012) stated that the experience confirmed the importance of learning by doing,
also known as “experiential learning” (p. 43). Regarding the use of Photovoice to
teach mathematics to creative girls, Harkness and Stallworth (2013) stated “based
on what we learned about each girl through the use of the photovoice methodology,
we were able to think deeply about their ways of knowing…and implement
tutoring strategies to meet their individual needs” (2013, p. 345). e research
experience has influenced how Mattouk and Talhouk design further nature
conservation activities, stating that “we have engaged in the development of
informal learning activities that are a reflection of parents and grandparents normal
involvement with youth” (2017, p. 12).
Examples of how policy makers can incorporate the new knowledge gained
include the work of Graham et al. (2013) who was able to make policy makers
more aware of the violence the specific youth in Detroit are subject to. e
information obtained by the research undertaken by Haglund et al., (2016) can be
used to create interventions to promote healthy relationship lifestyles among female
and male Latina/o youth. Markus (2012) discovered four lessons that policy makers
can adhere to during his intervention with a Native American community in
Wyoming. ese lessons are that: 1) let the youth be heard, 2) continue learning,
3) incorporate cultural heritage into work, and 4) allow for “non-verbal creative
expression” (p. 117). Additionally, Mattouk and Talhouk (2017) found that
education about nature should be a mix of formal and informal education,
including at-home learning with the focus being on local biodiversity.

Conclusion
is paper is guided by the research question: how effective is Photovoice as a

pedagogical tool among young people in a variety of multicultural settings? e
details presented illustrate the participants’ responses to the various Photovoice
projects that covered a wide range of issues and cultures. Multiple examples
highlight the success of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool in that the participants
were able to: 1) critically discuss the issues that they are faced with, 2) develop a
sense of empowerment to address these issues, 3) make suggestions as to how the
issues may be addressed. Facilitators and policy makers also benefited from the
students’ participation in that the former amended and tailored their methods of
instruction. Policy makers heard from the individuals directly affected by the
various issues and thus put into place measures to address the areas of concern.
Countries in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and the Middle East are all
represented in this review, which also includes a mix of rural and urban locations.
is shows the universal applicability of the Photovoice methodology, with its
ability to be used in a variety of countries, cultures and languages. Its ability to be
used in both the formal classroom setting and in community-based projects further
cements the global nature of the Photovoice methodology.
e variety of the researchers’ focus and the issues covered also reflects the
multifaceted nature of Photovoice. Educators, biologists, social workers, health
practitioners and gender equality specialists all utilised Photovoice to help young
people address the issues that they are faced with. Issues included inner-city violence
in Detroit (Graham et al., 2013), coping with HIV in South Africa (Khanare,
2012), gender inequality in rural India (Shah, 2015), cultivating healthy
relationships among Latinas (Haglund et al., 2016) and nature conservation issues
in Lebanon (Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017).
Although the focus of the research teams can be broadly grouped in the
categories of education, health, social work, gender inequality and natural heritage
conservation, within these groups there is both diversity and similarities. Of the
five educators, Harkness and Stallworth focuses on mathematics education; Zenkov
et al. (2017), are a group of English and Literacy educators; Haglund et al. (2016),
educate nurses; Bellino (2015) is an environmental science educator and at the
time of the article’s publication, Ingram taught Education at the University level.
It should also be noted that although classified as a gender inequality researcher,
Shah (2015) undertook her research while teaching in a high school in India.
ere is diversity and similarity among the health researchers. Suffla et al.
(2012)has a health and safety focus, while both Warne et al. (2012) and Markus

(2012) have a background in public health. Children, rural communities and the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are the focus of Khanare’s (2012) work and
research. Markus (2012) applied the Photovoice methodology to educate a Native
American community on how to develop healthy relationships for community
members with HIV. is research is similar to that done by Khanare (2012) in
South Africa in terms of educating children with HIV on how to create a support
system.
e three research teams with a social work background are Chonody et al.
(2012), Graham et al. (2013), and Tomita (2015). e latter used Photovoice to
assist the rehabilitation of juveniles in a Romanian re-education centre for drug
users. Graham et al. (2013), used Photovoice in a community-based intervention
in inner-city Detroit while Chonody et al. (2012) used Photovoice with students
that attend an alternative high school which utilises a preponderance of project-
based assignments.
e work of Mattouk and Talhouk (2017) in using Photovoice for natural
heritage education in Lebanon adds another dimension to how Photovoice can be
used, and serves to reinforce the adaptability, flexibility and universality of the
methodology as a pedagogical tool. e variety of the backgrounds and interests
of the researchers confirm that Photovoice is an effective pedagogical tool, which
can be applied among young people in a variety of multicultural settings.
In examining the results and conclusion of the reviewed literature in the context
of the research question, we can see that Photovoice is effective as a pedagogical
tool among young people in a variety of multicultural settings, as seen in
participants’ feedback. e teenage girls that participated in the study by Ingram
(2014) in Toronto underwent critical reflection, which resulted in a positive result
on their “self-concepts, sense of agency and self-confidence” (p. 322). In India,
Shah (2015) found that Photovoice allowed the participants to find out for
themselves how they can be empowered by attending school. Suffla et al., (2012)
discovered in South Africa that the marginalized youth that participated in the
Photovoice resulted in their realization of the importance of local knowledge.
Critical reflection, empowerment and the importance of local knowledge are
characteristics that young people need to develop to be an educated 21st century
citizen. All can be obtained through the Photovoice methodology.
e purpose of this systematic literature review was to answer the research
question that asked, how effective is Photovoice as a pedagogical tool among young
people in a variety of multicultural settings? e review shows that the Photovoice
methodology as a pedagogical tool has been used in a variety of studies with youth
aged 13 to 19 years old, of both genders. ere is a variety of geographical locations

in terms of countries and rural/urban settings; as well as a mix of educational

settings, both in the formal school setting and in informal workshop settings. is
systematic review shows that as a pedagogical tool for young people, Photovoice is
highly successful in using photography to educate students from across the globe.
e methodology overrides barriers of language, culture, social settings, gender and
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Food Policy and Chronic Disease

in the Caribbean
FITZROY HENRY, DEONNE CAINES, SHEERIN EYRE
ABSTRACT
e spiraling increase in obesity and chronic diseases in the Caribbean coupled with
the rapid food trade through unbridled globalization suggests that the
implementation of food and nutrition security policies in the Region must proceed
with much urgency. Focus must be on creating incentives which will allow more
healthy foods to be grown in the Region. is paper identifies the priority foods which
should be made more available and accessible so that nutrition-related chronic
diseases can be controlled. Rather than merely comparing high and low energy dense
foods, this paper also included type of fat, vitamin, mineral, phytochemical and fibre
content of foods in classifying them as healthy and less healthy. e costs of 158 foods
commodities in relation to their classical and superfood rank were analyzed. e
study found that among the commonly consumed foods in Jamaica healthy options
cost J$88 more than less healthy ones. e cheapest daily cost of a nutritionally
balanced diet in Jamaica varied considerably by parish but was on average J$269.
For a family of three this translated approximately to the total minimum wage per
week J$5,600 – which is highly unsustainable. e paper concludes by highlighting
the challenges of introducing incentives and disincentives in the food system to combat
obesity and chronic diseases particularly among the poor.
Key words: Caribbean, chronic disease, food price policy, healthy eating, vulnerability.
Introduction
Decisions on food policy and chronic disease are often located in separate ministries
of Caribbean governments even though they are inextricably linked. e impact
of food policy on chronic diseases can be profound and predictable and therefore
calls for a re-evaluation of the policy formulation process. e urgency for the
Corresponding author: Fitzroy.Henry@utech.edu.jm

Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean
repositioning of agriculture and food systems is exemplified by (i) e obesity

tsunami and concomitant burgeoning of chronic nutrition-related diseases; (ii) e
effects of the globalization process on food trade and on health; (iii) the structural
economic reforms which require a more integrated analysis and spending with
limited available capital.
More specifically, two new necessities have emerged in Caribbean countries that
also make it imperative for decision-makers to reassess the potential impact of food
policy and its relationship to health in particular. (i) ere is a need to establish
nutrition and health goals so that the agriculture and food systems can deliver
adequate and nutritionally appropriate quantities of food, especially to low income
and vulnerable groups; (ii) Chronic nutrition-related diseases cut across socio-
economic, spatial and demographic lines, and healthy diets need to be linked to
domestic and import food policies (Popkin, 2006; Henry, 2011).
ese nutritional and epidemiological linkages provide strong arguments for a
conceptualization of food policy that combines food availability, access and health
considerations, and for forging broader links among agriculture, health and trade.
ese multi-sectoral interactions remain to be fully appreciated and exploited by
regional policy makers. is is an urgent task in light of the globalization process
that is expected to take deeper root after the completion of the economic
adjustment programs in several Caribbean countries. is means that food policies
that are limited to the acquisition of cheap foods without regard to their
contribution to public health will prove to be short sighted and will retard the fight
against obesity and chronic diseases.
To provide specific evidence of the link between food and health a study was
proposed to the Research Development Fund of the University of Technology,
Jamaica with the following questions:
1. What are the commonly consumed food items that can significantly promote
health?
2. Are there additional health benefits that particular foods can confer?
3. Are these healthy food items affordable by the most economically vulnerable?
Methods
A pilot survey was carried out during May 2014 using prices collected from the
Jamaica Consumer Affairs Commission. is pilot survey indicated that costs varied
across parishes and there were no parishes with consistently highest or lowest prices
for foods. Data were collected from six parishes across Jamaica. In order to increase
the applicability of the results, food prices were obtained from densely populated

areas and from vendors which were most popular among consumers in each parish.
e prices of one hundred and fifty eight commodities were sought during the
month of June 2014. ese prices were collected from popular supermarkets,
wholesale and open markets in each of the six selected parishes. Trained data
collectors obtained prices from the open market on popular market days, i.e. Friday
and Saturday, because open market prices changed depending on the day of the
week. Produce was less expensive on weekend days.
To determine which foods can significantly contribute to health the study ranked
the commodities according to a wide range of classical nutrition factors (CFNI,
2011). ese classical criteria were associated with major chronic diseases prevalent
in the Caribbean. Unlike other studies that merely compared high and low energy
dense foods (Lipsky, 2009), this study included type of fat, vitamin, mineral and
fibre content in classifying foods as healthy and less healthy. is approach also
avoided the methodological weakness of comparing energy density with energy
cost (Lipsky, 2009). Food composition data were used to determine the quantities
of the relevant nutrients contained therein. Scores were allocated for each nutrient
and then totaled to develop a Cumulative Rank Score (CRS). is score was used
to rank the foods, both within food groups and overall. e food commodities
were arranged by food groups and then according to their CRS, with the highest
score being first and the lowest score last. Using results of an island-wide focus
group study conducted in Jamaica (Samuda et al, 1998), the most commonly
consumed foods in each group were identified. e foods were then placed into
highest ranked and lowest ranked foods, and were considered the more healthy and
less healthy foods. In addition to the classical ranking criteria, selected foods were
also assessed according to their phytochemical content. e aim was to identify
the food crops, “superfoods” that can be further prioritized for production by the
agriculture sector in the Caribbean. Fruits and vegetables are well known for their
high phytochemical profiles (Hung, 2004). Hence, fruits and vegetables were not
included in this analysis. For this paper, seventeen of the top ranked staples and
other plant foods were analyzed. e foods studied included only those that have
not been modified by food manufacturers – i.e the natural superfoods.
e functional cost to the consumer is not based solely on individual foods or
individual food groups, but on the overall cost incurred in meeting daily nutrient
requirements. For this reason, this study compiled the cost of one day’s
requirement, using Population Nutrient Goals for the Caribbean (CFNI, 2011)
which determined the cost of the daily intake if the recommended proportion of
foods from each food group was utilized.
Data were analyzed after careful verification of all food items and prices in the
data set. e sizes, as sold, of all foods surveyed, were recorded and converted into

weight measures. Where foods were in liquid form, their densities were used to
convert volume measurements into weights. e cost per 100g of each commodity
was then calculated using the cost and sale size. e average was calculated using
the costs of the commodity in each parish. Averages reflected only the parishes in
which the commodity was found, and was therefore not an average of six parishes
in all cases.
To determine the cheapest way to obtain a balanced diet this study used the
Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute developed Nutrient Cost Analysis program
(CFNI, 2011) that calculates the cost of food energy and protein from different
food sources.
Results
Of the one hundred and fifty-eight foods surveyed, prices were obtained for one
hundred and twenty five foods found in all six parishes. Most of the remaining
foods were found in many but not all six of the surveyed parishes.
Q 1: What are the commonly consumed food items that can

significantly promote health?
Using the cumulative ranked score in relation to chronic disease Table 1 presents
the commonly consumed food items which were highly ranked.
Table 1: High ranked commonly consumed commodities by food group

Food from Fats &
Staples Vegetables Legumes Fruits
Animals Oils
Beef, Liver Coconut,
Macaroni Callaloo Lentil Guava
& Kidney dry
Plantain/
Spinach Sardine in oil Avocado Chick pea Papaya
Banana
Pigeon (gungo)
Yam Pak choi Tuna in oil Olive oil Jackfruit
pea
Soya bean
Rice Okra Codfish, raw Red kidney bean Pomegranate
oil
Mackerel,
Oats Carrot Ackee Split pea (green) Mango
raw
Chicken,
Breadfruit Tomato Orange
drumsticks
Pumpkin Fish, Tilapia Soursop
Potato sweet
& Irish

Table 2: Cost of obtaining daily Population Nutrient Goals Using foods commonly
consumed in Jamaica
Food Group Cost (JMD)

Difference
Highest ranked Lowest ranked
(highest–lowest)
Staples 122.98 122.57 0.42
Vegetables 111.34 89.59 21.75
Foods from Animals 157.83 106.18 51.65
Legumes & nuts 48.46 41.00 7.46
Fats and Oils 23.00 15.57 7.43
Fruits 26.42 27.43 -1.02
Total 490.03 402.34 87.69
When costs were tallied, it was noted that to achieve the Population Nutrient
Goals using these foods would cost more for the highest ranked foods. Overall,
purchasing the highest ranked commonly consumed commodities cost
approximately J$88 more than if lowest ranked foods were purchased instead. e
most significant food groups were the Vegetables and the Foods from Animals
which showed the largest cost difference (Table 2). Only one food group – Fruits,
showed a marginal increased cost if the lowest ranked commodities were purchased
over the highest ranked commodities.
Q 2: Are there additional benefits that particular foods can confer?
e study also showed the potential added health benefits from some of these foods.
e ranking of added health benefit was based on the strength of the scientific
evidence and the range of therapeutic action. Strikingly, some expensive foods such
as pigeon peas, kidney beans and rolled oats have excellent added potential. But
the study showed that cheaper foods such as breadfruit and sweet potato can also
provide very good options.

Q 3: Can the poor afford these healthy foods?
Table 2 indicates that using commonly consumed foods it will cost $490 for a 2400
Kcal diet. For a family of 3 over seven days the cost will be J$10,290 – which is
well above the weekly minimum wage of $5,600. But is it possible to obtain a
cheaper balanced diet that the poor might be able to afford? Table 3 sets out the
composition of the food basket generated by the Nutrient Cost Analysis program
using prices collected from selected outlets in 6 parishes across Jamaica in June
2014. e basket contains the cheapest items that can be selected from each food
group. e table also shows that the cheapest cost on average of a nutritionally
balanced diet of 2400 Kcals is J$269. e variations by parish are: Portland – J$308:
St. Elizabeth – J$307: St James – J$259; St Ann – J$253; Manchester J$253 and
Kingston & St Andrew (KSA) – J$215.
Examining the composition by food group and items, the cereal sub-group
within Staples was the most consistent across parishes for items selected in the
baskets, with cornmeal, rice and flour appearing in all areas. In the Starchy
foods/tubers group – yam and green banana featured in all areas with plantain
being the next most frequently appearing item, followed by dasheen and breadfruit.
In the vegetable group, frozen mixed vegetables appeared in the baskets for all
parishes except for KSA while callaloo was seen in all the parishes outside of KSA.
Green pigeon peas were only seen in the KSA basket. In the Fruit group, there was
a fair amount of variability across parishes with ripe bananas being the most
consistently appearing item except for St. James. Oranges and grapefruit juice were
the next most common items in the parishes surveyed. e greatest variability was
seen in the Food from Animals group although a few items within this group
appeared frequently: e.g. beef liver and salted codfish which appeared in all parishes
and chicken neck and back which were seen in 5 of the parishes. Of note is the
frequency with which different types of offals featured in the baskets – no doubt
reflecting the relatively cheaper prices for these items which are for the most part
imported. In the Fats and Oils group the items were fairly consistent across parishes,
and included coconut oil in all areas.
Discussion & Conclusions
is study is unique in six distinct ways.

1. A wide range of health criteria, related to the major health problems in
Jamaica, was used. It utilized a method of measurement and ranking that

Table 3: Average composition of low-cost nutritionally balanced food basket
Average cost of basket for 6 parishes = J$ 269.43
STAPLES
Cornmeal, enriched, dry
Wheat flour, counter
Rice, enriched (long grain)
Banana, green (fig)
Yam (yellow) Dasheen
Tannia, fresh, raw
Breadfruit, fresh, raw
SUGAR
Sugar, dark brown, crude
LEGUMES
Red peas, with seeds, dry, raw
Broad bean, with seeds, dry
Pigeon (gungo) pea, whole seed, dry
VEGETABLES
Avocado pear
Mixed vegetables, frozen, raw
Callaloo, raw
Corn, immature, raw, sweet
FRUITS
Grapefruit, fresh
Banana, ripe
Raisins, golden, seedless
Orange, all varieties
FOOD FROM ANIMALS
Liver, beef, raw
Kidney, beef
Chicken, neck, raw
Mackerel, canned, solid & liquid
Stew steak, lean & fat, raw
Codfish, salted
Pork feet, trotters,
Herring, smoked
FATS & OILS
Shortening, vegetable
Margarine, hard, animal & vegetable fat
Oil, coconut

went beyond the mere high versus low energy-dense foods and hence
eliminated the methodological weakness of that approach (Lipsky, 2009;
Carlson, 2002).
2. It compared foods, not merely by selecting high and low ranked commodities,
but by the proportions of those foods, in food groups, that will be required
to meet the Population Nutrient Goals of a standard diet of 2400 Kcals.
3. It presented a numerical health rank (average CRS) for the different food
groups that were compared.
4. It calculated the cheapest way to obtain a nutritionally balanced diet across
six parishes and hence objectively estimated the vulnerability of low income
groups in those communities.
5. It showed the foods that can be selected to obtain a nutritionally balanced
meal at low cost – a health promotion tool.
6. It examined the cost of foods commonly consumed by Jamaicans – showing
practicality and cultural relevance.
e following discussion addresses the three questions in the study.

Although a healthy diet is determined by the combination of foods rather than
a single food item, the identification of healthy foods shows those which can be
used freely and frequently. e essence of dietary guidelines is to suggest the
proportions of healthy and less healthy foods to be used in the diet (Mozaffarian,
2010; Henry, 2016). Table 1 presented a list of commonly consumed foods that
can be used freely in food combinations. ese foods are low-cost and excel in
terms of various health criteria. We contend that Caribbean agriculture and food
security strategy must include cost and health as imperatives in advancing a food
policy in the Region. Further, the variety of health gains that can be exploited from
foods that are ranked high with both the classical and non-classical criteria cannot
be ignored (Henry, 2015a). Decision-makers on food production in the Caribbean
can therefore use these items as first priorities in making healthy foods available to
the population. Obviously the overall agriculture policy will consider several other
factors such as labor market, export potential, soil suitability, among others. e
point, however, is that if we wish to reduce chronic diseases among the local
population then key healthy food items must be made widely available and
accessible.
Table 2 also shows that the cost of foods commonly consumed in Jamaica
supports the anecdotal claims made by consumers that a healthier diet is more
expensive. Using this list to achieve the Population Nutrient Goals it shows the
top ranked foods would require J$490, which is J$88 more than was required if

the bottom ranked foods were used (J$402) (Henry, 2015b). is difference
(approximately US$ 0.78) is less than the US$1.47 on average found in 27 studies
in 10 countries (Rao, 2013). e widest cost variation was between the top and
bottom ranked Vegetables and Foods from Animals. Consumers in the Caribbean
frequently contend that Foods from Animals, (specifically meats, fish and poultry)
and Vegetables were the food groups which tend to increase the dietary cost most
when attempting to practice balanced nutrition. is concern is also observed
elsewhere (Cassady et al, 2007).
e results show that the cheapest cost of a nutritionally balanced diet (food
basket) in Jamaica is on average – J$269. e latest available poverty prevalence
(PIOJ, 2014) shows an overall rate for Jamaica of 19.9%. By parish, the comparable
figures are: Portland – food basket [J$308] vs poverty [21.5%]; St. Elizabeth food
basket [J$307] vs poverty [23.8%]; St James – food basket [J$259] vs poverty
[11.2%]; St Ann – food basket [J$253] vs poverty [18.4%]; Manchester – food
basket [J$253] vs poverty [22.5%]; and Kingston & St Andrew (KSA) – food basket
[J$215] vs poverty [28.6%]. is comparison shows that KSA with the highest
poverty rate had the cheapest basket. However, Portland and St. Elizabeth with
relatively high poverty rates had the most expensive baskets. e KSA food basket
figures reflect relatively lower prices in the Food from Animals, Vegetables and Fruit
groups – which are the food groups of greatest concern to consumers and the
groups that drive the overall food prices. ese results warrant further investigation
especially as it relates to St. Elizabeth which is traditionally considered the “bread
basket of Jamaica”. It is unclear how much the number of food outlets, and the
resulting competition among them, affects the difference in prices among the
parishes. is may well have some influence on the relatively lower prices in KSA
compared to Portland and St. Elizabeth. It is striking that high food basket costs
exist even in areas where poverty rates are also high. is points to the vulnerability
of many families whether or not they get support from social safety net programs
or from relatives. e method of analysis used in this study is clearly a powerful
objective biological benchmark (unlike economic indicators) which can be used to
quantitatively assess vulnerability of families particularly those in the lower income
group.
e study revealed that the cost of healthy meals chosen by Jamaicans is J$490.
But it is still possible to obtain a healthy meal within the range of J$215 to J$307
across parishes, indicating that there is scope for vulnerable families to choose
healthy options at a lower cost. e challenge is to inform consumers about the
combinations of foods which could comprise a tasty, culturally appropriate
nutritious diet at low cost. It is critical to point out that this food basket cost does

not include the cost of cooking (fuel, time and other ingredients). But just
considering the raw foods, if the overall average cost of J$269 is used it can be
estimated that a family of 3 will require approximately J$5,650 to secure balanced
meals for one week. e minimum wage in Jamaica is J$5,600 which means that
a single-income earning family will need to spend their entire income on food (raw)
alone. is is clearly unsustainable and implies that such a family will opt to use
less balanced options to fit their purchasing power. In reality, many families are
larger and have more than one income earner and often family income is
supplemented by remittances in cash or kind from home and abroad. e results
nevertheless show the vulnerability of many families particularly those who have
little support from the state or relatives. ese findings suggest that increasing the
minimum wage will allow poor families to make better and healthier food choices
if they use the additional cash for that purpose. It is recognized that a minimum
wage increase will have ramifications for other sectors of the economy. ese
findings nevertheless present a compelling case for a minimum wage increase.
The Way Forward
is study identified priority food commodities that should be promoted to impact
health. It further showed particular foods that confer additional health benefits.
While this link between food policy and health is highlighted, the study also points
to the challenge of exploiting this link given that the overall costs of healthier foods
are outside the purchasing range of the poorest in society.
If the food system is failing to address the health concerns of the most needy it
should be strategic to apply incentives to increase the accessibility of healthy foods
and disincentives to reduce the less healthy options such as fats and sugars (Wang,
2005). Price differences in foods have led many to theorize that strategic taxes or
other forms of price control could help to motivate consumers to make healthier
food purchases (Drewnowski, 2004), but this may not necessarily translate into
substitution with the less expensive item. Purchases also depend, among other
things, on the income available for spending (Epstein et al, 2006). Nevertheless,
incentives and disincentives for healthy and less healthy food items should be
encouraged even though major challenges need to be overcome.
Food price policy therefore remains attractive in attempts to influence food
purchases. Lowering the prices of the healthy options may result in increasing their
sales, but developing such policies is subject to considerable political and economic
pressure. at pressure is even more intense when the option of taxation is
considered (Marshall, 2000).

e issue of taxing unhealthy foods has received increasing attention especially

in the wake of the Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, which
was approved by the member countries of the WHO in 2004 and the published
cost-effective strategies (Cecchine, 2010). Unhealthy foods are cheaper and more
accessible than ever before. In recent decades, the real price of food has fallen,
particularly for energy-dense foods that contain higher levels of fats and sugars.
Pre-packaged foods, fast food restaurant meals, and soft-drinks, all of which tend
to be high in fat, sugar and calories, are all more easily accessible and cheap. Several
countries have recognized the devastating effects of sugary beverages on the health
of their population (Milio, 1998; Francis, 2009) and some have imposed taxes to
reduce their consumption (Jacobson, 2000). Among the countries are France,
Mauritius, Samoa, Tonga, Finland and French Polynesia. Some states within the
USA have also introduced sugar taxes. Mexico’s sugar tax in 2014 showed a decline
in the purchase of sugary beverages with an increase in water purchases. Recently,
in their 2016 budget, the UK has imposed a levy on drinks with total sugar content
above 5g per 100ml and a higher rate for drinks with more than 8g (NetCen, 2016).
As expected the giant soft drinks industry immediately signaled their intention to
sue the government. Caribbean countries have some of the highest obesity rates in
the world but there is no widespread introduction of sugar taxation policies. During
the 2015 budget, however, Barbados announced a new 10% sugar tax on all
carbonated drinks, sports drinks, sweetened fruit juices and juice drinks. e aim
is not only to reduce the risk of chronic disease but also to reduce the US$113
million Barbados spends on diabetes and hypertension each year. (Barbados Today,
2015) It should be recognized, however, that just by imposing a food tax may not
create a strong incentive for consumers to make changes, especially if manufacturers
decide to absorb the entire tax, leaving retail prices and consumers behavior
unchanged. e tax rates imposed are often too small to affect purchases. (Jacobson,
2000) Another problem would be what foods are taxed. No benefits accrue if the
tax simply induces substituting one snack food for another. How consumers might
substitute particular types of highly processed food is not yet clear and it is only
hoped and assumed that consumers would for example substitute fruit and
vegetables for snack foods.
Governments may also choose to address food related health problems by taxing
imports of high-fat or high-sugar foods; however, such efforts will have to comply
with rules governing international trade (Evans, 2000). In 2000, Fiji banned the
importation of mutton flaps, an extremely fatty food, but to comply with its WTO
obligations it had to ban the sale of all mutton flaps, not just imports. It is further
argued (Kennedy, 2000) that a fat tax is regressive and ineffective because poor

people spend a higher proportion of their income on food and poorer people tend
to suffer most from obesity.
Despite these debates, this study presents some incontestable reasons to rethink
our agriculture and food policy in the Region, building upon the production/
sustainability orientation that already exist but incorporating issues related to diets,
nutrition and health. Health and nutrition issues cannot continue to be mere
appendages to agricultural and food policies but must be an integral part of
strategies of several sectors of the economy. In the past, the issues of health status,
food security, diets, and agricultural trade, have been approached in the Region as
originating from disparate, unrelated sectors of the economy. However, there are
strong links between and among these sectors, and recognizing and acting upon
them can contribute to the sustainability of human development in the Caribbean.
Acknowledgements
We thank the University of Technology, Jamaica for providing funding, through the
Research Development Fund managed by the University’s Research Management Office,
the School of Graduate Studies, Research & Entrepreneurship. We also thank the UTech.
Ja students – atcherlee Cole, Cassandrea Doiah, Rochelle Hutchinson, Susan Parkinson,
Keena Jones and Roshelle Williams – who performed admirably in the field with data
collection and entry. In addition, we are grateful for the patience and support of the
operators of the supermarkets, wholesales, and municipal markets, who were vital to the
success of this project.
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Adequate Housing for All

A Philosophical Perspective
ANETHEO JACKSON
Faculty of the Built Environment, University of Technology, Jamaica
Abstract
is paper offers a philosophical perspective on the agenda of the right to adequate
housing for all. is housing agenda is directly linked to the 1948 Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which inherently calls upon member states
to organize their housing systems to deliver adequate housing for all. e
fundamental view taken in this paper is that this agenda on housing is grounded in
the philosophy of social justice. However, the approaches to housing since the UDHR
may be described as distinct periods of state versus market driven housing systems,
which are grounded in different philosophical positions and have both failed to
deliver housing justice. is paper presents a historical overview and a critical
discussion of the liberalist philosophy and its application to housing. e conclusion
is drawn that the market driven approach to housing lacks the relevant mechanism
to deliver a ‘right’ to adequate housing for all. In this regard, it is concluded that an
appropriate synthesis of the state and market driven approaches to housing is a more
plausible apparatus to address the ideal of a right to adequate housing for all in any
context. erefore, a deliberate application of dialectical thinking in designing and
developing housing policies, practices and procedures is being proposed in order to
achieve housing justice.
Keywords: Adequate Housing, Social Justice, Housing Justice, Dialecticism,

Neo-liberalism
Introduction
When one seeks to understand the fundamental principles guiding housing policies
it is difficult to pin-point a specific political philosophy or theoretical framework
Corresponding author: Anetheo A. Jackson, ajackson@utech.edu.jm

Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective
that explains the various approaches to housing over the decades. However,
emphasis on adequate housing as a human right lends itself to considerations of
social justice in housing. e Universal Declaration on Human Rights asserted that
“everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for health, and well-being
of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing…” (Article 25 (1),
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948). As such, Heads of State or
Governments across the world affirmed their commitments to the right to adequate
housing in the 1996 Istanbul Declaration on Human Settlements which advanced
the UN Habitat’s agenda of adequate housing for all. e underlying view is that
adequate housing is fundamental to social and economic development as well as
to healthy individuals and community functioning (Mitchell, 1974). However,
when one considers the ideal of the right to housing held by these countries and
the conflicting elements in their respective social, economic and political systems,
deliberations about philosophical positions and guiding principles in matters of
housing is not only relevant it is essential.
In this paper, the right to adequate housing for all is explored through the
theoretical lens of social justice. A definition of social justice is therefore adopted
and housing justice is defined. e fundamental objective of this paper is to explore
and discuss critically, the efficacy of the liberalist based approach to housing and
to relate this to the agenda of adequate housing for all through the notion of justice
as freedom. In this vein, the ideologies of Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Mills
are looked at briefly. is extends into a discussion and application of other
philosophies to housing including Hegel’s dialectic. Following from this, a
proposition of a plausible philosophical approach to devising housing policies is
made in light of the contextual elements of societies and their shared goal of
observing a right to adequate housing for all.
Social Justice
Social justice leads one to examine the work of early philosophers such as John
Locke who posited that the rights of the individual, to which he often referred to
as property, is the only absolute indefeasible right (Sabrine & orson, 1973). One
also takes account of the work of Rawls (1971) who purported justice as fairness.
In addition to justice as fairness, Rawls theorized about a social contract whereby
he sought to define the relations among free and equal people and the state and
procedures of justice as being an agreement/contract which frames a social order.
Based on Rawls’ work freedoms, incomes, opportunities and outputs of society are
to be distributed equally except in a case where to do otherwise would result in the

greater good for all. He sought to devise a fair principle for distributing the benefits
and burdens of a society. erefore, if the right to adequate housing is agreed by
free and equal agents to be just, then a minimum requirement for justice in housing
is adequate housing for all. To this end housing justice may be defined as “the
socially and environmentally fair and just distribution of housing benefits in a
society (Gurstein & Young, 2013, p. 77). As such, based on Rawls’ approach it is
essential to agree on what constitutes a fair principle of distributing a country’s
housing benefits and burdens if housing justice is to be observed.
Social justice provides a plausible theoretical lens through which to explore the
topic of housing justice as it steer away from myopic and hegemonic claims in
interpretation. In other words, it presents a myriad of solutions through which
countries can interpret the human rights based approach to housing. To see this,
Jost & Kay’s (2010) synthesis of the literature on social justice is quite instructive.
ey posited a definition for social justice that emphasized distributive, procedural
and interactional justice. ey defined social justice as:
a state of affairs (either actual or ideal) in which (a) benefits and burdens in
society are dispersed in accordance with some allocation principle (or set of
principles); (b) procedures, norms and rules that govern political and other forms
of decision making preserve the basic rights, liberties, and entitlements of
individuals and groups; and (c) human beings (and perhaps other species) are
treated with dignity and respect not only by authorities but also by other relevant
social actors, including fellow citizens (Jost & Kay, 2010, p. 1122).
is comprehensive definition of social justice put forth by Jost & Kay (2010)
sought to classify notions of social justice by tracing history, theories and
philosophies. Note however, that they did not suggest a choice between distributive,
procedural and interactional justice or propose any philosophical approach to
allocating benefits and burdens in society. In fact, what is evident from their
synthesis is that elements of social justice are quite discernible in some of the
prevailing philosophies and theories which have been informing modern societies’
approaches to housing over the decades. In this regard, Jost & Kay’s (2010)
definition of social justice bears strong significance to the human rights based
approach to housing. It emphasizes the need for an appropriate allocation principle
for housing and the types of procedures, norms and rules that govern decision
making in housing that respects the rights, liberties, and entitlements of individuals,
including the right to adequate housing for all.
Of note, whereas some modern philosophers such as Rawls focussed on
distributive justice, in more recent decades Iris Marion Young, a justice philosopher,
proposed a new set of lens through which to view justice. According to Young

(2011) justice is participatory in that it is self empowering. erefore in a society,

structural or systemic arrangements or processes that diminish the individual’s
ability to develop one’s capacities are considered to be injustice. Young’s work
emphasized procedural and interactional justice. She theorized that oppressions
and domination resulting from cultural norms, procedures, practices and rules that
govern decision making are the foundation of injustice. e intuition from Young
(2006) is that matters of injustice cannot be resolved by any direct redistributive
system, individual or institution but instead by collective responsibility that
produces the kind of structures, institutions and processes that will promote self
expression and self determination. To this end, Young rejected the paradigm of
distributive justice and the statist approach to justice. She purported principles of
liberties that arguably present a broader scope for justice than fair distribution.
Interestingly, Young’s (2006) ideology on the responsibility for justice highlights
the notion that there can be no hegemonic claim on matters of social justice. To
her, liability does not rest with any individual person or group, it is collective and
connective and injustice is considered to be structural. Her rejection of the
paradigm of distributive justice resembles the views of the sceptics about hegemonic
claims on the meaning and methods to achieve social justice (omas, 1993).
According to omas (1993), the sceptics are those who are opposed to hegemonic
theorists of social justice. To them the meaning of justice is illusionary and tends
more towards relativism. is means than there exists infinite conceptions and
measures of social justice.
Further, omas (1993) highlighted Aristotle’s concessions that distributive,
procedural and interactional justice cannot be settled in one idea as that which
favours the wealthy, oligarchic conceptions, will not favour the common people
(omas, 1993). is also implies that neither state production and provision nor
market driven housing systems can ensure justice as adequate housing for all. ese
pronouncements are not debatable. erefore, in order to resolve the dilemma in
social justice, sceptics propose a process oriented approach wherein compromises
are sought through participatory processes (omas, 1993). Further, Lind (2014)
argued that as societies develop overtime, changing socio-economic, environmental
and political realities will change the welfare of the household. As such a human
rights based approach to housing requires processes for adjustments where housing
justice in concerned.
Justice as Freedom and the Right to Housing
In the last few decades, liberalist philosophies are quite discernible in matters of

housing. Under a purely liberalist housing agenda, housing justice is largely based
on the liberties of the individual to choose ones housing just as the owner of
resources is free to choose to produce housing or any other good or service. e
liberalist system requires that housing markets are well functioning with clearly
defined property rights and a myriad of housing options and solutions for all
groups. It implies that, with the exception of the fixities of land and real property,
there are little or no barriers to entry to housing markets. at is, for example,
transaction costs are low and government regulations can be readily adjusted to
smooth out market imperfections where there exists inadequate housing for all.
e fundamental principles of liberalism is generally attributed to the work of
early liberalists, such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo who theorized that
economic and social order is achieved by virtue of common, albeit individual
interests (Heilbroner, 1986). Essentially, the invisible hand is the source of both
social and economic order, with its major logical component being rational choice
of the individual. is was a rigidly logical proposition. e belief is that the
individual, once free to pursue individual interests, will make self maximizing
choice which will necessarily result in optimality in the production of output and
by extension wealth creation. To hold true to this logic, housing, like any other
commodity would be allocated solely by the rigid logic of the market mechanism.
Another ideal under the liberalist school of thought is property rights. is was
borne out of the value attributed to land ownership as a source of wealth. is is
an essential point to consider where adequate housing is concerned. Under the
UN-Habitat framework for adequate housing the state is bound to protect the
privacy and property rights of the individual though he or she is not entitled to
land or property. On this point, liberalist, David Ricardo belaboured the point that
inelasticities in the supply of land will necessarily result in excess earnings or
economic rent to those who ‘own’ land (Heilbroner, 1986). He pre-empted issues
with the distribution or allocation of a country’s housing output by virtue of a
market mechanism. Ricardo, in his theory of rents, feared that the pendulum of
wealth would necessarily be on the side of the propertied class. As such, his theory
alluded to social injustice in land access. Given that land is arguably the most
important input in housing these issues of wealth distribution and injustice are
equally relevant to housing and therefore makes Ricardo’s theory a worthy
consideration in modern housing policies.
Further, on this point, John Stuart Mills (1848) brought focus to the fact that
production does not necessarily dictate distribution. is brings focus to the
question of the appropriate principle of allocating housing outputs. Although,
perhaps unintended, Mills (1848) alluded to distributive injustice when he

purported that output, once produced, may be distributed however one sees fit.
is implied that social ills or disadvantaged groups in society may not be able to
access much needed goods and services such as shelter and housing regardless of
the quantity and quality of the housing stock. is line of thinking deviates from
the idealistic view of liberalism wherein the market is the sole producer and
allocator of inputs and outputs. It implies that if left solely to the market
mechanism, the right to housing would not be observed as the right to adequate
housing is arguably based on ethical principles of collective good whereas the
market is driven by a logical principle of efficiency and individualism.
is view is perhaps best supported by Knight’s (2011) comments in his paper
on the theory of economic value. He purported that the “theory of economic liberty
was really an illogical inference from implicit ethical judgments of the confused
and shifting character to be expected in premises not made carefully
explicit”(Knight, 2011, p. 30). According to him the theory is based on factual
errors as one fundamental shortcoming is that though equal freedom affords one
to do whatever one desires with his own property, it will allow those with property
to utilize said property to acquire more thereby perpetuating inequities and
injustices.
Almost a century after Mills came the rise of Keynesianism which promoted
state involvement in all aspects of economy in response to the great depression.
Liberalism resurfaced with a modified method, neo-liberalism. Under the neo
liberalist agenda, the concerns of some of the early classicalists were to be addressed
by the state as a facilitator, mainly of the right kind of macroeconomic conditions
and policy frameworks needed to promote competition and wealth creation. To
this end, where housing is concerned, deregulation of financial markets, cutting
back or removal of housing subsidies and elimination or avoidance of price control
mechanisms such as rent control were outputs of this modified approach (Sandhu,
2004).
ese kinds of strategies have been dubbed as the enabling approach to housing
which has grown in dominance since the 1980s. It is predicated on the ideas of
self-help and market driven housing. e fundamental idea under the enabling
approach was to strengthen the private sector and equip private players to produce
housing and ultimately remove that function from the state. ese policy measures
were based on the ideology of allocating housing through the market mechanism
based on the forces of demand and supply rather than on housing need. Note that
the right to adequate housing for all demands that housing systems address both
housing demand and housing need.

Liberalism and Housing Injustice
It is notable that the current housing situations in many countries may be taken as
evidence that the enabling approach has not adequately delivered a human rights
based approach to housing. Under the right to adequate housing for all, housing
injustice exists where people are: (1) homeless and (2) inadequately housed.
Inadequate housing is manifested as unaffordable, insecure tenure and
uninhabitable dwellings. Further, housing that fails to meet the standard of
accessibility and that are for example, located in areas that are unsafe or cut-off
from employment are inadequate and therefore unjust. Essentially, these are
indicators that the housing benefits and burdens of a society are not distributed
fairly across the society and that welfare is not being maximized.
Inequities such as homelessness, proliferation of slums and squatter settlements,
informal and inadequate housing conditions and tenure insecurities are some of
the ills that are arguably inextricably linked to the failure of the market mechanism
in delivering justice in housing. Notably, in this era, there are vast numbers of
underserved groups which live in conditions of poor or inadequate housing.
Typically, the underserved include vulnerable groups such as the elderly, persons
with disabilities, the unemployed, single-parent households and lower income
households that are not able to participate in the housing market. As such, the
principle of justice of freedom falls short of the standard of a right to adequate
housing.
In order to address the shortcomings of the market driven approach, countries
have been adopting programmatic or project type interventions in housing that
targets select groups. ese responses range from government regulations such as
rent control and housing subsidies, regularization of tenure status and upgrading
of slums and squatter settlements, variable interest rate mortgages, mortgage
insurance schemes, tax incentives to developers and homebuyers, among others.
ese initiatives are generally aimed at the neediest households and underserved
members of the population but in many cases they do not reach the intended
beneficiaries.
e corollary of the foregoing is that the focus on individual interest in liberalism
and neo-liberalism hints at a dilemma in achieving housing justice. However, the
literature on social justice indicates that humans value justice and that the pursuit
of individual interest is not mutually exclusive with the pursuit of social justice
(Brosnan, 2006; Brosnan & DeWaal, 2003). For the libertarians, freedom entitles
everyone to his or her own idea of justice. erefore, whereas the emphasis on
housing demand versus need may be seen as injustice to some, to others the equal

freedom and opportunity for inclusion and to participate in ones housing decisions
may be seen as justice for all. Additionally, it must be noted that the feature of
participatory decision making in housing fits well within the UN-Habitat’s
framework for adequate housing (UN-Habitat, Fact Sheet No. 21, n.d.). On the
other hand, freedom to participate does not overshadow the stark housing
conditions and poor living standards in many countries.
Dialectical Thinking and Housing Justice
Fundamentally, housing as a human right brings greater focus to the role of the
state in housing than the liberalists and neo-liberalist agendas accommodate.
According to Korzeniewski & Sandhu (2004, p. 3) under the market driven
housing approach “the role of the government was to emphasise on the provision
of housing finance mainly and to rationalise the subsidies by reduction and
improved targeting. In terms of the policy and lending instruments, it was again
to concentrate on housing finance projects”. To this end, the state would intervene
mainly to address the housing needs of low income households. is can be linked
directly to the states’ obligation to fulfil under the right to adequate housing.
Accordingly, a passive role of government as enabler or facilitator as put forth by
the neo-liberalist approach to housing which has been popularized since the 1980s
is likely to be less than adequate to deliver on its obligation to fulfil.
Dialectical thinking provides a logical approach to examine the dichotomy
between the market and the state in matters of housing. Specifically, market driven
housing systems are based on ideals of freedom and individualism not moral or
ethical principles of welfare maximization. With regards to the right to adequate
housing, this hints at the need for a higher moral authority to address the housing
needs of some groups. In this regard, the state’s obligation to protect, respect and
fulfil the right to adequate housing must be carefully interpreted and properly
articulated particularly in housing systems that emphasizes individualism but
lacks the kind of housing markets that can addresses the ideal of adequate housing
for all.
From a philosophical perspective, in exploring the role of the state in relation
to housing, Hegel’s dialectic proved to be a very instructive starting point. Hegel
opposed, or rather attacked individualism as a theory of society (Sabine & orson,
1973). He saw the state as the only source of moral guidance. To him “the state is
not means but end. It represents the rational ideal in development and the truly
spiritual element in civilization, and as such it uses, or perhaps in a metaphysical
sense, creates civil society for the achievement of its own ends” (Sabine & orson,

1973, p. 598). His dialectic implies that the pursuit of individual interests as the
source of social order is fallible. Accordingly, Hegel’s state is bound by a duty to
administer a system that protects the individual’s right and his right to property.
In other words, the state has higher order moral, political and socio-economic
functions. erefore, whereas the pure liberalists saw the freedom for rational
pursuits of individual interests as the source of justice, to Hegel the State is the
only true source. His line of argument supports the notion of the states’ obligation
to fulfil, respect and protect the individuals’ freedoms and entitlements under a
human rights based approach to housing as put forth by the UN Habitat.
Hegel’s dialectic, presents a logical apparatus or in other words, a valid
methodology, for interpreting and understanding rights such as the rights to housing
and the means by which to achieve this right. Specifically, Hegel’s dialectic presents
a valid approach to understanding the seemingly antithetical arrangements and
functions of modern housing systems by taking account of the historical context
and the legal and political arrangements of a country. To this end, the antithesis of
housing markets in modern housing systems comprised of new housing institutions
and, for example, antiquated or outdated legal and regulatory land use and building
regulations and large populations of underserved groups can be appropriately
dissected and adjusted in order to address issues of housing injustice.
It must be noted that to a large extent, the focus of Hegel’s philosophy was
religion and metaphysics and that Hegel’s state bears some stark differences from
the state of today. Of note, structural and institutional differences of modern
societies are mere manifestation of the roles of the state. erefore, the underlying
difference between Hegel’s state and that of modern societies, rest in the
metaphysical; the underlying belief that the state reflects a common thread of
morals. In comparing Hegel’s state then with modern state in many societies that
are comprised of varied degrees of polycentrism the idea of a common thread of
morals upon which Hegel’s ethical state and philosophy of rights is predicated can
be problematic.
Another distinguishing feature of Hegel state is that it assumes sovereignty of
nations. erefore, whereas by itself globalism, for example, does not depart from
Hegel’s views, any arrangement that diminishes the sovereignty of a nation departs
from Hegel’s philosophy of the state. Notwithstanding issues of sovereignty of
nations in today’s context, his dialectic presented an intellectual method whereby
he elaborated on contradictions in trying to provide understanding and reason in
how societies work. It is essential to reiterate that despite Hegel’s fundamental view
that the state is the only true source of moral guidance, he conceded that there are
interdependencies among institutions in society and that the state needs other states

in order to function. erefore, Hegel’s conception allows for interdependencies

among states. It also allows for various forms of institutional arrangements that
recognize the moral leadership and active involvement of the state in unison with
the market mechanism as put forth by neo-liberalism.
However, there is no prescription on the appropriate ratio of state versus private
sector involvement in housing as has been the case in modern approaches which
advocates for minimizing state intervention in housing production and allocation.
Additionally, there is no prescribed system or institutional arrangements to achieve
housing justice. erefore, under Hegel’s concession, how countries interpret the
goal of adequate housing for all and the role of the state as enabler or facilitator of
housing should ultimately be contextual and not one-sized-fits-all. It must be noted
however that Hegel’s philosophy posits that there is greater and ultimate
responsibility on the state.
Based on the fundamental ideas of dialecticism, the coexistence of housing
systems which emphasize moral ideals and liberalist means of achieving same
presents a sort of convenient conflict that is a motivating factor for change, even
in a metaphysical sense – thesis, anti-thesis, synthesis. Dialectical thinking demands
consideration of the interdependencies of the various parts of a society and its
housing system. Invariably, it demands the kind of reflective view of housing justice
that considers the thesis of the market driven housing system alongside the apparent
antithesis of implicit welfare-based human rights approach to housing. In addition
to this, even in an era of globalization and anti-statism, dialectical thinking allows
for countries to define for themselves their absolute rights or continuum of housing
rights, their indicators of such rights and for these to motivate the synthesis of their
respective housing systems in order to achieve housing justice. Further, it is a more
plausible approach when one considers the idea that the right to adequate housing
for all implies a spatialization of human rights which cannot be treated as
homogenous across societies.
Conclusion
In modern, pluralistic societies housing systems that are guided by purely liberalist
ideals has fallen short in delivering on the right to adequate housing for all.
Differing societies with varied historical backgrounds and socio-economic and
political contexts are likely to require more than a modified liberalism. at is, neo-
liberalism, which emphasises state intervention for marco-economic stability in
hope that spill-over benefits will occur or that standardized housing interventions
will take care of the un-propertied classes in society is not infallible.

In light of these realities, it is understandable, that given the characteristic feature

of pluralism in matters of housing, no universal principle or general consensus on
the philosophical conception of social justice in housing policy and practices is
advocated to deliver housing justice or to execute a human rights approach to
housing policies. According to Young (2011) there is no system of distribution that
will ensure justice therefore emphasis on distributive justice is fallible. e intuition
from this is that at least in some contexts it is the cultural norms, procedures,
processes and practices that must be addressed in order to avoid reproducing and
perpetuating housing injustice.
In other settings, it can be argued that justice in housing requires a modified
distributive mechanism. erefore, a dialectical approach which proposes an
appropriate synthesis of the strengths and weaknesses of the market and the state
in delivering adequate housing for all is necessary. In such a context, dialectical
thinking on housing allows for countries to develop its systems of property rights
whilst acknowledging the different bargaining positions of the propertied and non-
propertied classes in society in addressing their individual housing needs. It allows
for housing policy developers and practitioners to take account of their country’s
history, economic, social, cultural, environmental and political contexts in devising
a fair principle for allocating the housing benefits and burdens in society. To this
end, the work of earlier philosophers such as Hegel should prove relevant and
instructive in that it proposes to understand and perpetuate the underlying values
and morals of each society in devising a synthesis that works. is is a necessary
condition in determining a fair principle for distribution as was contemplated by
John Rawls, and the required processes, systems, structures, procedures, norms,
practices and rules of decision making that will promote housing justice as proposed
by the work of Iris Marion Young.
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Mining Medicines from Cannabis

in Jamaica
The Devil and the Details
ELLEN CAMPBELL GRIZZLE

College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica
RASHEED PERRY, MPHN STUDENT

College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica
Abstract
In April 2015, the Government of Jamaica amended the Dangerous Drugs Act that
ushered in the Medical Cannabis industry. is Act established a decrimalization
regime that places fines on possession of small amounts of Cannabis (ganja) and
allows each household to have five plants. Sacramental use is permitted. In May
2015, the Minister of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining issued two orders to
both the to the University of Technology, Jamaica and the University of the West
Indies. Mona. e University of Technology, Jamaica used the order for the purpose
of spurring research into the medical use of ganja so that the University , its
stakeholders and the country could chart ways to benefit from the growing global
Cannabis industry. is exploratory paper describes the process of adoption of this
new opportunity by the University of Technology, Jamaica. Analysis of the chemo-
typical findings of the first 189 cultivars grown by the University and its affiliates
are presented. ese samples were tested using the Steep Hill Quantacann 2 designed
to generate results within 5 minutes. Results reveal 87% of the chemovars were
classified as chemotype I. e highest THCA content was recorded at 24% with less
than 2% CBDA while the highest CBDA content recorded was 10.3% with less than
2% THC Chemotype 1 samples indicate high medicinal potential for neuropathic
pain management, opioid addiction treatment and post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD). Prospects of this new business to bring investment, wealth and technical
expertise to the University are shared. e paper presents promising results from the
first fledgling fruits of effort through international and national alliances despite
barriers and challenges.
Corresponding author: Ellen Grizzle, Ellen.Grizzle@utech.edu.jm

Keywords: Marijuana, Cannabis, Ganja, Cannabinoids, Psycho-activity, Medical

Cannabis, Jamaica, Chemovars, Chemotypes, Amendment to the Dangerous Drugs
Act,
Introduction
In April 2015, the Government of Jamaica amended the Dangerous Drugs Act
(DDA) to decriminalize the use of Cannabis and to permit the sacramental use of
the drug. is incremental move in Jamaican legislation represented, at that time,
the most permissive reform on Cannabis (Ganja) legislation passed by a Jamaican
government, short of legalizing the use of ganja in Jamaica. As a signatory to the
United Nation’s Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, Jamaica is bound to
the terms of that Convention. According to the Single Convention, Cannabis is
placed in Schedule 1 as a substance with no medicinal use. In 2015, Jamaica joined
countries like Canada, Uruguay, Israel, and several states in the United States that
have passed legislation to allow the use of Cannabis for medicinal purposes thus
testing the UN stance on the issue and nudging the global entity to reconsider its
position.
In keeping with the DDA (2015) amendment, Universities and other research
entities were granted special orders by the Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy
and Mining to engage in Cannabis cultivation, research and development for the
advancement of science and for medicinal purposes. is order permitted a narrow
scope of operations that provided an opportunity for the University of Technology,
Jamaica to engage in further research into the ganja plant and to work with
interested parties to identify new cultivars and chemovars, test, formulate products,
conduct clinical trials, and engage in other innovations. Such activities will push
the assertion that Cannabis has medical purposes.
However, this decision to foster research and development of Cannabis-based
medicines was not universally accepted. e United States of America held to its
position expressed in the Single Convention on Narcotics, 1961, that Cannabis
was Schedule 1, having no medicinal purpose. e opinions of Jamaicans toward
the new legislation is ambivalent. ere are those who are unhappy that Ganja was
not legalized while there are others who, for various reasons, believe that the
potential for medical use of Ganja is real. Others are concerned about academic
and behavioural problems that arise from the use of Ganja. (DeLaHaye. Jamaica
Gleaner, October 9, 2016). According to Anderson (2013), findings of a national
Knowledge, Attitude, Behavior and Practice (KABP) that he conducted revealed

Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica: The Devil and the Details
that 56 per cent of those interviewed saw good prospects for the use of ganja for
medicinal purposes, while 15 per cent were more interested in the economic gains
from expanded use. ere are still professionals who are skeptical about the long-
term impact of Cannabis use on the brains of young people and worry that
decriminalization signals societal approval for general use. Enforcing the restrictions
posed by decriminalization and diffusing existing skepticism are critical to reaping
the benefits that can be attained from a Medical Cannabis Industry in Jamaica.
However, there is a plethora of scientific papers attesting to the medicinal
potential of Cannabis e work of Raphael Mechoulam in the 1970’s identified
the endogenous Endocannabinoid System (ECS) and identified associated
neurotransmitters and mechanisms of action. is pioneering work established the
scientific basis on which Cannabis works in the body. More recently there are
randomized control studies that have investigated Cannabis for the treatment of
neuropathic pain (Andreae, 2015), headache disorders (Lochte, 2016) and diabetic
neuropathy (Wallace, 2015), among others. Work needs to be done on pain
associated with Sickle Cell Disease from which people of African descent suffer .
According to the Sickle Cell Foundation of Jamaica, 10% of the Jamaican
population carry the trait.
In the Jamaican context, Cannabis has been described as endemic (Rubin &
Comitas,1975). Its use is traced back to the arrival of the Indians in 1845. e first
clinical investigations in Jamaica began with the work of Professor Manley West in
the 1960s. Professor West along with Dr. Lockart developed and manufactured
Canasol drops (for glaucoma in the 1980s’) and Asmasol ( for Asthma in the
1990s). Dr. West used plants seized from police raids of illegal farms with special
permission from the Ministry of National Security to do his research and product
development. Criticism is made of this source for the raw material used in his
products and the challenges posed to standardization. However, these products
have been sold on the Jamaican market for over two decades.
Jamaica can boast a rich legacy of use, invention, innovation and cultural
familiarity that has earned the island’s Cannabis chemovars unparallel global
mystique. However, to enter the international Medical Cannabis industry, the basic
foundational science and technology have to be employed to deepen the
understanding of those factors that contribute to the unique Jamaican chemovars.
On this information, scientists will then layer the chemical, pharmacological and
pharmaceutical knowledge needed to generate new medicines with national and
global applicability and acceptability.
However, moving from basic research to Medical Cannabis will require major
investment in the University so that local scientists can be prepared through

training and credentialing to be involved in the clinical studies needed to provide

proof of safety and efficacy of new products. ere is also the need for external
investment to refurbish and build a new state of the art full service health research
facility for research and treatment. erefore, the University has to create a strategy
to get to the final goal through incremental advances. Persons with the training
and orientation to function in this globally competitive sector need to be identified
to attract such investments and partnerships. With the current situation, much can
be accomplished to build the reputation of the University as a resourceful performer
in the Medical Cannabis space. is paper represents the start of a process of
discovery with a grander scheme in mind.
Purpose
e purpose of this study is to characterize cannabis chemotypes in the Jamaican

landscape, identifying the major cannabinoids found and postulating prospects for
future development in the Medical Cannabis space.
Literature Review
Current research and technological advancement have allowed deeper investigation

into the Cannabis plant and greater understanding of its many and varied
chemovars. An important question that remains to be answered is which of the
many varieties of Cannabis should be made available for medicinal use. Unravelling
the many chemovars will go a far way in providing fundamental solutions to
standardization of Cannabis varieties for medicinal purposes
e Cannabis Plant is divided into three separate species: Cannabis sativa,
Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis. Cannabis sativa however represents the
largest and most diverse of the species and is often referred to as marijuana by
American farmers and as sativa by medical cannabis users (Hazekamp A, 2007).
In Jamaica, Cannabis of all varieties is referred to as ganja. Of the many constituents
of the cannabis plant, the trichomes (head cells of glandular hairs) secretions have
generated a lot of interest. ese trichomes are located all over both the male and
female plants but are concentrated particularly in the female inflorescence (Clarke
R.C and Watson D. P, 2007). e tips of the trichome stalks consists of solitary
resin glands which secrete an aromatic terpenoid resin that has a high cannabinoid
content that collects under the membrane of the secretory cells. e male plants
are of no significance to medicinal extract production as they develop very few

trichomes which lead to a low production of terpenes or cannabinoids (Clarke R.C

and Watson D. P, 2007). erefore, the buds of the female plants are ideal for the
obtaining of medical grade pure extracts that can now be ascertained and used in
the development of new drugs.
e cannabis plant contains components that are termed phytocannabinoids.
ese cannabinoids are known to have varying medicinal benefits including
analgesic, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties (Brenneisen R,
2011 and Weiss et al, 2005). ese biosynthesized cannabinoids exist has prenylated
aromatic carboxylic acids and as such in the fresh plant, no neutral cannabinoids
can be found. ese cannabinoids can however be converted to their neutral
homologues through the process of decarboxylation in the presence of heat or light
(Aizpurua-Olaizola et al, 2016). e most studied cannabinoids include
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Cannabidiol (CBD), Cannabigerol (CBG),
Tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), Cannabichromene (CBC), Cannabidivarin
(CBDV) and Cannabinol (CBN) (Russo E, 2011). As the basis of its medicinal
applications, the plant has been categorized based on its chemical components
namely THC and CBD which are the most studied of all the cannabinoids.
According to Aizpurua-Olaizola et al (2015), cannabis spp that are classified as
drug-type are classified based on the ratio of cannabinoids present; THCA: CBDA.
ose classified as chemotype I had a THCA: CBDA ratio >>1.0, chemotype II
0.5 – 2.0 and chemotype III <<1.0, chemotype IV are those plants which main
constituent is Cannabigerolic Acid (CBGA) and chemotype V which contains
almost no cannabinoids. e chemotyping of the plant was determined by the
presence of the two most dominant co-alleles, BD and BT, which are responsible
for the formation of the non-neutral forms of THC and CBD;
Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid (THCA) and Cannabidiolic Acid (CBDA).
erefore, plants which are classified as chemotype I consist of BT/BT alleles,
chemotype II has two different alleles, BD/BT and chemotype 3 consist of BD/BD
alleles. Chemotype IV on the other hand, consists of alleles referred to as B0 within
their loci and are thus not able to convert CBGA, which has led to its
predominance within this chemotype (Meijer et al, 2003)
e most abundant in the cannabis drug chemotypes and studied cannabinoid,
Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol is one of 60 phytocannabinoids within the cannabis
plant. It is produced in the plant by the co-dominant allele with CBD. However
due to effect in inducing psycho-activity, dependence and tolerance, its usefulness
has been limited (Zhornitsky S and Potvin S, 2012 and Ryan et al, 2009). It is
known that the phytocannabinoid bind to receptor sites which are activated by the
body’s own endogenous cannabinoids such as anadamide and 2-arachdonylglycerol.

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabidiol acts in a similar manner as a partial agonist at the

cannabinoid CB1 receptors which are found in the central nervous system and
cannabinoid CB2 receptors which are primarily found on cells of the immune
system. (Zhornitsky S and Potvin S, 2012).
Tetrahydrocannabinol, is considered psychoactive but does provide
pharmacological benefits such as analgesic, anti-emetic, appetite stimulant and
antispasmodic (Colbert M, 2014). According to Madras and Hospital ( 2015),
patients suffering from neuropathic pain caused by HIV-associated sensory
neuropathy who smoked cannabis containing 3.5% THC had reductions in the
intensity of pain felt when expressed on an experimental pain model. e data
revealed that 52% of the patients had greater than 30% reduction in pain when
compared to the placebo group which only saw a decrease of 24%.
e effects observed with patients smoking cannabis was comparable to that of
oral drugs used to treat chronic pain (Madras and Hospital, 2015). In another study
led by Wallace et al, 2015, a randomized, double blinded placebo-controlled
crossover study was conducted with 16 patients that suffered from painful diabetic
peripheral neuropathy. ey were assessed based on the short-term efficacy and
tolerability of inhaled cannabis. e results showed at concentrations of 1% and
4%, patients had modest reductions in spontaneous pain by 66.7% and 70.3%
respectively in comparison to the placebo which only reduced pain by 61.2%.
However, as the dosage increased to 7%, the efficacy of the treatment decreased
and side effects such as impaired cognition and euphoria predominated within the
patient population.
e next most prevalent phytocannabinoid in some chemotypes, CBD, has been
shown to exhibit versatility in its pharmacological effects in addition to modulating
the effects of THC induced adverse effects such as tachycardia, anxiety, hunger and
sedation in both rats and human subjects by antagonizing the CB1 receptors at
low nanometers. It also acts as an analgesic, has a more potent antioxidant effect
than that of ascorbic acid or tocopherol without inhibiting COX. It also agonizes
TRPV1 to capsaicin without noxious effects while reducing the uptake of
anandamide and its subsequent hydrolysis (Klein T, 2005). According to Comelli
et al, 2009, CBD shows promise in the treatment of diabetic induced neuropathy
and oxidative stress. e administration of a CBD extract in a rat model showed
great anti-hyperanalgesia, decreased allodynia, improved thermal perception, nerve
growth factor levels and decreased damage due to oxidation (Comelli et al, 2009).
e parent phytocannabinoid, CBG, has been shown to have a weak agonistic
effect on the CB1 and CB2 receptor sites. It normally exists as low concentration
intermediate in the fresh plant but through recent trends in plant breeding, species

have been expressed with primarily CBG in high concentrations. It has been shown
however to inhibit the proliferation of keratocytes which adds to its usefulness in
psoriasis treatment, it also strongly inhibits the uptake of anandamide (Russo et
al, 2010) and a powerful agent against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) infection (Appendino et al, 2008). In addition, research published by
Cascio et al, 2010 has shown that CBG is a moderate 5-HT1A antagonist which
signifies antidepressant properties.
For the purpose of Medicinal Cannabis, the decriminalization of the plant in
the Jamaican context has now allowed for open research into the plant material
and its cannabinoids. Research has been published in relation to the cannabinoids
previously mentioned, but little data exist on the chemotypes that exist in Jamaica.
e chemotype of Cannabis, shaped by its morphology and environmental factors,
can assist with standardization of plants and identification of their zone of
cultivation and differentiation in cultivation practices.
In recent times, plants which have been enhanced to produce predominately
alleles which produce more than 15% CBD and less than 1% THC, as CBD based
on its many medicinal indications and non-psychotic contraindications makes it a
suitable candidate for drug development (Aizpurua-Olaizola et al, 2016). A
therapeutic window for cannabis however has not been established and most
clinical trials use THC concentrations of 1–23 % (Madras and Hospital, 2015).
Currently, only one cannabis extract has been approved for use which contains
THC and CBD in a ratio of 1:1. is extract was licensed in 2011 for the treatment
of moderate to severe refractory spasticity in multiple sclerosis (Grotenhermen
and Müller-Vahl, 2012). G W Pharmaceuticals has received approval for the drug
Epidiolex, the first pure Cannabis plant derived product to the US FDA for
approval to treat resistant epilepsy in children. e Drug Enforcement Agency
(DEA) scheduling action is needed to complete the rescheduling. If Epidiolex is
rescheduled, the current position of the US regulators would change since such
change would support the position that Cannabis does have medicinal use.
Method
e selection of the female flowering plant is of first interest due to the high
concentrations of cannabinoids and terpenes. e dataset from samples of female
flowering plant material tested in the University of Technology, Jamaica laboratory
was used. ese samples were analyzed using the QuantaCann 2 analytical
instrument from Steep Hill Labs. e QuantaCann2™ cannabis analyzer uses
chemometric modeling of NIR spectroscopy and “training” data using wet

chemistry (HPLC) to estimate the content of cured cannabis flowers in percent by

weight content of four cannabinoids: THCA, D9-THC, CBDA, and CBD.
e QuantaCann 2 provides analysis of plants providing data on both pre-
decarboxylated and decarboxylated cannabinoid levels within the plant material;
THCA: CBDA and ∆-9-THC: CBD respectively.
Plant Material Tested
189 dried cannabis samples containing buds and leaves were submitted to the
University voluntarily for analysis. e samples were stored in a dark sealed
container and stored within a freezer. Findings from the testing of these samples
are used as a basis for this study. e dried plant samples were first ground within
the grinding apparatus before being placed in the sample cup to being analyzed by
the Quantacann 2.
e standard Chemotype Classification comparing THC levels to CBD levels
was used as follows:
• Chemotype I: Ratio less than 0.99
• Chemotype II: Ratio between 1 to 1.99
• Chemotype III: Ratio greater than 2
Results
A total of 189 plants were assayed and characterized within chemotypic

classifications. e data obtained from the pretesting of the dried plant samples
revealed an average THCA content of 10.9 % and CBDA of 9.6% (see Table 2).
Of the samples analyzed, one hundred and sixty-four (164) plants were found to
be chemotype I, ten (10) plants were chemotype 2 and fifteen (15) plants were
chemotype III (see Table 1). e highest THCA content was recorded at 24% with
less than 2% CBDA while the highest CBDA content recorded was 10.3% with
less than 2% THCA. In the post decarboxylated models it was observed as seen in
table 2 that the average THC content obtained was 9.6% and that of CBD was
2.3%.
Table 1: Occurrence of drug chemotypes within the dried cannabinoid samples

Chemotypes Amount
I 164
II 10
III 15
Total 189

Table 2: Highest, lowest and average cannabinoid percentages within the dried cannabinoid
samples.
THCA+THC CBDA+CBD Decarb THC Decarb CBD

Cannabinoids
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Sample A Highest
24 10.3 21.2 9.2
phytocannabinoid levels
Sample B Lowest
<2 <2 <2 <2
phytocannabinoid levels
Average 10.9 2.3 9.6 2.3
Figure1. Percentage Chemotypes in Samples Submitted.
Discussion
e majority of the samples submitted were identified as chemotype I indicating a

higher ratio of THCA, the neutral cannabinoid precursor for THC. e
decarboxylation process involves the use of light or elevated temperatures to cause
the loss of the carboxyl group from the THCA chemical compound releasing
carbon dioxide (Perrotin-Brune et al, 2011). In the post decarboxylated model, the
levels were also observed as being high. THC has been well documented for its
psycho-activity, however as seen in the literature, it has been used to treat
neuropathic pain related to HIV-associated neuropathy and opioid addiction

(Hurd, 2017). e side effects of high doses have also been observed when THC
concentrations are increased above seven (7%) percent. e average THC
concentration observed in this study was 9.6%.
e three Chemotypes observed in this data set were Chemotype 1. Chemotype
11 and 111. ese three (3) chemotypes are identified as present in the majority of
studies of this type. e Cannabis plant species either had pronounced levels of
THCA or pronounced levels of CBDA. At no point were the cannabinoid levels
similar in percentage concentration. With the preponderance of THC dominated
samples, it can be stated that, genetically, plants in Jamaica at this time are wired
to produce more THCA than CBDA.
ese findings regarding the levels of THCA could feed into the lingering
concern in Jamaica about the negative effect of ganja on the brains of young people
. Further, there is concern about the ease of access reported by 40% the students in
the 2013 National Secondary School Survey. With the capacity of the Cannabis
industry to engineer species with higher levels of THC or CBD, in the case of the
former variant, there is cause for concern e vexing question is whether this new
Medical Cannabis regime will lead to increased Cannabis use by Jamaican youth
in the future. However, an important response is close and frequent monitoring
through testing of cultivation and processing.
e evidence that links increased exposure to Cannabis and increased youth use
is not dispositive. However, overall evidence from epidemiologic studies suggests
that cannabis use can increase the risk of psychotic disorders.( Gage & Hickman,
2016). Further studies are required to determine the magnitude of this effect, to
determine the effect of different chemotypes of cannabis on risk, ere is the need
to identify and to identify high-risk groups particularly susceptible to the effects
of cannabis on psychosis. Another study found that in youth or young adults with
clinical high risk (CHR) for psychosis, age at onset of cannabis use is significantly
and positively correlated with IQ in CHR only. Results suggest that age at onset
of cannabis may be a more important factor for IQ than use current use or use
frequency in CHR (Buchy & Seidman,2015), Several studies show causation
between cannabis use and psychotic effects in the youth population providing
evidence of prevention of youth use as a sensible public health message. Conversely,
Cannabis is now used to treat opioid abusers (Hurd, 2017). More research is needed
into the differentiation of chemotypes, the other active ingredients contributing
to the entourage effect that mitigate or heighten the medicinal effects.
It is important to note that the current focus of the Medical Cannabis industry
is higher levels of the non-THC cannabinols. ese cultivars are defined by
Jamaican law as containing 1% or less THC. erefore, while there is emerging

evidence that THC does contain medical properties to treat PTSD, in the main, a
Medical Cannabis business should be built with a CBD focus while research
continues on the safe use of THC dominant Cannabis as a medicine.
In a Medical Cannabis enterprise, the devil is in the details. Innovations from
Medical Cannabis has the potential to generate earnings for an inventive University.
ese findings support the view that there is potential for a Medical Cannabis
industry in Jamaica that will benefit the world. e size of a Jamaican market is
not yet estimated. However, Forbes magazine of January 3,2017 estimated at US
$6.7 billion global business increasing to US$20.20 billion in 2021` with a 25%
annual rate of increase. According to Forbes, big pharmaceutical companies are
not investing in the Medical Cannabis opportunities because of perceived “risk and
uncertainty.” e new 2015 Amendment to the Dangerous Drugs Act in Jamaica
did bring interested national and international parties to the University of
Technology, Jamaica with offers of partnership and affiliation. ese prospective
investors are interested in cultivation, product development, testing partnerships
and product registration . Four have formalized their affiliation with the University.
Many are attracted by the reach of Brand Jamaica in the ganja sphere and the
reputation of the University of Technology, Jamaica for working through the knotty
issues relevant to the emerging Cannabis business. ere is tension between the
broader remit of Universities to engage in research and innovation, legal caution
and perceived negative perceptions. In many settings, Jamaica is also hamstrung
by perceived “risk and uncertainty” that has negatively affected the global industry
and many Nation states.
Limitations
• is study did not measure the level of terpenes contained in the samples. Ter-
penes are known to contribute to the entourage effect that moderate the actions
of cannabinoids.
• Although the samples were collected island wide, not all locations were docu-
mented
• While the samples were stored appropriately, small quantities of THC and
CBD may have been lost over time
• e Quantacann11 does not measure CBG. Chemotype IV was not assessed.

Recommendations
• Do frequent testing should be used to assist in identifying chemotypes and en-

suring standardization and safety
• More clinical trials into the use of Cannabis to treat addictive illnesses
• Develop aggressive public education for all levels of the Jamaican population
• Strengthen programmes to reduce recreational youth use in Jamaica.
• Give full Government support though investment and legislation to fuel Uni-
versity research into Medical Cannabis
• Provide University funding for access to international training and credential-
ing to ensure that clinical trials conducted in Jamaica will have global reciproc-
ity and acceptability
Conclusion
In the Jamaican context, the cannabis samples analyzed contained predominantly

the cannabinoids THC and CBD. Jamaican strains were classified as primarily
chemotype 1 in this study. From a drug development standpoint, the health
prospects and business opportunities from nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, galenicals
and pharmaceuticals are promising. A few of the areas for medicinal application
for products are pain management, increasing appetite especially for those whom
may be facing aversion to food. or person suffering from HIV-related wasting,
opioid addiction reduction and PTSD. Important work needs to be done in the
area of treating the pain of Sickle Cell anaemia.
ere is no substitute for frequent and effective testing of Cannabis plants from
seed to sale.
ese preliminary findings provide a window through which to project the
potential for discovery and other opportunities for the Medical Cannabis industry
in Jamaica. More research is needed. Broader legislative scope is warranted to widen
the gains from University involvement supported by tax incentives for investors in
Universities and research grants.
Despite challenges, in the current situation, more can be done to move the
fledgling industry forward through the engagement in basic medical research,
training of health scientists and popularizing of the scientific evidence supporting
the medical value of Cannabis to tertiary institutions and nations. is paper is
one such incipient effort.

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Retrieved from website: file:///C:/Users/rasheed.perry/Downloads/pharmaceuticals-05-
00529-v2.pdf

Faculty Use of Electronic Resources

(E-resources) at the University of
Technology, Jamaica
HEATHER THOMPSON
KERRY-ANN RODNEY WELLINGTON
JANET JAMES
Abstract
Advancements in technology have resulted in academic libraries making a shift from

heavy reliance on print content to e-resources. However, there is evidence to suggest
that although these resources contribute positively to academics and research, their
adoption and usage need improvement. e purpose of this paper is to explore faculty
use of e-resources provided by the Calvin McKain Library, University of Technology,
Jamaica (UTech, Ja). An online questionnaire was sent to faculty from specific
colleges/faculties. e instrument was designed to gather data on their awareness,
frequency of use, and the hindrances encountered when accessing e-resources. e
results showed that faculty members where aware of the Library’s e-resources and
some actually used them. However, a large percentage indicated that using e-resources
was too time consuming and they lacked competency on their usage. It was also
revealed that the most effective method of creating awareness was through interaction
with a Librarian. is paper is the first attempt to assess faculty use of e-resources at
the UTech, Ja. and is therefore significant for Library administrators to inform
decisions regarding e-resources.
Keywords: Electronic resources, faculty, academic libraries, University of Technology
Corresponding author: Heather ompson, hethompson@utech.edu.jm

Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources) at the UTech, Jamaica
Introduction
e explosion of e-resources has significantly changed the face of academia, research

and publication. E-resources “refers to those materials that require computer access”
(IFLA, 2012) whether locally or via the internet. As a result, libraries have made
major investments in providing access to the wealth of authoritative content now
available in electronic formats. is paper aims to assess faculty awareness and usage
of the e-resources provide by the Calvin McKain Library. It also seeks to identify
the causes of non-usage and make recommendations for improvement.
As the UTech, Ja. embraces a research thrust, articulated by its President, Pro.
Stephen Vasciannie (University of Technology, Jamaica: Annual report 2016–
2017), it is critical that faculty is cognizant of, as well as competent in the
navigation of the current, and rich content provided by the Library.
Technological innovations and advancement have had a tremendous impact on
what is described as the library’s’ collection. Kumar (2012, p.90) opined that “the
society is moving in different directions and fascinated by developments through
accessing information from varied sources”. ese changes have consequently
imposed greater demand on libraries. erefore this research paper focused on the
following research question: An investigation into selected UTech, Ja. faculty use
of the e-resources at the Calvin McKain Library. As a result the research aimed to
achieve the following objectives:
• To ascertain faculty awareness of Library electronic resources
• To assess the purpose for which Library electronic resources are used by
faculty
• To determine the frequency of faculty use of Library electronic resources
• To identify the problems encountered by faculty in using Library electronic
resources.
Significance
e Calvin McKain Library like many other academic libraries has invested heavily
in the acquisition of varied e-resources to support the university community. ey
have meticulously ensured that each programme/faculty/ college is represented
when procuring content for client access. However, the usage statistics for some of
these costly resources show meagre figures; therefore making it difficult to justify
the expenditure. Research has shown that if libraries partner with faculty in
promoting the use of e-resources, the result will be increased usage among both

faculty and students in addition to a positive effect on academic output standards

(Harris, 2013; Sohail & Ahmad, 2017).
is study is therefore significant as it seeks to determine faculty awareness and
use, the frequency of use as well as the challenges or barriers to using e-resources
at the Calvin McKain Library, UTech, Ja. Additionally, the information garnered
from this study can be used in planning marketing initiatives as well improving
the quality of the library’s e-resources services.
Theoretical Framework
e objective of this research is to examine the use and usefulness of the e-resources
at the Calvin McKain Library to the academics it serves. e Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM) theory (Davis, 1989) was selected because of its relevance
to the research.
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Source: Davis, et al. (1989)
TAM was designed by Davis to describe the reasons people use or refrain from
using a technological innovation. is model consists of two variable perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use which will dictate ones attitude towards the
use of the innovation.
• Perceived usefulness (PU) – according to Davis (989) PU is defined as “the
degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance
his or her job performance” (p.320)
• Perceived ease of use (PEOU) – is defined as “the degree to which a person
believes that using a particular system would be free from effort” (p. 320). e
quotation contains an error.
Davis’ TAM has been replicated by several researchers in an attempt to provide
evidence on the correlation between usefulness, ease of use and system’s use (Adams,
Nelson & Todd, 1992; Hendrickson, Massey & Cronan, 1993; Szajina, 1994).

Limitations and Delimitations
e primary goal of this study was to investigate the e-resources used by faculty at
the Calvin McKain Library, Utech, Ja., thus gaining more knowledge about usage
patterns and usefulness of the resources. However, caution must be taken when
making generalizations based on the findings of the research, as limitations and
delimitations are applicable.
e following limitations were noted: (a) participants responses were self
reported thus it must be assumed that they gave honest answers; (b) the
questionnaire did not provide the participants with the means to give short answers
to qualify answers given; (c) years of services, faculty and research agenda may lead
to different responses from each faculty.
e researchers imposed the following delimitations: (a) the data collected using
one survey instrument, thus progression of e-resource use was not included; (b)
the only variables studied were the awareness, the frequency, hindrances and
usefulness of the e-resources to the faculty (c) only four of the eight colleges/
faculties of the University were surveyed – College of Business and Management
(COBAM), College of Health Sciences (COHS), Faculty of Engineering and
Computing (FENC) and Faculty of Sports and Science (FOSS). is is because
they are among the colleges/faculties with the highest academic staff complements
and research outputs.
Literature Review
e procurement of e-resources for faculty and students use requires a large

financial investment for the UTech, Ja. through the Library and can greatly assist
users in their research efforts. Sohail and Ahmad (2017) stated that the provision
of e-resources is a fundamental and critical aspect of the contemporary library in
order to meet the diverse information needs of users. It is perceived that if faculty
embrace the use of e-resources, they will place emphasis on students to utilize same,
resulting in a higher standard of academic output.
Awareness and Use
e level of awareness in addition to the technical knowledge of how the resources

are accessed is crucial to promoting the use of e-resources. Studies have indicated
that faculty awareness and use vary by discipline, age and perceived value. Sohail

and Ahmad (2017) from their research at Fiji National University, reported a high
level of awareness and therefore use among faculty ranging from 76 to 94 %
depending on the type of e-resources. Yebowaah and Plockey (2017) suggested
based on their research at the University of Development Studies in Ghana; in cases
were awareness was a 100%, usage was similarly high which is in agreement with
Sohail and Ahmad (2017). Simisaye (2012) whose study was conducted at a
Nigerian university, while in agreement with Sohail and Ahmad (2017) and
Yeowaah and Plockey (2017) that awareness influences usage, also added the
contrast, stating that this was not always the case, as some faculty are aware of e-
resources but do not utilize them because of lack of expertise in navigating the
library’s e-resources among other factors.
Reddy (2014) and Adegbore (2011) also found that a large percentage of faculty
were aware of library e-resources and used them. However, Adegbore (2011)
reported the findings of a JSTOR survey which stated that faculty from the
discipline of social sciences, humanities and economics were the most frequent
users of e-resources. Korboli, Tilikidou and Delistavrou’s (2006) earlier research
while stating that discipline is a factor in determining faculty use of e-resources,
also posited that age also influenced usage and younger faculty members consulted
e-resources more than their older colleagues. It was further stated that while e-
resources was relatively high among faculty, a small percentage still preferred print
regardless of age.
e perceived value of the library’s e-resources also affects awareness and use. It
was highlighted in Adegbore’s study that 60% of faculty at that institution perceived
electronic databases to be vital to their research and a slightly larger percentage
envisioned that their dependence on e-resources in general would continue to
increase (Adegbore, 2011). It is however, important to note that library resources
are constantly competing with Google, Facebook, Youtube among others, hence if
faculty do not view e-resources as rich, relevant and invaluable to both instruction
and research, there will be little or no usage. Consequently, they may find other
sources and refrain from sharing these e-resources with colleagues and students
(Yebowaah & Plockey, 2017).
Frequency and Purpose of Use
As e-resources are very expensive to acquire, the frequency with which they are
consulted is of utmost importance to academic libraries and may vary from one
institution to another. Simisaye’s (2012) study revealed the following regarding
frequency of faculty e-resource use for both e-journals and online databases: 31.5%

– always, 13% – weekly, 10.2% fortnightly, 28.7% – once per month, 6.5%
occasionally and 10.2% – not at all. Sohail and Ahmad (2017) results differed
somewhat as their daily usage was 22%, monthly was 26% and there were no figures
indicating non-usage. However, similarities existed in the weekly frequency of use.
Reddy (2014) and Sohail and Ahma (2017) both reported similar frequency relating
to usage a “couple of times per week” with 18 and 21% respectively. e major
difference between Reddy (2014) and the other two (2) studies was a much lower
daily frequency usage and a much higher monthly usage of 60%.
ere are diverse reasons for faculty use of electronic resources; these include
research instruction, personal development, etc. A study conducted by Harris
(2013) on e-resources usage at the University of the West Indies, Mona found that
these resources were largely used for professional research. e reason provided for
this is that the scholarly nature of the content and its pertinence to research goals
were major factors for use. Similar to Harris (2013), Yebowaah and Plockey (2017)
also asserted that the primary reason for faculty use of e-resources was research.
Adegbore (2011) concurred with Yebowaah and Plockey (2017) and Harris (2013)
but added teaching as another main reason for consulting e-resources. Sohail and
Ahmad (2017) provided a more detailed exploration of usage reasons including,
keeping abreast re particular subjects -52%, study purposes – 88%, book and article
publishing – 86% and getting current information – 66%. However, the largest
percentages where for research – 92% and sourcing content in specialist areas –
94%. It is therefore evident that faculty’s primary reason for using e-resources is
research followed by teaching and instruction.
Problems Encountered by Faculty in Using Library Electronic

Resources
While the literature underscores the increasing important role of e-resources in

academic libraries, Sohail and Ahmad (2017) opined that the benefits of e-resources
can only be reaped when a supporting and enabling environment is created for
users. is is the availability of up to date equipment and appropriate information
technology infrastructure that will allow users to access the resources in a timely
manner with little frustration and so efficiently exploit e-resources.
Ahmed and Amjad (2014) in their survey of 140 faculty and students in
Pakistan, highlighted issues such as; discomfort with online reading, slow
downloading, information overload and lack of proper search techniques as
hindrances in accessing e-resources. In spite of these issues Ahmed and Amjad
(2014) reported that the use of electronic resources among researchers surveyed

was very common and that they were largely reliant on e-resources for their research
work.
Harris (2013) highlighted that the factors that discourage or hindered use can
be listed under three headings namely – library, patron and information source
related. e most significant of which is patron related where they sited that the
content can be found elsewhere, they are unfamiliar with the resource and the lack
the necessary ability to navigate the e-resources.
Zuberi (2010) in their survey of seventy (70) Faculty of Arts professors and
lecturers posited that that majority of faculty surveyed, were equipped with
adequate computer skills which should facilitate the use of e-resources. However,
their findings revealed that a lack of adequate information technology
infrastructure, coupled with a lack of knowledge of available e-resources were issues
experienced by academics in using e-resources.
Research Methodology
is study explores faculty use of electronic resources provided through the Calvin
McKain Library. e research used a quantitative approach, using a survey design.
is was accomplished using a descriptive rating Likert-type questionnaire designed
by the researchers which was used to collect the data from each faculty member.
is design allowed for the statistical analysis of data. e population for the study
was 345 faculty members. e random sampling (Babbie, 2013) technique was
used to select the 182 participants for the survey. Purposive (Teddlie & Yu, 2007)
sampling was used to select the faculties to be examined as only four (4) of the
eight (8) faculties/colleges of the University of Technology, Jamaica – College of
Business and Management (COBAM), College of Health Sciences (COHS),
Faculty of Engineering and Computing (FENC) and Faculty of Sports and Science
(FOSS) – were selected. e questionnaire was distributed based on each
faculty/college’s representative size. erefore, 33% of the questionnaires were sent
to COBAM, 20% to COHS, 25% to FENC, and 22% to FOSS. All participants
were anonymous and were informed of the purpose of the research and were given
the option not to participate in the study.
Analysis
is section presents the statistical analysis of the data obtained from the
questionnaire. e data is presented in graphs and charts that can easily be

Table 1: Method of awareness of the Library’s e-resources
Faculty Response Percentage

Librarian 44%
Colleague 26%
Lecturer 10%
Library Brochures 10%
Library Catalogue 8%
Other 2%
Note. Participants could choice more than one response
understood. is section will present findings that pertain to the method of
awareness of e-resources; types of e-resource used; purpose for usage; frequency of
use; access points and hindrances to use.
Table 1 shows how the members of faculty were made aware of the e-resources
in the library. It indicates that a 62% of the participants seemed to have been
informed as a result of the library’s efforts (44% librarian, 10% library brochures,
and 8% library catalogue). is is so as there is a librarian on each faculty board of
the University as well as the curriculum and quality assurance committee. e
library actively participates in faculty orientation programmes as well as faculty
workshops. During these events the e-resources are always highlighted. In addition,
the library ensures that brochures for each e-resource are readily available to the
faculty. e library enjoys the use of an online public access catalogue (OPAC)
which is accessible anywhere and anytime. e demonstrations at the orientations
and the workshops have provided lectures with the necessary information and skills
to perceive that the e-resources are easy to use as well as useful (Davis, 1989).
irty-six percent (36%) of the participants indicated that they were made aware
by other faculty members. is can lead back to the work of the library. In addition,
this result supports the findings of Yebowaah & Plockey’s research (2017) where
faculty share information about e-resources to their colleagues. is awareness of
the e-resources by the faculty is a positive indicator that they will use them (Sohail
& Ahmad, 2017; Simisaye, 2012).
Table 2 shows the type of e-resources that are used. Of note is the use of online
videos only 5% indicated that they used them. is is because the online videos
that the library has as part of its collection have to do with medical images. ese
are used only by the College of Health Science which constitute only 20% of the
participants selected for the research, and not everyone in this group of participant

Table 2: Types of e-resources being used by academics

E-journals 67.5%
Ebooks 45%
Newspapers 12.5%
Online Videos 5%
Other 15%
is expected to use these resources. e most popular e-resource seemed to be e-

journals (67%) as everyone from all faculties would be expected to use the e-journals
when gathering information for various reasons. e perceived usefulness of the e-
resources will also contribute to the use of the different types of resources (Davis,
1989)
Table 3 shows the major purpose for using the e-resources as indicated by the
participants is for research (67.5%). is seemed to support the findings of the
study done by Adegbore (2011), Harris (2013) and Sohail & Ahma (2017) that
stated that faculty at higher educational institutions perceived e-resources as being
vital to their research. As part of the mandate for faculty they must do research and
publish, thus the responses reflect the university’s mantra. What is the university’s
mantra? e use of the e-resources for instruction and improving subject knowledge
follows at 60% and 47.5% respectively. From these indications it appeared that the
participants valued their ability to teach with a deep understanding of their content
area.
Table 3: Purpose for using Library e-resources
Research 67.5%
Subject Knowledge 47.5%
Instructional 60%
Other 2.5%

Table 4: Frequency of use of the Library e-resources
Often 55%
Seldom 32.5%
Never 5%
Other 2.5%
Table 4 highlights the frequency of the use of e-resources by the participants of

the research. Only 55% indicated that they use the e-resources often. is seemed
to be as a result of the ability of the participants to access them anywhere and at
any time. Davis’ (1989) TAM perceived ease of use and usefulness of the e-resources
can be used to substantiate these claims. If it is perceived that the e-resources are
easy to use and useful to the work that persons are doing it is highly likely that
they will have a good attitude towards the technology and by extension will use
the resources. e results presented seem to be substantiated by Simisaye’s (2012)
study regarding frequency of use by faculty.
e participants seemed to use the e-resources mostly off-campus (home – 55%).
(Table 5). is is as a result of the e-resources being accessible from anywhere and
at any time to anyone with the necessary authentication and authorization. While
on-campus however, it appeared that the participants chose to use the e-resources
while in the library, this maybe as a result of ready access to library staff that has
knowledge of the different e-resources. is availability of assistance may factor in
the participants perception of ease of use (Davis 1989), as the presence and
assistance of the librarians and library staff usually helps with that perception.
Table 5: Access points when using Library e-resources
Library 30%
Home 55%
Faculty Lab 17.5%
Other 35%

Table 6: Hindrances to the use of the e-resources
Irrelevant Results 7.5%
Computer Access 12.5%
Detracts from regular duties 5%
Lack of Competence 37.5%
Time consuming 55%
Information overload 5%
Table 6 indicates the participants’ responses to the question regarding the

hindrances to their use of the e-resources. A majority cited that it was time
consuming (55%) to use. is appears that the participants believed that the degree
of ease of use was not high (Davis, 1989), as the information they seek is not a
simple click away. Of note is that many of the participants felt that they did not
have the necessary competences to use the e-resources (37.5%). is seemed to
support the findings of Harris (2013); and Yeowaah and Plockey (2017) who also
found that competence in the use of e-resources proved to be a hindrance to the
use of said resources. e competency factor can be linked to that fact that some
persons never used the e-resources and some persons found out about them through
colleagues who may not have taken the time to demonstrate how to access the e-
resources. In addition, many indicated that they used the e-resources off-campus
without the benefit of library support. If users PU and PEOU are in conflict with
the innovation then their attitudes towards the same will be negative and by
extension they will not use the resources (Davis, 1989).
Conclusion
In an environment where new knowledge is being published daily, the Calvin

McKain Library and by extension the University of Technology, Jamaica makes a
tremendous effort yearly to make this information available to its faculties. e
research findings indicates that the faculties surveyed (COBAM, FENC, COHS,
and FOSS) were well aware of the e-resources available at the library. is awareness
came largely in part from the work of the library through librarian interactions

with staff, brochures and its OPAC. e findings indicated that these resources are
also being used by the faculty members in particular the e-journals and e-books.
ese resources are frequently used for research, instruction and to enhance their
subject knowledge. While the usefulness of the e-resources is evident to the
participants, they also indicated that there are some hindrances to its use. e major
hindrance indicated was that it was time consuming to use and that they lacked
the necessary competencies to use the e-resources effectively and efficiently.
Nonetheless they still used the e-resources in order to fulfill the purposes of research,
instruction and content development within the institution.
Recommendations
Collaboration
In order to reduce the issue of e-resource usage being too time consuming, the
Library should partner with electronic content providers, the local Information
Systems (IS) department and the supplier of its Integrated Library System (Sirsi).
is collaboration will identify solutions that can simplify the search process for
faculty, which should result in increased usage.
Intensifying training for faculty
While training initiatives are currently in effect. It is evident from the research that
much more needs to be done if faculty usage is to increase. is could be achieved
through continuously inviting faculty to both group and individual sessions and
identifying particular resources that apply to their specialized area of interest as
opposed to just generally.
Establishing Linkages with Deans and Programme Directors
Research has proven that library/faculty partnership yield results. erefore, if

librarians establish linkages with deans and other senior faculty members, they
could make presentations at various research seminars, workshops and other such
events that would grant an audience with faculty.
Further Research
is paper did not address user satisfaction; hence further studies could be carried
out to determine faculty satisfaction levels and could also include students’
perceptions and usage of the Library’s e-resources.

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Impact of Workplace Conflicts on

Employees’ Productivity
DAHOMA SOUTH
SONIA RICHARDS-MALCOLM
Abstract
e study investigated the impact of workplace conflict on employees’ productivity

among academic, non-academic and technical employees at two local universities.
Participants comprised of 42 females and 9 males through the use of quota and
convenient sampling techniques. Data were generated through the use of validated
structured self-administered questionnaire. Descriptive and Inferential statistics were
employed to analyse data collected from the participants. Employing Spearman
correlation, Pearson correlation and Crosstabulation Chi-square Test analyses, the
result of empirical tests showed a significantly negative relationship between
personality clashes, styles of leadership, different work ethics, poor communication
skills and lack of communication skills. A significantly negative relationship between
how often work place conflict occurs and the involvement of staff in the conflict, age
group and category of workers, length of service, department and shift system was
evident resulting in dislocation and divergence among staff members within the
respective department leading to an increase of inefficiency and ineffectiveness with
reduction in productivity and job performance. ere was no correlation between
workplace conflict and training in conflict and or dispute resolution and/ or
mediation. Majority of the participants indicated that all employees should be trained
in resolving conflicts, understanding the organizational culture and structure thus
allowing employees to resolve their differences and be held accountable for the use of
conflict-resolution-competency based performance appraisal. e study concluded
that conflict was an unavoidable occurrence in the workplace, and training to
manage such conflict should form a part of the core competency skills making
management duty bound to resolve conflict properly thereby contributing to increase
organizational performance thus resulting in good communication and cooperation,
time management and increase employees’ productivity.
Corresponding author: Sonia Richards-Malcolm: sarichards@utech.edu.jm

Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity
Key words: conflict, employee, productivity, dispute resolution, organizational culture
Introduction
According to Meshane & Gilnow (2008), conflicts are an everyday phenomenon

which occurs in each organization and is deemed inevitable. Workplace conflicts
are common despite the best of management practices in organizations to avoid
them and come in various forms as an unavoidable feature of employment
relationships. Conflict is a state of disagreement over work related issues or
emotional animosity and may arise due to anger, mistrust or personality clashes
(Azamosa, 2004). Conflict is a struggle or contest between people with opposing
needs, ideas, beliefs, values or goals (Diez et al, 2006). According to Kazimoto
(2013), workplace conflict is described as the presence of discord that occurs when
goals, interests or values of different individuals or groups are incompatible and
frustrate each other’s attempt to achieve objectives in an organization. Conflicts
will always occur as long as people compete for jobs, resources, power, recognition
and security.
An educational institution was defined as an entity that provides institutional
services to individuals or education-related services to individuals and other
educational institutions. Whether or not an entity qualifies as an educational
institution is not contingent upon which public authority (if any) has responsibility
for it. For example, tertiary institutions are classified as educational institutions
regardless of which ministry or other authority may have ultimate responsibility
for them (UNESCO, OECD, Eurostat, 2001).
is study was an attempt to identify the situation of workplace conflict, by
providing valuable insights to management in the education institution about the
strategic importance of conflict management as a resource tool for optimizing
employee productivity.
Statement of the Problem
is research sought to ascertain the impact that workplace conflicts have on
productivity in educational institutions. e idea for conducting this research
stemmed from the researcher’s observation of workplace conflicts effect on
employees’ working relationship which eventually impacts productivity. A group
of co-workers were seen having a conflicting argument about job functions, which

led to some persons not speaking to each other for a period of time. is eventually
led to a breakdown of cooperation and team work. is impacted project deadlines
and overall performance in the organization. Based on the definition of workplace
conflict, “workplace conflict is described as the presence of discord that occurs
when goals, interests or values of different individuals or groups are incompatible
and frustrate each other’s attempt to achieve objectives in an organization”
(Kazimoto 2013), the thought of why conflict occurs within an educational
institution sparked the researcher’s curiosity.
Purpose of the Study
e study sought to identify the impact that workplace conflicts have on

productivity in an educational institution. erefore, recommendations suggested
that the issue may be culminated with corrective redresses. is research included
information about possible sources of conflicts and the conflict resolution
techniques applied.
Research Objectives
e following objectives were used to guide the research to:

1. Examine the factors/causes responsible for workplace conflicts in an educa-
tional institution.
2. Determine to what extent does workplace conflicts affect employees in an
educational institution
3. Identify ways of resolving office conflicts in an educational institution
4. Ascertain what percentage of employees are affected by workplace conflicts
Research Questions
is research was based on the following questions:

1. What are the factors that are responsible for workplace conflicts in an educa-
tional institution?
2. Do workplace conflicts have a significant impact on the productivity of an
educational institution?
3. What are the ways of resolving workplace conflicts in an educational institu-
tion?

4. What are the effects of workplace conflicts in an educational institution?
Hypothesis
ere is a corresponding relationship between workplace conflict and the impact

it as on productivity in the organization.
Theoretical Framework
Robbins and Judge (2015) made a strong case for the need for a more realistic
approach to conflict by using an “Interactionist Approach”. e authors stated that
there are three basic managerial attitudes towards conflict which identify traditional
behavioural and interactionist. e traditionalist, following social teaching believes
that all conflicts are destructive and management’s role is to get them out of the
organization. e traditionalist, therefore, believes that conflict should be
eliminated. e behaviouralist on the other hand, seeks to rationalize the existence
of conflict and accurately perceives conflict as inevitable in complex organizations
or relationships. us the behaviouralist “accepts” it. e interactionist views
conflict as absolutely necessary, encourages opposition, defines management of
conflict to include stimulations as well as resolution and considers the management
of conflict as a major responsibility of all administrators. e interactionalist view
is accepted and encourages conflict. Avoiding a disagreement does not mean that
it will go away.
Employees need to be made aware of conflict and decisions made about what is
going to be done about it. Conflicts only become negative when it is not
approached and resolved. Lack of communication amongst employees can lead to
avoidance of conflict. When that happens, the organization can lose its
effectiveness. Management needs to be able to resolve conflict successfully similar
to other leadership skills, conflict management can be learnt.
Research Design
A cross sectional research design was used to conduct this study with the use of
quantitative data to finalize the research. A cross sectional research design was used
to examine one variable in different groups that are similar in all other
characteristics, such as socioeconomic status, educational background and ethnicity
(Roundy, 2014). A cross-sectional research is based on observations that take place

in different groups at a time. is means there is no experimental procedure, so no

variables are manipulated by the researcher. Instead of conducting an experiment,
the information observed in the groups will be recorded.
e quantitative data emphasized objective measurements and the statistical,
mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires,
and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational
techniques. e quantitative research focused on gathering numerical data and
generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a phenomenon (Babbie, 2010).
Data Collection Method
e methodological principles used in this research were based on the descriptive

research method. Non-random sampling techniques were used because of practical
considerations. As a result, quota sampling and convenient sampling was selected
to carry out the sampling. Quota sampling was used to identify the fifty-one (51)
participants to take part in the study. In addition, convenient sampling was used
to locate the participants to complete the quota. Convenient sampling was
considered because the participants were readily available and could be readily
recruited for inclusion into the sample.
e descriptive method was chosen as a result of its ability to provide
quantitative data, which is in the form of questionnaires. e questionnaires were
structured to capture core data needed to fulfill criteria for research. (See Appendix
A). It was geared towards employees who were presently engaged in a conflict
situation and employees who have been affected by conflict situations. e data
gathered from these questions should be able to enlighten readers as to the impact
that conflict as caused on employees’ productivity.
e questionnaire was used to collect data from fifty-one (51) employees within
the third and fourth week of June 2017. is method of data collection allowed
the researcher to obtain the opinions and perceptions of a wide cross section in a
short space of time. It also ensured anonymity of the respondents’ answers. e
data was analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) with the
use of mean, mode and p-value.
e secondary source, was taken from the works and writing of previous authors,
which constituted the greater portion of the data, providing the intellectual
foundation of the research.

Procedures
Data was collected through both primary and secondary sources. e primary
source instrument was a structured questionnaire which was used to collect data
via self-administration over a three (3) days period. e researcher explained the
purpose of the study orally before the questionnaires were distributed. By doing
this, the participants were in a better position to understand their role in the study,
as well as the reason why it is important for them to take part in the study. e
researcher believes that this increased the response rate of the questionnaires.
Data Analysis
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to analyze
the data. SPSS is an integrated collection of quantitative analysis software package.
Calculating and analyzing of the responses was done using bar graphs and pie charts
for comparisons and contrasts to ascertain the relationship between the variables
and the percentage value of each response.
Two (2) additional days was used to number and organize the instruments to
ensure that all fifty-one (51) questionnaires were returned. After which, the entry
of the data begun which lasted for over a four-day period, subsequent to which the
analysis of the data was commenced. e analysis and representation of the findings
were done over a ten-day period.
Reliability
e Pearson Correlation was used to measure the consistency of the test, which
reveals that workplace conflict does in fact have an impact on productivity in the
organization. is information was proven when the results of the findings showed
that majority of the participants, 43 (84.3%) indicated that workplace conflict affect
employees in an educational institution negatively, while 5 (9.8%) indicated that
workplace conflict affect them both negatively and positively.
Validity
To ensure the validity of this research, questionnaires were distributed to fifteen

(15) employees at the University of Technology, Jamaica (Kingston campus) for
pilot testing. e participants were asked to read and respond to the items in the

questionnaire and based on their feedback; items in the questionnaire were revised
before using it in the main study.
Ethical Consideration
Research ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Technology, Jamaica
and the International University of the Caribbean after submission of a permission
letter to these institutions (see Appendix C and D).
A cover letter explaining the purpose of the research was sent to each participant,
requesting their participation in the study. Participants were not forced to be a part
of the study (see appendix E). ose who agreed to participate were asked to sign
a consent form as well as an informed consent form (see Appendix F and G).
All ethical principles stipulated by the Research Ethics Committee of the
International University of the Caribbean and the University of Technology,
Jamaica. e following ethical principles were adhered to:
• Proper consideration was given to rights of individuals, and the risk involved
of participating in the study
• at informed consent were obtained from subjects prior to conducting the
protocol
• Anticipated benefits and the importance of knowledge were explained to the
participants
• All participants were clearly informed in writing about issues such as confiden-
tiality, privacy and their freedom to withdraw from the study if they so desired
• e confidentiality of information supplied by research participants and the
anonymity of respondents was respected.
An application was made to the Research Ethics Committee of the International

University of the Caribbean seeking clearance to proceed with the research to ensure
that the dignity, self-concept, privacy and well-being of our respondents are not
violated.
Results
e study population consisted of 51 participants, 42 (82.4%) were females while

the remaining 9 (17.6%) were males from the University of Technology, Jamaica
(UTech) and the International University of the Caribbean (IUC), as shown in
Table 1. e participants’ age ranged from 25–55 years. As such, majority of the
100 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

participants, 29 (56.9%) were in the 25–35 age group, while 14 (27.5%) were in
the 36–45 age group, as shown in Table 2. Majority of the participants, 23 (45.1%)
were single, while 19 (37.3%) were married, as shown in Table 3. Among the five
departments surveyed, College of Health Sciences (COHS), Admissions, Accounts,
Dean’s Office and Library) COHS, Admissions and Accounts represented
participants from UTech, Jamaica, while the Dean’s Office and the Library
represented participants from IUC. Majority of the participants, 22 (43.1%)
worked in the COHS, while 10 (19.6%) worked in the admissions department,
followed by 9 (17.6%) in the Accounts department and approximately 7 (13.7%)
ranked among the highest for participants at IUC, as shown in Table 4. Among
the participants, 33 (64.7%) were administrative staff, while 17 (33.3%) were
academic staff as shown in Table 5. Most of the participants, 27 (52.9%) were
employed to their respective organization for 6–10 years, followed by 17 (33.3%)
who were employed between 1–5 years, as shown in Table 6. Most of the
participants, 35 (68.6%) were permanently employed, while 11 (21.6%) were
contractually employed, as shown in Table 7.
Among the participants, 33 (64.7%) worked the 8 am–4pm shift, while 14
(27.5%) worked on flexi-time, as shown in Table 8. ere is a negative correlation
p = .038 (< 0.5) between gender and the departments in which the respondents
worked. e data showed that in almost all departments except one, less than five
males are employed compared to an average of 12 females as shown in Table 9. In
only two of the departments, only one male is assigned, as shown in table 9 on
page 20. Among the 51 respondents, 33(64.7%) indicated that personally
clashes(pc), styles of leadership(sl), different work ethics(dwe), poor
communication skills(pcs) and lack of communication skills(lc) accounted for
majority of the issues that applies to workplace conflicts, as shown in Table 10.
Most of the participants, 22 (43.1) indicated that conflict seldom occurs in the
organization, while 14 (27.5%) indicated that conflict occurs on a weekly basis,
followed by 7 (13.7%) who indicated that conflict occurred monthly in the
organization, as shown in Table 11. e majority of the participants indicated that
the following ways were the most common ways to resolve conflicts in their
respective workplace and was placed in priority, which accounted for 18(35.3%);
talking about the conflicts with colleagues and utilizing mediation programmes
(mp) followed by warnings to management personnel. Approximately 8(15.7%) of
the participants substituted the third and fourth priority as warning to
management(wm) personnel followed by utilizing a conflict management
team(cm), as shown in Table 12.
Most of the participants, 31 (60.8%) indicated that they were not involved in
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 101

workplace conflict, while 19 (37.3%) were involved in workplace conflict, as shown

in Table 13. Majority of the participants, 43 (84.3%) indicated that workplace
conflict affects employees in an educational institution negatively, while 5 (9.8%)
indicated that workplace conflicts affect them both negatively and positively, as
shown in Table 14.
Of the 51 participants, 47 (92.2%) indicated that employees should be trained
in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and/or mediation, while 4 (7.8%)
indicated that they do not want to be trained in conflict resolution, dispute
resolution and/or mediation, as shown in Table 15. Question 10 in the
questionnaire asked the participants to define workplace conflict. e following
response was the most stated: “is is the disagreement or misunderstanding of
persons within an area of employment who are not agreeing on matters related to
work.” e Statistical technique, cross tabulation was used to compare the
relationship among gender, department and workplace conflicts. Approximately
18 (35.2%) participants indicated that workplace conflicts affect employees in an
educational institution negatively. Majority 32 (62.7%) of the participants were
from the COHS and Admissions department as shown in Table 16.
Both Pearson and Spearman’s correlation indicate that there a strong relationship
between gender and the various departments, revealing a p value of .008 and .007
respectively (p < .01) as shown in Table 21.0 and 21.1.
Both Pearson and Spearman’s correlation indicate that there is a strong
relationship between gender and the length of service in the institution, revealing
a p-value of .021 and .016 respectively (p < .05) as shown in Table 22.0 and 22.1.
Regarding workplace conflicts and the significant impact on productivity of an
educational institution, there is a correlation X2 = .336; (p = .016 <0.05) between
how often conflict occurs and the extent that workplace conflict affects employees.
In addition there is a correlation between how often occurs and involvement in
workplace conflict X2 = -.341; (p = .014 <0.05) as shown in Table 27.
relationship between workplace conflicts affecting employees and the shift system,
revealing a p-value of .013 and .015 respectively (p < .05) as shown in Table 29.0
and 29.1.
relationship between age group and the category of worker, revealing a p-value of
.000 and .000 respectively (p < .01) as shown in Table 30.0 and 30.1.
relationship between age group and the category of worker, revealing a p-value of
.036 and .016 respectively (p < .05) as shown in Table 31.0 and 31.1.
102 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018


relationship between department and shift system, revealing a p-value of .002 and
.003 respectively (p < .01) as shown in Table 33.0 and 33.1.
relationship between department and shift system, revealing a p-value of .000 and
.000 respectively (p < .01) as shown in Table 34.0 and 34.1.
Discussion
e discussion will highlight the main findings from the data to provide a more
detailed analysis. e demographic profile reflects a higher percentage of female
participants from the University of Technology, Jamaica and the International
University of the Caribbean compared to their male counterparts. is showed a
similar trend among females in similar institutions to that of UTech and IUC. In
contrast, in another finding done the PIOJ (2004) argues that the labour market
is comprised of 663,500 males and 531,300 females. It can also be noted that
females have more than twice the unemployment rate of males at 16.4% versus
7.9% males.
e fact that majority of the participants are working in the department and a
similar correlation was seen between gender and the department they work in. e
management of the institution should make the necessary concerted efforts to
balance the ratio of male versus females in all departments. is could reduce the
level of conflicts over time.
More than 50% of the participants indicated that conflict either occurs on a
daily, weekly or monthly basis. Majority of the participants fell in the 25–35 and
36–45 age group and were permanently employed either between 8:00 am–4:00
pm and flexi time for almost a decade. ere was a correlation between the time of
the day and conflict in the workplace. is time should be identified and the
necessary mandatory coffee breaks given or other strategies being given. A recent
survey conducted by Nespresso (2014) shows that coffee breaks reinforce the feeling
of belonging. In fact, 79% of employees consider these breaks as the most efficient
way to boost team spirit and ease conflicts; while for 91% of employees it is the
ideal moment to build more human and personal exchanges with colleagues. e
necessary intervention of workplace conflicts would be beneficial not only to the
participants but also to the organization so as to improve productivity.
It was interesting to note the almost 60% of participants who indicated that they
were not involved in workplace conflict and more than 80% indicated that
workplace conflict does affect employees’ productivity. e necessary education
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 103

and intervention strategies should be put in place so that individuals could identify
when they are a part of conflicts are the instigators of such. A similar study was
conducted by Petkovic (2008), indicating that conflict management involves
acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, establishing structures of conflict
models, putting strategic measures as well as approaches in place. In addition,
Adkins (2005) corroborated that in managing workplace conflict, all employees
should be trained in resolving conflicts. us, the training in conflict resolution,
dispute resolution and mediation would be worthwhile among all levels of workers
and form a part or person’s daily job function.
In addition, it was clear that there was a negative correlation between category
of workers and conflict. However, there was no correlation between age group and
workplace conflict. But on the other hand, there was a correlation between marital
status and conflict. Majority of the respondents were single. Researchers tend to
argue that single parents may feel more work-family conflict than married parents
because they must shoulder the dual demands of paid work and family
responsibilities with fewer resources (Avison, Ali, & Walters, 2007). erefore, the
study shows that married persons or persons in a relationship are less involved in
workplace conflict and/or better able to manage similar conflicts.
From the two open ended questions, the themes regarding the definition of
workplace conflict was similar to other studies done by Schramm-Nielson (2002)
which states that a conflict is a state of serious disagreement and argument about
something perceived to be important by at least one of the parties and Shapiro
(2006) which states that conflicts are a process social interaction. It involves a
struggle over claims to resources, power, status, beliefs, preferences and desires.
On the other hand while the participants indicated that they either remain silent
or allow it to blow off, did not handle it, let it or ignored it were evident. is
strongly indicated that the conflicts in the workplace were not adequately addressed
and thereafter could affect the level of production both in the short term and long
term. is is corroborated by a study done by Ongari (2009) which states that
unsolved conflicts can generate into bigger contentions which has the potential of
engendering more controversies.
Personality clashes, styles of leadership, different work ethics, poor
communication skills and lack of communication skills accounted for majority of
the issues found to cause workplace conflicts. is finding was similar to a study
conducted by Mullins (2005) that indicated that conflict can arise due to
incompatible goals, differences in the interpretation of facts, negative feelings,
differences of values and philosophies, or disputes over shared resources.
is study concluded that workplace conflict does have a significant impact on
104 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

productivity, coupled with the fact that workplace conflicts as a negative effect on
employees in educational institutions. is finding was similar to a study done by
Ibid (2013) that indicated that organizational conflict has a negative impact on the
motivation and productivity of employees. In addition, Mullins (2015)
corroborated that employees may assume that conflict tends to be associated with
negative features and situations which give rise to inefficiency, ineffectiveness or
dysfunctional consequences. Moreover, Ongari (2009) concurred with Mullins
(2015) by stating that conflict can have a devastating effect on the performance of
an organization, especially if it consumes the energies of employees rather than
focusing on other productive activities.
On the other hand, Awan, Qurratul and Shaukat (2015), argued that conflict
may be beneficial to the organization where it brings about radical change in the
organizational power structure, current interaction pattern and entrenched attitude
and also can lead to an increase in productivity. Furthermore, this study concluded
that workplace conflicts can be resolved in educational institutions and the
following results were indicated for discussion.
Mayer (2000) corroborated that organization-conflict can be resolved if the
reasons thereof can be recognized and resolutions found that will be pleasing to all
the parties involved. Similarly, almost half of the respondents believe that employees
should be trained in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and/or mediation so
that they will be better able to manage workplace conflicts. is finding was similar
to the study conducted by Adkins (2005) that indicated managing workplace
conflict, all employees should be trained in resolving conflicts, the organizational
culture and structure should allow employees to resolve their differences, and all
employees should be held accountable to use conflict-resolution competencies.
Once conflict resolution is made a core competency in organizations costs will be
lowered, be more productive and increase profitability.
Limitations of the Study
Some limitations of this research were:

1. The financial constraint of travelling to locations to conduct the research.
2. Possibility of persons lying on the questionnaire.
3. Questionnaires not being returned within the given timeframe.
4. The target population at the University of Technology, Jamaica is larger than
that at the International University of the Caribbean.
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 105

De-limitation of the Study
e study was restricted to employed individuals, and using a structured

questionnaire, sampling was done at two major educational institutions in the
Kingston Metropolitan Region. ese individuals represent every spectrum and
strata of the working class within the study area. Even though the study was limited
to university employees the results might cause the assumption to be made that
the phenomenon exists only in the region mentioned. Random sampling cannot
be done as a best method.
Conclusion
e study proved that conflict is an actual social issue and from the survey
perception of participants training in managing conflict, conflict resolution and
dispute resolution were the common factors to resolve conflict among employees
in both organizations.
From the qualitative component (definition and involvement of workplace
conflict) of the study, it was determined that conflict is a state of serious
disagreement or argument important to at least one of the parties involved. is
type of social interaction shows that among females, which was ranked the highest
in the population, struggled over claims to resources, power, status, beliefs,
preferences and desires. During the period it was evident that workplace conflict
hindered employees’ productivity because they either remain silent or allow it to
blow off, did not handle it or ignored it. is concluded that conflicts, everyday
phenomenon and deemed inevitable will occur as long as individuals compete for
resources, power, recognition and security. e respondents in their opinion
confirm that being trained in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and mediation
is important strategies to reduce the negative impact of workplace conflict and
improve employees’ productivity.
Recommendations
From the study the following recommendations should be noted from the study.
• Training in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and mediation should form
a part of employees’ job description.
• Conflict resolution, dispute resolution and mediation services should be avail-
able to all levels of staff.
106 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

• e study should be expanded to all staff members within both organizations.

• Reduce the male to female ratio within both organizations.
• A qualitative approach could have been taken in order to gain a deeper under-
standing of the magnitude of the issue.
• Well-known pre-strategies such as psychometric test or other cognitive
tests could be conducted to identify these behaviours from the onset of
employment.
Tables
Table 1. Showing Gender of Participants
Valid Cumulative
Gender Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
Male 9 17.6 17.6 17.6
Valid
Female 42 82.4 82.4 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 2. Showing Age-group of Participants

Valid Cumulative
Age-group Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
25–35 29 56.9 56.9 56.9
Valid 36–45 14 27.5 27.5 84.3
46–55 8 15.7 15.7 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 3. Showing Marital Status of Participants

Marital Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Status Percent Percent
Single 23 45.1 45.1 45.1
Married 19 37.3 37.3 82.4
Divorced 4 7.8 7.8 90.2

Valid
Common law 4 7.8 7.8 98.0
Other 1 2.0 2.0 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 107

Table 4. Participants Respective Department

Valid Cumulative
Department Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
COHS 22 43.1 43.1 43.1
Admissions 10 19.6 19.6 62.7
Accounts 9 17.6 17.6 80.4

Valid
Dean’s office 7 13.7 13.7 94.1
Library 3 5.9 5.9 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 5. Showing Category of Worker

Category Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent
of Worker Percent Percent
Academic 17 33.3 33.3 33.3
Administrative 33 64.7 64.7 98.0

Valid
Technical 1 2.0 2.0 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 6. Showing Length of Service in the Institution
Years of Valid Cumulative

Frequency Percent
Service Percent Percent
1–5 17 33.3 33.3 33.3
6–10 27 52.9 52.9 86.3
Valid 11–15 6 11.8 11.8 98.0
16 years
1 2.0 2.0 100.0
and over
Total 51 100.0 100.0
108 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Table 7. Showing Type of Employment
Type of Valid Cumulative

Frequency Percent
Employment Percent Percent
Temporary 5 9.8 9.8 9.8
Permanent 35 68.6 68.6 78.4

Valid
Contract 11 21.6 21.6 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 8. Showing Shift System
Valid Cumulative
Shift System Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
8:00am-
33 64.7 64.7 64.7
4:00pm
9:00am-
4 7.8 7.8 72.5
5:00pm
Valid
Flexi-time 14 27.5 27.5 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 9. Showing Male vs. Females Working in the Departments
Correlations Mavsfe Department
Mavsfe Pearson Correlation 1 -.291(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) .038
N 51 51
department Pearson Correlation -.291(*) 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .038
N 51 51
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 109

Table 10. Showing Issues that Apply to Workplace Conflict

Issues that Apply to Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Workplace Conflict Percent Percent
pc, sl, dwe, pcs 9 17.6 17.6 17.6
pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls, tw, gs 4 7.8 7.8 25.5
pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls 18 35.3 35.3 60.8
pc, pcs 1 2.0 2.0 62.7
pc, dwe, pcs, ls 1 2.0 2.0 64.7
pc, sl, pcs 6 11.8 11.8 76.5
pc, sl, dwe, ls 2 3.9 3.9 80.4
Valid pc, pcs, ls 1 2.0 2.0 82.4
pc, sl, pcs, ls, gs 1 2.0 2.0 84.3
pc, dwe, ls 1 2.0 2.0 86.3
pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls, tw 1 2.0 2.0 88.2
pc, sl, pcs, ls 4 7.8 7.8 96.1
pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls, gs 1 2.0 2.0 98.0
pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls, tw 1 2.0 2.0 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 11. Showing Occurrence of Conflict in the Office

Occurrence of
Valid Cumulative
Conflict in the Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
Office
Daily 4 7.8 7.8 7.8
Weekly 14 27.5 27.5 35.3
Monthly 7 13.7 13.7 49.0

Valid
Seldom 22 43.1 43.1 92.2
Never 4 7.8 7.8 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
110 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Table 12. Showing Ways to Resolve Conflict in the Workplace
Ways to Resolve Valid Cumulative

Conflict in the Frequency Percent
Workplace Percent Percent
wm, cm, mp, c 1 2.0 2.0 2.0

wm, c, mp, cm 3 5.9 5.9 7.8
c, wm, mp, cm 3 5.9 5.9 13.7
c, wm, cm, mp 18 35.3 35.3 49.0
cm, c, mp, wm 1 2.0 2.0 51.0
c, cm, wm, mp 8 15.7 15.7 66.7
c, mp, wm, cm 1 2.0 2.0 68.6
c, cm, mp, wm 4 7.8 7.8 76.5
mp, cm, c, wm 2 3.9 3.9 80.4
Valid
c, mp, cm, wm 3 5.9 5.9 86.3
cm, mp, wm, c 1 2.0 2.0 88.2
mp, c, wm, cm 1 2.0 2.0 90.2
mp, c, cm, wm 1 2.0 2.0 92.2
cm, wm, c, mp 1 2.0 2.0 94.1
wm, c, cm, mp 1 2.0 2.0 96.1
cm, mp, c, wm 1 2.0 2.0 98.0
Missing 1 2.0 2.0 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 13. Showing Participants Involvement in Workplace Conflict
Involvement
Valid Cumulative
in Workplace Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
Conflict
Yes 19 37.3 37.3 37.3
No 31 60.8 60.8 98.0

Valid
Missing 1 2.0 2.0 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 111

Table 14. Showing Participants who Indicated that Workplace Conflict Affects Employees
Workplace
Valid Cumulative
Conflict affects Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
Employees
Negatively 43 84.3 84.3 84.3
Positively 2 3.9 3.9 88.2
Valid Not at all 1 2.0 2.0 90.2
Negatively and
5 9.8 9.8 100.0
Positively
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 15. Showing Trained in Conflict Resolution, Dispute Resolution and Mediation
Trained in
Conflict Resolu-
Valid Cumulative
tion, Dispute Frequency Percent
Percent Percent
Resolution and
Mediation
Yes 47 92.2 92.2 92.2
Valid No 4 7.8 7.8 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
112 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Table 16. Cross tabulation between Gender* Department* Workplace conflict affecting
Employees productivity
Department Total
Wconaff
Admis- Dean’s
Cohs Accounts Library
sions office
Negatively Male 1 0 3 2 1 7
Gender
Female 17 8 5 4 2 36
Total 18 8 8 6 3 43
Positively Gender Male 1 1 2
Total 1 1 2
Not at all Gender Female 1 1
Total 1 1
Negatively
and Gender Female 3 1 1 5
positively
Total 3 1 1 5
Total Male 1 1 3 3 1 9
Gender
Female 21 9 6 4 2 42
Total 1022 10 9 7 3 51
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 113

Table 21.0. Correlation of Gender and Department
Correlations
Gender Department
Pearson Correlation 1 -.370**
Gender Sig. (2-tailed) .008
N 51 51
Pearson Correlation -.370** 1
Department Sig. (2-tailed) .008
N 51 51
** . Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 21.1. Correlation of Gender and Department
Correlations
Gender Department
Correlation
Spearman’s rho Gender 1.000 -.371**
Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) . .007
N 51 51
Correlation
Department -.371** 1.000
Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) .007 .
N 51 51
** . Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
114 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Table 22.0. Correlation of Gender and Length of Service in the Institution
Correlations
Gender Sinstit
Pearson Correlation 1 .321*
Gender Sig. (2-tailed) .021
N 51 51
Pearson Correlation .321* 1
Sinstit Sig. (2-tailed) .021
N 51 51
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 22.1. Correlation of Gender and Length of Service in the Institution
Correlations
Gender Sinstit
Correlation
1.000 .337*
Coefficient
Gender Sig. (2-tailed) . .016
N 51 51
Spearman’s rho
Correlation
.337* 1.000
Coefficient
Sinstit Sig. (2-tailed) .016 .
N 51 51
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 115

Table 27. Correlation of Conflict Occur in Office, Involvement in Workplace Conflict and
Workplace Conflicts affecting Employees
Correlations
Coccur inwcon wconaff
Correlation
Spearman’s rho 1.000 .336* -.076
Coefficient
Coccur Sig. (2-tailed) . .016 .594
N 51 51 51
Correlation
.336* 1.000 -.341*
Coefficient
inwcon Sig. (2-tailed) .016 . .014
N 51 51 51
Correlation
-.076 -.341* 1.000
Coefficient
wconaff Sig. (2-tailed) .594 .014 .
N 51 51 51
Table 28. Correlation of Involvement in Workplace Conflict and Training in Conflict

Resolution
Correlations
Inwcon conresol
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.082
inwcon Sig. (2-tailed) . .570
N 51 51
Spearman’s rho
Correlation Coefficient -.082 1.000
conresol Sig. (2-tailed) .570 .
N 51 51
116 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Table 29. Correlation of Workplace Conflicts affecting Employees and Shift Systems
Correlations
wconaff System
Wconaff Sig. (2-tailed) .013
N 51 51
System Sig. (2-tailed) .013
N 51 51
Table 29.1. Correlation of Workplace Conflicts affecting Employees and Shift Systems
Correlations
Wconaff ssystem
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .339*
wconaff Sig. (2-tailed) . .015
N 51 51
Spearman’s rho
Correlation Coefficient .339* 1.000
ssystem Sig. (2-tailed) .015 .
N 51 51
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 117

Table 30.0. Correlation of Age group and Category of Worker
Correlations
Agegroup cworker
Agegroup Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 51 51
Cworker Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 51 51
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 30.1. Correlation of Age group and Category of Worker
Correlations
Age group Cworker
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.573**
Age group Sig. (2-tailed) . .000
N 51 51
Spearman’s rho
Correlation Coefficient -.573** 1.000
Cworker Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
N 51 51
118 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Table 31.0. Correlation of Age Group and Shift System
Correlations
Age group ssystem
Age group Sig. (2-tailed) .036
N 51 51
N 51 51
Table 31.1. Correlation of Age Group and Shift System
Correlations
Age group System
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .335*
Age group Sig. (2-tailed) . .016
N 51 51
Spearman’s rho
Correlation Coefficient .335* 1.000
N 51 51
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 119

Table 33.0. Correlation of Department and Shift System
Correlations
Department System
Department Sig. (2-tailed) .002
N 51 51
N 51 51
Table 33.1. Correlation of Department and Shift System
Correlations
Department System
Department Sig. (2-tailed) . .003
N 51 51
Spearman’s rho
N 51 51
120 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Table 34.0. Correlation of Shift System and Category of Worker
Correlations
ssystem cworker
ssystem Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 51 51
cworker Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 51 51
Table 34.1. Correlation of Shift System and Category of Worker
Correlations
System cworker
System Sig. (2-tailed) . .000
N 51 51
Spearman’s rho
cworker Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
N 51 51
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 121

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124 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Notes on Contributors
Deonne M. Caines
M.Sc. Nutrition, University of the West Indies, Mona. Nutritionist, Ministry of
Health, Jamaica.
Research interests: Food access, food utilization
Ellen Campbell Grizzle

PhD Communication, University of the West Indies, Mona. Associate Professor,
College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica.
Research interests: Social pharmacy including pharmacy workforce issues, Caribbean
pharmacy history, non-communicable diseases, substance abuse prevention, poison
prevention, spousal violence and medical cannabis
Sheerin Eyre
MSc Nutrition, Kings College, United Kingdom (UK). Lecturer, College of Health
Sciences, University of Technology Jamaica
Research interests: nutrition, health management, integrative medicine & cassava
Fitzroy Henry
PhD - Nutritional Epidemiology, University of London. Professor of Public Health
Nutrition, College of Health Sciences, University of Technology Jamaica
Research interests: Public health nutrition, chronic disease, health behavior.
Anetheo A. Jackson
MPhil/PhD candidate, University of the West Indies, Mona. Lecturer, Faculty of
the Built Environment, University of Technology, Jamaica
Research interests: Economic and social development, education, housing and public
policy.
Janet James
M.A. Library and Information Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona. Head,
Library Information Systems and Outreach Services, University of Technology,
Jamaica
Research interests: Information literacy, and education
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 125

Ashleigh McIntosh
Student, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the West Indies, Mona.
Research interests: Game-based learning, sustainable development and coastal
eco-systems.
Rasheed O. Perry
MSc Public Health Nutrition (pending), University of Technology, Jamaica.
Assistant Lecturer, College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica
Research interests: Medicinal cannabis, nutraceutical sciences, critical care nutrition,
food product development and analysis and dielectric and bio-impedance in
estimating body composition.
Sonia Richards-Malcolm
Doctor of Health Science, Nova Southeastern University, USA. Associate Professor
of Immunohaematology, Coordinator for Graduate Studies, Research and
Entrepreneurship, Head of Continuing Education & Professional Development,
Phlebotomy Coordinator and Academic Advisement Officer, College of Heath
Sciences.
Research interests: Education, stem cells, diabetes, blood and the immune system.
Kerry-Ann Rodney Wellington

M.A. Library and Information Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona. Head,
Instructional Media Services, University of Technology, Jamaica
Research interests: Information literacy, interprofessional collaboration, education
and training
Andrew Paul Smith

PhD candidate, Career & Technical Education, University of Technology, Jamaica.
Lecturer, Faculty of Education, University of Technology, Jamaica.
Research interests: Photography as a tool for heritage education, national photo-
graphic cultures, influence of national photographic cultures on teaching
photography.
Dahoma South
B.A. Guidance and Counseling, International University of the Caribbean. Student
Affairs Assistant, College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica.
Research interests: Education and psychology, GSAT exam, conflict and motivation.
126 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Michelle Stewart-McKoy
MPhil Foreign Language Education, University of the West Indies, Mona. Associate
Professor, Lecturer, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of
Technology, Jamaica. eLearning Coordinator, Faculty of Education and Liberal
Studies.
Research interests: eLearning, technologies in education, virtual learning environ-
ments, gamification and game-based learning.
Heather Thompson
M.A. Library and Information Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona;
Reference, Research and Caribbean Collection Librarian, University of Technology,
Jamaica
Research interests: Academic libraries and education, reference services
Shanice N. Trowers
Masters of Law in International Commercial Law from University of Exeter (UK),
Bachelors of Law (Hons), University of the West Indies, Legal Education
Certificate, Norman Manley Law School. Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of
Technology, Jamaica
Research interests: Commercial law, criminal law, maritime law and family law
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 127

Journal of
Arts
Science and
Technology
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Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 129

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Journal of

Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency

A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical

Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean / 38

Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective / 52

Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica:

Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources) at the

Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity / 94

Continues on inside front cover

A PUBLICATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA

The Journal of Arts Science and Technology:

© 2018 University of Technology, Jamaica

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

Set in Adobe Garamond 11.5/15 x 30

ii Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Editor-in-Chief Martin Henry

Martin Henry School of Graduate Studies, Research and

INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD

Dr. Moji Christianah Adeyeye University of Pittsburgh, USA

Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 iii

Professor Henry Lowe Bio-Tech Research and Development

iv Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a ‘slap on the wrist’? / 1

A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical

Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean / 38

Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective / 52

Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica:

Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources) at the University of

Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity / 94

Notes on Contributors / 125

The Journal of Arts Science and Technology:

Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 v

Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 vii

viii Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Sentence Reduction Day

Keywords: Sentencing, sentence reduction day, judicial eﬃciency, law, judges’

Corresponding author: Shanice N. Trowers:

Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 1

Sentencing is an intricate and delicate exercise that judges undertake on a daily

2 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Overview of Sentence Reduction Day

Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 3

4 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

The Distinction between Sentence Reduction Days and Plea

Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 5

Arguments in support of and against Sentence Reduction Day

6 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

distasteful commercialisation of our hallowed, sacrosanct justice system”.32 is article

Important Considerations for Sentence Reduction Day

Sentence Reduction Day and Victim Involvement

32. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/article/20171225/ARTICLE/171229829/1373 <Accessed

Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 7

The scale of reduction

As illustrated earlier in this academic paper, once someone pleads guilty on

35. Ibid (n 31).

8 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

Withdrawal of a guilty plea made on Sentence Reduction Day

The exercise of the judge’s discretion on Sentence Reduction Day

38. [1971] A.C. 481.

Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 9

Refusal of a guilty plea on Sentence Reduction Day

10 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018

simply place undue pressure on the court’s resources if it happened on a wide-scale