Historical Development of the Seven Sacraments

San Beda College Alabang LAW 102R: Seminar 2 Prof. Carlo Enrico C.
Tinio,
School of Law Liturgy and the Sacraments S.T.B., M.A.PaM.,M.A.L.
Lesson 1.2
THE SEVEN SACRAMENTS:
BACKGROUND, BIBLICAL SOURCES, CHURCH TEACHING
INTRODUCTION
Until recently, Christian understanding of the seven sacraments was largely independent of historical
facts.
One example: From catholic catechisms we read this traditional definition of a Sacrament, “a
sensible sign instituted by Christ, to give grace.” From this definition we assume that all the seven
sacraments have been instituted by Christ, even though there is little evidence in the New Testament
showing that Jesus actually instituted them or instructed his followers to perform those rituals.
Hence, the sacramental rituals were assumed to have remained substantially unchanged for
nineteen hundred years even if there is no direct evidence for this.
Factors that led to this assumption:

➢ Many of the historical facts were simply unknown, buried in the archives of the Vatican and
other old libraries.
➢ No one ever bothered to dig through those documents because they believed that the
truths of the faith were changeless and unaffected by history.
However, historical research in the 19th century made Catholics begin to rethink this position. By the
20th century it was generally accepted that many of the Church’s beliefs and practices had indeed
changed through the years. The table below shows some of the clear, historical and extant data on
the seven ritual sacraments.
Clear, Historical and Extant Data on the Seven Ritual Sacraments

A.D. Sacraments Documents
27 (Easter) Baptism & Eucharist New Testament writings
150 Reconciliation Shepherd of Hermas (140-150)
200 Orders & Anointing Apostolic Tradition (215) {Hippolytus }
400 Marriage Letter of Pope Siricius (+399)
Epistola 231 of Gregory of Nazianzen (+390)
1000 Confirmation Romano-Germanic Pontifical (ca. 950-962)
(separate from baptism)
1200 Seven Sacraments Council of London (1237)
Council of Lyons II (1274)
1500 Seven Sacraments Council of Trent, 7th session (1547)
(“no more, no less”)
From the table above, one can see that the reality of sacramental life in the Church preceded any
theological discussion on the sacraments. “The Christian community lived its sacraments and only
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San Beda College Alabang LAW 102R: Seminar 2 Prof. Carlo Enrico C. Tinio,
subsequently reflected upon and regularized them” [Patricia Smith, Teaching Sacraments (=Theology and
Life Series 17). Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1990, p. 117].
“Christians lived their sacraments long before they codified them” (Smith, 121).
The reflection on the seven sacraments started only at the second millennium because in the first
millennium the Church had other concerns, like the Trinitarian and Christological heresies.
LITURGY AND SACRAMENTS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT WRITINGS
We should know that much of what we have and do in our Christian liturgy originated from the Jews.
For indeed the roots of Christian liturgy are found in the Jewish forms of worship. Take for instance:
➢ our feasts: Easter (=Jewish Passover); Pentecost (=Jewish Pentecost)
➢ our rituals: Eucharist (=Passover meal); liturgy of the word (=synagogue service)
➢ our fixed formulas of prayer: Psalms, Amen! Alleluia!
➢ our Sacred Scriptures: the Old Testment (=the Torah, the Prophets, the Psalms)
Unfortunately, time does not allow us to study extensively the Jewish forms of prayer and worship.
Instead what is more important for us to know is Jesus’ attitude in front of the Jewish forms of
worship during his time and how he tried to inaugurate a new kind of worship.
The terms “Mysterion” and “Sacramentum” in the Scriptures
i. In the New Testament (Greek original text) no word sacrament can be found. Instead we find
the word mysterion.
Background:
o Etymology of the word
Mysterion commonly meant something that was hidden or secret. The verb form,
myein, meant “to close one’s mouth or lips” (root of the word mute).
o In the Greek world, the term mysterion was already used in cult, in philosophy as well
as in Gnosticism.
In Cult Note: Whoever had been initiated into

these cults enjoyed a brotherly
The word mysteria refers to the
solidarity with his co-mystics, was able
mystery cults/religions (their origins
to experience a security in their
are still unknown) which flourished fellowship, and was at the same time
between the 7th century BC and 4th strictly obliged to keep secret the
century AD. Many of them were particulars of the ritual. Those who
concerned about the meaning of life break this obligation were considered
and of death. But common to all of guilty of sacrilege. (See also the
them was what they call the testimony of Cicero in Martos, 35).
mysterion, a sacred
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ritual in which the myth was symbolically presented or re-enacted and its hidden
meaning was revealed. It was the central ritual of each of these cults and it was in
fact something that was hidden, since it was unknown to those who had not been
initiated to the religion. And so it could really be called a mysterion.
In Philosophy
The word mysteria was used to indicate the contemplation of divine things, esp. the
supreme truth or true being from which the uninitiated are excluded. Such
contemplation leads one to be assimilated to the divine and to acquire a certain
immortality. To prepare one’s intellect for contemplation, a discipline of preparation
and purification was demanded.
In Pre-Christian Gnosticism
The word mysterion indicates the arcane knowledge of the origin and redemption of
man. In post Christian Gnosticism, however, the term was abused to refer to magic,
new age, etc.
o In the Old Testament writings (Septuagint), the word occurs twenty times.
o often it means simply secret or secret plan (Jdt 2:2)
o also means divine secret, God’s plan for the salvation of men and women
(Wis 2:22-23)
o divine wisdom itself, not hidden but revealed (Wis 6:22)
o both God’s plan concerning the end of days, and the dream which is an
obscure revelation of it (Dan 2, especially vv 27-30, 44-45)
o to sum up, mysterion in the Septuagint had a twofold meaning: the divine
plan concerning final salvation, and its obscure revelation.
In the New Testament

The word mystery appears 28 times, mostly in the letters of Paul.
mysteria (Mt 13:11; Lk 8:10; 1 Cor 13:2, 14:2)
mysterion (Mk 4:11; rom 11:25; 1 Cor 2:1, 15:51; Eph 1:9, 3:3, 5:32, 6:19; Col 1:26, 4:3; 2 Thes
2:7; 1 Tim 3:9, 16; Rev 1:20, 10:7, 17:5, 7)
mysteriou (Rom 16:25; Eph 3:9; Col 1:27, 2:2)
mysterio (1 Cor 2:7; Eph 3:4)
mysterion (1 Cor 4:1)
In the Synoptics
The word mysterion or mysteria refers to an object of revelation, more precisely, the secret(s) of the
kingdom of God/heaven (Mk 4:11; Mt 13:11; Lk 8:10). From the context of the passages, the mystery
seems to be that the messianic kingdom has come in Christ. Some vague, general knowledge of this
secret can be had from the parables, but they cannot be understood without further revelation,
which Jesus gives only to his disciples in private.
In Paul’s letters
o mysterion bears the common meaning of something hidden or secret, as opposed to what
is revealed or manifested.
o but more precisely, mysterion refers to an object of revelation.
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o God’s wisdom is a mystery, which is hidden from the worldly but revealed to those
who are spiritual (1 Cor 2:7-13)
o The message that he preaches is likewise a mystery since it was hidden from
previous generations (Col 1:26-27).
o Basically that message is God’s secret plan of salvation (Eph 1:9-10).
o More concretely it is the mystery of Christ, hidden before but now made known
thru the Spirit (Eph 3:3-6) & is communicated only to those who possess the
Spirit.
o It refers also to the Church (Eph 5:32). The Church is the form in which this divine plan of
salvation is to be further realized and made known.
o The goal of this mysterion: the complete unity of all human beings with God and with one
another, the fulfilment of what has been preached and begun in Jesus Christ, namely, the
reign of God.
Therefore, the concept of mysterion according to Paul encompasses the sacramental economy of
salvation, to the extent that it contains Jesus Christ, the Church, and the totality of their life.
Moreover, it is intimately connected with the OT and synoptic concept. But it had nothing to do with
pagan cult mysteries, neither was it ever used to designate baptism or the Eucharist or any other
Christian rite.
ii. The Greek term mysterion was eventually translated into the Latin sacramentum.
Nevertheless the word sacramentum did not refer to the Christian rituals.
Note: The appearance of the word
➢ In the first Latin translations of the Bible: mysterion sacramentum in the NT sometimes led
was sometimes rendered as mysterium (in the Itala medieval theologians who knew no Greek
and Vulgate) and sometimes as sacramentum (in the to believe that some of these passages
contained references to the Catholic
African versions). But as to why two different Latin sacraments (as for example, Eph 5:32).
words were used is still unclear.
➢ Although we find the word sacramentum in the Latin translation of the Bible, the fact
remains that in the New Testament neither the original mysterion nor its translation
sacramentum ever refers to Christian rites.
Sacramental Rituals and their Theological Interpretations
i. Although the term sacramentum did not refer to Christian rites in the New Testament, the
early Christians did have something that can be called sacramental rituals.
➢ There is mention of various sacramental actions performed by the first Christians:

baptism, laying on of hands, sharing of the Lord’s supper, ministry of reconciliation,
anointing.
➢ But there is no mention of a single general word like sacrament(s) to refer to them;
each of these actions simply had its own name.
Background:
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Jewish rituals: blessings, imposition of hands, anointing, washings, ritual meals, sacrificial
offerings. In some way, these showed forth God’s saving presence, God’s power and love
for the Jews (In some way because how precisely the divine presence worked among
and for the people was little known, but that God acted effectively through ritual words
and gestures was presupposed).
Jesus’ words and actions: Jesus did not invent new ritual gestures nor did He introduce
totally new signs of God’s presence and power. Rather, He took the familiar religious
words and actions of his time—proclamation of God’s Word, meals of memorial and
reconciliation, water bath, etc.—and transformed their meaning in reference to himself
and to the reign of God. Moreover, not confining his understanding of God’s presence to
ritual gestures and specifically “religious” activities, He spent a great deal more time
among the people proclaiming God’s presence in word and deed (using ordinary things
like touch, spittle, loaves and fish) than He did in synagogue and temple worship. All that
Jesus said and did was presence of God. Indeed, in the early Christian consciousness,
Jesus Christ himself is seen as the great SIGN or SACRAMENT of GOD.
In the New Testament, the early Christians performed rituals as a continuation of the
words and actions of Jesus.
➢ Meals in common during which they shared bread and wine in memory of Jesus
(Eucharist). The sharing was sacramental for through it they experienced
Reference to oneness with the Lord (1 Cor 10:16-17). That unity was not only expressed in rite
the Eucharist but also was lived everyday, that is, they shared their belongings, they prayed
together at temple and at home (Acts 2:42-47; 4:32-35).
➢ Ritual washing or baptism after the Apostles; preaching (Acts 2:22-41). It

expressed the converts’ acceptance of the message preached by the Apostles as
Reference to well as their incorporation into the death and resurrection of Christ through
Baptism whom they died to their sinful ways and were reborn into a new life. For many of
them, it indeed signalled the start of a new life. It was an experience of salvation,
that is, being saved from the way they used to live, conversion of their own
attitudes and fellowship with their new found community.
➢ The laying on of hands especially after baptism meant the coming of the Holy
Spirit on the newly baptized (Acts 8:14-17). This was an experience of being so
Reference to changed inwardly and so filled with a new spirit—the same spirit with which
Confirmation Jesus had been filled—that some even begin to praise God or speak in strange
languages (Acts 19:4-6) much like the experience of the Apostles on the feast of
Pentecost.
Reference to
Holy Orders ➢ Other sacramental actions or gestures: laying on of hands for a particular
and Anointing ministry (Acts 6:1-6); anointing the sick with oil (James 5:13-15).
of the Sick
➢ Although the descriptions of these sacramental rites or actions may not be

complete in detail, they are indeed based on religious experiences; experiences
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that brought about a profound change in the lives of those who underwent
them.
ii. The New Testament writers also included theological interpretations of those rites and
gestures.
➢ In baptism: sins are forgiven and believers are born anew.

➢ With the imposition of the hands: the Holy Spirit is received.
➢ In the Eucharist: union with Christ & with all believers is achieved and eternal life is
gained.
➢ Through the anointing of the sick: health is restored and sins are forgiven.
➢ Above all we find the concept that the memory (Hebrew: zkr) or remembrance is not
just a backward—looking memorial but rather a real making present of a past event,
the death—resurrection of Jesus (Baptism: Rom 6:2-11; Eucharist: 1 Cor 10:14-22, 11:26-
29).
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Sources:
Martos, J., Doors to the Sacred: A Historical Introduction to the Sacraments in the Catholic Church, Garden City,
New York: Image Books, 1982, 34-40.
Osborne, K., Christian Sacraments in a Post-modern World. A Theology for the Third Millenium, New York and
Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1999, 5-9.
Smith, P., Teaching Sacraments (=theology and Life Series 17), Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1990, 17-21.
Van Roo, W., The Christian Sacrament (=Analecta Gregoriana 262), Roma: Editrice Pontificia Università
Gregoriana, 1992, 25-35.
Vorgrimler, H., Sacramental Theology (translation of Sakramententheologie, Patmos Verlag, 31992) Collegeville:
The Liturgical Press, 1992, 43-48.
See also the word entry Mystery in McKenzie, J., Dictionary of the Bible, New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.,
Inc., 595-598.
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SACRAMENTS IN THE PATRISTIC PERIOD
Liturgical Context: Development of the Rites of Baptism and Eucharist and their
Explanations
i. Over the course of a few hundred years, the rites of baptism and the Eucharist developed
and more detailed description of them including prayer formulas were written down.
➢ Baptism: from a simple bathing described in the NT to a richly symbolic ceremony described in
the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus (215 AD).
➢ Eucharist: from a simple meal to an elaborate liturgy described in the Apology of Justin (150
AD).
ii. There appeared also explanations of almost every word and action in the liturgical
celebration especially of the Easter vigil. These are the so-called “Mystagogical Catechesis”
(or catechism on the mysteries). They are actually lectures delivered by the bishop during the
Easter week to the newly baptized explaining to them the great celebration that took place
during the Easter vigil, and thus revealing to them the meaning of the “spiritual and heavenly
mysteries” (referring to Baptism and Eucharist). Among them were…
➢ Mystagogical Catechesis of Cyril of Jerusalem (312/315-386) and John Chrysostom (+417)
➢ On the Mysteries by St. Ambrose of Milan (c. 340-397).
Christian Initiation vis-à-vis the Pagan Mystery Religions
If in the 1st century, there was no talk about sacraments in general…

In the 2nd century, the ceremony of Christian initiation began to be compared by some Christian
writers with the rituals of the pagan mystery cults or religions.
Situation
➢ Non-Christians were not allowed to be present at the final step in the Christian initiation
ritual, namely, the Eucharist.
Problem
➢ The catechumens were questioning why they were not allowed at the Eucharistic
celebration.
Solution
➢ To explain this secrecy, the writers (Justin, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian)
related it to the religious secrecy (of the mystery cults) which most of their audience knew
and accepted. In particular Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-c.215), in his work Protreptikos
(=Exhortation to the Gentiles) spoke of mysteries in this sense. He said that the Christian
rites are representations of sacred realities in signs and symbols, metaphors and allegories,
which only the initiated could understand.
Outcome
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➢ Before long the Christian rites were also referred to as mysteries. When Christianity was
declared the official religion of the Roman Empire (381 AD), the pagan origins of the word
mysterion were gradually forgotten. After that, there were only the Christian mysteries. By
the 4th and 5th centuries, the Fathers have adapted a full mystery terminology to Christian
worship. The outstanding example is John Chrysostom (see Van Roo, pp. 34-35).
From Mysterion to Sacramentum to Christian Rites of Initiation
In the 3rd century, Tertullian1 (+220) started to use sacramentum in a Christian sense, as an
inculturated term for the Pauline concept of the Greek mysterion.
Background:
➢ Etymology of the word:

sacramentum is a composite of two Latin words, sacrare and mentum:
the verb, sacrare = to constitute a thing or a person as sacred or of
divine right
the suffix, -mentum = the person, object or action which is made sacred.
➢ In pre-Christian times, in the field of law, the Latin word Note: The element of religious
sacramentum meant a pledge of money or property, which ethical self-commitment is
already found in the term.
was deposited in a temple by parties to a lawsuit or to a
contract, and which was forfeited by the one who lost the
suit or broke the contract. Their belief was this: only an
appeal to the gods could determine someone’s guilt, or the
degree of his guilt.
➢ Later on, in the Roman army, sacramentum refers to the oath of
allegiance or the act of consecration made by soldiers to their
emperor and the gods of Rome. This consecration brought on their
bodies (right arm and forehead) a sign-seal, an indelible mark
signifying their belongingness or incorporation into the “sacra
militia.”
➢ In either case, we find that the sacramentum involved a religious ceremony in a sacred
place.
From its original meaning, therefore, the term sacramentum already carried a strictly religious, sacred
meaning even before the Christians came to use it in their rites. Note: Tertullian used
sacramentum very often, with
For Tertullian a variety of meanings, and
applied it to many things.
Baptism is similar to the sacramentum of the Roman armies. Among those many
Oath of allegiance to the emperor applications, he used it to
Promise of fidelity to Christ (-Church) refer to baptism (See Van Roo,
p. 37).
1
Tertullian was the first to introduce the term sacramentum into the vocabulary of the western Church.
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➢ He explained that Baptism, which was administered to new recruits, was a ritual through which
people began a new life of service to God. In this way Tertullian actually narrowed down the
Pauline concept of mysterion. He in fact considers only a segment of it. Hence, sacramentum is
that segment of the whole mysterion (the salvific plan of God) and through this sacramentum
one belongs totally to Christ forever.
➢ Because of Tertullian’s influence, sacramentum came to be used as a general term for the
Christian initiation rites, i.e., Baptism—Imposition of Hands—Eucharist. By extension it was also
applied to other Christian rituals and objects used in it, like water, oil, blessings, etc.
Consequently, the one Greek word mysterion began to have two equivalents in Latin referring to two
different but closely related things:
Note: By the 4th century, when
sacramentum = Christian rituals Christianity replaced polytheism in
the empire, the original Roman
usage of sacramentum
mysterion
disappeared and the Christian
usage began to expand.
mysterium = mysteries of faith
(the realities signified by the sacramentum)
Theological Understanding and Interpretation of the Christian Rituals.
However wide the scope of the sacramenta (plural for sacramentum), they did include the sacred
rites of the Church, and the Church Fathers both of the East and of the West tried to develop their
theological understanding of those rites.
To achieve this, they used three sources:

➢ Data from S. Scriptures, understanding them literally at times.
Example: Jesus said at the last supper “This is my body.” Therefore, the Eucharistic bread
must indeed be his body.
➢ Data from what their predecessors and contemporaries said about certain rites
➢ Data from their own personal experience of the sacramental rites
Example: testimony of Cyprian of Carthage (see Martos, 43)
“As soon as the stain of my former life was washed away through baptism’s birth-giving
wave, a calm pure light filled my breast. And as soon as I drank of the heavenly spirit and was
given a new manhood through a second maturity, in an amazing way doubts began to vanish,
secrets started to be revealed themselves, what was dark grew light, apparent difficulties
cleared up, seeming impossibilities disappeared” (To Donatus, 4)
Understanding of the Sacramental Seal or Character
A discussion on the sacramental seal or character began at this time. It was triggered by the
questions being raised on the sacramental practices during this period.
➢ What does the Bible mean when it says Christians are “sealed with the Spirit?”
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➢ Why are some sacramental rites like baptism and ordination never repeated?
➢ Is the effectiveness of a ritual dependent on the holiness of or on the beliefs of the
minister?
The Fathers tried to understand and explain the meaning of the seal with the help of both the
Scriptures and their daily experience.
➢ Meaning of seal in the Scriptures
Literally: a stamp made of engraved stone; or the impression which the stamp
makes on clay or wax.
Metaphorically: signifies that something belongs to or comes from God.
Pauline sense: to be sealed with the Spirit is another way of saying to be

filled with the Spirit. And to be filled with the Spirit means
somehow to become like God, to receive his image or to bear
his likeness.
➢ Meaning of seal in daily experience
in colloquial Greek: the word for seal was sphragis which means a branding iron,
or the mark that it made.
Hence, the water of baptism = the seal that gave new life;
in connection with the seal on the forehead of the elect (see Rev 7:2-8):
seal is a kind of spiritual brand/tattoo marking a person as a
follower of Christ.
Note: Eventually the word
Both meanings include the idea of permanence or indelibility. sacramentum came to
refer both to the visible rite
Therefore, in the understanding of the Fathers the sacramental seal
and to the invisible seal,
was an invisible reality, or more precisely, a spiritual image of Christ which is the hidden reality
permanently and effectively impressed on the soul of the person behind the external rite.
receiving it designating him as belonging to the flock of Christ.
What triggered most the discussion on the sacramental seal were the controversial issues of re-
baptism and re-ordination.
Situation:
At the height of the persecution began by Emperor Diocletian in 303, some of the clergy renounced
their faith. Now, those who persevered in the faith generally agreed that these apostates forfeited
their claim to be Christians and lost all their authority to function as clerics. However, contrary to
what was agreed upon some of these apostates continued to baptized, and some defecting bishops
continued to ordain.
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Problem:
When the persecution was over, a question was raised: Should the Christians and priests, who were
baptized and ordained respectively by the traditores, have to be re-baptized or re-ordained, this time
by clerics in good standing?
Solution:
Council of Arles (a town in southern France, near Marseilles) in 314 decided that such Christians and
priests did not need to be re-baptized or re-ordained.
Objection:
Donatus, bishop of Carthage, together with others objected to the council’s decision. (take note:
Donatus was ordained precisely because the former bishop, Caecilian, was ordained by a defecting
bishop Felix.)
Arguments:
Outcome:
A stalemate for seventy years, both theologically and politically. The Donatists controlled many of
the North African Churches and argued incessantly that the other Churches were in heresy. The
Orthodox bishops, on the other hand, insisted that the Donatists did not represent the Catholic
tradition.
St. Augustine (354-430) and His Sacramental Thought
➢ a bishop, theologian, and saint; born in North Africa right in the middle of
the controversy over re-baptism and re-ordination. A few years after his
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conversion to Christianity, he was ordained a priest and then later, was

made a bishop (395-430) in order to succeed the aging bishop of Hippo
and in order to prevent the diocese from falling under Donatist control.
Augustine’s Solution to the Controversy over Re-baptism and Re-ordination
i. While the Church is the depository /custodian of the sacraments, the proprietor and author
of the sacraments is Christ. Christ is the real minister; the other ministers are only vicars of
Christ. Hence when one is being baptized, it is Christ who baptizes him. What matters is not
the state of the minister who baptizes but his will to baptize, i.e., to baptize as Christ-Church
wills.
the seal (indelible): it was permanent;
- it cannot be lost even if one sins.
ii. The rite of Baptism
has two effects:
God’s grace: it was not permanent;
- It can be lost by committing sin.
➢ Question: which of these was the sacrament?—the rite, the seal, or the grace?
Answer: Both the rite and the seal were considered sacramenta. Since the
seal is also identified with the sacrament, therefore, Augustine could say
that baptism administered by heretics and schismatics (by apostates and
sinners too) would be valid because it truly conferred the sacrament.
➢ Moreover, there is a distinction between the sacrament and its beneficial effect,
which is grace; a distinction which the Donatists simply did not make. One could
receive the sacrament without necessarily receiving its effect, namely, grace.
Moreover, one who received the grace could also lose the same grace, but not the
seal, which remains permanent. (Stray sheep were not re-branded when they were
found, and deserters were not re-tattooed when they return to the army.)
➢ Finally it is not the minister but the rite that confers the seal. The seal was a sign, an
image, a character imprinted on the recipient, making him a Christian, impressed with
the likeness of Christ. It bore not the image of the minister but rather the image of
Christ.
iii. Three long lasting consequences of Augustine’s solution in sacramental theology:

1) it focused attention on the idea that the meaning and effect of a sacramental ritual
were properties of the rite, not of the minister.
2) it solidified the habit of speaking about the sacraments’ being administered and
received.
3) it enabled Catholic theologians in later centuries to draw a general distinction
between sacraments and their fruitfulness.
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Augustine’s Concept of a Sacrament
Though a vast amount of research has been done on sacramentum in the works of Augustine, one
finds no full synthetic account of his thought. His ideas on the meaning of sacramentum are scattered
here and there in his various works. Below is an attempt to present his thoughts on the sacraments
in an orderly manner.
i. Augustine makes a fundamental distinction between things and signs, and between signs and
sacraments.
things: some things are not used to signify anything. Example: wood, stone,
sheep
signs: a thing which, besides the appearance which it brings to the senses,
causes something else to come to thought. That something else is
called the res.
Ex. If one sees smoke, then he concludes there is fire.
sacraments: those signs which pertain to divine things or realities.
ii. Augustine’s general understanding/definition of a sacrament was quite broad.
sacramentum = sacrae rei signum, i.e., a sign of a sacred thing/reality (res)

(Letter 138, 1).
Important Note:
In his works, sacramentum is by no means a
Hence, the Augustinian formula: sharply defined term.
sacramentum = sacrum signum, i.e., a sacred sign - The distinction between sacramentum and
mysterium is not clear.
= verbum visibile, i.e., a visible word - Sacramentum is closely related to figura,
allegoria, prohetia, velamen, and symbolum.
- However broad his concept of sacrament is, he indicates one more specifying factor:
its likeness to the thing signified. For him, sacramentum is not any sort of arbitrary
sign of a sacred or divine thing, but one, which has some likeness to the thing
signified. For if sacraments did not have a certain likeness to the things of which they
are sacraments, they would not be sacraments at all (Letters 98.9).
- According to his general definition, therefore, not only the baptismal rite (sign of
entering the Church), and the seal (sign of belonging to Christ) were sacramenta,
but also the Lord’s Prayer, the Nicene Creed, the Easter Liturgy and the sign of the
cross, the baptismal font and its water, the ashes of penitence and the oil of
anointing—all these were sacraments, since each of them was a sacred sign which
besides the impression it makes on the senses, has an inherent ability to bring some
further idea in mind (Against Faustus II, 1)
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iii. Regarding the number of sacraments
- Because of his wide concept of sacrament, the number of possible sacraments

therefore could be infinite: everything in creation is a sign or reflection of God.
- However, the number of really important sacraments in the Church was relatively
small. These he divided them into
1) Sacraments of the word: sermons, prayers, reading of the scriptures.
These awaken and enliven the faith of the believer.
2) Sacraments of action: water and wine, blessings and rituals.
These involve the believer in worship and other sacred mysteries.
iv. Augustine saw the necessity of word and element in order to have a sacrament.
➢ Augustine, like the other Fathers, thought of the sacraments as the bringing together
of an earthly and a heavenly element. This is manifested externally by the liturgical
action and the prayer of petition. He says,
Accedit verbum ad elementum et fit sacramentum i.e., “a word (verbum) comes to an

element (elementa) and there you have a sacrament.”
As for instance,
“I baptize you…” + water = sacrament
Conclusion: With Augustine a “theory of the sacraments” started to develop but involving only
baptism and Eucharist. It would be only after 1000 AD that a unifying “theology of
sacraments” will really develop, and mostly it would be on the basis of Augustine’s
notion of a sacrament being a sacred sign.
***********************
Sources:
Martos, J., Doors to the Sacred: A Historical Introduction to the Sacraments in the Catholic
Church, Garden City, New York: Image Books, 1982, 40-46.
Van Roo, W., The Christian Sacrament (=Analecta Gregoriana 262), Roma: Editrice Pontificia
Università Gregoriana, 1992, 36-44.
Vorgrimler, H., Sacramental Theology (translation of Sakramententheologie, Patmos Verlag,

3
1992) Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1992, 49-50.
14
SACRAMENTS IN THE SCHOLASTIC PERIOD
Introduction:
During this time, Christians in the East and in the West drifted apart from each other. While
Byzantine Christianity in the East (=orthodox tradition) remained rooted in the patristic heritage of
liturgy, theology and regional autonomy, on the other hand, European Christianity in the West
(=catholic tradition) while retaining its patristic roots, developed its liturgy and theology under the
authority of Rome. Hence in the West…
➢ the celebration of the sacraments developed a newer, more or less stable form, and more
western style.
➢ even the theology of the sacraments began to develop, it was a new style of theology based
on the philosophy of Aristotle. Old theological problems were re-examined and new answers
were introduced. Although there were still scholarly disagreements about peripheral matters
in this area of theology, overall, however, there was agreement on all the main issues. In
particular, the term sacramentum acquired a more developed definition but at the same time
had become more and more restricted in its application. Consequently, by the 13th century, it
was used to refer only to the ecclesiastical rites listed by the Second General Council of Lyons
(1274).
Towards Recognizing Seven Liturgical Sacraments
Sixth to the Eleventh Century

➢ The liturgical practices of the Church began to center around seven major rituals: baptism
(infants & converts), confirmation of baptism by the bishop, penance, anointing of the dying,
ordination (priests), marriage and Eucharist. Of course there were many other ritual practices
too: entrance (of men/women) to monasteries, daily chanting of prayers (by monks/nuns),
blessings, exorcisms, veneration of martyrs & relics, pilgrimages to shrines, etc. But
practically, only seven were becoming the primary liturgical practices of the Church.
Twelfth Century
➢ By this time the “barbarians” had been converted, and Europe had begun to experience
some relative political peace and economic prosperity. Hence, the intellectual task of
understanding religion began afresh (first in monasteries, where for hundreds of years
monks had laboriously copied and recopied fragile manuscripts, and then in the newly
founded schools and universities—Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Salerno, Montpellier). Indeed this
was a time of great discussion and prolific writing on the sacraments, especially at the
University of Paris, where each of the theological schools—Augustinian, Dominican,
Franciscan—had their own experts on sacraments.
➢ However, up to this time, there was still little agreement on the exact nature and number of
the sacraments in the Church. Most theologians admitted both: “sacraments of the Old
Law,” and “sacraments of the New Law.” Various authors had varying number of
sacraments from five, twelve, all the way up to thirty.
o Peter Damian (+1072) Benedictine Cardinal bishop of Ostia, reformer, and

proclaimed Doctor of the Church, states that there are twelve sacraments (baptism,
chrismation, anointing of the sick, anointing of a bishop, of a king, of canons, of
15
monks, and of hermits, dedication of a church, penance, consecration of virgins, and

matrimony).
o Peter Abelard (+1142) enumerated six sacraments leaving out holy orders.
o Hugh (monk in the abbey) of St. Victor (+1141) thought that Augustine’s definition of
a sacrament was too broad and he proposed a definition narrower in scope. In his
treatise De Sacramentis Christianae Fidei he says that a sacrament is a bodily or
material element externally proposed to the senses, by likeness representing, by
institution signifying, and by sanctification containing some invisible spiritual grace. But
the number of sacraments he treated was more than seven, including such things as
the incarnation of Christ, the church, holy water, blessed ashes, the sign of the cross,
and vows. For him there were three kinds of sacraments:
▪ first kind: sacramenta maiora
▪ second kind: sacramenta minora
▪ third kind: (has no particular name)
o Peter Lombard (+1164) theologian, professor at the school of Notre Dame (Paris),
Archbishop of Paris. He wrote Quatuor Libri Sententiarum or the Four Books of
Sentences, which became the most widely used textbook of Theology down to the
sixteenth century.
(Bk I: On God; Bk II: On Creation; Bk III: On Christ; Bk IV: On the Sacraments)

In the fourth book, he defined a sacrament as a sacred sign, which not only signifies
but also causes grace. And then he enumerated seven of them. His textbook not
only crystallized theological thinking around the sacramental rites but also offered a
definition of sacraments, which for the first time distinguished between the seven
sacraments and other sacred signs and rituals.
Something is properly called a sacrament because it Note: This definition

is a sign of God’s grace, and is such an image of stands out for its
invisible grace that it bears its likeness and exists as emphasis on grace and
its cause (Sentences IV, 1, 2). causality.
Hence, for him…
The Sacraments: The Sacramentals:

Both signs and causes of grace Signs but not causes of grace
1. Baptism
2. Confirmation includes:
3. Eucharist statues, crucifixes, holy water and oils,
4. Penance blessings and prayers, religious promises
5. Extreme Unction and vows, other church ceremonies
6. Matrimony
7. Orders
16
Not long after, Peter Lombard’s position on the sacraments would be accepted by
theologians and preachers, as well as by synods and councils.
Otto of Bamberg (1139), the Apostle of Pomerania, was, according to some

writers, the first who clearly adopted the number seven (see Tanquerey,
“De sacr.”). However, most think that this honour belongs to Peter
Lombard.
Various opinions why the sacraments are SEVEN:

- Significant number of completion, totality and all inclusiveness (ex. Seven
days of creation)
- Sum of three (symbol for the divine = three persons in God) & four
(symbol for cosmic perfection = four seasons) thus sacraments
demonstrate God’s saving presence at all times.
Thirteenth Century Onwards
From this time on, not only individuals but various councils started to enumerate seven
sacraments:
i. the Council of London (1237), under Otto,

legate of the Holy See.
ii. the Profession of Faith of Michael
Palaeologus, offered to Gregory X in the
Second General Council of Lyons (1274)
iii. the Decree for the Armenians by the
Council of Florence (1439)
[Cf. Neuner & Dupuis, 1305].
The Sign, the Reality and the Sacramental Reality
Some intriguing questions led to the discussion on the “sacramental reality”:

➢ Why were the medieval no longer satisfied with Augustine’s broad definition of sacrament
as a sign of sacred reality?
➢ Why did they prefer the definition offered by Peter Lombard?
Around the middle of eleventh century, another controversy arose that would lead theologians to
identify a third element in the sacraments, namely, the sacramental reality. The controversy was
started by Berengar of Tours and it was on the Holy Eucharist.
Berengar (1005-1088) was head of the school
of St. Martin of Tours. He was repeatedly
Berengar of Tours (+1088) attacked the idea that the bread condemned for denying the change of
substance at consecration, but he also
and wine consecrated at Mass became the body and blood retracted more than once: first at the Council
of Christ. Christ is present in the Eucharist, but that presence of Rome in 1059, then at another Council of
is only spiritual. Rome in 1079.
His argument:
17
Premise 1: To him, something had to be either a sign or a reality; it could not be both.
The consecrated bread and wine either had to be signs of the body and blood of
Christ, or else they had to be the real body and blood of Christ.
Premise 2: The consecrated bread and wine looked nothing at all like human flesh and
blood. Hence, they were not the real body and blood of Christ. Besides, the real
Christ had ascended bodily into heaven.
Conclusion: The bread and wine remained signs; they were not the real thing. He cites
Augustine to support this conclusion: “A sacrament is a sign of a sacred reality”. If
the Eucharist was a sacrament, it had to be a sign of Christ’s body and blood, but not
his real body and blood.
With this reasoning, Berengar actually assumed that there were only two elements involved
in a sacramental ritual:
i. the ritual itself / the visible sign / the sacramentum
ii. the reality it signified / the real thing / the res
Applying such distinction, therefore, to the Eucharist he held that,

i. the visible sign = the bread and wine, plus the words of consecration
ii. the reality it points to = spiritual union with Christ
Reaction to Berengar:
A number of his contemporaries argued
against Berengar. In 1059 he was forced by his
ecclesiastical superiors to sign a confession of
faith, which admitted the real presence of
Christ. But they did not explain at all how
Christ became present in the bread and wine.
They simply reaffirmed the Church’s
traditional belief.
Solution:
It was agreed that the bread and wine were both a sacrament and a reality: a sacrament because
they were a sign of union with the real Christ, which was achieved in the receiving of communion,
and a reality because they were in reality the body and blood of Christ.
(The very writings of St. Augustine, which at the beginning caused or supported the problem, also suggested
the solution: the seal was both a reality and a sign.)
Outcome:
For this, the medieval theologians, such as Hugh of St. Victor and Peter Lombard, (endorsed even by
Pope Innocent III) developed a three-fold distinction in reference to the sacraments:
➢ sacramentum tantum = only the sign (sacrament) External, perceptible sign
➢ sacramentum et res = both the sign and the reality (=sacramental reality)
➢ res tantum = only the reality (grace)
18
So applied to the Eucharist: CUM MARTHAE CIRCA

➢ sacramentum tantum: bread and wine + words LETTER OF INNOCENT III TO JOHN,
FORMER ARCHBISHOP OF LYONS (1202)
of consecration
➢ sacramentum et res: body & blood of Christ (On the elements of the Eucharist)
➢ res tantum: the grace of union with Christ We must, however, distinguish accurately
between three (elements) which in this
This three-fold distinction in the nature of sacraments sacrament are distinct; namely, the visible
enabled the medieval theologians to approach an form, the reality of the body, and the spiritual
entire range of related theological questions: the power. The form is of bread and wine; the
nature of the sacramental character, the meaning of reality is the flesh and blood; the power is for
valid and invalid sacraments, the nature of unity and charity. The first is “sacrament and
sacramental causality, etc. The notion of the not reality”; the second is “sacrament and
reality”; the third is “reality and not
sacramentum et res or the sacramental reality thus
sacrament”. But, the first is the sacrament of
became a central concept and a standard term in the
one (element) and the reality of the other;
whole Catholic theology of the sacraments. the third is the reality of twofold sacrament.
19
Nature of the Sacramental Character according to Thomas Aquinas
During this period in their drive to develop a comprehensive theology of the sacraments, theologians
raised other questions, this time on the sacramental character or seal.
➢ What was the exact nature of the sacramental character or seal?
➢ What philosophical explanation could be given for its permanence or indelibility?
➢ What is the difference between the character given in baptism and that given in confirmation
and in holy orders?
By the 13th century a general consensus emerged around most of the major issues on the sacraments.
One of the greatest theologians who contributed in settling the issue was St. Thomas Aquinas
(+1274) a Dominican Doctor of the Church known also as Doctor Angelicus with his greatest work, the
Summa Theologiae.
20
Question 63 of the Thomas Aquinas’ Summa Theologiae

➢ According to Aquinas, “the sacraments add two things (effects) to the soul. One is a
sacramental reality like the character or some adornment of the soul; the other is reality only,
namely grace.”
Consequence:
Catholic theologians of the 13th century were
therefore led to consider the character as
sacramentum et res or a sacramental reality.
Note:
Thomas considers sacraments as the cause of grace,
but only in the sense that they are instrumental
causes, since for him God is the principal cause.
Problem:
➢ How could the character be rightfully called a
sacrament?
➢ How could the seal be a sign or sacrament of anything
if it was something spiritual and therefore invisible?
(Remember, Augustine’s definition of a sacrament? =
visible sign of invisible grace.)
Why the seal can be called a sacrament (a sacrament must be something that is visible)
➢ Speculation of some theologians: The seal is visible but only to God or to the angels.
➢ More accepted solution: Visible could either mean visible to the eyes or visible to the mind
(i.e., knowable)
➢ Aquinas argued that the baptismal character could be known because the reception of the
Sacrament could be seen. By knowing who had been baptized, one can know who had the
seal. So, in that sense the seal was visible. Therefore, the character imprinted on the soul is a
kind of a sign (and may be called a Sacrament) in so far as it is imprinted by a sensible
Sacrament.
Nature of the character and the differences between the three characters
➢ The sacramental character was a transformation of a person’s soul, a spiritual conformation
to the redemptive, self-sacrificing priesthood of Christ. It was not as though a person was
stamped on the arm with a tattoo; rather it was as though the whole person were cast into a
new mold and emerged in a new image, that of Christ, the supreme high priest who loved
and was obedient to the Father. If in Creation (the Trinitarian) God made man in his own
image, through the Sacraments Christ made man anew in his own image, i.e., as mediator
between God and man and, in that sense, as priest.
➢ Explained in the categories of Aristotelian philosophy: the sacramental character was a
power, a spiritual or supernatural power (or a capacity) given only by God upon the soul (in
21
the practical intellect) thus endowing the person a certain degree of participation in the
priesthood of Christ.
➢ The characters given by baptism, confirmation, and orders are different. Each of these
sacraments brings with it a slightly different yet more complete participation in Christ’s
priesthood:
o the character of baptism: a liberation from the deformity of original sin, the capacity
to offer pleasing worship to the Father, and a power to receive other sacraments;
o the character of confirmation: a power to live a life of mature and active faith, an
ability to publicly confess Christ and defend the faith, a capacity to participate fully in
the Church’s worship;
o the character of orders: a disposition to service in the Church particularly to continue
Christ’s sacramental ministry among the people, a capability of preaching the gospel,
a power to administer the sacraments so that others may enter and grow in the
Christian life.
➢ On the one hand, while such powers were oriented towards activity, on the other hand,
possessing those powers did not mean that it would automatically be used. One might have
the power but does not use it at all.
Note: the exercise of these supernatural powers was not solely the activity of the one who
received them but always also an activity of the one who gave them, God. Hence, it was not
purely a human activity but a cooperation with divine activity.
Nature of character according to other scholastics:

1. Alexander Hales: The character is a habit in the sense of a permanent quality affecting the soul
itself, though not modifying its action.
2. Bonaventure: The character is a figure configuring us to the Trinity. It is a gratia gratis data, a
mark that transforms a person through imitation.
3. William of Auxerre: The character is not a sensible sign but an intelligible sign.
4. William of Avvergne: The character is a disposition or preclude to grace, thus the theory of the
dispositive causality of the Sacraments.
Indelibility of the character explained philosophically

➢ Philosophically explained, the character was indelible because it had to be received in the
human soul, which was immaterial and, therefore, not subject to decay. Any metaphysical
alteration in the soul would, then, be permanent.
In summary
The understanding of the sacramental character by Aquinas and by others as well:
➢ something real;
➢ a supernatural power given to the soul enabling a person to cooperate with God’s grace and
endowing him a certain degree of participation in the priesthood of Christ;
➢ could not be seen, and yet it could be known through the sacramental rite in which it was
received; so it could legitimately be called a sign or a sacramentum;
➢ could not be lost (because it is imprinted on the soul) not destroyed (because any
metaphysical change on the soul is permanent);
➢ there are three different sacramental characters, since there are three different rites each
signifying something different.
22
Other important Points Treated by Thomas Aquinas on the Sacraments in General
Thomas’ Definition of a Sacrament (Question 60, arts. 2-3)

➢ What is a sacrament?
➢ Is every sign of a holy thing a sacrament?
➢ Is a sacrament a sign of one thing only?
Thomas says that not every sign of a sacred thing is properly called a sacrament. A sacrament is
defined as Signum rei sacrae inquantum est sanctificans homines, that is, a “sign of a sacred thing so
far as it makes men holy.” (modified Augustinian definition).
It is that which is ordained to signify our sanctification. And that which is signified (the sacred thing
sanctifying men) is threefold, with a certain unity of order: Note: All these are signified by the
➢ the cause of our sanctification = Christ’s passion sacraments. Though sacrament thus
➢ the form of our sanctification = grace and the virtues signifies many things, it is not an
ambiguous sign, apt to deceive,
➢ the ultimate end of our sanctification = eternal life because these things signified have a
certain unity of order.
Consequently, a sacrament is a sign that is…
SACRAMENT
A reminder of the A present indication A prognostic
past of that w/c is
effected in us by
Christ’s passion
(commemorative) (demonstrative) (predictive)
= the passion of = grace and virtue = a fortelling of
Christ future glory
The Requirements for a Sacrament (Question 60, arts. 5-8)

➢ Whether determinate things are required for a sacrament?
➢ Whether words are required for the signification of the sacraments?
➢ Whether determinate words are required in the sacraments?
➢ Whether it is lawful to add anything to the words in which the sacramental form consists?
➢ Determined sensible things + determined form of words are both required for a sacrament, in as
much as Christ himself used them.
Recall the Augustinian requirements:
sensible things = > the matter Verbum + elementum = sacramentum
words = > the form
Determined sensible things:

In the use of the sacraments two things may be considered, namely, the worship of God, and the sanctification of man: the
former of which pertains to man as referred to God, and the latter pertains to God in reference to man. Now it is not for
anyone to determine that which is in the power of another, but only that which is in his own power. Since, therefore, the
sanctification of man is in the power of God Who sanctifies, it is not for man to decide what things should be used for his
23 Therefore in the sacraments of the New Law, by which
sanctification, but this should be determined by Divine institution.
man is sanctified according to 1 Cor. 6:11, "You are washed, you are sanctified," we must use those things which are
determined by Divine institution.
~ Q 60, art. 5
Determined form of words:

In the sacraments the words are as the form, and sensible things are as the matter. Now in all things composed of matter
and form, the determining principle is on the part of the form, which is as it were the end and terminus of the matter.
Consequently for the being of a thing the need of a determinate form is prior to the need of determinate matter: for
determinate matter is needed that it may be adapted to the determinate form. Since, therefore, in the sacraments
determinate sensible things are required, which are as the sacramental matter, much more is there need in them of a
determinate form of words.
~ Q 60, art. 7
➢ Besides these, also the right intention is necessary: on the part of the minister, the intention of
doing what the Church does; on the part of the recipient, the intention of participating in the
sacramental rite.
➢ Consequently, the unintentional mispronunciation of words, or the addition or omission of words
that do not destroy the essential meaning of the formula do not render the sacraments invalid.
➢ Moreover, a sinful or wicked minister or heretic can confer a sacrament validly, since, God is the
principal cause of all sacraments while the minister is only an instrumental cause, acting not by
himself but by the power of God.
➢ The way in which the sacrament effectively works, independently of the worthiness of the
minister and of the recipient is termed as ex opere operato (by the work operated).
The Necessity of the Sacraments (Question 61, art. 1)

➢ Whether the sacraments were necessary for man’s salvation?
➢ Some object: the apostle was told (2 Cor 12:9) My grace is sufficient for you. Grace would then not
suffice if the sacraments were necessary for salvation. Therefore, the sacraments are not
necessary for man’s salvation.
➢ Thomas replies: God’s grace is a sufficient cause of man’s salvation. But God gives grace to man
in a way, which is suitable to him. Hence, it is that man needs the sacraments that he may obtain
grace.
➢ Some object: given a sufficient cause, nothing more seems to be required for the effect. But
Christ’s passion is the sufficient cause of our salvation; for the Apostle says (Rom 5:10) If when we
were enemies, we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son: much more being reconciled, shall
we be saved by His life. Therefore, sacraments are not necessary for man’s salvation.
➢ Thomas replies: Christ’s passion is a sufficient cause of man’s salvation. But it does not follow
that the sacraments are not also necessary for that purpose: because they obtain their effect
through the power of Christ’s passion; and Christ’s passion, is so to say, applied to man through
the sacraments according to the Apostle (Rom 6:3): all we who are baptized in Christ Jesus, are
baptized in his death.
The Number of the Sacraments (Question 65, art. 1)

➢ The sacraments of the Church were instituted for a two-fold purpose:
24
o in order to perfect man in things pertaining to the worship of God according to the
religion of Christian life;
o in order to be a remedy against the defects caused by sin
In either way, it is becoming that there should be seven sacraments.
i. The number of sacraments from their being instituted to perfect man spiritually.
ii. The number of sacraments from their being instituted as a remedy against the defect caused
by sin.
I cannot go on…All that I have written seems to be like so much straw compared to what I have seen
and what has been revealed to me. (St. Thomas Aquinas)
25
SACRAMENTS IN THE REFORMATION AND IN THE COUNCIL OF TRENT
Introduction
➢ Widespread abuse in the Church on the following aspects:
o Sale of indulgences to help build the Basilica of St. Peter in the Vatican;
o Excessive veneration of the saints neglecting the mysteries of Christ;
o Pilgrimages for business reasons; Note: in 1506 Pope Julius II started the
o Pompous character of liturgical celebrations; restoration of St. Peter’s Basilica,
o Abuses in private Masses. “which had fallen into decay.”
In 1626 Pope Urban VII consecrated it.
➢ From the 13th to the 16th centuries: different attempts had been made to reform the Catholic
Church from clerical and political abuses: reformers such as Francis of Assisi, Dominic de
Guzman, the Albigensian sect, Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, John Hus, and the nine general
church councils between 1123 and 1517. However, most of these were either short lived,
went unheeded, or else did not get the heart of the matter.
➢ By the 16th century, a new nationalism and a new humanism were rapidly transforming
western civilization from Medieval Christendom into modern Europe; it was called the
Renaissance or the new birth of culture. It was this change in Europe that finally made a
change in Christianity possible. It was in this context that Martin Luther and the other
reformers challenged the abuses in sacramental doctrine and liturgical practices.
The Reform Initiated by Martin Luther

(German Priest and Augustinian Monk, 1483-1546)
➢ Martin Luther attacked scholasticism for being

unscriptural, as well as the doctrine of
transubstantiation, the discipline of clerical celibacy,
and the religious orders.
➢ denounced the corruption of the clergy and the
superstition of the faithful
➢ also denounced the domination of the German Church by the Roman hierarchy
➢ demanded reforms in the field of liturgy in particular:
o worship should be done in the vernacular;
o communion should be under both species;
o reception of holy communion should be during the Mass;
o elimination of abuses, especially on indulgences.
➢ His reformation was a success because it came at a time when, in the spirit of the
renaissance, people were beginning to sense that there could be an alternative to the
medieval mentality, that individuals could think for themselves, and that states could
govern their affairs.
➢ The issues involved in his reform:
26
Main Controversial Issue

o The Church’s abuse or “sale” of indulgences, which were a part of the
sacramental system related to penance at that time.
Personal Issue
o Luther’s doubts about his own personal salvation even though he often
received the sacrament of penance: plagued by temptations and a sense of
his sinfulness despite the asceticism he practiced, he failed to experience any
assurance that he was a just person in God’s eyes.
Deeper Doctrinal Issues

o On Justification: Scripture says “The just shall live by faith” (Romans 1:17). Is
man justified through faith in God’s mercy or through the performance of
rituals and good works? Luther, inspired by the scripture passage, says that
faith, not good works brought salvation.
o The Word of God or the Sacrament?
o Scriptures or Tradition? Scriptures seemed to be more authentically religious
than the current tradition.
➢ The specific event that finally pushed Luther to start the reform:
o The Dominican friar Johann Tetzel, in 1517, preached the
Peter’s Indulgence in such a crude fashion that it gave the
impression that the liberation of souls from purgatory could
be bought at a price. He loudly preached, “As soon as the coin
in the coffer rings, another soul in heaven wings.” Luther,
then, on 31 October 1517 nailed his ninety-five theses to the
door of All Saints Church in Wittenberg and from there the
theses spread across Germany. Hence the controversy
erupted.
➢ In 1520, forty-one of Luther’s theses were declared heretical in the bull Exsurge
Domine. And on June 1521, Luther himself was excommunicated by Pope Leo X. But
this did not stop Luther from spreading his ideas.
Some of the More Striking Heretical Teachings of Luther on the Sacraments
➢ Only two of the rites are considered Sacraments: baptism and Eucharist.
Reason: only these two have clear New Testament evidence.
➢ What about penance? It is a useful rite, but it is not a sacrament strictly speaking.
➢ Sacramental actions had effects that were caused by God. He believed in the real presence of
Christ in the Eucharist (not by “transubstantiation” but rather by a kind of
“consubstantiation”), and salvation through baptism. But he insisted that it was God, not the
sacraments that caused these effects.
➢ Sacraments are not necessary for salvation; they are superfluous. Only faith is enough. Faith
is necessary to perceive and receive these effects.
27
➢ Sacraments were instituted only for the sake of nourishing this faith.
➢ Three essential parts of any sacrament:
o the sacrament or the sign = must be external/visible, having some material form;
o its significance = must be internal and spiritual, within the spirit of man;
o faith = must be applied to use both.
➢ The sacrament was a sign, but it was the faith of the believer in God’s power and goodness
that made it an effective sign and enabled the person to receive God’s grace through it.
The Council of Trent and the Catholic Counter-Reformation
Council of Trent (1545-1563, i.e., twenty-eight years after Luther posted his 95 theses)
➢ summoned by Paul III (1545-47), Julius III (1551-1552) and Pius IV (1562-1563)
➢ interrupted twice (once for four years, and another one for ten years)
➢ purpose: to reform the catholic Church from within, & to combat the Protestant heresies.
➢ over half of its doctrinal decrees dealt with the sacraments. If the reformers tried to revise
the sacraments, the council sought to restore them.
➢ adopted the medieval scholastic view and rejected any other interpretation.
➢ did not attempt to summarize all of catholic theology, but addressed only those beliefs that
were attacked by the reformers, like
o the role of scripture in the Church,
o the doctrine on original sin,
o the meaning of justification,
o the veneration given to the saints,
o the belief in purgatory, and
o the value of indulgences.
➢ For the Council the Christian tradition was not only a theological tradition documented in
conciliar and papal decrees, but a living tradition of Church practice that extended as far into
the past as anyone could remember. It was the experience of the Church they were
defending, and the experience of the Church, it seemed, had always included these
sacraments.
28
Teachings of the Council on the Sacraments
➢ The Council had no intention of saying everything that could be affirmed about sacraments
except to take a stand on several important issues attacked by the reformers. So after having
exposed its doctrine on justification (at the 6th session) the Council treated the doctrine of
the sacraments (at the 7th session). The Decree on the Sacraments (1547) comprises no
chapters but only thirteen canons, each with an attached excommunication as penalty for
those who would not accept such teachings.
➢ The Forward states that all true justification (all sanctifying grace) begins through the
sacraments, once begun increases through them, and when lost is regained through them
(ND 1310).
➢ The following are the Canons on the Sacraments in General rephrased positively.
1. The sacraments of the New Law are seven, no more and no less, and all were instituted
by Jesus Christ (ND 1311).
2. These sacraments differ essentially, not just in ceremonies and external rites, from the
sacraments of the old law (ND 1312).
3. They are not equally important; some are in some way of greater worth than others (ND
1313).
4. The sacraments are necessary for salvation although not all the sacraments are necessary
for each person. Those who could not receive the sacraments must at least desire them
(ND 1314).
5. The sacraments were instituted not only for the sake of nourishing the faith (ND 1315).
6. The sacraments contain the grace they signify and confer that grace on those who do not
place an obstacle in the way (ND 1316)
7. As far as God’s part is concerned, grace is given through the sacraments always and to all
(ND 1317).
29
8. Through the sacraments grace is conferred by the performance of the rite itself (ex opere
operato); faith alone is not sufficient to obtain grace (ND 1318).
9. Baptism, Confirmation and Order imprint on a soul a character, a kind of indelible spiritual
sign, by reason of which these sacraments cannot be repeated (ND 1319).
10. Not all Christians have the power to preach the word and to administer all the
sacraments. [For certain of those acts, ordination is necessary] (ND 1320).
11. The intention of at least doing what the Church does is required in the ministers when
they are performing and conferring the sacraments (ND 1321).
12. A minister in the state of mortal sin performs and confers a valid sacrament as long as he
observes all the essentials that belong to the performing and conferring of the
sacrament (ND 1322).
13. The accepted and approved rites of the Catholic Church customarily used in the solemn
administration of the sacraments may not be despised or omitted without sin by the
ministers as they please, nor may they be changed to other new rites by any pastor in the
Church (ND 1323).
(See Martos, page 104 for a good assessment or an overview of the history of sacramental theology
and practice from the Fathers up to Trent.)
Emphasis of Trent on the Objective Efficacy of the Sacraments
Requirements for the Requirements for the

Validity of the Sacraments Fruitfulness of the
Sacraments
Signs Proper Matter
Proper Form
Minister Right Intention
Recipients Absence of impediments Right Faith
(Age, Sex…)
Effects Sacramental Reality & Grace (Sacramental Grace)
“ex opere operato” “ex opere operantis”
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SACRAMENTS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Sacramental Theology
➢ With Trent, the central issues in sacramental theology were settled. They had become
officially defined doctrines, or Catholic dogmas.
➢ For the next four centuries, the only developments would be refinements in peripheral
matters, speculations on secondary issues, like the manner in which Christ instituted the
sacraments, the philosophical explanations of sacramental causality, or the metaphysical
nature of the sacramental character.
Sacraments were seen as

➢ objective means of grace
➢ instrumental causes of grace at the disposal of the Church The connection
➢ they were not precisely identified as acts of the Church but as between Christ and
acts of the minister of Christ’s Church which take place in the the Sacraments as
Church well as between the
➢ They were believed to be instituted by Christ. However, the role Church and the
of Christ in the actual celebration of the sacraments is hardly Sacraments is
given attention except in the case of the Eucharist. therefore weak.
2.4.5.2 Sacramental practice

➢ Regarding sacramental practice, the words and gestures of the seven sacraments became
standardized in the Roman Missal and Sacramentaries, and remained unchanged up to
Vatican II.
➢ But at the same time, new sacramental practices, that is, sacraments in the broad sense,
emerged and began to develop. They were called sacramentals or devotions or pious
practices. This was evidenced by proliferation of prayer books with devotions, collections of
prayers and reflections. Such devotions were directed to…
o God the Father, to the Holy Spirit, to God’s Eternal Wisdom;
o various aspects of Christ’s life esp. his suffering and death;
o the Holy Child Jesus or the Santo Nino
o the Sacred Heart of Jesus
o the Blessed Sacrament
o Mary, the Mother of Christ, to her joys and sorrows;
o special saints
Devotional prayers and practices increased and multiplied, such as…

o the Angelus Prayer
o the Rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary
o the Litanies
o the Way of the Cross
➢ In time the seven ecclesiastical sacrament became a central part of catholic doctrine but a
marginal part of catholic religious life. Many Catholics relied more on sacramental devotions
rather than on officially recognized sacraments like mass and confession to intensify their
faith and expand their religious awareness.
31
Shift of Emphasis from Trent to Vatican II
Trent Vatican II
Shift of Emphasis Requirements for the Validity of Requirements for the
the Sacraments Fruitfulness of the Sacraments
(i.e., valid administration) (i.e., fruitful celebration)
Signs Proper Matter Variations
Proper Form Adaptations
Creative Animation
Minister Right Intention Proper Disposition
Art and Science of Presiding
Recipients No impediments Proper Disposition:
(Age, Sex…) - Right Faith
- Right Intention
Active Participation
Lit. Formation / Catechesis
Effects Sacramental Reality Sacramental Grace
“ex opere operato” “ex opere operantis”
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SACRAMENTS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Introduction:
As we have seen, post-Tridentine theology, in the process of emphasizing the ex opere operato
efficacy of the sacraments, has to a certain extent lost sight of their personal dimension. In the 20 th
century, however, this dimension was recovered and a renewal in sacramental practice as well as a
revival in the understanding of the sacraments ensued. Thanks to the 20th century liturgical
movement (see KEVIN IRWIN, “Sacrament,” in New Dictionary of Theology, KOMONCHAK, JOSEPH et al.,
eds., Pasay City: St. Paul Publication, 1991, pp. 918-922).
Some Important Contributors to the Growing Liturgical Movement
Pope Pius X (1903-1914): Active participation in the Liturgy

- In his Motu Proprio on church music Tra le sollecitudini (1903) Pope Pius X called for “active
participation in the holy mysteries and in the public and solemn prayer of the Church.” His
desire was that both polyphony and the simple Gregorian chant should truly glorify God
“raising and forming the hearts of the faithful to all sanctity.” It was also his wish that both
young and old should sing God’s praises at Mass according to their talents.
Odo Casel: Liturgy and Sacraments as making present the mystery of Christ.
- The work of Dom Odo Casel, Das Christliche Kultmysterium (The
Dom Odo Casel (1886-
Mystery of Christian Worship, first published in 1932) centered on 1948) a monk of Maria
the mystery of God present and active in the liturgy. It was he who Laach (Germany), was
recovered the notion of liturgical memorial that is central to the one of the
outstanding German
understanding of both Jewish worship and Christian sacraments. liturgical scholars.
Remember, St. Thomas Aquinas referred to the sacraments as signs
that are commemorative, demonstrative and prefigurative.
- His studies convinced him that the liturgy is to be regarded as a mystery celebration in
which the primordial mystery, Jesus Christ, becomes redemptively present with his saving
activity. That means, and this is the essential point for him, in the celebration of the liturgy
and the sacraments, Christians do not simply gain graces but they experience the
mysteries of Christ anew.
Pius XII: Sacraments as actions of Christ

➢ Two encyclical letters, which he wrote pertaining to the sacraments are Mystici Corporis and
Mediator Dei.
i. Mystici Corporis (1943)

o In this letter, the Pope shows the meaning of the various sacraments for the spiritual
life of individual Christians and in relation to the mystery of the Church.
▪ The Church = the Mystical Body of Christ
This Mystical Body is endowed
with the sacraments, making available for its members a progressive series of
graces to sustain them from cradle to their last breath, and abundantly
providing also for the social needs of the whole Body.
▪ The Sacraments = Actions of Christ through the Church
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When the Church administers the sacraments with external rites, it is He who
produces their effect in the soul. He it is, too, who feeds the redeemed with His
own flesh and blood…
…it is indeed He who baptizes through the Church, He who teaches, governs,
absolves, binds, offers and makes sacrifice.
o The point of emphasis lies on Christ acting through his Church.
ii. Mediator Dei (1947)

o It is the “magna carta” of the liturgical renewal of the 20th century.
o In this letter the Pope gave approval to the
efforts of the liturgical movement, Four parts of the document:
defined/described liturgy and while he gave 1) The Nature, Origin and
due importance to both its external and Development of the Liturgy
2) Eucharistic Worship
internal elements, he emphasize the internal
3) The Divine Office and the
element. Most important of all, the Pope laid Liturgical Year
stress on Christ’s action and presence in the 4)Pastoral Instruction
sacraments.
o The Pope identified the various ways Christ is present in the sacraments
▪ in the august sacrifice of the altar, both in the person of his minister and
especially under the Eucharistic species;
▪ in the sacraments by his power which He infuses into them as instruments of
sanctification;
▪ finally in the prayer and praise which are offered to God…
o At the same time he invited the faithful to have the right dispositions in receiving the
sacraments in order to obtain their proper effects.
To have their (referring to the sacraments and the Mass) proper effect, they
require our souls also to be in the right dispositions.
…therefore, they (the members of this Body) must deliberately set their lips to
the source of grace, absorb and assimilate this food of life, and uproot from
themselves anything that may obscure its efficacy. So the work of our
redemption, though in itself something independent of our will, really calls for
an interior effort from our souls if we are to attain eternal salvation.
Renewal in Sacramental Theology
Contemporary Catholic theologians
➢ What are sacraments according to contemporary Catholic theology?
o No simple answer to that question;
o Different books or journals, various preachers or catechists would talk about

sacraments in extremely diverse ways: as signs of grace, acts of Christ, expressions of
the nature of the Church, symbolic actions, encounters with God, celebrations of life,
participation in Jesus’ worship of the Father;
o Yet amidst the diversity, according to Joseph Martos, a recurrent theme and definite
trend may be seen underlying all, (theme) that sacraments are doors to the
34
experience of the sacred, and (trend) more experiential accounts are considered in
the explanation of the sacraments.
o In the century and a half preceding the Second Vatican Council several theologians
returned to the ancient broad sense of sacrament as designating Christ and the
Church. Henri de Lubac, Johann Adam Möhler, Karl Rahner, Matthias Joseph
Scheeben, Edward Schillebeeckx, Otto Semmelroth. Each one of them in his own way
stressed the general sacramentality of Christ and the Church as Ursakrament
(prime/primordial sacraments).
o The language of encounter and phenomenology characterize their reflection on the

dynamism of the sacraments. Such an approach signals a shift from emphasizing
Christ’s presence to the community’s transformation through sacraments. It also
marks a shift from emphasizing sacraments as things to sacraments as events.
A Sampling
Edward Schillebeeckx (1914-2009): Sacraments as encounters with Christ
➢ Edward Schillebeeckx is a Belgian theologian who wrote

extensively on the sacraments in the 50s and 60s. He showed
that Catholicism could develop a theology of the sacraments,
which was both faithful to the insights of Aquinas and free of
the minimalistic tendencies of late scholasticism. The basic
terms he used, however, were from contemporary
existentialism (anthropology and phenomenology).
➢ Here is his new approach to the Sacraments:
Sacramental experience
o Schillebeeckx suggests that the closest equivalent to what happens in a sacramental
experience is an existential encounter between two persons both whom discover
something of the mystery that the other person is.
▪ Example: two persons who fall in love see beyond the physical appearance of the
other person to a beauty and a value in that person that others cannot see. In that
encounter of love they see the same outward signs that others see, but to them the
words and gestures of the other person reveal a depth of reality that is ordinarily
hidden from view.
Sacraments defined
o Sacraments are outward signs that reveal a transcendent, divine reality. They open
up the possibility of falling in love with God.
▪ Jesus, when he lived in Palestine, was that same kind of sacramental sign to
many of those who knew him…that is, sign of the mystery of God.
▪ The community of those whom Christ had called together was also a
sacrament to others…a sign revealing God’s mystery and God’s presence.
▪ In time this church came to see itself as making the divine mystery present in
the world primarily in seven ways, corresponding to seven ways that Christ
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was a sacrament of God to others. In these seven, the Christian community

recognized that the redemptive mystery of Christ was present, and those
who participate in these ritual actions can actually encounter the source of all
salvation. As official signs and acts of the Church, they are also signs and acts
of Christ.
o Each sacrament is the personal saving act of the risen Christ himself, but realized in
the visible form of an official act of the Church.
o A more determinate definition:
They are ecclesial acts of worship, in which the Church in communion of grace with its
heavenly Head (i.e., together with Christ) pleads with the Father for the bestowal of
grace on the recipient of the sacraments, and in which at the same time the Church
itself, as saving community in holy union with Christ, performs a saving act (E.
SCHILLEBEECKX, Christ, the Sacrament of the Encounter with God. New York: Sheed and
Ward, 1963, p. 66).
About the fruitfulness of the sacraments
o In themselves, that is, as encounters with Christ, the seven ritual sacraments are
fruitful: they communicate God’s grace and change people’s lives. Yet even if they are
not fruitful, they are still valid as signs of Christ.
About the permanent character that some sacraments give

o In the same way that all deeply interpersonal encounters change a person inwardly
and call for an outward response, some sacramental encounters have a permanent
effect—the sacramental characters of baptism, confirmation and orders—on those
who fully participate in the Church’s rituals, calling these Christians to respond with a
life of faith, of witness and of service.
Evaluation
➢ Schillebeeckx succeeded in translating the ideas of scholastic sacramental theology into
more contemporary philosophical language.
➢ This success led the bishops of Vatican II to allow other Catholic theologians to re-examine
the traditional teachings of the Church and to restate them in non-traditional ways.
➢ According to Schillebeeckx’s paradigms, the essence of any sacrament is the encounter with
Christ, made available through ecclesial rites, which admittedly had changed through the
centuries. This means that if the outward rites have changed without their essence being
lost, they could certainly be changed again, and at times should really be changed in order to
be more effective signs of the encounter with Christ.
36
Second Vatican Council (1962-1965)
➢ Vatican II was convened not to refute a particular set of problems or a particular heresy but
to advance the pastoral mission of the Church. Hence it can be observed that its statements
bear a positive tone.
➢ Its sacramental doctrine is more comprehensive compared to that of the Council of Trent. It
us deeply Trinitarian and Christocentric, at the same time stressing the ecclesial dimension of
the sacraments.
i. Towards Jesus Christ as the Primordial Sacrament

➢ The faith conviction that Jesus is the sacrament of God is deeply rooted in the
New New Testament. He was called the icon, the image of God pure and simple (2 Cor
Testament 4:4; Col 1:15), the visible epiphany of the invisible essence of God (Heb 1:1-2; 1 Jn
witness
1:1; Jn 14:9), the Word (of God) which became flesh (Jn 1:1-18).
➢ This description of Jesus Christ as a sacrament rests on New Testament theology
of the mysterium. In Pauls’ letter to the Ephesians and to the Colossians,
mysterium refers to God’s saving plan revealed and realized in Jesus Christ (Eph
1:9-10; 2:11-3:13; Col 1:20, 26-27; 2:2; cf. also Rom 16:25-26).
Patristic and
➢ For this, many Church Fathers, including Augustine, call him the mystrium Dei or
Scholastic sacramentum Dei. Thomas Aquinas understood Jesus Christ to be “the
witness fundamental sacrament, in so far as his human nature, as the instrument of
divinity, effects salvation. Martin Luther was probably referring to Augustine
when he said: “Sacred Scripture knows but a single sacrament, and that is Christ
the Lord himself.”
➢ When the great nineteenth century renewal of ecclesiology occasioned a more

19th and 20th
penetrating reflection on the sacramentality of the Church and its relationship to
century witness the sacramentality of Jesus Christ, he was first referred to as “the great
sacrament.”
➢ It appears that Carl Feckes (+1958) was the first person in the 20th century who in
reviving these ideas, called Jesus Christ, the “primordial sacrament
(Ursakrament)” on whom rests the “sacramental world” of the Church and the
individual sacraments.
➢ In Karl Rahner’s (1904-1984) Christology, Jesus Christ is understood as “the real
presence in history of the victorious eschatological mercy of God in the world” or
as “the sacramental primordial Word of God in the history of the one humanity.”
In his work The Church and the Sacraments, he wrote, “Christ in his historical
existence is both reality and sign, sacramentum and res sacramenti of the
redemptive grace of God” (pp. 15-16).
➢ In the Spirit of renewed Thomism and under the influence of an existential
philosophy of encounter, Edward Schillebeeckx described Jesus Christ as “the
sacrament of the encounter with God” which is exactly the title of his work. He
wrote, “The man Jesus , as the personal visible realization of the divine grace of
redemption, is the sacrament, the primordial sacrament, because this man, the
Son of God himself, is intended by the Father to be in his humanity the only way
37
to the actuality of redemption…Human encounter with Jesus is therefore the

sacrament of the encounter with God” (p.15).
➢ The Second Vatican Council, without using the words “sacrament” or “primordial
sacrament” implicitly affirms the sacramentality of Jesus Christ in two of its
documents Sacrosanctum Concilium and Lumen Gentium.
Christ’s humanity, united with the person of the Word was the instrument of
our salvation. Therefore ‘in Christ the perfect achievement of our reconciliation
came forth and the fullness of divine worship was given to us’ (SC 5;
Sacramentarium Veronese).
Christ is the light of humanity;…Since the Church, in Christ, is in the nature of
sacrament—a sign and instrument, that is, of communion with God and of
unity among all men…(LG 1).
ii. Church as Fundamental Sacrament
➢ The ecclesiology of the New Testament conceives the Church, from the
beginning, as the community of disciples who, filled and guided by the divine
New Testament
witness
Spirit, continue the mission of Jesus Christ. The Church is described as the body
of Christ made up of many members united by the divine Spirit, with Jesus Christ
as its head (Romans, 1 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians).
➢ The sacramentality of the Church was expressed by the Fathers in an even

greater variety of images than is found in the New Testament. The Didache calls
Patristic the Church a “cosmic mystery”. Cyprian refers to the Church as inseparabile
witness
sacramentum unitatis. A 5th century prayer that is still part of the liturgy, and was
cited by Vatican II (SC 5), implores God to look graciously on “the wondrous
sacrament of your whole Church”.
➢ In Neo-Scholasticism of the late 19th century there were occasional attempts to
make clear conceptual distinction between Jesus Christ, the Church, and the
19th and 20th
century
Church’s individual sacraments. If Jesus Christ is called the “primordial
witness sacrament,” the Church is now the “higher sacrament”. The French theologians
Yves Congar (1937) and Henri de Lubac (1938) reapplied the perspective of the
sacramental economy of salvation and the understanding of the Church as
“sacrament”. The designation “primordial sacrament (Ursakrament)” was
applied to the Church by Otto Semmelroth and Karl Rahner after the war. Later
on Semmelroth referred to the Church as the “root sacrament,” while Rahner
called it the “fundamental sacrament (Grunsakrament)”. This was to avoid the
terminological confusion occasioned by simultaneously calling Jesus Christ and
the Church as “primordial sacrament” and in order to highlight the enduring,
qualitative difference between them.
➢ The Second Vatican Council took up the word “sacrament” as a designation for
the Church. This is clearly expressed in the following documents: Dogmatic
Constitution on the Church, Lumen Gentium (1964), Decree on the Church’s
Missionary Activity, Ad Gentes (1965), Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the
38
Modern World, Gaudium et Spes (1965). It is also implicitly affirmed in its first
document Sacrosanctum Concilium (1963).
Since the Church, in Christ, is in the nature of a sacrament—a sign and

Lumen Gentium
instrument, that is, of communion with God and of unity among all men…(LG 1;
GS 42).
All those, who in faith look towards Jesus, the author of salvation and the
principle of unity and of peace, God has gathered together and established into
the Church, that it may be for each and everyone the visible sacrament of this
saving unity (LG 9).
Rising from the dead he (Christ) sent his life-giving Spirit upon his disciples and
through him set up his Body which is the Church as the universal sacrament of
salvation (LG 48).
Whether it aids the world or whether it benefits from it, the Church has but one
Gaudium et Spes
purpose—that the kingdom of God may come and the salvation of the human
race may be accomplished. Every benefit the People of God can confer on
mankind during its earthly pilgrimage is rooted in the Church’s being “the
universal sacrament of salvation,” at once manifesting and actualizing the
mystery of God’s love for men (GS 45).
Having been divinely sent to the nations that she might be “the universal
Ad Gentes
sacrament of salvation,” the Church, in obedience to the command of her
founder (Mt 16:15) and because it is demanded by her own essential universality,
strives to preach the Gospel to all men (AG 1).
…the Lord, who had received all power in heaven and on earth (cf. Mt 28:18)
founded his Church as the sacrament of salvation (AG 5).
The Church is essentially both human and divine, visible but endowed with
Sacrosanctum
Concilium invisible realities, zealous in action and dedicated to contemplation, present in
the world, but as a pilgrim, so constituted that in her the human is directed
toward and subordinated to the divine, the visible to the invisible, action to
contemplation, and this present world to that city yet to come, the object of
our quest (SC 2. See also SC 5).
Liturgical services are not private functions but are celebrations of the Church
which is ‘the sacrament of unity,’ namely ‘the holy people united and arranged
under their bishops’ (SC 26).
Pastoral Implications:
The shift of emphasis made by Vatican II from the sacramental rite to the sacramental nature of the
Church brings with it some pastoral implications.
1. Sacraments are not isolated acts of individual ministers or recipients. They are symbolic
activities which express and belong to the entire people of God. They are both the activity
of the Church and the expression of the Church.
2. The Church is not only the place of sacramental rites. Rather, the Church is the agent in
sacramental celebrations; the subject that performs and celebrates the rite.
39
3. The sacraments acquire their meaning only to the extent that they are sustained by
(prepared by and leads to) a pastoral action that endeavours to be sacramental, namely,
kerygma and diakonia, proclamation of the word and service of charity. Moreover,
sacramental celebrations should be sustained also by a pastoral ministry of the sacraments
that embraces not only the moment of the rite (the time during) but the time before and
after as well.
In short, there is less emphasis on the individual aspect and more emphasis on the ecclesial aspect;
less on personal growth, but more on community up building, less on the administration and
reception but more on the celebration and participation.
*********************
Sources:
Osborne, K., Christian Sacraments in a Post-modern World. A Theology for the Third Millenium, New York and Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist
Press, 1999, 5-40.
Osborne, K., Sacramental Theology. A General Introduction, Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1988, 10-14.
Smith, P., Teaching Sacraments (=theology and Life Series 17), Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1990, 110-116.
Vorgrimler, H., Sacramental Theology (translation of Sakramententheologie, Patmos Verlag, 31992) Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1992,
30-42.
Vaillancourt, R., Toward a Renewal of Sacramental Theology (translation of Vers un renouveau dela théologie sacramentaire, Montreal
1977). Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1979, 35-47.
40
THE SEVEN SACRAMENTS:

BIBLICAL SOURCES AND CHURCH TEACHING
BAPTISM
RECIPIENTS AND MINISTERS Reference
Recipients Every person not yet validly baptized including infants CCC 1246; 1250
Proper Bishops, Priests, Deacons
Ministers
Extra Ordinary In emergency cases, esp. in danger of death, any lay CCC 1256
Ministers persons, and even non-catholics and non-christians
EXTERNAL SIGNS
Proper Matter Triple immersion in water (whole body or head only) CCC 1239
Triple pouring of water on the head
Proper Form I baptize you in the name of the Father & of the Son & of CCC 1240
the Holy Spirit
EFFECTS
Principal Effect Purification from sins and new birth in the Spirit CCC 1262-1269
(Grace) - Forgiveness of all sins: both original sin and personal
sins as well as all punishment for sins;
- Regeneration/adoption as a child of God
- Becoming a member of Christ and co-heir with him
- Becoming a temple of the Holy Spirit
- Incorporation into the Church
Reception of sanctifying grace (grace of justification)

1. Theological virtues: enabling one to believe in God,
hope in him, and love him
2. Gifts of the Holy Spirit: empowering one to live and
act under the prompting of the Holy Spirit
3. Moral virtues: allowing one to grow in goodness
Other Effect Indelible character or seal: CCC 1272-1274
- Configuration to Christ
- Consecration for Christian religious worship
Mission To serve God by a vital participation in the holy liturgy.
To exercise their baptismal priesthood by the witness of
holy lives and practical charity.
BIBLICAL FOUNDATIONS
Jesus’ Words Jesus affirms the necessity of baptism by water and the
and Deeds Holy Spirit so that we could enter God’s Kingdom. Jn 3:5.
Jesus foresees his crucifixion and death as the real Lk 12:49-50;
baptism he is to undergo. Mk 10:38.
Jesus entrusts his mission to his disciples, commands
them to proclaim the good news to all and baptize them
Mt 28:18-20;
41
(in the name of the Father & of the Son & of the Holy Mk 16:15-16.
Spirit)
Jesus’ Deeds Jesus Himself was baptized by John the Baptist in the Mt 3:13-17;
river Jordan. Mk 1:9-11; Lk 3:21-22;
Jn 1:29-34.
Jesus underwent his passion, death and resurrection for Mt 26-28; Mk 14-16;
the forgiveness of our sins. Lk 22-24; Jn 18-20.
Words and Peter and the apostles preached the need for the people
Deeds of the to reform and be baptized that their sins may be forgiven
Apostles and that they may receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. Then Acts 2:37-41;
some three thousand Jews accepted the message and
were baptized.
Philip preached to the Ethiopian eunuch and baptized him
(by immersion). Acts 8:36-38;
Paul himself was baptized by Ananias. Acts 9:18-19;
Peter baptized Cornelius and other gentiles who were
filled with the Holy Spirit after his preaching. Acts 10:44-48;
Paul baptized Lydia and her household in Thyatira. Acts 16:14-15;
Paul and Silas baptized the jailer and his whole
household. (This baptism of whole households could Acts 16:29-34.
include the baptism of infants and children.)
Paul explains the meaning of baptism. Rom 6:3-11; 8:11
CONFIRMATION
RECIPIENTS AND MINISTERS References
Recipients Every validly baptized person not yet confirmed; CCC 1306; 1307
Must have reached the age of discernment or discretion
Proper Bishops (and only some priests) CCC 1313
Ministers
Extraordinary In danger of death, any priest CCC 1312-1314
Ministers
EXTERNAL SIGNS
Proper Matter Anointing of the forehead with chrism done by the laying CCC 1300
on of the hand
Proper Form Be sealed with the gift of the Holy Spirit CCC 1300
EFFECTS
Principal Effect Full outpouring of the Holy Spirit which yields to an CCC 1303
(Grace) increase and deepening of baptismal grace:
1. Roots us more deeply in the divine filiation,
2. Unites us more firmly to Christ,
3. Increases in us the gifts of the Holy Spirit,
4. Renders our bond with the Church more perfectly
5. Special strength of the Holy Spirit
Seven-fold gifts of the Holy Spirit:
42
- Wisdom and understanding

- Right judgment and courage
- Knowledge and reverence
- Holy fear in God’s presence.
Other Effect Indelible character or seal: CCC 1304
- Perfection of the common priesthood
Mission To profess faith in Christ publicly;
To spread and defend the faith by word and deed;
To build up the Church;
Jesus’ Words Jesus emphasizes the need to be begotten of water and Jn 3:3-8.
the Spirit.
Jesus assures his disciples the Holy Spirit will teach them Lk 12:12;
what to say when they are tried before synagogues,
rulers and authorities. Lk 24:49;
Jesus promises to send the Holy Spirit to his disciples. Jn 14:16, 25-26;
15:26; 16:7-15;
Acts 1:8.
Jesus’ Deeds Jesus after his baptism in the Jordan is filled with the Holy Mk 1:10; Mt 3:16;
Spirit. And so with the strength of the Spirit he Lk 3:22; Jn 1:32;
overcomes every temptation from the evil one. Mt 4:1-11;
Lk 4:1-13.
Jesus fulfils his promise and sends the Holy Spirit to his Jn 20:19-23;
apostles. Acts 2:1-4, 5-41.
Words and The apostles receive the promised gift of the Holy Spirit. Acts 2:1-4, 17-19;
Deeds of the Peter and John imposed their hands on the Samaritans Acts 8:14-17
Apostles and they received the Holy Spirit.
Peter testifies that Jesus is the one anointed by God with
the Holy Spirit and power. Then after his preaching
Cornelius, his relatives and his friends were filled with the Acts 10:36-48
Holy Spirit.
Paul after baptizing the disciples of John in the name of
Jesus laid his hands on them and they were filled with
Holy Spirit. Acts 19:1-6
Manifestations of the Holy Spirit
- On the Apostles; Acts 2:2-4
- On the Jews gathered in Jerusalem Acts 2:5-8
- On Christians; the greatest gift of the Holy Spirit 1 Cor 12-14
- (Refer also to John 14:12f) 1 Cor 13:13
The Seal of the Holy Spirit 2 Cor 1:21-22
43
EUCHARIST
Recipients Baptized Christians in the state of grace CCC 1415
Proper To celebrate the Mass and distribute Holy Communion: CCC 1411
Ministers Bishops, Priests;
Only to distribute Holy Communion: Deacons
Extraordinary Only to distribute Holy Communion: Lay Ministers
Ministers
EXTERNAL SIGNS
Proper Matter Bread made from wheat and wine from grapes CCC 1412
Proper Form Words of Consecration of the Eucharistic Prayer CCC 1412
EFFECTS
Principal Effect Intimate union with Christ; CCC 1391-1398
(Grace) Forgiveness of venial sins; CCC 1416
Preservation from future mortal (grave) sins;
Increase and renewal of the life of grace received at
baptism;
Revival of our love and the strengthening of our charity;
Renewal, strengthening, deepening of our union with the
Church, and hence also the strengthening of the unity of
the Church as the Mystical Body of Christ.
Other Effect The Body and Blood of Christ, his real presence CCC 1373-1378
CCC 1410; 1413
Mission To commit oneself to the poor and to recognize Christ in CCC 1397
the brethren;
To work for Church unity;
To offer oneself more consciously as a pure and living
sacrifice to God in the Liturgy
Jesus’ Deeds Jesus multiplies five loaves of bread and two fish for at Mt 14:13-21; 15:32-39
least five thousand people. Mk 6:32-44;
Lk 9:10-17;
Jn 6:1-15.
Jesus’ Words Jesus’ discourse on the bread of life: he said, I am the Jn 6:25-68.
bread of life. …the bread I will give is my flesh for the life of
the world. …He who feeds on my flesh and drinks my blood
has eternal life.
Jesus’ Words & Jesus instituted the Eucharist during the last supper with Mt 26:26-29;
Deeds his disciples: when he took bread he said, This is my Mk 14:22-24;
body…and when he took the cup he said, This is the cup of Lk 22:19-20.
my blood…
When narrating Jesus’ institution of the Eucharist, Paul 1 Cor 11:23-26.
adds this command from Jesus: Do this in remembrance of
me.
The risen Jesus, after explaining the Scriptures to two Lk 24:30-35.
disciples breaks the bread for them in Emmaus.
44
Words and The disciples devoted themselves to the apostles’ Acts 2:42;
Deeds of the instructions and the community life, to the breaking of
Apostles the bread and prayers.
Paul also breaks bread after preaching the whole night. Acts 20:11.
PENANCE AND RECONCILIATION

Recipients Baptized Christians who have committed actual sins after CCC 1446
baptism
Proper Bishops, and Priests (who have been granted the faculty) CCC 1461-1467
Ministers CCC 1495
Extraordinary In emergency cases, esp. in danger of death, any priest CCC 1463
Ministers even if deprived of the faculty
EXTERNAL SIGNS
Proper Matter Acts of the penitent: contrition, confession, reparation, CCC 1448;
resolution 1450-1460.
Proper Form (Prayer of Absolution) CCC 1449
God, the Father of mercies…
I absolve you from your sins in the name of the Father
and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit
EFFECTS
Principal Effect Reconciliation with God (and with all creation). CCC 1468;
(Grace) Forgiveness of sins; CCC 1496
Restoration of God’s grace and of one’s dignity as a child
of God;
Peace, serenity of conscience, spiritual consolation;
increase of spiritual strength for the Christian battle;
Remission of the eternal punishment due to sin
Other Effect Reconciliation with the Church CCC 1469
Mission To forgive others
BIBLICAL FOUNDATIONS CCC 1441-1444
Jesus’ Words Jesus before healing the paralytic tells him his sins are Mk 2:5
forgiven.
Parables of divine mercy Lk 15
Jesus tells his disciples to forgive those who offend them Mt 5:24; 6:14-16;
or make peace with their brother. Mk 11:25;
Lk 6:37;
He also tells them to forgive without limit. Mt 18:21-22
Jesus imparts to his apostles his power to forgive sins and Mt 16:19,
the authority to reconcile sinners with the Church 18:18
Jesus gives the Holy Spirit to his apostles and entrusts to Jn 20:19, 22-23;
them the ministry of reconciliation. 2 Cor 5:18-20
Jesus’ Deeds Jesus forgives sinners like Zacchaeus, the woman caught Mk 2:5;
in adultery. Lk 19:1-10;
45
Jn 8:1-11.
Words and Paul said in his letter that God reconciled us to himself 2 Cor 5:18-20;
Deeds of the through Christ and has given us the ministry of
Apostles reconciliation. Gal 6:1;
He further tells them that whatever grievances they have,

they should forgive as the Lord forgave them. John tells Col 3:13;
the Christians to pray for their brothers who are sinning. 1 Jn 5:14-20
MATRIMONY
Recipients Baptized men and women not impeded by the law CCC 1625
Proper The spouses themselves CCC 1623
Ministers
Extraordinary
Ministers
EXTERNAL SIGNS
Proper Matter Man and Woman exchanging consent CCC 1625-1626
Proper Form Words of consent, pronounced before official witnesses: CCC 1627-1631
“I, N., take you, N., to be my wife/husband. I promise to
be true to you in good times and in bad, in sickness and in
health. I will love you and honor you all the days of my
life” or “I do.”
EFFECTS
Principal Effect Grace to perfect the couple’s love and to strengthen their
(Grace) indissoluble unity.
Grace to attain holiness in married life and to educate
their children.
Other Effect Conjugal bond CCC 1638-1640
Mission To support one another;
To procreate, provide children for the Church and
educate them.
To build up the (Domestic) Church
Jesus’ Words Jesus said that the spouses who marry are no longer two Mt 19:3-9
but one flesh. (referring to Gen
2:22-24);
Mk 10:2-12.
Jesus’ new commandment of love. Jn 15:9-17.
Jesus’ prayer and dream that all be one with the Father,
thru him and in him. Jn 17:20-26.
Jesus’ Deeds Jesus was present during the wedding at Cana and there Jn 2:1-11;
changed the water into wine. Just as he had the power to
46
make water into wine, he also had the power to make

two persons into one in marriage.
Jesus’ incarnation, his passion, death and resurrection:

- When Jesus was conceived in Mary’s womb as Lk 1:35
Son of God and son of Mary, the nuptial union
between God and man, between divinity and
humanity took place. Mk 14-16;
- When Jesus was crucified on Calvary this nuptial Mt 26-28;
union was sealed by his very own blood, and he Lk 22-24;
became one with his bride the Church. Jn 18-20.
Words and Paul’s advice to Christian husbands and wives: the two of
Deeds of the them should become one, for when they become one in
Apostles marriage they become a sacrament (sacred sign) of
Christ’s union with his bride the Church. Eph 5:22-33.
John wrote about the vision he had about the ultimate

wedding (the wedding of Christ, the Lamb who was slain
and his bride the Church). And he was told: “Blessed are
they who have been invited to the wedding feast of the
Lamb.” Rev 19:1, 5-9.
HOLY ORDERS
Recipients Baptized men who are not impeded by the law CCC 1577-1580
Proper A validly ordained Bishop CCC 1575-1576
Ministers
Extraordinary
Ministers
EXTERNAL SIGNS
Proper Matter Imposition of hands upon the candidate CCC 1573
Proper Form Prayer of Consecration of bishops, priests, and deacons
EFFECTS
Principal Effect Grace to guide and defend his Church with strength and CCC 1585-1589
(Grace) prudence as a father and a pastor
Other Effect Indelible character or seal: CCC 1581-1582
- Configuration to Christ as Priest, Teacher and
Pastor
Mission To act in the person of Christ:
in the service of the liturgy, or of the gospel and of works
of charity
47
Jesus’ Words Jesus called people to follow him saying, “Come, follow Mt 4:19; 9:9
me…”
He said that his disciples should deny themselves, take up Mk 8:34-38;
their cross and follow in his footsteps. Mt 16:24-27;
Lk 9:23-25; 14:25-30.
Jesus’ Deeds Jesus chose the twelve and sent them to share in his Mt 10:1-20;
mission. Mk 3:13-19; 6:7-13;
Lk 6:12-16; 9:1-6;
Jesus appoints Peter to be head of the apostles and the Mt 16:18-19

rock foundation of the Church.
Jesus, after his resurrection, re-instated Peter to be Jn 21:15-19
leader of the apostles.
Words and Jesus the High Priest offered the unique sacrifice of the Heb 5:10; 7:26;
Deeds of the cross to reconcile God and man. 10:14;
Apostles He is the one mediator between God and man. 1 Tim 2:5
Election of Matthias to replace Judas; Acts 1:15-26;
The election of the first deacons and imposition of the Acts 6:1-6;
hands on them;
The setting apart of Paul and Barnabas and the laying of
hands on them. Acts 13:2-3.
The apostles appointed presbyters in each church. Acts 14:23
Paul’s advice to the presbyters in Miletus; Acts 20:28;
Paul’s advice to bishops and deacons; 1 Tim 3:1-13;

Paul’s advice to Timothy; 2 Tim 1:6ff;
Paul’s advice to presbyters and bishops. Tit 1:5-7, 9;
1 Tim 5:17
ANOINTING OF THE SICK

Recipients Baptized Christians who are seriously ill and begins to be CCC 1514-1515
in danger of death from sickness or old age or needs a
serious operation.
Proper Bishops, Priests CCC 1516
Ministers
Extraordinary (none)
Ministers
EXTERNAL SIGNS
Proper Matter Anointing with blessed olive oil (or with any plant oil) CCC 1517-1519
48
Proper Form “Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and CCC 1513
mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit. May the
Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up.”
EFFECTS
Principal Effect A particular gift of the Holy Spirit CCC 1520-1523
(Grace) 1. Strength, peace and courage to overcome the
difficulties connected with serious illness or old
age;
2. Healing of the soul and of the body
3. Forgiveness of sins
An ecclesial grace:
1. Contribution to the sanctification of the Church
and to the good of all men
Preparation for the final journey
1. Strength for the final struggle before entering the
Father’s house.
Other Effect State of physical precariousness; configuration to Christ’s CCC 1304
redemptive passion
Mission
Jesus’ Words Jesus sent the twelve after giving them the following Mt 10:5-8
instructions: “…cure the sick…” Lk 9:1-6
Jesus’ Deeds Jesus proclaimed the good news and cured every Mt 9:35;
sickness and disease…Then he summoned his twelve 10:1
disciples and gave them authority…to cure sickness and
disease of every kind.
The twelve went off, preaching,…expelled many Mk 6:12-13
demons, anointed the sick with oil, and worked many Lk 9:6
cures.
People brought the sick to Jesus and all got well: those Mk 6:56;
who touched him, and those whom he touched or those 7:32-36;
on whom he laid his hands. 8:22-25
Jesus stretched out his hand to touch the leper & cured Lk 5:13; 17-26;
him. He also forgave the paralyzed man and made him 6:17-19
walk again. Many sick people came to hear Jesus and be 7:1-10
healed. Power went out of Jesus and cured them all. 8:40-56
Jesus cured many more: the centurion’s servant, the 13:10-13
woman with a haemorrhage and Jairus’ daughter. Jn 9:1-6;
Jesus cured the sick even on a Sabbath. Mk 16:18
Words and After the Pentecost, the apostles cured many who were Acts 3:1-10;
Deeds of the sick: the crippled man at the “Beautiful Gate,” the crowds 5:12-16
Apostles from within and outside of Jerusalem, the crippled man
at Lystra, Publius’ father in Malta and the rest of the sick 14:8-10
people in that island. 28:7-10
49
Advice to those who are sick: ask for the presbyters of

the Church who will pray over the sick and anoint him James 5:14-15
with oil.
That in all things God may be Glorified.
50

Historical Development of the Seven Sacraments

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Historical Development of the Seven Sacraments

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San Beda College Alabang LAW 102R: Seminar 2 Prof. Carlo Enrico C.

Factors that led to this assumption:

Clear, Historical and Extant Data on the Seven Ritual Sacraments

LITURGY AND SACRAMENTS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT WRITINGS

The terms “Mysterion” and “Sacramentum” in the Scriptures

In Cult Note: Whoever had been initiated into

In the New Testament

Sacramental Rituals and their Theological Interpretations

➢ There is mention of various sacramental actions performed by the first Christians:

➢ Ritual washing or baptism after the Apostles; preaching (Acts 2:22-41). It

➢ Although the descriptions of these sacramental rites or actions may not be

➢ In baptism: sins are forgiven and believers are born anew.

SACRAMENTS IN THE PATRISTIC PERIOD

Christian Initiation vis-à-vis the Pagan Mystery Religions

If in the 1st century, there was no talk about sacraments in general…

From Mysterion to Sacramentum to Christian Rites of Initiation

➢ Etymology of the word:

Theological Understanding and Interpretation of the Christian Rituals.

To achieve this, they used three sources:

Understanding of the Sacramental Seal or Character

➢ Meaning of seal in the Scriptures

Metaphorically: signifies that something belongs to or comes from God.

Pauline sense: to be sealed with the Spirit is another way of saying to be

➢ Meaning of seal in daily experience

St. Augustine (354-430) and His Sacramental Thought

conversion to Christianity, he was ordained a priest and then later, was

Augustine’s Solution to the Controversy over Re-baptism and Re-ordination

iii. Three long lasting consequences of Augustine’s solution in sacramental theology:

Augustine’s Concept of a Sacrament

sacraments: those signs which pertain to divine things or realities.

ii. Augustine’s general understanding/definition of a sacrament was quite broad.

sacramentum = sacrae rei signum, i.e., a sign of a sacred thing/reality (res)

iii. Regarding the number of sacraments

- Because of his wide concept of sacrament, the number of possible sacraments

Accedit verbum ad elementum et fit sacramentum i.e., “a word (verbum) comes to an

“I baptize you…” + water = sacrament

Vorgrimler, H., Sacramental Theology (translation of Sakramententheologie, Patmos Verlag,

SACRAMENTS IN THE SCHOLASTIC PERIOD

Towards Recognizing Seven Liturgical Sacraments

Sixth to the Eleventh Century

o Peter Damian (+1072) Benedictine Cardinal bishop of Ostia, reformer, and

monks, and of hermits, dedication of a church, penance, consecration of virgins, and

(Bk I: On God; Bk II: On Creation; Bk III: On Christ; Bk IV: On the Sacraments)

Something is properly called a sacrament because it Note: This definition

Hence, for him…

The Sacraments: The Sacramentals:

Otto of Bamberg (1139), the Apostle of Pomerania, was, according to some

Various opinions why the sacraments are SEVEN:

Thirteenth Century Onwards

i. the Council of London (1237), under Otto,

The Sign, the Reality and the Sacramental Reality

Some intriguing questions led to the discussion on the “sacramental reality”:

Applying such distinction, therefore, to the Eucharist he held that,

So applied to the Eucharist: CUM MARTHAE CIRCA

Nature of the Sacramental Character according to Thomas Aquinas

Question 63 of the Thomas Aquinas’ Summa Theologiae

Nature of character according to other scholastics:

Indelibility of the character explained philosophically

Other important Points Treated by Thomas Aquinas on the Sacraments in General

Thomas’ Definition of a Sacrament (Question 60, arts. 2-3)

The Requirements for a Sacrament (Question 60, arts. 5-8)

Determined sensible things:

Determined form of words: