Application of Safety Plans for Rainwater

Harvesting Systems in Sri Lanka

K. A. I. L. Rathnayake1, S. A. C. Upeka2(&), K. A. M. Kularathne2,

P. G. K. B. Ranathunga2, T. D. Jayasinghe3,
W. B. M. L. I. Weerasekara3, and S. K. Weragoda3
1
Faculty of Science and Technology, Uva Wellassa University,
Badulla, Sri Lanka
2
China Sri Lanka Research Grant Project,
Ministry of City Planning and Water Supply, Katugastota, Sri Lanka
chashinismw@gmail.com
3
Water Safety Plan Advisory Unit, National Water Supply and Drainage Board,
Katugastota, Sri Lanka

Abstract. Water is often considered the most basic need for sustaining life. As
the world population increases, the demand for quality drinking water increases.
Dug wells and tube wells are considered as the main water source among the
rural community in the dry zone. Rainwater harvesting is receiving increased
attention in the dry zone as an alternative source of drinking water. While
rooftop rainwater harvesting is being promoted, little attention has been paid to
the quality of collected rainwater until recently. It becomes nationally important
to look for low cost options which could be managed and afforded by the
communities themselves. Rain water systems are categorized as individual
systems and there are no proper regulations for maintaining the rain water
harvesting systems. Therefore, it is vital to develop a proper guideline for rain
water harvesting systems. Kebethigollewa was selected as the sample location
due to the high number of rain water harvesting systems available. A ques-
tionnaire survey and focus group discussions with the beneficiaries were con-
ducted to collect data on different rain water harvesting systems, rain water
usage pattern and health concerns due to consumption of rain water. Based on
the outcome of the data from observations, questionnaire survey and sample
analysis, cost effective and community manageable rain water harvesting safety
plan were introduced. Rain water was mainly used for the drinking and cooking
purposes and dug well water was used for other activities like bathing and
washing. Over hanging vegetation was identified above the roof catchment
which may attract animals. Fallen foliage which blocked the gutters were
identified in most of the guttering channels. According to the analysis, samples
shows slight acidity. Turbidity ranged from 0.22 to 2.80 and TDS varied from 5
to 120 mg/l. All the water samples have TDS, Nitrate, Sulphate and hardness
concentration below the prescribed limit.

Keywords: Guideline
Focus group discussions
Rainwater harvesting

Rural community

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020

R. Dissanayake and P. Mendis (Eds.): ICSBE 2018, LNCE 44, pp. 162–170, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9749-3_15
 Application of Safety Plans for Rainwater Harvesting Systems 163

1 Introduction

Water is often considered the most basic need for sustaining life. As the world pop-
ulation increases, the demand increases for quality drinking water. A large population
of the world do not have access to safe drinking water and is suffering from water
scarcity problems. Water shortage issues are a growing concern in Sri Lanka as well,
especially in the dry zone areas.
Dug wells and tube wells are the main water source among the rural community of
the dry zone areas. With the existing questionable hypothesis (excessive hardness,
fluoride and heavy metal contamination in groundwater) developed in the dry zone,
which has susceptible factors leading towards the major health issue of Chronic Kidney
Disease (CKD), the community is looking for alternative sources for drinking water.
Rainwater harvesting is receiving increased attention in the dry zone as an alternative
source of drinking water. Rainwater from individual household roof catchments is
becoming a common practice by the rural community in the dry zone today. While
rooftop rainwater harvesting is being promoted, little attention has been paid to the
quality of collected rainwater until recently. It becomes nationally important to look for
low cost options which could be managed and afforded by the communities themselves.

1.1 Problem Statement

Rooftop rain water harvesting systems can be contaminated at collection, conveyance,
and storage system. As rain water is obtained as a source of drinking water, it is
important to analyze the quality of the harvested rain water. Rain water systems are
categorized as individual systems and there are no proper regulations for maintaining
the rain water harvesting systems. Therefore, it is vital to develop a proper guideline for
rain water harvesting systems.

1.2 Objectives

• To investigate physio-chemical and bacteriological quality of the harvested rain

water.
• To study the water quality deterioration causes and pathways with the time period.
• To assess the health impact and social acceptability of rain water harvesting
systems.
• To introduce water safety plan for rain water harvesting systems.

2 Methodology

Kebethigollewa was selected as the sample location due to high number of rain water
harvesting systems available. A questionnaire survey and focus group discussions with
the beneficiaries were conducted to collect data on different rain water harvesting
systems, rain water usage patterns and health concerns due to consumption of rain
water. Water samples were collected from each rain water harvesting unit and sample
164 K. A. I. L. Rathnayake et al.

analysis was conducted for physicochemical parameters like turbidity, pH, electrical
conductivity, hardness, total dissolved solids, nitrate, phosphate, sulfate, alkalinity and
bacteriological parameters including total coliform and e-coli.
The water quality data was compared with the standards stipulated by SLS 614:
2013 for drinking water. Based on the outcomes of the data from observations,
questionnaire survey and sample analysis cost effective and community manageable
rain water harvesting safety plan was introduced.

3 Results and Discussion

The observed weather condition was dry during the inspection period and temperature
ranged between 25 °C–30 °C. Rain water was mainly used for drinking and cooking
purposes and dug well water was used for other activities like bathing and washing.
Over hanging vegetation was identified above the roof catchment which may attract
animals. Fallen foliage which blocked the gutters were identified in most of the gut-
tering channels. Inadequately sealed storage tanks of the rain water harvesting units
were also observed.

3.1 Water Quality Analysis

3.1.1 pH Value
The pH is a measure of the intensity of acidity or alkalinity and measures the con-
centration of hydrogen ions in water. It has no direct adverse effect on health. However,
a low value, below 4.0 will produce sour taste and higher value above 8.5 shows
alkaline taste. A pH range of 6.5–8.5 is normally acceptable as per guidelines suggested
by Sri Lanka Standards for potable water (SLS 614: 2013). The pH values of the
samples from Kebithigollewa area are in between 4.04–7.19. According to the study
samples collected, the rain water of Kebithigollewa shows slight acidity (Fig. 1).

pH
14

12

10
Concentration

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Sample number

Fig. 1. pH variation
 Application of Safety Plans for Rainwater Harvesting Systems 165

3.1.2 Turbidity
Measurement of Turbidity reflects the transparency in water. It is caused by the sub-
stances present in water in suspension. In natural water, it is caused by clay, silt,
organic matter and other microscopic organisms. It ranged from 0.22 to 2.80 in the
Kebithigollewa area. However, the prescribed limit of Turbidity for drinking water is 2
NTU (SLS 614: 2013). There are 4 water samples with higher turbidity values in the
Kebithigollewa area (Fig. 2).

Turbidity
3.0

2.5

2.0
Turbidity [in NTU]

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Sample number

Fig. 2. Turbidity variation

3.1.3 EC
EC refers to the electrical conductivity of the water solution. When the water is pure
without any dissolved solutes, it conducts electricity naturally. The amount of elec-
tricity that can pass through water is influenced by amount of dissolved ions in the
water. According to Sri Lanka Standards value of electrical conductivity of drinking
water should be lower than 750 mS/cm (Fig. 3).

EC
300

250
Conductivity [mS/cm]

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Sample number

Fig. 3. EC variation
166 K. A. I. L. Rathnayake et al.

3.1.4 Total Dissolved Solids

Total Dissolved Solids may be considered as salinity indicator for water. The TDS in
water is due to the presence of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, bicarbonate,
chloride and sulphate ions. In the study area TDS varied from 5 to 120 mg/l. As the
prescribed limit of TDS for drinking water is 500 mg/l, all the water samples have TDS
concentration below the prescribed limit (Fig. 4).

TDS

140

120
Total Dissolved solids(mg/L)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Sample number

Fig. 4. TDS variation

3.1.5 Hardness
Hardness of water is objectionable from the view point of water use for laundry and
domestic purposes since it consumes a large quantity of soap. Based on the present
investigation, hardness is low. However, the permissible limit of Hardness for drinking
water is 250 mg/l (SLS 614: 2013) (Fig. 5).

Hardness

140

120
Total Hardness [in ppm]

100

80

60

40

20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Sample number

Fig. 5. Hardness variation

 Application of Safety Plans for Rainwater Harvesting Systems 167

3.1.6 Nitrates
Nitrates are an essential source of nitrogen for plants. When nitrogen fertilizers are used
to enrich soils, nitrates may be carried by rains. Nitrate levels in drinking water can be
an indicator of overall water quality. According to Sri Lanka Standards for drinking
water, Nitrates concentration should be less than 50 ppm (Fig. 6).

Nitrate

5
concentration [in ppm]

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Sample number

Fig. 6. Nitrate variation

3.1.7 Sulphate
Sulphate can be found in almost all natural water. The origin of most sulphate com-
pounds is the oxidation of sulphate ores, the presence of shales, or industrial wastes.
Sulphates is one of the major dissolved components of rain. According to Sri Lanka
Standards for drinking water, Sulphate concentration should be less than 250 ppm
(Fig. 7).

Sulphate
30

25

20
Concentration [in ppm]

15

10

-5

-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Sample number

Fig. 7. Sulphate variation

168 K. A. I. L. Rathnayake et al.

3.2 Bacteriological Analysis

If coliform bacteria present in the water, it is not suitable for drinking purposes. (SLS
614: 2013). These samples are from Kebithigollewa from 5 through 11 are not suitable
as potable water.

Location of the Coliform bacteria present in 100 ml E coli in 100 ml of sample

sample table sample at 37 °C at 44 °C
Kebithigollewa 160 00
Rambewa 102 86
Rambewa 218 00
Rambewa 00 00
Kebithigollewa 00 00
Kebithigollewa 00 00
Kebithigollewa 00 00
Kebithigollewa 00 00
Rambewa 06 00
Rambewa 14 04
Rambewa 00 00

4 Recommendation

The results of the data indicates that all the water quality parameters are in acceptable
level for drinking purposes but the considerations on poor maintenance practices of the
rain water harvesting systems should be addressed.
The roof catchment and the guttering channels should be cleaned systematically
because contamination of the roof and guttering channels may be washed into the
storage tanks during the rainfall events and constitute a risk to water quality (When rain
falls after a long dry period, or, any rainwater collected may carry with it significant
amounts of contamination and debris which have accumulated on the roof and in the
gutters. It is therefore recommended that the water running off the roof after the first
storms of the season, and preferably for the first 5–10 min afterwards or until it runs
clear, should be discarded or used for purposes other than drinking).
The overhanging vegetation near the rain water harvesting systems should be
removed as the overhanging vegetation could attract animals that may contaminate the
roof catchment with faecal material.
The gutters should be kept clean as the fallen foliage could also block the gutters
and filters.
The filter box should be cleaned at least once in 6 months of time as clogged filters
may result in contaminating the storage tank due to overflow.
The storage tank should be sealed/covered adequately as lizards and geckos may
enter and produce elevated thermotolerant (faecal) coliform counts. (A fine mesh fitted
to all openings to the tank will prevent the entry of organic debris).
 Application of Safety Plans for Rainwater Harvesting Systems 169

Stagnant water of the water collection area should be cleaned as it may encourage
mosquito breeding and increase the likelihood of contamination entering the storage
tank.
An area of 10 m from the tank should be cleaned as the presence of waste material
(household, agricultural, animal faeces) may constitute a risk to water quality.
• Activities that may result in airborne contaminants such as spray drifts from agri-
cultural practices should be carried out at a safe distance from the water collection
area because it may contaminate the roof catchment.
• The storage tank should be drained, cleaned and disinfected at least annually.
Stored rainwater should be safely stored and handled, and ideally disinfected prior
to consumption (e.g. Chlorination, boiling or any other suitable household water
treatment option).
The quality of the collected rainwater can also be improved by proper maintenance
of the roof and gutters, and careful cleaning at the beginning of every wet season.
It is recommended to conduct an analysis determine the components of asbestos in
water.
Use a food grade paint for the roofing.
Guideline to develop WSP for the Rain Water Harvesting System
• Modification of specified rain water collection removable guttering system to
control contamination arising due to long dry seasons.
• Modification of specified rain water collection tanks with conical shape bottom for
better flushing out performances.
• Educate people to construct at least one part of tile roof Need to facilitate with
subsidy from the relevant authority, Establishment of new rules and regulations.
• The existing Asbestos roofs need to protected with food grade paint to minimise
possible fibre contaminations.
• Introduce household treatment for drinking rain water: Boiling, Bacteriological
filtration, Domestic Chlorination, Blending with existing ground water (10, 20%)
for minimising possible ion deficiencies

5 Conclusion

The most significant impact of the rainwater harvesting system in Sri Lanka is the
ensured supply of water in the homestead. Rain water was mainly used for drinking and
cooking purposes and dug well water was used for other activities like bathing and
washing. Over hanging vegetation was identified above the roof catchment which may
attract animals. Fallen foliage which blocked the gutters was identified in most of the
guttering channels. According to the analysis, samples shows slight acidity. Turbidity
ranged from 0.22 to 2.80 and TDS varied from 5 to 120 mg/l. All the water samples
have TDS, Nitrate, Sulphate and hardness concentration below the prescribed limit.
170 K. A. I. L. Rathnayake et al.

Acknowledgments. We express our sincere and honorable gratitude towards all the staff of
water safety plan advisory unit - Katugasthota for providing the necessary support and guidance
during the period of the research. Our sincere thanks go to the National Water Supply and
Drainage Board (Anuradhapura and Kegalle) for being a supportive hand to conduct the study
successfully. We would like to thank all the personalities including professionals and all other
supportive hands who directed us to succeed in this study.

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