It Notes

INTRO TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Q.) WHAT IS DATA?

A.) Data is defined as raw facts & figures or unprocessed forms of items which required it to be
processed to make it meaningful. Data is information when dealing with the machine.
Generally, data comprises facts, observations, perceptions numbers, characters, symbols,
image, etc.
Q.) WHAT IS INFORMATION?

A.) Processed form of items called information. Information assigns meaning and improves the
reliability of the data. It helps to ensure undesirability and reduces uncertainty. So, when the
data is transformed into information, it never has any useless details . Information is any
knowledge that comes to our attention. It could be voice, image, text, videos & others.
Q.) WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DATA & INFORMATION?
DATA INFORMATION
 Data is unorganized raw facts that need  Information is a processed, organized data
processing without which it is seemingly presented in a given context and is useful to
random and useless to humans humans.
 Data is an individual unit that contains raw  Information is a group of data that
material which does not carry any specific collectively carry a logical meaning.
meaning.
 Data doesn’t depend on information. 
Information depends on data.
 It is measured in bits and bytes. 
Information is measured in meaningful units
like time, quantity, etc.
 Data is never suited to the specific needs of  Information is specific to the expectations
a designer. and requirements because all the irrelevant
facts and figures are removed, during the
transformation process.
 An example of data is a student’s test score  The average score of a class is the
information derived from the given data.
 Data alone has no significance.  Information is significant by itself.
https://www.guru99.com/difference-information-data.html
Q.) WHAT IS COMPUTER?

A.) A computer is a machine that can be programmed to accept the data, process data into
useful information and store it for later use.
OR
The term computer is derived from the Latin term ‘computare’, which means to calculate or
programmable machine. Computer cannot do anything without a Program. The computer is an
electronic device that takes input from the user and processes these data under the control of a
set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and saves it for future use. It
can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations
UNOFFICIAL NOTES Page 1

Q.) WHAT IS HARDWARE?

A.) Hardware refers to the physical elements of a computer. This is also sometime called the
machinery or the equipment of the computer. Examples of hardware in a computer are the
keyboard, the monitor, the mouse and the central processing unit. However, most of a
computer's hardware cannot be seen; in other words, it is not an external element of the
computer, but rather an internal one, surrounded by the computer's casing (tower). A
computer's hardware is comprised of many different parts, but perhaps the most important of
these is the motherboard.
Q.) WHAT IS SOFTWARE?

A.) Software, commonly known as programs or apps, consists of all the instructions that tell the
hardware how to perform a task. These instructions come from a software developer in the
form that will be accepted by the platform (operating system + CPU) that they are based on. For
example, a program that is designed for the Windows operating system will only work for that
specific operating system. Compatibility of software will vary as the design of the software and
the operating system differ.
Software is capable of performing many tasks, as opposed to hardware which can only perform
mechanical tasks that they are designed for. Software provides the means for accomplishing
many different tasks with the same basic hardware.
Q.) WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARDWARE & SOFTWARE?
HARDWARE SOFTWARE
 Hardware is a physical parts computer that  Software is a set of instruction that tells a
cause processing of data computer exactly what to do.
 It is manufactured.  It is developed and engineered.
 Hardware cannot perform any task  Software cannot be executed without
without software hardware.
 It has four main categories: input device,  It is mainly divided into System software,
output devices, storage, and internal Programming software and Application
components. software.
 As Hardware are physical electronic  We can see and also use the software but
devices, we can see and touch hardware can’t actually touch them.
 Hardware is not affected by computer  Software is affected by computer viruses.
viruses.
 It cannot be transferred from one place to  It can be transferred.
another electrically through network.
 If hardware is damaged, it is replaced with  If software is damaged, its backup copy
new one. can be reinstalled.
 Ex: Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer,  Ex: MS Word, Excel, Power Point,
CPU, Hard disk, RAM, ROM etc. Photoshop, MySQL etc.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-hardware-and-software/

Q.) WHAT IS SYSTEM?

A.) A system is a collection of elements or components that are organized for a common
purpose.
Q.) WHAT IS INFORMATION SYSTEM?

A.) An information system is a set of interrelated components that collect, manipulate, store
data and disseminate information and provide a feedback mechanism to monitor performance.
Q.) DEFINE PROCESS?

A.) A set of logically related tasks performed to achieve a defined outcome.
Q.) DEFINE KNOWLEDGE?

A.) Awareness and understanding of a set of information and ways that information can be
made useful to support a specific task or reach a decision.
Q.) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFORMATION & KNOWLEDGE?

A.) The points given below are important, so far as the difference between information and
knowledge is concerned:
1. Information denotes the organized data about someone or something obtained from
various sources such as newspaper, internet, television, discussions, etc. Knowledge
refers to the awareness or understanding on the subject acquired from education or
experience of a person.
2. Information is nothing but the refined form of data, which is helpful to understand the
meaning. On the other hand, knowledge is the relevant and objective information that
helps in drawing conclusions.
3. Data compiled in the meaningful context provides information. Conversely, when
information is combined with experience and intuition, it results in knowledge.
4. Processing improves the representation, thus ensures easy interpretation of the
information. As against this, processing results in increased consciousness, thus
enhances subject knowledge.
5. Information brings on comprehension of the facts and figures. Unlike, knowledge which
leads to the understanding of the subject.
6. The transfer of information is easy through different means, i.e. verbal or non-verbal
signals. Conversely, the transfer of knowledge is a bit difficult, because it requires
learning on the part of the receiver.
7. Information can be reproduced in low cost. However, exactly similar reproduction of
knowledge is not possible because it is based on experiential or individual values,
perceptions, etc.
8. Information alone is not sufficient to make generalization or predictions about someone
or something. On the contrary, knowledge has the ability to predict or make inferences.
9. Every information is not necessarily a knowledge, but all knowledge is an information.

Q.) WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF CBIS?

A.) There are 4 different components of CBIS,
 HARDWARE (computer physical parts)
 SOFTWARE (computer programs)
 DATABASE (an organized collection of facts)
 TELECOMMUNICATION (electronic transmission of signals for communication)
Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT TELECOMMUNICATION?

A.) It is an electronic transmission of signals for communication. Different modes of
telecommunication are
 Networks (distant electronic communication between different devices)
 Internet: Interconnected networks (network of all the networks)
 Intranet (internal cooperate networks)
 Extranet (linked intranets)
Q.) Define E-commerce & M-commerce.

A.) E-commerce:
Ecommerce, also known as electronic commerce or internet commerce, refers to the
buying and selling of goods or services using the internet, and the transfer of money and data
to execute these transactions. Ecommerce is often used to refer to the sale of physical products
online, but it can also describe any kind of commercial transaction that is facilitated through the
internet.
M-commerce:
M-commerce (mobile commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services
through wireless handheld devices such as smartphones and tablets. As a form of e-commerce,
m-commerce enables users to access online shopping platforms without needing to use a
desktop computer. Examples of m-commerce include in-app purchasing, mobile banking,
virtual marketplace apps like the Amazon mobile app or a digital wallet such as Apple Pay,
Android Pay and Samsung Pay.
Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM?

A.) A system used to provide routine information to managers and decision makers. A
management information system (MIS) is a computer system consisting of hardware and
software that serves as the backbone of an organization’s operations. An MIS gathers data from
multiple online systems, analyzes the information, and reports data to aid in management
decision-making. The MIS collects the data, stores it, and makes it accessible to managers who
want to analyze the data by running reports.
Q.) WHAT IS DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM?

A.) A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that supports business or
organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations and planning
levels of an organization (usually mid and higher management) and help people make decisions
about problems that may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance—i.e.

unstructured and semi-structured decision problems. Decision support systems can be either
fully computerized or human-powered, or a combination of both.
Www.wikipedia.com/decision support system
A decision support system (DSS) is a computerized program used to support determinations,
judgments, and courses of action in an organization or a business. A DSS sifts through and
analyzes massive amounts of data, compiling comprehensive information that can be used to
solve problems and in decision-making.
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/decision-support-system
Q.) Draw/make Business Information System flowchart.

A.)
Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT GENERAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS?

A.)

Q.) WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF I.T?

A.) There are three components of I.T
 Computer
 Communication network
 Know-how
Q.) CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER:

A.)
Q.) DEFINE DRILL DOWN REPORT.

A.) Drill down is a capability that takes the user from a more general view of the data to a more
specific one at the click of a mouse. For example, a report that shows sales revenue by state can
allow the user to select a state, click on it and see sales revenue by county or city within that
state. It is called “drill down” because it is a feature that allows the user to go deeper into more
specific layers of the data or information being analyzed.
Q.) DEFINE EXCEPTION REPORT.

A.) An exception is anything outside of the norm. An exception report will collect every single
instance of these abnormal occurrences and then put them in one place where management
has easy access to it. An exception report allows management to see what’s not going
right and then prioritize what needs to be solved immediately. If, for example, inventory
levels are well below the norm, then management can order more supplies. If a business unit
is making much less revenue than the norm, then management can take action.
Q.) DEFINE DEMAND REPORT.

A.) On-demand reports are produced on demand. The way they look and what is contained in
them depend on both the requirements of the manager that needs them and on the
prevailing circumstances. The management information format can either be a standard
format or a custom one as required by the requester.
For example, the business owner might want a sales report for a specific product category to
see how well it is selling in a particular location during a given holiday season, or at
a specific price. A manager may want to know how a change in the _price of a product or
service will affect the profitability of that product or service.

Q.) DEFINE KEY INDICATOR REPORTS.

A.) A KPI Report is a business-performance tool that effectively visualizes Key Performance
Indicators. Companies use these reports to track progress against targets and goals to improve
performance. A KPI Report will typically contain a mixture of Charts, Graphs, and Tabular
information.
Q.) DEFINE SHEDULED REPORT.

A.) A scheduled report is a report that is sent out by email at specified times. You can specify
what is included; who should get the report; and how often it will be sent. Scheduled reports
are static, which means they do not change even if the underlying data changes. The scheduled
report contains data for the time frame you selected, relative to the time you set the scheduled
report to execute.
Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT ANALOG COMPUTER?

A.) ANALOG COMPUTER: Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog
computers represent variables by physical quantities. Thus any computer which solve problem
by translating physical conditions such as flow, temperature, pressure, angular position or
voltage into related mechanical or electrical related circuits as an analog for the physical
phenomenon being investigated in general it is a computer which uses an analog quantity and
produces analog values as output. Thus an analog computer measures continuously. Analog
computers are very much speedy. They produce their results very fast. But their results are
approximately correct. All the analog computers are special purpose computers.
OR
An analog computer is a computer which is used to process analog data. Analog computers
store data in a continuous form of physical quantities and perform calculations with the help of
measures. It is quite different from the digital computer, which makes use of symbolic numbers
to represent results. Analog computers are excellent for situations which require data to be
measured directly without converting into numerals or codes. Analog computers, although
available and used in industrial and scientific applications like control systems and aircraft, have
been largely replaced by digital computers due to the wide range of complexities involved.
Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT DIGITAL COMPUTERS?

A.) DIGITAL COMPUTERS: Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits
or numbers. These numbers are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also make logical
decision to reach a conclusion, depending on, the data they receive from the user. Any of a
class of devices capable of solving problems by processing information in discrete form. It
operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that are expressed in binary code
the two digits 0 and 1. By counting, comparing, and manipulating these digits or their
combinations according to a set of instructions held in memory.
OR
Digital Computer is a machine or a device that helps to process any kind of information. These
are the devices through which we provide some input and get the output within a fraction of
seconds. The operations that are conducted internally in the device happens using the binary
number system since the computer understands only digits ie 0’s and 1’s. All the content that is

written in English will be converted to binary language and thus computers and humans
communicate with each other. Some of the basic examples of digital devices are Personal
computers, Desktops, Laptops, Smartphones, and Mobiles.
Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT HYBRID COMPUTERS?

A.) Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog characteristics
combining the advantages of analog and digital computers when working as a system. Hybrid
computers are being used extensively in process control system where it is necessary to have a
close representation with the physical world. The hybrid system provides the good precision
that can be attained with analog computers and the greater control that is possible with digital
computers, plus the ability to accept the input data in either form.
OR
A hybrid computer is a computing system that combines both digital and analog components.
Traditionally, the analog components of the computer handle complex mathematical
computations. The digital components take care of logical and numerical operations, in addition
to serving as the controller for the system.
Q.) DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN ANALOG & DIGITAL COMPUTER.

A.)
ANALOG COMPUTER DIGITAL COMPUTER
 A computer that uses a continuous signal to  Computer that uses a discrete signal for its
process is called an analog computer. operation is called a digital computer.
 The output of an analog computer in the  The output of digital devices is in the form of
form of graphical or voltage signals. binary numbers.
 Analog Computer transmits the data on a  Digital Computers transmit the data on a
continuous signal. discrete signal.
 Analog computer has a limited ability to  The Digital system is able to simulate Analog
function as a digital computer. Computer’s behavior.
 Analog computers are slower and less  Digital computers are high-speed devices
reliable. that you can rely on.
 Analog computers are used in specific fields  Digital computers are used around the world
such as mechanical engineering and as they are quite easy to use digital
medicine as they are difficult to use. computers.
 This Computer measures Analog Quantity  Digital computers perform mathematical
like the voltage, temperature, etc. functions, complex calculations, media
streaming, etc.
 Analog computers provide accurate  Digital computers lose precision due to the
computation results. nature of discrete signals.
 These computers are designed for specific  These computers are designed to use for
operations, mainly used in the field of general purposes, thus can be used in all
science. aspects of life.
 The best example of an analog device is 3  The best example of digital devices are PC,
hands wrist watch and oscilloscope (an smartphones, calculators, a pedometer,
instrument used to display and analyze the (which counts the exact number of steps

waveform of electronic signals) used by while walking.)

engineers for measurements.
Q.) WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF COMPUTERS?

A.) On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:
1) Supercomputers:
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge
amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has
thousands of interconnected processors. Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific
and engineering applications such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear
energy research. The first supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:
o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their
training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centers or cloud system. For
example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and
bit coin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in
brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analyzing data obtained from exploring
the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other
pollutants in the atmosphere.
2) Mainframe computer:
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high
volume of data. Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can
execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make
them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and
process a high volume of data that requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons,
etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the
banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and
input/output terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If
any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information
and data.
3) Minicomputer:
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can
support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and
departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A
minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe
but larger than a microcomputer.
Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.
Applications of minicomputers:
A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:
o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs
two primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs
in the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made
accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and
share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients
and customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger
systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or
computer.

4) Workstation:
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It
has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It
generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types
such as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.
Characteristics of workstation computer:
o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or
professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.
Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be
used as a workstation.
o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or
computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory errors
before they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard drives
to store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be
multiple drives to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than
other starts functioning.
o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so the
chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less work
while processing the screen output.
5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is
designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory,
storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers. They are suitable for personal work that may be making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at office for office work.
Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.

o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.

o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.
Q.) WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF MICROCOMPUTERS?

A.) There are following types of microcomputers,
 DESKTOP (PERSONAL COMPUTER): It is a personal computer designed for regular use at

a single location on or near a desktop table due to its size and power requirements. The
most common configuration has a case that houses the power supply, motherboard (a
printed circuit board with a microprocessor as the central processing unit(CPU),memory.
 LAPTOPS: A portable, compact computer that can run on an electrical wall outlet or a
battery unit. All components (keyboard, mouse, etc.) are in one compact unit. Usually
more expensive than a comparable desktop. Laptop is a small size of the computer
system. Laptop is a more powerful computing device and laptop is a multi-tasking
computer. We can carry very easily because this is lightweight.
 NOTEBOOKS: A notebook computer is a battery- or AC-powered personal computer

generally smaller than a briefcase that can easily be transported and conveniently used
in temporary spaces such as on airplanes, in libraries, temporary offices, and at
meetings. Notebook computers generally cost more than desktop computers with the
same capabilities because they are more difficult to design and manufacture. Notebooks
usually come with displays that use thin-screen technology.
 SMARTPHONES: Smartphone is a cell phone that functions like a computer. A new

generation Smartphone build is very advanced and high technology. The New
generation Smartphone is Multi-purpose and Multi-tasking phone. We can do send
Email, Listing Music, take pictures, and use Face book and other social media platform.
 TABLETS: Tablet Computer just like a Mobile Device but bigger than Smartphone and
smaller then Notebook Computer. Just like Totally Smartphone feature like Touch
screen display, power full Battery Backup and we can calling and receiving call and click
pictures and anything.
Q.) WHAT ARE THE STORAGE DEVICES?

A.) A storage device is any type of computing hardware that is used for storing, porting or
extracting data files and objects. Storage devices can hold and store information both
temporarily and permanently. They may be internal or external to a computer, server or
computing device. Storage devices are one of the core components of any computing device.
They store virtually all of the data and applications on a computer, except for hardware
firmware which is generally managed through separate read-only memory or ROM.

Q.) WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES?

A.) There are four types of storage devices
 Primary storage devices
 Secondary storage devices
 Tertiary storage devices
 Offline storage devices
Q.) EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES IN DETAIL.

A.)
1) PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES:
It is also known as main memory. It is directly or indirectly connected to the central
processing unit via a memory bus. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and
executes them as required. E.g. RAM, ROM & CACHE.
RAM:

It is called Random Access Memory because any of the data in RAM can be accessed just as fast
as any of the other data. (RAM) is one of the most important components in determining your
system’s performance. RAM gives applications a place to store and access data on a short-term
basis. It stores the information your computer is actively using so that it can be accessed
quickly. There are two types of RAM:
 STATIC RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (SRAM)

Data is stored in transistors and requires a constant power flow. Because of the
continuous power, SRAM doesn’t need to be refreshed to remember the data being
stored. SRAM is called static as no change or action i.e. refreshing is not needed to
keep the data intact. It is used in cache memories
 DYNAMIC RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (DRAM)
Data is stored in capacitors. Capacitors that store data in DRAM gradually discharge
energy, no energy means the data has been lost. So, a periodic refresh of power is
required in order to function. DRAM is called dynamic as constant change or action i.e.
refreshing is needed to keep the data intact. It is used to implement main memory.
ROM:
This memory is used as the computer begins to boot up. Small programs called firmware are
often stored in ROM chips on hardware devices (like a BIOS chip), and they contain instructions
the computer can use in basic performing some of the most operations required to operate
hardware devices. ROM memory cannot be easily or quickly overwritten or modified.
CACHE:
It is a high-speed access area that can be either a reserved section of main memory or a storage
device. Most computers today come with L3 cache or L2 cache, while older computers included
only L1 cache. Cache memory is sometimes called CPU (central processing unit) memory
because it is typically integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip that has
a separate bus interconnect with the CPU. Therefore, it is more accessible to the processor, and
able to increase efficiency, because it's physically close to the processor.
2) SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES:
It is not directly accessible by the CPU. Computer usually uses its input/output channels to
access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary
storage. Secondary storage is non-volatile, long-term storage. Without secondary storage all
programs and data would be lost the moment the computer is switched off. E.g. Hard disk.
HARDDISK:
A hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile computer storage device containing magnetic disks or
platters rotating at high speeds. It is a secondary storage device used to store data
permanently. The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest, data storage device in a
computer. It can store anywhere from 160 gigabytes to 2 terabytes. Hard disk speed is the

speed at which content can be read and written on a hard disk. A hard disk unit comes with a
set rotation speed varying from 4500 to 7200rpm.Disk access time is measured in milliseconds.
Hard disk may be internal or external.
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
PORTABILITY NO YES
PRICE LESS EXPENSIVE MORE EXPENSIVE
SPEED FAST SLOW
SIZE BIG SMALL
3) TERTIARY STORAGE:
Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable
mass storage media into a storage device. It is a comprehensive computer storage system that
is usually very slow, so it is usually used to archive data that is not accessed frequently. This is
primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human operators.
Examples are: Magnetic tape & optical disks
Magnetic Tape
 A magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can be encoded.
 Tapes for computers are similar to tapes used to store music.
 Tape is much less expensive than other storage mediums but commonly a much slower
solution that is commonly used for backup.
Optical Disc
 Optical disc is any storage media that holds content in digital format and is read by using
a laser assembly is considered optical media.
 The most common types of optical media are
o Blu-ray (BD)
o Compact Disc (CD)
o Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
CD DVD BD
Capacity 700MB 4.7-17GB 50GB
Wavelength 780nm 650nm 405nm
Read/write speed 1200KB/s 10.5MB/s 36MB/s
Example CR-ROM, DVD-ROM, BD-R,
CD-R, DVD+R/RW, BD-RE
CD-RW DVD-R/RW,
DVD-RAM
4) OFFLINE STORAGE:

Also known as disconnected storage. It is computer data storage on a medium or a device that
is not under the control of a processing unit. It must be inserted or connected by a human
operator before a computer can access it again.
Offline storage is storage that must be physically connected or inserted into a computer system
every time you want to use it. It is not built into the system. Offline storage is a convenient way
of taking your data with you but widespread distributed storage in the form of cloud computing
is expected to reduce the appeal of offline storage.
Devices such as portable hard discs, CDs, DVDs, USB flash drives and SD cards are all examples
of offline storage. These storage mediums are portable and compatible with a range of systems.
Offline storage can also be used to create backups.
Floppy Disk:
 A soft magnetic disk.
 Floppy disks are portable.
 Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and have less storage capacity, but
they are much less expensive.
 Can store data up to 1.44MB.
 Two common sizes: 5¼”and 3½”.
Zip Diskette:
 Hardware data storage device developed by lomega that functions like a standard 1.44’’
floppy drive.
 Capable to hold up to 100mb of data or 250mb of data on new drives.
 Now it is less popular as user needed larger storage capabilities.
Usb flash drive:

 A small portable flash memory card that plugs into a computer’s usb port & function as
a portable hard drive.
 Flash drives are available in sizes such as 256MB. 512MB, 1GB, 5GB, 16GB and are an
easy way to transfer and store information.
Memory card:
 An electronic flash memory storage disk commonly used in consumer electronic devices
such as digital cameras, MP3 players, mobile phones, and other small portable devices.
 Memory cards are usually read by connecting the device containing the card to your
computer, or by using a USB card reader.
Q.) WRITE SOME FEATURES OF STORAGE DEVICES.

A.) Storage devices have
 Volatility
 Accessibility
 Mutability

 Addressability
Q.) DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN VOLATILE & NON-VOLATILE MEMORY.

A.)
Volatile memory Non-volatile memory
 Data is present till power supply is present.  Data remains even after power supply is
not present.
 Volatile memory data is not permanent.  Non-volatile memory data is permanent.
 Volatile memory is faster than non-volatile  Non-volatile memory access is slower.
memory
 Data Transfer is easy in Volatile Memory.  Data Transfer is difficult in Non-Volatile
Memory.
 CPU can access data stored on Volatile  Data to be copied from Non-Volatile
memory. memory to Volatile memory so that CPU
can access its data.
 Volatile memory less storage capacity.  Non-Volatile memory like HDD has very
high storage capacity.
 Volatile memory such as RAM is high  Non-volatile memory has no impact on
impact on system's performance. system's performance.
 Volatile memory is costly per unit size.  Non-volatile memory is cheap per unit
size.
 Volatile memory chips are generally kept  Non-volatile memory chips are embedded
on the memory slot. on the motherboard.
 Example is RAM  Example is ROM
Q.) DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN SRAM & DRAM.

A.)
SRAM DRAM
 SRAM has lower access time, which is  DRAM has a higher access time. It is slower
faster compared to DRAM. than SRAM.
 SRAM is costlier than DRAM.  DRAM cost is lesser compared to SRAM.
 SRAM needs a constant power supply,  DRAM requires less power consumption as
which means it consumes more power. the info stored in the capacitor.
 SRAM offers low packaging density.  DRAM offers a high packaging density.
 Uses transistors and latches.  Uses capacitors and very few transistors.
 L2 and L3 CPU cache units are some  The DRAM is mostly found as the main
general application of an SRAM. memory in computers.
 The storage capacity is 1MB to 16MB.  The storage capacity is 1 GB to 16GB.
 SRAM is in the form of on-chip memory.  Has the characteristics of off-chip memory.
 The SRAM is widely used on the processor  The DRAM is placed on the motherboard.

or lodged between the main memory and

processor of your computer.
 SRAM is of a smaller size.  DRAM is available in larger storage
capacity.
 This type of RAM works on the principle of  This type of RAM works on holding the
changing the direction of current through charges.
switches.
Q.) WHAT IS DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM?

A.) A database management system (DBMS) is a software package designed to define,
manipulate, retrieve and manage data in a database. A DBMS generally manipulates the data
itself, the data format, field names, record structure and file structure. It also defines rules to
validate and manipulate this data.
OR
Database Management System (DBMS) is software for storing and retrieving users' data while
considering appropriate security measures. It consists of a group of programs which manipulate
the database. The DBMS accepts the request for data from an application and instructs the
operating system to provide the specific data. In large systems, a DBMS helps users and other
third-party software to store and retrieve data.
DBMS allows users to create their own databases as per their requirement. The term “DBMS”
includes the user of the database and other application programs. It provides an interface
between the data and the software application.
Q.) WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM?
A.) DBMS Components: Hardware When we say Hardware, we mean computer, hard
disks, I/O channels for data, and any other physical component involved before any
data is successfully stored into the memory. When we run Oracle or MySQL on our
personal computer, then our computer's Hard Disk, our Keyboard using which we
type in all the commands, our computer's RAM, ROM all become a part of the DBMS
hardware.
DBMS Components: Software This is the main component, as this is the program which
controls everything. The DBMS software is more like a wrapper around the physical database,
which provides us with an easy-to-use interface to store, access and update data. The DBMS
software is capable of understanding the Database Access Language and interprets it into actual
database commands to execute them on the DB.
DBMS Components: Data Data is that resource, for which DBMS was designed. The motive
behind the creation of DBMS was to store and utilize data. In a typical Database, the user saved
Data is present and Meta data is stored. Metadata is data about the data. This is information
stored by the DBMS to better understand the data stored in it. For example: When I store
my Name in a database, the DBMS will store when the name was stored in the database, what
is the size of the name, is it stored as related data to some other data, or is it independent, all
this information is metadata
DBMS Components: Procedures: Procedures refer to general instructions to use a database

management system. This includes procedures to setup and install a DBMS, To login and logout
of DBMS software, to manage databases, to take backups, generating reports etc.
DBMS Components: Users
 Database Administrators: Database Administrator or DBA is the one who manages the

complete database management system. DBA takes care of the security of the DBMS, its
availability, managing the license keys, managing user accounts and access etc.
 Application Programmer or Software Developer: This user group is involved in
developing and designing the parts of DBMS.
 End User: These days all the modern applications, web or mobile, store user data. How
do you think they do it? Yes, applications are programmed in such a way that they
collect user data and store the data on DBMS systems running on their server. End users
are the one who store, retrieve, update and delete data.
Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT ARCHETECTURE OF DATABASE?
A.) 1. Internal Level

o The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage structure
of the database.
o The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.
o It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be stored in a
block.
o The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in detail.
2. Conceptual Level
o The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual level.
Conceptual level is also known as logical level.
o The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.
o The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and also
describes what relationship exists among those data.
o In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data structure
are hidden.

o Programmers and database administrators work at this level.
3. External Level
o At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes called as
subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of the database.
o An external schema is also known as view schema.
o Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is interested
and hides the remaining database from that user group.
o The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems.
OR
Internal Level/Schema The internal schema defines the physical storage structure of the
database. The internal schema is a very low-level representation of the entire database. It
contains multiple occurrences of multiple types of internal record. In the ANSI term, it is also
called "stored record'.
Facts about Internal schema:
 The internal schema is the lowest level of data abstraction

 It helps you to keeps information about the actual representation of the entire
database. Like the actual storage of the data on the disk in the form of records
 The internal view tells us what data is stored in the database and how
 It never deals with the physical devices. Instead, internal schema views a physical device
as a collection of physical pages
Conceptual Schema/Level The conceptual schema describes the Database structure of the
whole database for the community of users. This schema hides information about the physical
storage structures and focuses on describing data types, entities, relationships, etc. This logical
level comes between the user level and physical storage view. However, there is only single
conceptual view of a single database.
Facts about Conceptual schema:
 Defines all database entities, their attributes, and their relationships

 Security and integrity information
 In the conceptual level, the data available to a user must be contained in or derivable
from the physical level
External Schema/Level An external schema describes the part of the database which specific
user is interested in. It hides the unrelated details of the database from the user. There may be
"n" number of external views for each database. Each external view is defined using an external
schema, which consists of definitions of various types of external record of that specific view.

Facts about external schema:
 An external level is only related to the data which is viewed by specific end users.
 This level includes some external schemas.
 External schema level is nearest to the user
 The external schema describes the segment of the database which is needed for a
certain user group and hides the remaining details from the database from the specific
user group.
Q.) WHAT IS FILE BASED APPROACH IN DATA PROCESSING.

A.) File processing systems was an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system that
we are all familiar with. A file system is a method for storing and organizing computer files and
the data they contain to make it easy to find and access them. File systems may use a storage
device such as a hard disk or CD-ROM and involve maintaining the physical location of the files.
In our own home, we probably have some sort of filing system, which contains receipts,
guarantees, invoices, bank statements, and such like. When we need to look something up, we
go to the filing system and search through the system starting from the first entry until we find
what we want. Alternatively, we may have an indexing system that helps to locate what we
want more quickly. For example we may have divisions in the filing system or separate folders
for different types of item that are in some way logically related.
The manual filing system works well when the number of items to be stored is small. It even
works quite adequately when there are large numbers of items and we have only to store and
retrieve them. However, the manual filing system breaks down when we have to cross-
reference or process the information in the files. For example, a typical real estate agent’s
office might have a separate file for each property for sale or rent, each potential buyer and
renter, and each member of staff.Clearly the manual system is inadequate for this’ type of
work. The file based system was developed in response to the needs of industry for more
efficient data access. In early processing systems, an organization’s information was stored as
groups of records in separate files.
Limitations of the File Processing System I File-Based Approach:
There are following problems associated with the File Based Approach:
1. Separated and Isolated Data: To make a decision, a user might need data from two
separate files. First, the files were evaluated by analysts and programmers to determine the
specific data required from each file and the relationships between the data and then
applications could be written in a programming language to process and extract the needed
data. Imagine the work involved if data from several files was needed.
2. Duplication of data: Often the same information is stored in more than one file.
Uncontrolled duplication of data is not required for several reasons, such as:
• Duplication is wasteful. It costs time and money to enter the data more than once
• It takes up additional storage space, again with associated costs.

• Duplication can lead to loss of data integrity; in other words the data is no longer consistent.
For example, consider the duplication of data between the Payroll and Personnel
departments. If a member of staff moves to new house and the change of address is
communicated only to Personnel and not to Payroll, the person’s pay slip will be sent to the
wrong address. A more serious problem occurs if an employee is promoted with an associated
increase in salary. Again, the change is notified to Personnel but the change does not filter
through to Payroll. Now, the employee is receiving the wrong salary. When this error is
detected, it will take time and effort to resolve.
3. Data Dependence: In file processing systems, files and records were described by specific
physical formats that were coded into the application program by programmers. If the format
of a certain record was changed, the code in each file containing that format must be updated.
Furthermore, instructions for data storage and access were written into the application’s code.
Therefore, .changes in storage structure or access methods could greatly affect the processing
or results of an application.
In other words, in file based approach application programs are data dependent. It means
that, with the change in the physical representation (how the data is physically represented in
disk) or access technique (how it is physically accessed) of data, application programs are also
affected and needs modification. In other words application programs are dependent on the
how the data is physically stored and accessed.
4. Difficulty in representing data from the user’s view: To create useful applications for the
user, often data from various files must be combined. In file processing it was difficult to
determine relationships between isolated data in order to meet user requirements.
5. Data Inflexibility: Program-data inter dependency and data isolation, limited the flexibility
of file processing systems in providing users with ad-hoc information requests
6. Incompatible file formats: As the structure of files is embedded in the application programs,
the structures are dependent on the application programming language. For example, the
structure of a file generated by a COBOL program may be different from the structure of a file
generated by a ‘C’ program. The direct incompatibility of such files makes them difficult to
process jointly.
7. Data Security. The security of data is low in file based system because, the data is
maintained in the flat file(s) is easily accessible. For Example: Consider the Banking System.
The Customer Transaction file has details about the total available balance of all customers. A
Customer wants information about his account balance. In a file system it is difficult to give the
Customer access to only his data in the· file. Thus enforcing security constraints for the entire
file or for certain data items are difficult.
8. Transactional Problems. The File based system approach does not satisfy transaction
properties like Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability properties commonly known as
ACID properties.
9. Concurrency problems. When multiple users access the same piece of data at same interval
of time then it is called as concurrency of the system. When two or more users read the data

simultaneously there is ll( problem, but when they like to update a file simultaneously, it may
result in a problem.
10. Poor data modeling of real world. The file based system is not able to represent the
complex data and interfile relationships, which results poor data modeling properties.
11. Data Redundancy: It is possible that the same information may be duplicated in different
files. This leads to data redundancy results in memory wastage.
12. Data Inconsistency: Because of data redundancy, it is possible that data may not be in
consistent state.
Q.) DEFINE AND EXPLAIN DATABASE APPROACH IN DATA PROCESSING.

A.) The Database is a shared collection of logically related data, designed to meet
the information needs of an organization. A database is a computer based record keeping
system whose over all purpose is to record and maintains information. The database is a
single, large repository of data, which can be used simultaneously by many departments and
users. Instead of disconnected files with redundant data, all data items are integrated with a
minimum amount of duplication.
The database is no longer owned by one department but is a shared corporate resource. The
database holds not only the organization’s operational data but also a description of this data.
For this reason, a database is also defined as a self-describing collection of integrated records.
The description of the data is known as the Data Dictionary or Meta Data (the ‘data about
data’). It is the self-describing nature of a database that provides program-data independence.
Difference between file system and DBMS [2]
1. Both systems contain a collection of data and a set of programs which access that data.
A database management system coordinates both the physical and the logical access to
the data, whereas a file-processing system coordinates only the physical access.
2. A database management system reduces the amount of data duplication by ensuring
that a physical piece of data is available to all programs authorized to have access to it,
whereas data written by one program in a file-processing system may not be readable
by another program.
3. A database management system is designed to allow flexible access to data (i.e.,
queries), whereas a file-processing system is designed to allow predetermined access to
data (i.e., compiled programs).
4. A database management system is designed to coordinate multiple users accessing the
same data at the same time. A file-processing system is usually designed to allow one or
more programs to access different data files at the same time. In a file-processing
system, a file can be accessed by two programs concurrently only if both programs have
read-only access to the file.
5. Redundancy is control in DBMS, but not in file system.
6. Unauthorized access is restricted in DBMS but not in file system.
7. DBMS provide backup and recovery. When data is lost in file system then it not recover.
8. DBMS provide multiple user interfaces. Data is isolated in file system.

9. In file system there is no concept of tables or relations between tables it just organize
the records row by row. Database system contains table and relation between the
tables.
10. A “File manager” is used to store all relationships in directories in File Systems where as
a data base manager (administrator) stores the relationship in form of structural tables.
Controlled access to database may include:
 a security system
 an integrity system
 a concurrency control system
 a recovery control system
 a user-accessible catalog.
Advantages:
There are various advantages of introducing database system approach in an application
system. Some of them are discussed below:
Control of data redundancy
In the database approach there is central repository of data that not only helps in avoiding the
wastage of storage space but also helps in controlling the redundancy by data integration. It
helps in avoiding the duplication of data by following techniques like normalization and key
concepts. Thus the data is stored in database table at only one place from where it can be
retrieved when needed, by avoiding redundancy.
Data consistency
This is maintained by following the concept “control of redundancy”. If the data is stored at
one place in a database then while updating any information the changes will be done at only
one place which is reflected at all place where ever it is present in whole database. There is no
need to change at all places where that data is present. For example if an employee has a
change in his address then only in employee table the address will be changed. From there it
will be updated everywhere in database. Thus it ensures all copies of the data are kept
consistent. This helps in maintaining consistency of information throughout the system without
any loss or misleading of information.
More information from the same amount of data
With the integration of the operated data in the database approach, it may be possible to
derive additional information for the same data. All data is stored in a single database, instead
of being stored in various other separate files, making the process of obtaining information
quicker and in an easy way. For example, in the file-based system of a property company, the
Contracts Department does not know who owns a leased property. Similarly, the Sales
Department has no knowledge of lease details. Now when we combine these files, the
Contracts Department has access to owner details and the Sales Department has access to
lease details. Thus more information can be derived now from same available data.
Sharing of data
There is central repository of data in a database system that makes it available to the entire
organization and can be shared by all authorized users.
Improved data integrity

Data integrity mainly refers to ensuring that data is recorded exactly as intended and when
retrieved it’s in the same way as it was when it was recorded. There should not be any data loss
when data is retrieved. It mainly provides the validity and consistency of stored data. The
database application has various Integrity Constraints, which are consistency rules that the
database is not permitted to violate. One of the constraints is specifying data type for every
data item. Another is referential integrity constraint in which a record in one file must be
related to records in other files. These constraints help in maintaining integrity of data.
Improved security
Database approach provides a protection of the data from the unauthorized users. It may take
the term of user names and passwords to identify user type and their access right in the
operation including retrieval, insertion, updating and deletion. Providing the facility of
accessible rights in database system for various levels in an organization makes it secure for
use. For example, the DBA has access to all the data in the database where as a branch
manager may have access to all data that is related to only his branch office. In a similar way a
sales assistant may have access to all data relating to properties but don’t have any access to
sensitive data such as staff salary details.
Enforcement of standards
The integration of the database enforces the necessary standards including data formats,
naming conventions, documentation standards, update procedures and access rules. It helps in
maintaining standards among the user in an organization. The sharing of data within
departments, exchange of information among the users on various projects become easy
following the standard database on a centralized environment.
Economy of scale
Using centralized database helps in combining all organization’s operational data into one
database with applications to work on one source of data. This helps in cost saving as well as
reducing redundancy among the applications. The organizations can invest their money on
buying new tools like good processors, storage space and communications devices. Instead of
each department buying individually, the organization as whole can do this by saving
operational and management time and money.
Balance of conflicting requirements
By having a structural design in the database, the conflicts between users or departments can
be resolved. Decisions will be based on the base use of resources for the organization as a
whole rather that for an individual entity.
Improved data accessibility and responsiveness
By having integration in the database approach, data accessing can be crossed departmental
boundaries. This feature provides more functionality and better services to the users.
Increased productivity
The database approach provides all the low-level file-handling routines. The provision of these
functions allows the programmer to concentrate more on the specific functionality required by
the users. The fourth-generation environment provided by the database can simplify the
database application development.
Improved maintenance

Database approach provides a data independence. As a change of data structure in the

database will be affect the application program, it simplifies database application maintenance.
Increased concurrency
Database can manage concurrent data access effectively. It ensures no interference between
users that would not result any loss of information nor loss of integrity.
Multiple User Interface
DBMS provides a variety of user interface like query language for casual users, programming
language interface for application programmers, command codes for parametric users, menu-
driven interface for standalone users. It provides web based GUI interface to database.
Improved backup and recovery services
Modern database management system provides facilities to minimize the amount of processing
that can be lost following a failure by using the transaction approach.
Main Characteristics of the Database Approach

Self-describing nature of a database system: A DBMS catalog stores the description of the
database. The description is called meta-data which is data about data. This allows the DBMS
software to work with different databases.
Insulation between programs and data: Also known as program-data independence. Without
making any change to DBMS access programs the data storage structures and operations can
be changed.
Data Abstraction: The availability of data model approach helps in hiding the physical view of
data i.e. the storage details and other internal level information and provides the conceptual
view of database.
Support of multiple views of the data: The database approach allows each user to have their
own view of the database which describes only the data of interest to that user. There are
various benefits of having multiple views such as:
 Reduce complexity
 Provide a level of security
 Provide a mechanism to customize the appearance of the database
 Present a consistent, unchanging picture of the structure of the database, even if the
underlying database is changed
Sharing of data and multi-user transaction processing: The database approach allows a set of
concurrent users to retrieve and to update the database. Spreadsheets cannot offer several
users the ability to view and work on the different data in the same file, because once the first
user opens the file it is locked to other users. Other users can read the file, but may not edit
data. For example, when one user is changing data then the database should not allow other
users who query the same data to view the changed, unsaved data. Instead the user should
only view the original data.
Q.) DEFINE DATABASE LANGUAGES.
A.) 1. Data Definition Language:

o DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to define database structure or

pattern.
o It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc. in the database.
o Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of the database.
o Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata like the number of
tables and schemas, their names, indexes, columns in each table, constraints, etc.
Here are some tasks that come under DDL:
o Create: It is used to create objects in the database.
o Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
o Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
o Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
o Rename: It is used to rename an object.
o Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.
2. Data Manipulation Language: DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for

accessing and manipulating data in a database. It handles user requests. Here are some tasks
that come under DML:
o Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.
o Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.
o Update: It is used to update existing data within a table.
o Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.
o Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or update operations.
o Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a Java subprogram.
o Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.
o Lock Table: It controls concurrency.
3. Data Control Language

o DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve the stored or saved data.
o The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback parameters.
Here are some tasks that come under DCL:

o Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.
o Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.
There are the following operations which have the authorization of Revoke:
CONNECT, INSERT, USAGE, EXECUTE, DELETE, UPDATE and SELECT.
4. Transaction Control Language TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML
statement. TCL can be grouped into a logical transaction.

Here are some tasks that come under TCL:

o Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the database.
o Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original since the last Commit.
 Procedural DML allows user to tell system exactly how to manipulate data (e.g.,
Network and hierarchical DMLs)
 Non-Procedural DML (declarative language) allows user to state what data is needed
rather than how it is to be retrieved (e.g., SQL, QBE)
 Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)
o Non-procedural languages: SQL, QBE, etc.
o Application generators, report generators, etc.
Q.) DEFINE SDLC.
A.) Software Development Life Cycle(SDLC) is a process used by the software industry to
design, develop and test high quality software's. The SDLC aims to produce a high-quality
software that meets or exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within times and
cost estimates.
SDLC is using for developing different kind of software's and also show the flow structure of the
software.
Q.) WHAT ARE THE PHASES OF SDLC?
A.) There are 6 phases of SDLC:
 Preliminary Investigation
 System Analysis
 System Design
 System Development
 System Implementation
 System Operation & Maintenance
Q.) EXPLAIN IN DETAIL THE PHASES OF SDLC.

A.) Phase 1: Preliminary Investigation
 Determine if a new system is needed
 Three primary tasks:
o Define the problem
o By observation and interview, determine what information is needed by whom,
when, where and why
o Suggest alternative solutions
 Prepare a short report
Phase 2: System Analysis
 In depth study of the existing system to determine what the new system should do.
 Expand on data gathered in Phase 1
 In addition to observation and interviews, examine:

o Formal lines of authority (org chart)

o Standard operating procedures
o How information flows
o Reasons for any inefficiencies
System Analysis Tools Used
 Checklists -list of questions
 Top-down analysis -start with top level components, break down into smaller parts
through each successive level
 Grid charts -to show relationship between inputs and outputs
 System flowcharts -charts flow of input data, processing, and output which show system
elements and interactions
System Analysis Documentation Produced
 Complete description of current system and its problems
 Requirements for new system including:
 Subject  Scope  Objectives  Benefits
 Possible development schedule
Phase 3: System Design
 Uses specifications from the systems analysis to design alternative systems
 Evaluate alternatives based upon:
o Economic feasibility -Do benefits justify costs?
o Technical feasibility -Is reliable technology and training available?
o Operational feasibility -Will the managers and users support it?
System Design Tools Used
 Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools are software-based products
designed to help automate the production of information systems. Examples:
Diagramming Tools, Data Repositories, Prototyping Tools, Test Data Generators,
Documentation Tools, Project Management Tools etc.
Documentation Produced
 System Design Report
 Describe Alternatives including:
 Inputs/Outputs  Processing  Storage & backup
 Recommend Top Alternative based upon:
 System Fit into the Organization  Flexibility for the future
 Costs vs. benefits
Phase 4: System Development
 Build the system to the design specifications
 Develop the software
o Purchase off-the-shelf software OR
o Write custom software
 Acquire the hardware
 Test the new system
o Module (unit) test -tests each part of system
o Integration testing -tests system as one unit

 Create manuals for users and operators

Phase 5: System Implementation
 Convert from old system to new system
 Train users
 Compile final documentation
 Evaluate the new system
Types of Conversion
 Direct/plunge/crash approach: entire new system completely replaces entire old
system, in one step
 Parallel approach: both systems are operated side by side until the new system proves
itself.
 Pilot approach: launched new system for only one group within the business --once new
system is operating smoothly, implementation goes company-wide
 Phased/incremental approach: individual parts of new system are gradually phased-in
over time, using either crash or parallel for each piece.
User Training
 Ease into system, make them comfortable, and gain their support
 Most commonly overlooked
 Can be commenced before equipment delivery
 Outside trainers sometimes used
Phase 6: Operations & Maintenance
 Types of changes:
o Physical repair of the system
o Correction of new bugs found (corrective)
o System adjustments to environmental changes
o Adjustments for users’ changing needs (adaptive)
o Changes to user better techniques when they become available (perfective)
 Evaluation Methods
o Systems audit -performance compared to original specifications
o Periodic evaluation -“checkups” from time to time, modifications if necessary.

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INTRO TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Q.) WHAT IS DATA?

Q.) WHAT IS INFORMATION?

Q.) WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DATA & INFORMATION?

Q.) WHAT IS COMPUTER?

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Q.) WHAT IS HARDWARE?

Q.) WHAT IS SOFTWARE?

Q.) WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARDWARE & SOFTWARE?

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Q.) WHAT IS SYSTEM?

Q.) WHAT IS INFORMATION SYSTEM?

Q.) DEFINE PROCESS?

Q.) DEFINE KNOWLEDGE?

Q.) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFORMATION & KNOWLEDGE?

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Q.) WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF CBIS?

Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT TELECOMMUNICATION?

Q.) Define E-commerce & M-commerce.

Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM?

Q.) WHAT IS DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM?

UNOFFICIAL NOTES Page 4

Q.) Draw/make Business Information System flowchart.

Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT GENERAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS?

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Q.) WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF I.T?

Q.) CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER:

Q.) DEFINE DRILL DOWN REPORT.

Q.) DEFINE EXCEPTION REPORT.

Q.) DEFINE DEMAND REPORT.

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Q.) DEFINE KEY INDICATOR REPORTS.

Q.) DEFINE SHEDULED REPORT.

Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT ANALOG COMPUTER?

Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT DIGITAL COMPUTERS?

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Q.) WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT HYBRID COMPUTERS?

Q.) DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN ANALOG & DIGITAL COMPUTER.

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waveform of electronic signals) used by while walking.)

Q.) WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF COMPUTERS?

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Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

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o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.

Q.) WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF MICROCOMPUTERS?

 DESKTOP (PERSONAL COMPUTER): It is a personal computer designed for regular use at

 NOTEBOOKS: A notebook computer is a battery- or AC-powered personal computer

 SMARTPHONES: Smartphone is a cell phone that functions like a computer. A new

Q.) WHAT ARE THE STORAGE DEVICES?

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Q.) WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES?

Q.) EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES IN DETAIL.

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 STATIC RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (SRAM)

2) SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES:

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Usb flash drive:

Q.) WRITE SOME FEATURES OF STORAGE DEVICES.

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