Esoteric Christianity

ESOTORLOGY,
THEOLOGY
AND
PHILOSOPHY
OF THE
ESOTERIC CHRISTIANITY
CHRISTIAN
FAITH
The spiritual path of faith
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Introduction
Early Christians used the Greek word μυστήριον (mysterion)

to describe the Christian Mystery. The Old Testament
versions use the word mysterion as an equivalent to the
Hebrew sôd, "secret" (Proverbs 20:19). In the New
Testament the word mystery is applied ordinarily to the
sublime revelation of the Gospel (Matthew 13:11; Colossians
2:2; 1 Timothy 3:9; 1 Corinthians 15:51), and to the
Incarnation and life of the Saviour and his manifestation by
the preaching of the Apostles (Romans 16:25; Ephesians 3:4;
6:19; Colossians 1:26; 4:3).
The word "mysticism" has the same root, being derived from
the Greek μυω, meaning "to conceal",[9] and its derivative
μυστικός, mystikos, meaning 'an initiate'. In the Hellenistic
world, 'mystical' referred to "secret" religious rituals The use
of the word lacked any direct references to the
transcendental. A "mystikos" was an initiate of a mystery
religion.
Theologians give the name mystery to revealed truths that
surpass the powers of natural reason, so, in a narrow sense,
the Mystery is a truth that transcends the created intellect.
The impossibility of obtaining a rational comprehension of
the Mystery leads to an inner or hidden way of
comprehension of the Christian Mystery that is indicated by
the term esoteric in Esoteric Christianity.
Even though revealed and believed, the Mystery remains
nevertheless obscure and veiled during the mortal life, if the
deciphering of the mysteries, made possible by esotericism,
does not intervene.
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This esoteric knowledge would allow a deep comprehension

of the Christian mysteries that otherwise would remain
obscure.
“1 But know this, that in the last days perilous times will
come: 2 For men will be lovers of themselves, lovers of
money, boasters, proud, blasphemers, disobedient to
parents, unthankful, unholy, 3 unloving, unforgiving,
slanderers, without self-control, brutal, despisers of good, 4
traitors, headstrong, haughty, lovers of pleasure rather than
lovers of God, 5 having a form of godliness but denying its
power. And from such people turn away! 6 For of this sort are
those who creep into households and make captives of
gullible women loaded down with sins, led away by various
lusts, 7 always learning and never able to come to the
knowledge of the truth. 8 Now as Jannes and Jambres
resisted Moses, so do these also resist the truth: men of
corrupt minds, disapproved concerning the faith; 9 but they
will progress no further, for their folly will be manifest to all,
as theirs also was.
10 But you have carefully followed my doctrine, manner of
life, purpose, faith, longsuffering, love, perseverance, 11
persecutions, afflictions, which happened to me at Antioch, at
Iconium, at Lystra--what persecutions I endured. And out of
them all the Lord delivered me. 12 Yes, and all who desire to
live godly in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution. 13 But evil
men and impostors will grow worse and worse, deceiving and
being deceived. 14 But you must continue in the things which
you have learned and been assured of, knowing from whom
you have learned them, 15 and that from childhood you have
known the Holy Scriptures, which are able to make you wise
for salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus. 16 All
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Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for

doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in
righteousness, 17 that the man of God may be complete,
thoroughly equipped for every good work.
2 Tim 3:1-17 (NKJV)
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Table of Contents
1 Original Sacred Mysteries of Christianity
2 The Incarnation
3 Christian Mysticism
4 Religious Ecstasy
5 Baptism of the Holy Spirit
6 Spiritual Gifts
7 Western Esotericism
8 Emanuel Swedenborg
9 Evelyn Underhill
10 Gnosticism
11 Origen Adamantius
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Chapter One
Original Sacred Mysteries of Christianity
The term sacred mysteries generally denotes the area of

supernatural phenomena associated with a divinity or a
religious ideology. The term has two senses, which often
overlap:
Religious beliefs, rituals or practices which are kept secret

from non-believers, or lower levels of believers, who have
not had an initiation into the higher levels of belief (the
concealed knowledge may be called esoteric).
Beliefs of the religion which are public knowledge but cannot
be explained by normal rational or scientific means.
Although the term "mystery" is not often used in
anthropology, access by initiation or rite of passage to
otherwise secret beliefs is an extremely common feature of
indigenous religions all over the world.
Mysticism may be defined as an area of philosophical or
religious thought which focuses on mysteries in the first
sense above. A mystagogue or hierophant is a holder and
teacher of secret knowledge in the second sense above.
Although the term is not used equally by all Christian

traditions, many if not most basic aspects of Christian
theology require a supernatural explanation. To name but a
few key examples, these include the existence of God, the
nature of the Trinity, the Virgin Birth of Jesus, and the
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Resurrection of Jesus. These are mysteries in the sense that

they cannot be explained or apprehended by reason alone.
The word mysterion (μυστήριον) is used 27 times in the New

Testament. It denotes not so much the meaning of the
modern English term mystery, but rather something that is
mystical. In the biblical Greek, the term refers to "that which,
being outside the unassisted natural apprehension, can be
made known only by divine revelation". In the Catholic
Church the Latin term is mysterium fidei, "mystery of faith",
defined in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1997) to
mean a mystery hidden in God, which can never be known
unless revealed by God.
In the Roman Catholic Church the First Vatican Council re-

affirmed the existence of mysteries as a doctrine of Catholic
faith as follows: "If anyone say that in Divine Revelation there
are contained no mysteries properly so called (vera et
proprie dicta mysteria), but that through reason rightly
developed (per rationem rite excultam) all the dogmas of
faith can be understood and demonstrated from natural
principles: let him be anathema" (Sess. III, De fide et ratione,
can. i). The position, if not the terminology, of other Christian
churches is essentially the same.
In parts of the Early Church many aspects of Christian

theology, including some sacraments and sacramental, were
kept hidden from the pagans — the so-called Disciplina
arcani — lest they become objects of ridicule, and were also
introduced gradually to catechumens or new converts. As the
Age of Persecution ended, the secrecy was gradually relaxed
but the term continued to be used, and "mysteries" is still
used as a name for sacraments in the Eastern Orthodox
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churches. This is not usually so in the West, though

theologically many aspects of them are recognized as
mysteries in the main sense described above, especially (for
those churches accepting it) the doctrine of
transubstantiation in the Eucharist. Hence Pope Paul VI's
papal encyclical of 3 September 1965 on the Eucharist was
titled, from its opening words, Mysterium Fidei. In the
Roman Rite Catholic Mass within or immediately after the
formula of consecration of the wine, the celebrant says "Let
us proclaim the mystery of faith". Originally the term
"Mystery" was used for the sacraments generally in both the
East and the West, as shown from the "Mystagogical
Homilies" of St. Cyril of Jerusalem and the work, On the
Mysteries by St. Ambrose of Milan.
Although all the official doctrines of Christian churches have

long been fully public, the loosely defined area of Christian
thought called Christian mysticism often concerns the
contemplation of sacred mysteries and may include the
development of personal theories about them, undertaken in
the knowledge that they can never be fully apprehended by
man.
Eastern Orthodoxy
The term is used in Eastern Christianity to refer to what the

Western Church currently calls Sacraments and
Sacramentals, terms which the Western Church has carefully
defined in Canon Law. Thus, for instance, the Council of Trent
declared there to be exactly seven sacraments. The Eastern
Churches, in contrast, have never defined the Mysteries in
such precise terms. And, though the Western Church teaches
that the consecrated bread and wine of the Eucharist are one
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Sacrament, the Divine Liturgy refers to the Eucharist as the

Mysteries, in the plural. Orthodox Christians have always
received Holy Communion in both species (both the Body
and the Blood), and even reserve both in the tabernacle. The
Sacred Mysteries can be defined as "those holy acts through
which the Holy Spirit mysteriously and invisibly confers Grace
(the saving power of God) upon man".
Though Orthodox instructional materials may list seven

Sacred Mysteries (the same as the Western seven
sacraments - Western names in parentheses) - Baptism,
Chrismation (Confirmation), Confession (Penance,
Reconciliation or Confession), Holy Communion (Eucharist or
Holy Communion), Marriage (Holy Matrimony), Ordination
(Holy Orders), and Unction (Anointing of the Sick. Archaic:
Extreme Unction) - it must be understood that the term is
not limited to these seven. As in the West, all faithful men
are expected to receive six of the seven listed above, as well
as either marriage or ordination, or both; women may not
receive holy orders.
Christian life is centered in the Mystery of the Incarnation of

Christ, the union of God and man. However, the redemption
of man is not considered to have taken place only in the past,
but continues to this day through theosis. The Sacraments, or
Sacred Mysteries are the most important means by which the
faithful may obtain union with God, provided they are
received with faith after appropriate preparation. Christians
believe that God is present everywhere and fills all things by
his Divine grace, and that all of creation is, in some sense, a
"sacrament". However, they believe that "He is more
specifically and intensively present in [those] particular and
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reliable manners which He Himself has established," i.e., in

the Sacred Mysteries.
Heterodoxy in a religious sense means "any opinions or

doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position".
Under this definition, heterodoxy is similar to unorthodoxy,
while the adjective "heterodox" could be applied to a
dissident.
Heterodoxy is also an ecclesiastical term of art, defined in

various ways by different religions and churches. For
example, in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
churches heterodoxy may describe beliefs that differ from
strictly orthodox views but that fall short of heresy.
Christian theology is the enterprise which seeks to construct

a coherent system of Christian belief and practice. This is
based primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and the
New Testament as well as the historic traditions of Christians.
Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis,
and argument to clarify, examine, understand, explicate,
critique, defend or promote Christianity. Theology might be
undertaken to help the theologian better understand
Christian tenets, make comparisons between Christianity and
other traditions, defend Christianity against objections and
criticism, facilitate reforms in the Christian church, assist in
the propagation of Christianity, draw on the resources of the
Christian tradition to address some present situation or need,
or for a variety of other reasons.
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Systematic theology is a discipline of Christian theology that

formulates an orderly, rational, and coherent account of the
Christian faith and beliefs. Systematic theology draws on the
foundational sacred texts of Christianity, while
simultaneously investigating the development of Christian
doctrine over the course of history, particularly through
philosophical evolution. Inherent to a system of theological
thought is that a method is developed, one which can be
applied both broadly and particularly. Systematic theology
will typically explore God (theology proper), the attributes of
God, the Trinity for Trinitarian Christians, revelation, biblical
hermeneutics, the creation, divine providence, theodicy,
anthropology, hematology, Christology, pneumatology,
soteriology, ecclesiology, missiology, spirituality and
mysticism, sacramental theology, eschatology, moral
theology, the afterlife, and the Christian understanding of
other religious systems and philosophies.
Christian theology has permeated much of Western culture,
especially in pre-modern Europe.
The Old Testament is a Christian term for a collection of

religious writings by ancient Israelites that form the first
section of Christian Bibles, in contrast to the Christian New
Testament. The books included in the Old Testament (the Old
Testament canon) varies markedly between Christian
denominations; Protestants accept only the Hebrew Bible's
canon but divide it into 39 books, while Catholics, the Eastern
Orthodox, Coptic and Ethiopian churches recognize a
considerably larger collection.
The books can be broadly divided into the Pentateuch, which

tells how God selected Israel to be his chosen people; the
history books telling the history of the Israelites from their
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conquest of Canaan to their defeat and exile in Babylon; the

poetic and "Wisdom" books dealing, in various forms, with
questions of good and evil in the world; and the books of the
biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning
away from God.
For the Israelites who were its original authors and readers
these books told of their own unique relationship with God
and their relationship with proselytes, but the overarching
messianic nature of Christianity has led Christians from the
very beginning of the faith to see the Old Testament as a
preparation for the New Covenant and New Testament.
The New Testament (Koine Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē

Kainḕ Diathḗkē) is the second major part of the Christian
biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament.
Although Christians hold different views from Jews about the
Old Testament—that is, the Hebrew Scriptures—Christians
regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred
scripture. The contents of the New Testament deal explicitly
with first-century Christianity. Therefore, the New Testament
(in whole or in part) has frequently accompanied the spread
of Christianity around the world. It reflects and serves as a
source for Christian theology. Both extended readings and
phrases directly from the New Testament are also
incorporated (along with readings from the Old Testament)
into the various Christian liturgies. The New Testament has
influenced not only religious, philosophical, and political
movements in Christendom, but also has left an indelible
mark on its literature, art, and music.
The New Testament is an anthology, a collection of Christian

works written in the common Greek language of the first
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century, at different times by various writers, who were early

Jewish disciples of Jesus of Nazareth. In almost all Christian
traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books.
The original texts were written in the first and perhaps the
second centuries of the Christian Era, generally believed to
be in Koine Greek, which was the common language of the
Eastern Mediterranean from the Conquests of Alexander the
Great (335–323 BC) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c.
600). All of the works which would eventually be
incorporated into the New Testament would seem to have
been written no later than around AD 150.
Collections of related texts such as letters of the Apostle Paul

(a major collection of which must have been made already by
the early 2nd century) and the Canonical Gospels of
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (asserted by Irenaeus of Lyon
in the late-2nd century as the Four Gospels) gradually were
joined to other collections and single works in different
combinations to form various Christian canons of Scripture.
Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of
Revelation and the Minor Catholic (General) Epistles were
introduced into canons in which they were originally absent.
Other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement,
the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded
from the New Testament. The Old Testament canon is not
completely uniform among all major Christian groups
including Roman Catholics, Protestants, the Greek Orthodox
Church, the Slavic Orthodox Churches, and the Armenian
Orthodox Church. However, the twenty-seven-book canon of
the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been
almost universally recognized within Christianit.
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The New Testament consists of

Four narratives of the life, teaching, death and resurrection
of Jesus, called "gospels" (or "good news" accounts);
a narrative of the Apostles' ministries in the early church,
called the "Acts of the Apostles", and probably written by the
same writer as the Gospel of Luke, which it continues;
Twenty-one letters, often called "epistles" in the biblical
context, written by various authors, and consisting of
Christian doctrine, counsel, instruction, and conflict
resolution; and
an Apocalypse, the Book of Revelation, which is a book of
prophecy, containing some instructions to the seven local
congregations of Asia Minor, but mostly containing
prophetical symbology, about the end times.
"Apocalypse" (Ἀποκάλυψις) is a Greek word meaning

"revelation", "an unveiling or unfolding of things not
previously known and which could not be known apart from
the unveiling." As a genre, apocalyptic literature details the
authors' visions of the end times as revealed by a heavenly
messenger or Angel. The apocalyptic literature of Judaism
and Christianity embraces a considerable period, from the
centuries following the exile down to the close of the middle
ages.
"Apocrypha" means "things put away" or "things hidden"

and comes from the Greek through the Latin. The general
term is usually applied to the books that were considered by
the church as useful, but not divinely inspired. As such, to
refer to Gnostic writings as "apocryphal" is misleading since
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they would not be classified in the same category by

orthodox believers. Often used by the Greek Fathers was the
term antilegomena, or "spoken against", although some
canonical books were also spoken against, such as the
Apocalypse of John in the East. Often used by scholars is the
term pseudepigrapha, or "falsely inscribed" or "falsely
attributed", in the sense that the writings were written by an
anonymous author who appended the name of an apostle to
his work, such as in the Gospel of Peter or The Æthiopic
Apocalypse of Enoch: almost all books, in both Old and New
Testaments, called "apocrypha" in the Protestant tradition
are pseudepigrapha. In the Catholic and Orthodox traditions,
what are called the apocrypha by Protestants include the
deuterocanonical books: in the Catholic tradition, the term
"apocrypha" is synonymous with what Protestants would call
the pseudepigrapha, the latter term of which is almost
exclusively used by scholars.
The canon of the New Testament is the set of books most

Christians regard as divinely inspired and constituting the
New Testament of the Christian Bible. For most, it is an
agreed-upon list of twenty-seven books that includes the
Canonical Gospels, Acts, letters of the Apostles, and
Revelation. The books of the canon of the New Testament
were written mostly in the first century and finished by the
year 150 AD. For the Orthodox, the recognition of these
writings as authoritative was formalized in the Second
Council of Trullan of 692, although it was nearly universally
accepted in the mid 300's. The Biblical canon was the result
of debate and research, reaching its final term for Catholics
at the dogmatic definition of the Council of Trent in the 16th
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Century, when the Old Testament Canon was finalized in the

Catholic Church as well.
Writings attributed to the Apostles circulated among the
earliest Christian communities. The Pauline epistles were
circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the 1st
century AD. Justin Martyr, in the mid 2nd century, mentions
"memoirs of the apostles" as being read on the Sabbath
alongside the "writings of the prophets". A four gospel canon
(the Tetramorph) was asserted by Irenaeus, c. 180, who
refers to it directly.
By the early 200s, Origen may have been using the same
twenty-seven books as in the Catholic New Testament canon,
though there were still disputes over the canonicity of the
Letter to the Hebrews, James, II Peter, II and III John, and
Revelation, known as the Antilegomena. Likewise, the
Muratorian fragment is evidence that, perhaps as early as
200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat
similar to the twenty-seven-book NT canon, which included
four gospels and argued against objections to them. Thus,
while there was a good measure of debate in the Early
Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings
are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by
the middle of the 3rd century.
In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria,

gave a list of the books that would become the twenty-
seven-book NT canon, and he used the word "canonized"
(kanonizomena) in regards to them. The first council that
accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have
been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (AD 393); the
acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the
acts was read at and accepted by the Councils of Carthage in
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397 and 419. These councils were under the authority of St.
Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed. Pope
Damasus I's Council of Rome in 382, if the Decretum
Gelasianum is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical
canon identical to that mentioned above, or, if not, the list is
at least a 6th-century compilation. Likewise, Damasus'
commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c.
383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the
West. In c. 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred
books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse. Christian
scholars assert that, when these bishops and councils spoke
on the matter, however, they were not defining something
new but instead "were ratifying what had already become
the mind of the Church."
Thus, some claim that, from the 4th century, there existed
unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon,
and that, by the 5th century, the Eastern Church, with a few
exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and
thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon.
Nonetheless, full dogmatic articulations of the canon were
not made until the Canon of Trent of 1546 for Roman
Catholicism, the Gallic Confession of Faith of 1559 for
Calvinism, the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of
England, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for the Greek
Orthodox.
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Chapter Two
The Incarnation
The Incarnation in Christianity is the belief that Jesus Christ

the second person of the Trinity, also known as God the Son
or the Logos (Word), "became flesh" by being conceived in
the womb of a woman, the Virgin Mary, also known as the
Theotokos (God-bearer).
The Incarnation is a fundamental theological teaching of

orthodox (Nicene) Christianity, based on its understanding of
the New Testament. The Incarnation represents the belief
that Jesus, who is the non-created second hypostasis of the
triune God, took on a human body and nature and became
both man and God. In the Bible its clearest teaching is in John
1:14: "And the Word became flesh, and dwelt among us."
In the Incarnation, as traditionally defined by those Churches

that adhere to the Council of Chalcedon, the divine nature of
the Son was united but not mixed with human nature[2] in
one divine Person, Jesus Christ, who was both "truly God and
truly man". The Incarnation is commemorated and
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celebrated each year at Christmas, and also reference can be

made to the Feast of the Annunciation; "different aspects of
the mystery of the Incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas
and the Annunciation.
This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians.

Alternative views on the subject and the Gospel according to
the Hebrews) have been proposed throughout the centuries,
but all were rejected by mainstream Christian bodies.
An alternative doctrine known as "Oneness" has been
espoused among various Pentecostal groups.
In the early Christian era, there was considerable

disagreement amongst Christians regarding the nature of
Christ's Incarnation. While all Christians believed that Jesus
was indeed the Son of God, (Artermi, Eirini, The religious
policy of the Byzantine emperors from 1st to 4th ecumenical
council) the exact nature of his Sonship was contested,
together with the precise relationship of the "Father," "Son"
and "Holy Spirit" referred to in the New Testament. Though
Jesus was clearly the "Son," what exactly did this mean?
Debate on this subject raged most especially during the first
four centuries of Christianity, involving Jewish Christians,
Gnostics, followers of the Presbyter Arius of Alexandria, and
adherents of St. Athanasius the Great, among others.
Council of Nicea, 325.
Eventually, the Christian Church accepted the teaching of St.

Athanasius and his allies, that Christ was the incarnation of
the eternal second person of the Trinity, who was truly God
and truly a man simultaneously. All divergent beliefs were
defined as heresies. This included Docetism, which said that
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Jesus was a divine being that took on human appearance but

not flesh; Arianism, which held that Christ was a created
being; and Nestorianism, maintained that the Son of God and
the man, Jesus, shared the same body but retained two
separate natures. The Oneness belief held by certain modern
Pentecostal churches is also seen as heretical by most
mainstream Christian bodies.
The most widely-accepted definitions of the Incarnation and
the nature of Jesus were made by the First Council of Nicaea
in 325, the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the Council of
Chalcedon in 451. These councils declared that Jesus was
both fully God: begotten from, but not created by the Father;
and fully man: taking his flesh and human nature from the
Virgin Mary. These two natures, human and divine, were
hypostatically united into the one personhood of Jesus
Christ.
A contemporary way to saying this Christian faith is the
statement of the French catholic novelist Joseph Malègue in
Augustin ou le Maïtre est là: ‘’ It is not Christ who is
incomprehensible for me if He is God, it is God who is strange
for me if He is not Christ.‘’
Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic
The significance of the Incarnation has been extensively

discussed throughout Christian history, and is the subject of
countless hymns and prayers. For instance, the Divine Liturgy
of St. John Chrysostom (c. 400), as used by Eastern Orthodox
Christians and Byzantine Catholics, includes this "Hymn to
the Only Begotten Son":
O only begotten Son and Word of God,

Who, being immortal,
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Deigned for our salvation

To become incarnate
Of the holy Theotokos and ever-virgin Mary,
And became man without change;
You were also crucified,
O Christ our God,
And by death have trampled Death,
Being one of the Holy Trinity,
Glorified with the Father and the Holy Spirit—
Save us!
West Syriac Churches
The West Syriac Churches - Syriac Orthodox, Malankara

Orthodox, Syro-Malankara Catholic, Syriac Catholic and
Maronite Catholic - principally celebrating the Holy Qurbono
of St. James (c. AD 60) have a similar ma‛neetho,[7] a poetic
hymn, traditionally attributed to St. Severus, the Patriarch of
Antioch (c. 465-538):
I exalt Thee, Lord and King,

Only-begotten Son and Word
Of the heavenly Father,
Immortal by nature, Thou came down by grace
For salvation
And life for all human race; was incarnate
Of the holy,
Glorious, pure Virgin
Mary, Mother of God
And became man without any change;
Was crucified for us.
O Christ, our God,
Who by Thy death trampled and slaughtered our death,
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Who are one of the Holy Trinity?

Worshipped and honored with
The Father and the Holy Spirit,
Have mercy on us all.
The Athanasius (5th century) and Nicene Creeds contain a
comprehensive traditional definition of the Incarnation.
Contemporary Protestantism.
Jürgen Moltmann
The link between the Incarnation and the Atonement within

systematic theology is complex. Within traditional models of
the Atonement, such as Substitution, Satisfaction or Christus
Victor, Christ must be human in order for the Sacrifice of the
Cross to be efficacious, for human sins to be "removed"
and/or "conquered". In his work The Trinity and the Kingdom
of God, Jürgen Moltmann differentiated between what he
called a "fortuitous" and a "necessary" Incarnation. The latter
gives a soteriological emphasis to the Incarnation: the Son of
God became a man so that he could save us from our sins.
The former, on the other hand, speaks of the Incarnation as a
fulfilment of the Love of God, of his desire to be present and
living amidst humanity, to "walk in the garden" with us.
Moltmann favours "fortuitous" Incarnation primarily because
he feels that to speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do
an injustice to the life of Christ. Moltmann's work, alongside
other systematic theologians, opens up avenues of liberation
Christology.
Alternative views of the Incarnation.
Michael Servetus
During the Reformation, Michael Servetus taught a theology
of the Incarnation that denied trinitarianism, insisting that
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classical Trinitarians were essentially tritheists who had

rejected Biblical monotheism in favor of Greek philosophy.
The Son of God, Servetus asserted, is not an eternally existing
being, but rather the more abstract Logos (a manifestation of
the One True God, not a separate person) incarnate. For this
reason, Servetus refused to call Christ the "eternal Son of
God" preferring "the Son of the eternal God" instead.
In describing Servetus' theology of the Logos, Andrew Dibb

(2005) comments: "In Genesis God reveals himself as the
creator. In John he reveals that he created by means of the
Word, or Logos, Finally, also in John, he shows that this Logos
became flesh and 'dwelt among us'. Creation took place by
the spoken word, for God said 'Let there be…' The spoken
word of Genesis, the Logos of John, and the Christ, are all
one and the same."
Condemned by both the Roman Catholic and Protestant
churches on account of his heterodox Christology, Servetus
was burnt at the stake for heresy in 1553, by the Reformed
Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland. The French reformer
John Calvin, who asserted he would ensure the death of
Servetus if he set foot in Geneva because of his non-
Reformed views on the Trinity and the sacrament of baptism,
requested he be beheaded as a traitor rather than burned as
a heretic, but the authorities insisted on executing Servetus
by fire.
English Arians
Post-Reformation Arians such as William Whiston often held

a view of the Incarnation in keeping with the personal pre-
existence of Christ. Whiston considered the Incarnation to be
of the Logos who had pre-existed as "a Metaphysick
existence, in potentia or in the like higher and sublimer
26
Manner in the Father as his Wisdom or Word before his real

Creation or Generation".
Socinian and Unitarian
Servetus rejected Arianism because it denied Jesus' divinity

so it is certain that he would have also rejected Socinianism
as a form of Arianism which both rejects that Jesus is God,
and, also that Jesus consciously existed before his birth,
which most Arian groups accept. Fausto Sozzini and writers
of the Polish Brethren such as Samuel Przypkowski, Marcin
Czechowic and Johann Ludwig von Wolzogen saw incarnation
as being primarily a function of fatherhood. Namely that
Christ was literally both 'Son of Man' from his maternal side,
and also literally 'Son of God' on his paternal side. The
concept of incarnation —"the Word became flesh and dwelt
among us"— was understood as the literal word or logos of
Ps. 33:6 having been made human by a virgin birth. Sozzini,
Przypkowski and other Socinian writers were distinct from
Servetus in stating that Jesus having "come down from
heaven" was primarily in terms of Mary's miraculous
conception and not in Jesus having in any literal sense been
in heaven. Today the number of churches with Socinian
Christology is very small, the main group known for this are
the Christadelphians, other groups include CoGGC and CGAF.
Modern Socinian or "Biblical Unitarian" writers generally
place emphasis on "made flesh" not just meaning "made a
body", but incarnation (a term these groups would avoid)
requiring Jesus having the temptable and mortal nature of
his mother.
The Oneness view of the Incarnation
27
In contrast to the traditional view of the Incarnation cited

above, adherents of Oneness Pentecostalism believe in the
doctrine of Oneness. Although both Oneness and traditional
Christianity teach that God is a singular Spirit, Oneness
adherents reject the idea that God is a Trinity of persons.
Oneness doctrine teaches there is one God who manifests
himself in different ways, as opposed to a Trinity, where God
is seen as one being consisting of three distinct persons. To a
Oneness Pentecostal, Jesus is seen as both fully divine and
fully human. The term Father refers to God Himself, who
caused the conception of the Son in Mary, thus becoming the
father of the child she bore. The term Son refers to the body
Jesus dwelt in, and the Holy Ghost refers to the
manifestation of God's Spirit inside of and around His people.
Thus the Father is not the Son — and this distinction is crucial
— but is in the Son as the fullness of his divine nature.
Traditional Trinitarians believe that the Son always existed as
the eternal second person of the Trinity; Oneness adherents
believe that the Son did not come into being until the
Incarnation, when the one and only true God took on human
flesh for the first, last and only time in history. Oneness
doctrine is explained in detail in UPCI minister Dr. David K.
Bernard's The Oneness of God.
28
29
Chapter Three
Christian Mysticism
Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical

practices and theory within Christianity. It has often been
connected to mystical theology, especially in the Catholic and
Eastern Orthodox traditions.
The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is

studied and practiced are varied and range from ecstatic
visions of the soul's mystical union with God to simple
prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio Divina).
"Mysticism" is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning "to

conceal", and its derivative μυστικός, mystikos, meaning 'an
initiate'. In the Hellenistic world, a "mystikos" was an initiate
30
of a mystery religion. "Mystical" referred to secret religious

rituals and use of the word lacked any direct references to
the transcendental.
In early Christianity the term "mystikos" referred to three

dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the
biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The
biblical dimension refers to "hidden" or allegorical
interpretations of Scriptures. The liturgical dimension refers
to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence Christ
at the Eucharist. The third dimension is the contemplative or
experiential knowledge of God.
Bernard McGinn defines Christian mysticism as:

[T]hat part, or element, of Christian belief and practice that
concerns the preparation for, the consciousness of, and the
effect of [...] a direct and transformative presence of [the
Christian] God.
Presence versus experience
McGinn argues that "presence" is more accurate than

"union", since not all mystics spoke of union with God, and
since many visions and miracles were not necessarily related
to union. He also argues that we should speak of
"consciousness" of God's presence, rather than of
"experience", since mystical activity is not simply about the
sensation of God as an external object, but more broadly
about:
...new ways of knowing and loving based on states of
awareness in which God becomes present in our inner acts.
31
William James popularized the use of the term "religious

experience" in his The Varieties of Religious Experience. It
has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a
distinctive experience which supplies knowledge.
Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of "religious

experience" further back to the German theologian Friedrich
Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is
based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of "religious
experience" was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion
against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was
adopted by many scholars of religion, of which William James
was the most influential.
Personal transformation
Resurrection of Jesus, Matthias Grünewald.

Related to this idea of "presence" instead of "experience" is
McGinn's emphasis on the transformation that occurs
through mystical activity:
This is why the only test that Christianity has known for
determining the authenticity of a mystic and her or his
message has been that of personal transformation, both on
the mystic's part and—especially—on the part of those
whom the mystic has affected.
Other critics point out that the stress on "experience" is

accompanied with favoring the atomic individual, instead of
the shared life on the community. It also fails to distinguish
between episodic experience, and mysticism as a process,
32
that is embedded in a total religious matrix of liturgy,

scripture, worship, virtues, theology, rituals and practices.
Richard King also points to disjunction between "mystical

experience" and social justice:
The privatisation of mysticism - that is, the increasing
tendency to locate the mystical in the psychological realm of
personal experiences - serves to exclude it from political
issues as social justice. Mysticism thus becomes seen as a
personal matter of cultivating inner states of tranquility and
equanimity, which, rather than seeking to transform the
world, serve to accommodate the individual to the status
quo through the alleviation of anxiety and stress.
Social constructionism
Mystical experience is not simply a matter between the

mystic and God, but is often shaped by cultural issues. For
instance, Carolyn Walker Bynum has shown how, in the late
Middle Ages, miracles attending the taking of the Eucharist
were not simply symbolic of the Passion story, but served as
vindication of the mystic's theological orthodoxy by proving
that the mystic had not fallen prey to heretical ideas, such as
the Cathar rejection of the material world as evil, contrary to
orthodox teaching that God took on human flesh and
remained sinless.[8] Thus, the nature of mystical experience
could be tailored to the particular cultural and theological
issues of the time.
Development
33
The idea of mystical realities has been widely held in

Christianity since the second century AD, referring not simply
to spiritual practices, but also to the belief that their rituals
and even their scriptures have hidden ("mystical") meanings.
The link between mysticism and the vision of the Divine was
introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the term
as an adjective, as in mystical theology and mystical
contemplation. In subsequent centuries, especially as
Christian apologetics began to use Greek philosophy to
explain Christian ideas, Neoplatonism became an influence
on Christian mystical thought and practice via such authors
as Augustine of Hippo and Origen.
Jewish antecedents
Jewish spirituality in the period before Jesus was highly

corporate and public, based mostly on the worship services
of the synagogues, which included the reading and
interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures and the recitation of
prayers, and on the major festivals. Thus, private spirituality
was strongly influenced by the liturgies and by the scriptures
(e.g., the use of the Psalms for prayer), and individual prayers
often recalled historical events just as much as they recalled
their own immediate needs. Of special importance are the
following concepts:
Da'at (knowledge) and Chokhmah (wisdom), which come
from years of reading, praying and meditating the scriptures;
Shekhinah, the presence of God in our daily lives, the
superiority of that presence to earthly wealth, and the pain
and longing that come when God is absent; the hiddenness
34
of God, which comes from our inability to survive the full

revelation of God's glory and which forces us to seek to know
God through faith and obedience;
"Torah-mysticism", a view of God's laws as the central
expression of God's will and therefore as worthy object not
only of obedience but also of loving meditation and Torah
study; and poverty, an ascetic value, based on the
apocalyptic expectation of God's impending arrival, that
characterized the Jewish people's reaction to being
oppressed by a series of foreign empires.
In Christian mysticism, Shekhinah became mystery, Da'at

became gnosis, and poverty became an important
component of monasticism.
Gospels
Transfiguration of Jesus depicting him with Elijah, Moses and

3 apostles by Carracci, 1594
The Christian scriptures, insofar as they are the founding
narrative of the Christian church, provide many key stories
and concepts that become important for Christian mystics in
all later generations: practices such as the Eucharist, baptism
and the Lord's Prayer all become activities that take on
importance for both their ritual and symbolic values. Other
scriptural narratives present scenes that become the focus of
meditation: the Crucifixion of Jesus and his appearances after
his Resurrection are two of the most central to Christian
theology; but Jesus' conception, in which the Holy Spirit
overshadows Mary, and his Transfiguration, in which he is
briefly revealed in his heavenly glory, also become important
images for meditation. Moreover, many of the Christian texts
35
build on Jewish spiritual foundations, such as chokhmah,

shekhinah.
But different writers present different images and ideas. The

Synoptic Gospels (in spite of their many differences)
introduce several important ideas, two of which are related
to Greco-Judaic notions of knowledge/gnosis by virtue of
being mental acts: purity of heart, in which we will to see in
God's light; and repentance, which involves allowing God to
judge and then transform us. Another key idea presented by
the Synoptics is the desert, which is used as a metaphor for
the place where we meet God in the poverty of our spirit.
The Gospel of John focuses on God's glory in his use of light

imagery and in his presentation of the Cross as a moment of
exaltation; he also sees the Cross as the example of agape
love, a love which is not so much an emotion as a willingness
to serve and care for others. But in stressing love, John shifts
the goal of spiritual growth away from knowledge/gnosis,
which he presents more in terms of Stoic ideas about the role
of reason as being the underlying principle of the universe
and as the spiritual principle within all people. Although John
does not follow up on the Stoic notion that this principle
makes union with the divine possible for humanity, it is an
idea that later Christian writers develop. Later generations
will also shift back and forth between whether to follow the
Synoptics in stressing knowledge or John in stressing love.
In his letters, Paul also focuses on mental activities, but not in

the same way as the Synoptics, which equate renewing the
mind with repentance. Instead, Paul sees the renewal of our
minds as happening as we contemplate what Jesus did on the
Cross, which then opens us to grace and to the movement of
36
the Holy Spirit into our hearts. Like John, Paul is less
interested in knowledge, preferring to emphasize the
hiddenness, the "mystery" of God's plan as revealed through
Christ. But Paul's discussion of the Cross differs from John's in
being less about how it reveals God's glory and more about
how it becomes the stumbling block that turns our minds
back to God. Paul also describes the Christian life as that of
an athlete, demanding practice and training for the sake of
the prize; later writers will see in this image a call to ascetical
practices.
Early church
Christian mysticism in ancient Africa and Catholic spirituality

The texts attributed to the Apostolic Fathers, the earliest
post-Biblical texts we have, share several key themes,
particularly the call to unity in the face of persecution and
internal divisions, the reality of the charisms, especially
prophecy, visions and Christian gnosis, which is understood
as "a gift of the Holy Spirit that enables us to know Christ"
through meditating on the scriptures and on the Cross of
Christ. (This understanding of gnosis is not the same as that
developed by the Gnostics, who focused on esoteric
knowledge that is available only to a few people but that
allows them to free themselves from the evil world. These
authors also discuss the notion of the "two ways", that is, the
way of life and the way of death; this idea has biblical roots,
being found in both the Sermon on the Mount and the Torah.
The two ways are then related to the notion of purity of
heart, which is developed by contrasting it against the
divided or duplicitous heart and by linking it to the need for
asceticism, which keeps the heart whole/pure. Purity of
heart was especially important given the real threat of
37
martyrdom, which many writers discussed in theological

terms, seeing it not as an evil but as an opportunity to truly
die for the sake of God—the ultimate example of ascetic
practice. Martyrdom could also be seen as symbolic in its
connections with the Eucharist and with baptism.
Hellenism
The Alexandrian contribution to Christian mysticism centers

around Origen and Clement of Alexandria. Clement was an
early Christian humanist who argued that reason is the most
important aspect of human existence and that gnosis (not
something we can attain by ourselves, but the gift of Christ)
helps us find the spiritual realities that are hidden behind the
natural world and within the scriptures. Given the
importance of reason, Clement stresses apatheia as a
reasonable ordering of our passions in order to live within
God's love, which is seen as a form of truth. Origen, who had
a lasting influence on Eastern Christian thought, further
develops the idea that the spiritual realities can be found
through allegorical readings of the scriptures (along the lines
of Jewish aggadah tradition), but he focuses his attention on
the Cross and on the importance of imitating Christ through
the Cross, especially through spiritual combat and asceticism.
Origen stresses the importance of combining intellect and
virtue (theoria and praxis) in our spiritual exercises, drawing
on the image of Moses and Aaron leading the Israelites
through the wilderness, and he describes our union with God
as the marriage of our souls with Christ the Logos, using the
wedding imagery from the Song of Songs. Alexandrian
mysticism developed alongside Hermeticism and
Neoplatonism and therefore share some of the same ideas,
images, etc. in spite of their differences.
38
Philo of Alexandria was a Jewish Hellenistic philosopher who

was important for connecting the Hebrew Scriptures to
Greek thought, and thereby to Greek Christians, who
struggled to understand their connection to Jewish history. In
particular, Philo taught that allegorical interpretations of the
Hebrew Scriptures provides access to the real meanings of
the texts. Philo also taught the need to bring together the
contemplative focus of the Stoics and Essenes with the active
lives of virtue and community worship found in Platonism
and the Therapeutae. Using terms reminiscent of the
Platonists, Philo described the intellectual component of
faith as a sort of spiritual ecstasy in which our nous (mind) is
suspended and God's Spirit takes its place. Philo's ideas
influenced the Alexandrian Christians, Clement and Origen
and through them, Gregory of Nyssa.[24]
Desert Fathers[edit source | editbeta]
See also: Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers
Inspired by Christ's teaching and example, men and women
withdrew to the deserts of Sketes where, either as solitary
individuals or communities, they lived lives of austere
simplicity oriented towards contemplative prayer. These
communities formed the basis for what later would become
known as Christian monasticism. Mysticism is integral to
Christian monasticism because the goal of practice for the
monastic is union with God.
Monasticism[edit source | editbeta]
The Eastern church then saw the development of
monasticism and the mystical contributions of Gregory of
Nyssa, Evagrius Ponticus and Pseudo-Dionysius. Monasticism,
also known as anchoritism (meaning "to withdraw") was seen
as an alternative to martyrdom, and was less about escaping
the world than about fighting demons (who were thought to
39
live in the desert) and about gaining liberation from our

bodily passions in order to be open to the Word of God.
Anchorites practiced continuous meditation on the scriptures
as a means of climbing the ladder of perfection—a common
religious image in the Mediterranean world and one found in
Christianity through the story of Jacob's ladder—and sought
to fend off the demon of acedia ("un-caring"), a boredom or
apathy that prevents us from continuing on in our spiritual
training. Anchorites could live in total solitude ("hermits",
from the word erēmitēs, "of the desert") or in loose
communities ("cenobites", meaning "common life").[25]
Monasticism eventually made its way to the West and was
established by the work of John Cassian and Benedict of
Nursia. Meanwhile, Western spiritual writing was deeply
influenced by the works of such men as Jerome and
Augustine of Hippo.
Middle ages[edit source | editbeta]
Stigmatization of St Francis, by Giotto

The Early Middle Ages in the West includes the work of
Gregory the Great and Bede, as well as developments in
Celtic Christianity and Anglo-Saxon Christianity, and comes to
fulfillment in the work of Johannes Scotus Eriugena and the
Carolingian Renaissance.
The High Middle Ages saw a flourishing of mystical practice
and theorization corresponding to the flourishing of new
monastic orders, with such figures as Guigo II, Hildegard of
Bingen, Bernard of Clairvaux, the Victorines, all coming from
different orders, as well as the first real flowering of popular
piety among the laypeople.
The Late Middle Ages saw the clash between the Dominican
and Franciscan schools of thought, which was also a conflict
40
between two different mystical theologies: on the one hand

that of Dominic de Guzmán and on the other that of Francis
of Assisi, Anthony of Padua, Bonaventure, Jacopone da Todi,
Angela of Foligno. Moreover there was the growth of groups
of mystics centered around geographic regions: the
Beguines, such as Mechthild of Magdeburg and Hadewijch
(among others); the Rhenish-Flemish mystics Meister
Eckhart, Johannes Tauler, Henry Suso and John of
Ruysbroeck; and the English mystics Richard Rolle, Walter
Hilton and Julian of Norwich. This period also saw such
individuals as Catherine of Siena and Catherine of Genoa, the
Devotio Moderna, and such books as the Theologia
Germanica, The Cloud of Unknowing and The Imitation of
Christ.
Reformation[edit source | editbeta]
With the Renaissance came the Protestant Reformation,
which in many ways downplayed mysticism, although it still
produced a fair amount of spiritual literature. Even the most
active reformers can be linked to Medieval mystical
traditions. Martin Luther, for instance, was a monk who was
influenced by the German Dominican mystical tradition of
Eckhart and Tauler as well by the Dionysian-influenced
Wesonmystik ("essence mysticism") tradition. He also
published the Theologia Germanica, which he claimed was
the most important book after the Bible and Augustine for
teaching him about God, Christ, and humanity.[26] Even John
Calvin, who rejected many Medieval ascetic practices and
who favored doctrinal knowledge of God over affective
experience, has Medieval influences, namely, Jean Gerson
and the Devotio moderna, with its emphasis on piety as the
method of spiritual growth in which the individual practices
dependence on God by imitating Christ and the son-father
relationship. Meanwhile, his notion that we can begin to
41
enjoy our eternal salvation through our earthly successes

leads in later generations to "a mysticism of consolation".[27]
Counter-reformation[edit source | editbeta]
But the Reformation brought about the Counter-Reformation
and, with it, a new flowering of mystical literature, often
grouped by nationality.
Spanish mysticsim[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Spanish mystics
Ecstasy of St. Theresa depicts Teresa of Avilas meditation

The Spanish had Ignatius Loyola, whose Spiritual Exercises
were designed to open people to a receptive mode of
consciousness in which they can experience God through
careful spiritual direction and through understanding how
the mind connects to the will and how to weather the
experiences of spiritual consolation and desolation;[28]
Teresa of Avila, who used the metaphors of watering a
garden and walking through the rooms of a castle to explain
how meditation leads to union with God;[29] and John of the
Cross, who used a wide range of biblical and spiritual
influences both to rewrite the traditional "three ways" of
mysticism after the manner of bridal mysticism and to
present the two "dark nights": the dark night of the senses
and the dark night of the soul, during which the individual
renounces everything that might become an obstacle
between the soul and God and then experiences the pain of
feeling separated from God, unable to carry on normal
spiritual exercises, as it encounters the enormous gap
between its human nature and God's divine wisdom and light
and moves up the 10-step ladder of ascent towards God.[30]
Another prominent mystic was Miguel de Molinos, the chief
apostle of the religious revival known as Quietism. No breath
42
of suspicion arose against Molinos until 1681, when the

Jesuit preacher Paolo Segneri, attacked his views, though
without mentioning his name, in his Concordia tra la fatica e
la quiete nell' orazione. The matter was referred to the
Inquisition. A report got abroad that Molinos had been
convicted of moral enormities, as well as of heretical
doctrines; and it was seen that he was doomed. On
September 3, 1687 he made public profession of his errors,
and was sentenced to imprisonment for life. Contemporary
Protestants saw in the fate of Molinos nothing more than a
persecution by the Jesuits of a wise and enlightened man,
who had dared to withstand the petty ceremonialism of the
Italian piety of the day. Molinos died in prison in 1696 or
1697.
Italy.
Going back to Evagrius Ponticus, Christian mystics have been

described as pursuing a threefold path corresponding to
body, mind, and soul (or spirit). The three aspects later
became purgative, illuminative, and unitive in the western
churches and prayer of the lips, the mind, the heart in the
eastern churches.[38] The first, purification is where aspiring
traditionally Christian mystics start. This aspect focuses on
discipline, particularly in terms of the human body; thus, it
emphasizes prayer at certain times, either alone or with
others, and in certain postures, often standing or kneeling. It
also emphasizes the other disciplines of fasting and alms-
giving, the latter including those activities called "the works
of mercy," both spiritual and corporal, such as feeding the
hungry and sheltering the homeless.
Purification, which grounds Christian spirituality in general, is
primarily focused on efforts to, in the words of St. Paul, "put
43
to death the deeds of the flesh by the Holy Spirit" (Romans

8:13). This is considered a result of the Spirit working in the
person and is not a result of personal deeds. Also in the
words of St. Paul, "...he who began a good work in you will
carry it on to completion until the day of Christ Jesus."
(Epistle to the Philippians 1:6). The "deeds of the flesh" here
include not only external behavior, but also those habits,
attitudes, compulsions, addictions, etc. (sometimes called
egoic passions) which oppose themselves to true being and
living as a Christian not only exteriorly, but interiorly as well.
Evelyn Underhill describes purification as an awareness of
one's own imperfections and finiteness, followed by self-
discipline and mortification.[39] Because of its physical,
disciplinary aspect, this phase, as well as the entire Christian
spiritual path, is often referred to as "ascetic," a term which
is derived from a Greek word which connotes athletic
training. Because of this, in ancient Christian literature,
prominent mystics are often called "spiritual athletes," an
image which is also used several times in the New Testament
to describe the Christian life. What is sought here is salvation
in the original sense of the word, referring not only to one's
eternal fate, but also to healing in all areas of life, including
the restoration of spiritual, psychological, and physical
health.
It remains a paradox of the mystics that the passivity at
which they appear to aim is really a state of the most intense
activity: more, that where it is wholly absent no great
creative action can take place. In it, the superficial self
compels itself to be still, in order that it may liberate another
more deep-seated power which is, in the ecstasy of the
contemplative genius, raised to the highest pitch of
efficiency.[40]
44
The second phase, the path of illumination, has to do with

the activity of the Holy Spirit enlightening the mind, giving
insights into truths not only explicit in scripture and the rest
of the Christian tradition, but also those implicit in nature,
not in the scientific sense, but rather in terms of an
illumination of the "depth" aspects of reality and natural
happenings, such that the working of God is perceived in all
that one experiences. Underhill describes it as marked by a
consciousness of a transcendent order and a vision of a new
heaven and a new earth.
The third phase, usually called contemplation (or Mystical
Contemplative Prayer [41]) in the Western tradition, refers to
the experience of oneself as in some way united with God.
The experience of union varies, but it is first and foremost
always associated with a reuniting with Divine love, the
underlying theme being that God, the perfect goodness,[42]
is known or experienced at least as much by the heart as by
the intellect since, in the words 1 John 4:16: "God is love, and
he who abides in love abides in God and God in him." Some
approaches to classical mysticism would consider the first
two phases as preparatory to the third, explicitly mystical
experience, but others state that these three phases overlap
and intertwine.
Mystical Contemplative Prayer is the blessing for which the
Christian mystic hopes. No human effort can produce it. This
form of prayer has three characteristics. (a)It is infused (i.e.
filled with enthusiasm or desire.) (b) It is extraordinary (i.e.
indicating that the intellect operates in new way). (c)
Moreover, It is passive (i.e. showing that the soul receives
something from God, and is conscious of receiving it.) It can
manifest itself in one of four degrees. The four degrees are
the prayer of quiet, the prayer of union, ecstatic union, and
transforming deifying union.[41]
45
Underhill's five-stage path[edit source | editbeta]

Author and mystic Evelyn Underhill recognizes two additional
phases to the mystical path. First comes the awakening, the
stage in which one begins to have some consciousness of
absolute or divine reality. Purgation and illumination are
followed by a fourth stage which Underhill, borrowing the
language of St. John of the Cross, calls the dark night of the
soul. This stage, experienced by the few, is one of final and
complete purification and is marked by confusion,
helplessness, stagnation of the will, and a sense of the
withdrawal of God's presence. This dark night of the soul is
not, in Underhill's conception, the Divine Darkness of the
pseudo-Dionysius and German Christian mysticism. It is the
period of final "unselfing" and the surrender to the hidden
purposes of the divine will. Her fifth and final stage is union
with the object of love, the one Reality, God. Here the self
has been permanently established on a transcendental level
and liberated for a new purpose.[43]
Community[edit source | editbeta]
Another aspect of traditional Christian spirituality, or
mysticism, has to do with its communal basis. Even for
hermits, the Christian life is always lived in communion with
the Church, the community of believers. Thus, participation
in corporate worship, especially the Eucharist, is an essential
part of Christian mysticism. Connected with this is the
practice of having a spiritual director, confessor, or "soul
friend" with which to discuss one's spiritual progress. This
person, who may be clerical or lay, acts as a spiritual mentor.
Types of meditation[edit source | editbeta]
Within theistic mysticism two broad tendencies can be
identified. One is a tendency to understand God by asserting
what He is not and the other by asserting what He is. The
46
former leads to what is called apophatic theology and the

latter to cataphatic theology.
Apophatic (imageless, stillness, and wordlessness) -- e.g., The
Cloud of the Unknowing, Meister Eckhart; and
Cataphatic (imaging God, imagination or words) -- e.g.,The
Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola, Dame Julian,
Francis of Assisi,[44] This second type is considered by
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite [45]
Scholars such as Urban T. Holmes, III have also categorized
mystical theology in terms of whether it focuses on
illuminating the mind, which Holmes refers to as speculative
practice, or the heart/emotions, which he calls affective
practice. Combining the speculative/affective scale with the
apophatic/cataphatic scale allows for a range of categories:
Rationalism = Cataphatic and speculative

Pietism = Cataphatic and affective
Encratism = Apophatic and speculative
Quietism = Apophatic and affective
47
48
Chapter Four
Religious Ecstasy
Religious ecstasy is an altered state of consciousness

characterized by greatly reduced external awareness and
expanded interior mental and spiritual awareness which is
frequently accompanied by visions and emotional/intuitive
(and sometimes physical) euphoria. Although the experience
is usually brief in time,[1] there are records of such
experiences lasting several days or even more, and of
recurring experiences of ecstasy during one's lifetime.
Subjective perception of time, space and/or self may strongly
change or disappear during ecstasy.
Religious people may hold the view that true religious

ecstasy occurs only in their religious context (e.g. as a gift
from the supernatural being whom they follow) and it cannot
be induced by natural means (human activities). Trance-like
states which are often interpreted as religious ecstasy can be
deliberately induced with techniques or ecstatic practices;
including, prayer, religious rituals, meditation, breathing
exercises, physical exercise, sex, music, dancing, sweating,
fasting, thirsting, and psychotropic drugs. An ecstatic
experience may take place in occasion of contact with
something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or
holy. It may also happen without any known reason. The
49
particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy

is usually one that is associated with that individual's
particular religious and cultural traditions. As a result, an
ecstatic experience is usually interpreted within the
particular individual religious context and cultural traditions.
These interpretations often include statements about contact
with supernatural or spiritual beings, about receiving new
information as a revelation, also religion-related explanations
of subsequent change of values, attitudes and behavior (e.g.
in case of religious conversion).
Classical Indian dancers are believed to enter ecstatic trance

while dancing.
Achieving ecstatic trances is a shaman activity, who induce
ecstasy for such purposes as traveling to heaven or the
underworld, guiding or otherwise interacting with spirits,
clairvoyance, and healing. Some shamans take drugs from
such plants as Ayahuasca, peyote and cannabis (also see
cannabis (drug) or certain mushrooms in their attempts to
reach ecstasy, while others rely on such non-chemical means
as ritual, music, dance, ascetic practices, or visual designs as
aids to mental discipline.
Modern meditator experiences in the Thai Forest Tradition,
as well as other Theravadin traditions, demonstrates that this
effort and rarity is necessary only to become completely
immersed in the absorptions and experience no other
sensations. It is possible to experience the absorptions in a
less intense state with much less practice.
In the Dionysian Mysteries, initiates used intoxicants and
other trance-inducing techniques (like dance and music) to
remove inhibitions and social constraints, liberating the
individual to return to a natural state.
50
Sufism (the mystical branch of Islam) has theoretical and

metaphorical texts regarding ecstasy as a state of connection
with Allah. Sufis practice rituals (dhikr, sema) using body
movement and music to achieve the state. Zila Khan also
practices this through Music Therapy and her performances.
In the monotheistic tradition, ecstasy is usually associated
with communion and oneness with God. However, such
experiences can also be personal mystical experiences with
no significance to anyone but the person experiencing them.
Some charismatic Christians practice ecstatic states (such as
"being slain in the Spirit") and interpret these as given by the
Holy Spirit. The firewalkers of Greece dance themselves into
a state of ecstasy at the annual Anastenaria, when they
believe themselves under the influence of Saint Constantine.
[3] [4][5]
Historically, large groups of individuals have experienced
religious ecstasies during periods of Christian revivals, to the
point of causing controversy as to the origin and nature of
these experiences.[6][7] In response to claims that all
emotional expressions of religious ecstasy were attacks on
order and theological soundness from the Devil, Jonathan
Edwards published his now-famous and influential Treatise
on Religious Affections. Here, he argues, religious ecstasy
could come from oneself, the Devil, or God, and it was only
by observing the fruit, or changes in inner thought and
behaviour, that one could determine if the religious ecstasy
had come from God.[8]
In hagiography (writings about Christian saints) many
instances are recorded in which saints are granted ecstasies.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia[9] religious ecstasy
(called "supernatural ecstasy") includes two elements: one,
interior and invisible, in which the mind rivets its attention on
a religious subject, and another, corporeal and visible, in
51
which the activity of the senses is suspended, reducing the

effect of external sensations upon the subject and rendering
him or her resistant to awakening. The witnesses of a Marian
apparition often describe experiencing these elements of
ecstasy.
Modern Witchcraft traditions may define themselves as
"ecstatic traditions," and focus on reaching ecstatic states in
their rituals. The Reclaiming Tradition and the Feri Tradition
are two modern ecstatic Witchcraft examples.
As described by the Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba,
God-intoxicated souls known as masts experience a unique
type of spiritual ecstasy: "[M]asts are desperately in love with
God – or consumed by their love for God. Masts do not suffer
from what may be called a disease. They are in a state of
mental disorder because their minds are overcome by such
intense spiritual energies that are far too much for them,
forcing them to lose contact with the world, shed normal
human habits and customs, and civilized society and live in a
state of spiritual splendor but physical squalor. They are
overcome by an agonizing love for God and are drowned in
their ecstasy. Only the divine love embodied in a Perfect
Master can reach them.
Being slain in the Spirit is a practice where the laying on of

hands is practiced during a public prayer ministry. Church
members or attendees may come to the front of the church
(or in other gatherings not necessarily in a church service or
building) to receive a special work of the Holy Spirit from the
Pastor, service leader or a team of ministers.[2]:91 Often a
significant amount of time is spent singing and praying during
the church service before this point. Attendees are then
prayed over and touched by the service leader or leaders.
They perceive the Spirit of God upon them and they fall,
52
usually onto their backs.[3]:235 In most cases, their fall is

broken by deacons, catchers, ushers or orderlies behind
them to prevent injury. Beliefs associated with this
phenomenon include divine healing, receiving visions, being
set free of demonic spirits, hearing God speak.
As Thomas Csordas says: "In Charismatic ritual life, resting in
the Spirit can serve the purposes of demonstrating divine
power; of exhibiting the faith of those who are "open" to
such power; of allowing a person to be close to, "touched
by," or "spoken to" by God (sometimes via embodied
imagery); of preparing a person to receive and exercise a
spiritual gift; or of healing."
Stigmata (singular stigma) is a term used by members of the

Christian faith to describe body marks, sores, or sensations of
pain in locations corresponding to the crucifixion wounds of
Jesus Christ, such as the hands, wrists, and feet.
The term originates from the line at the end of Saint Paul's
Letter to the Galatians where he says, "I bear on my body the
marks of Jesus." Stigmata is the plural of the Greek word
στίγμα stigma, meaning a mark, tattoo,[1] or brand such as
might have been used for identification of an animal or slave.
An individual bearing stigmata is referred to as a stigmatic or
a stigmatist.
Stigmata are primarily associated with the Roman Catholic
faith. Many reported stigmatics are members of Catholic
religious orders.[2] St. Francis of Assisi was the first recorded
stigmatic in Christian history. For over fifty years, Padre Pio of
Pietrelcina of the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin reported
stigmata which were studied by several 20th-century
physicians whose independence from the Church is not
known.[citation needed]
53
A high percentage (perhaps over 80%) of all stigmatics are

women.[3] In his Stigmata: A Medieval Phenomenon in a
Modern Age, Edward Harrison suggests that there is no single
mechanism whereby the marks of stigmata were produced.
Reported cases of stigmata take various forms. Many show

some or all of five Holy Wounds that were, according to the
Bible, inflicted on Jesus during his crucifixion: wounds in the
wrists and feet, from nails; and in the side, from a lance.
Some stigmatics display wounds to the forehead similar to
those caused by the Crown of Thorns.[3] Stigmata as crown
of thorns appearing in the 20th century, e.g. on Marie Rose
Ferron, have been repeatedly photographed.[6][7][8] Other
reported forms include tears of blood or sweating blood, and
wounds to the back as from scourging.
Many stigmata show recurring bleeding that stops and then
starts, at times after receiving Holy Communion, and a large
percentage of stigmatics have shown a high desire to receive
Holy Communion frequently .[3] A relatively high percentage
of stigmatics also exhibit inedia, living with minimal (or no)
food or water for long periods of time, except for the Holy
Eucharist, and some exhibit loss of weight.[3]
The ecstasy and sufferings usually began for the Saints who
suffered stigmata starting on Thursday and ending on Friday
afternoon around 3 or 4 o'clock. All the recipients of this
mystical wounding suffered dreadfully. Many of the
stigmatics experienced cruel rejection and suspicion before
their wounds were authenticated. Saints who suffered
stigmata were carefully watched day and night so that
tampering with the wounds could not be performed. When
these methods were used, a number of false stigmatics were
exposed. Sometimes this stigmata became invisible on
54
express request and prayers by the Saints who suffered

them.[9]
Some stigmatics claim to feel the pain of wounds with no
external marks; these are referred to as invisible stigmata. In
other claims, stigmata are accompanied by extreme pain.
Some stigmatics' wounds do not appear to clot, and stay
fresh and uninfected. The blood from the wounds is said, in
some cases, to have a pleasant, perfumed odor, known as
the Odour of Sanctity.
Individuals who have obtained the stigmata are many times
described as ecstatics. At the time of receiving the stigmata,
they are overwhelmed with emotions.
No case of stigmata is known to have occurred before the
thirteenth century, when the depiction of the crucified Jesus
in Western Christendom emphasized his humanity.[10]
In his paper Hospitality and Pain, Christian theologian Ivan
Illich states: "Compassion with Christ... is faith so strong and
so deeply incarnate that it leads to the individual
embodiment of the contemplated pain." His thesis is that
stigmata result from exceptional poignancy of religious faith
and desire to associate oneself with the suffering Messiah.
Specific cases[edit source | editbeta]
St. Francis of Assisi[edit source | editbeta]

St. Francis of Assisi is the first recorded stigmatic in Christian
history.[11] In 1224, two years before his death, he
embarked on a journey to Mt. La Verna for a forty-day fast.
One morning near the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, a
six-winged angel allegedly appeared to Francis while he
prayed. As the angel approached, Francis could see that the
angel was crucified. He was humbled by the sight, and his
heart was filled with elation joined by pain and suffering.
When the angel departed, Francis was purportedly left with
55
wounds in his hands, feet, and side as if caused by the same

lance that pierced Christ’s side. The image of nails
immediately appeared in his hands and feet, and the wound
in his side often seeped blood.[12]
St. Francis' first biographer, Thomas of Celano, reports the
event as follows in his 1230 First Life of St. Francis:
"When the blessed servant of God saw these things he was
filled with wonder, but he did not know what the vision
meant. He rejoiced greatly in the benign and gracious
expression with which he saw himself regarded by the
seraph, whose beauty was indescribable; yet he was alarmed
by the fact that the seraph was affixed to the cross and was
suffering terribly. Thus Francis rose, one might say, sad and
happy, joy and grief alternating in him. He wondered
anxiously what this vision could mean, and his soul was
uneasy as it searched for understanding. And as his
understanding sought in vain for an explanation and his heart
was filled with perplexity at the great novelty of this vision,
the marks of nails began to appear in his hands and feet, just
as he had seen them slightly earlier in the crucified man
above him. His wrists and feet seemed to be pierced by nails,
with the heads of the nails appearing on his wrists and on the
upper sides of his feet, the points appearing on the other
side. The marks were round on the palm of each hand but
elongated on the other side, and small pieces of flesh jutting
out from the rest took on the appearance of the nail-ends,
bent and driven back. In the same way the marks of nails
were impressed on his feet and projected beyond the rest of
the flesh. Moreover, his right side had a large wound as if it
had been pierced with a spear, and it often bled so that his
tunic and trousers were soaked with his sacred blood." [13]
St. Pio of Pietrelcina[edit source | editbeta]
56
A young Padre Pio showing the stigmata.

For over fifty years, Padre Pio of Pietrelcina reported
stigmata which were studied by several 20th-century
physicians, whose independence from the Church is not
known.[14] [15][16] The observations were reportedly
unexplainable and the wounds never became infected.[14]
[15][17] His wounds healed once, but reappeared.[18] The
wounds were examined by Luigi Romanelli, chief physician of
the City Hospital of Barletta, for about one year. Dr. Giorgio
Festa, a private practitioner, also examined them in 1920 and
1925. Professor Giuseppe Bastianelli, physician to Pope
Benedict XV, agreed that the wounds existed, but made no
other comment. Pathologist Dr. Amico Bignami of the
University of Rome also observed the wounds, but could
make no diagnosis.[19] Both Bignami and Dr. Giuseppe Sala
commented on the unusually smooth edges of the wounds
and lack of edema. Dr. Alberto Caserta took X-rays of the
hands in 1954 and found no abnormality in the bone
structure.[20]
Scientific research[edit source | editbeta]
"Stigmata I" by Mexican artist Mauricio García Vega.

Some modern research has indicated stigmata are of
hysterical origin,[21] or linked to dissociative identity
disorders,[22] especially the link between dietary constriction
by self-starvation, dissociative mental states and self-
mutilation, in the context of a religious belief.[23] Anorexia
nervosa cases often display self-mutilation similar to stigmata
as part of a ritualistic, obsessive compulsive disorder. A
relationship between starvation and self-mutilation has been
57
reported amongst prisoners of war and during famines.[24]

[25][26] A psychoanalytic study of stigmatic Therese
Neumann has suggested that her stigmata resulted from
post-traumatic stress symptoms expressed in unconscious
self-mutilation through abnormal autosuggestibility.[27]
In his Stigmata: A Medieval Phenomenon in a Modern Age,
Edward Harrison suggests that there is no single mechanism
whereby the marks of stigmata were produced. Harrison
found no evidence from a study of contemporary cases that
the marks were supernatural in origin. However, a
naturalistic viewpoint immediately dismisses the possibility
of supernatural causation, thus making the lack of
"supernatural evidence" nugatory. He concluded, however,
that marks of natural origin need not be hoaxes. Some
stigmatics marked themselves in attempt to suffer with Christ
as a form of piety. Others marked themselves accidentally
and their marks were noted as stigmata by witnesses. Often
marks of human origin produced profound and genuine
religious responses. Harrison also noted that the male-to-
female ratio of stigmatics, which for many centuries had
been of the order of 7 to 1, had changed over the last 100
years to a ratio of 5:4. Appearance of stigmata frequently
coincided with times when issues of authority loomed large
in the Church. What was significant about stigmatics was not
that they were predominantly men, but that they were non-
ordained. Having stigmata gave them direct access to the
body of Christ without requiring the permission of the Church
through the Eucharist. Only in the last century have priests
been stigmatized.[28]
From the records of St. Francis’ physical ailments and
symptoms, Dr. Edward Hartung concluded in 1935 that he
knew what health problems plagued the holy man. Hartung
believed that he had an eye ailment known as trachoma, but
58
also had quartan malaria. Quartan malaria infects the liver,

spleen, and stomach, causing the victim intense pain. One
complication of quartan malaria occasionally seen around
Francis’s time is known as purpura, a purple hemorrhage of
blood into the skin. Purpuras usually occur symmetrically, so
each hand and foot would have been affected equally. If this
were the case for St. Francis, he would have been afflicted by
ecchymoses, an exceedingly large purpura. The purple spots
of blood may have been punctured while in the wilderness
and therefore appear as an open wound like that of Christ.
59
60
Chapter Five
Baptism of the Holy Spirit
Baptism with the Holy Spirit (alternatively Baptism in the

Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost) in Christian theology is a term
describing baptism (washing or immersion) in or with the
Spirit of God and is frequently associated with the bestowal
of spiritual gifts and empowerment for Christian ministry.[1]
[2][3] While the phrase "baptism with the Holy Spirit" is
found in the New Testament and all Christian traditions
accept it as a theological concept, each has interpreted it in a
way consistent with their own beliefs on ecclesiology and
Christian initiation.[4] One view holds that the term refers
only to Pentecost, the "once-for-all" event for the whole
Church described in the second chapter of the Book of Acts.
[5] Another view holds that the term also refers to an
experience of the individual believer distinct from salvation
and initiation into the Church.
Before the emergence of the holiness movement in the mid-
19th century and Pentecostalism in the early 20th century,
most denominations believed that Christians received the
baptism with the Holy Spirit either upon conversion and
regeneration[5] or through rites of Christian initiation. Since
61
the growth and spread of Pentecostal and charismatic

churches, however, the belief that the baptism with the Holy
Spirit is an experience distinct from regeneration has come
into increasing prominence.
In Christian theology, the work of the Holy Spirit under the

Old Covenant is viewed as less powerful and less extensive
than that under the New Covenant inaugurated on the day of
Pentecost.[7] The Spirit was restricted to certain chosen
individuals, such as high priests and prophets.[8] Often
termed the “spirit of prophecy” in rabbinic writings, the Holy
Spirit was closely associated with prophecy and divine
inspiration.[9] It was anticipated that in the future messianic
age God would pour out his spirit upon all of Israel, which
would become a nation of prophets.[10][11]
While the exact phrase "baptism with the Holy Spirit" is not
found in the New Testament, two forms of the phrase are
found in the canonical gospels using the verb "baptize". The
baptism was spoken about by John the Baptist, who
contrasted his water baptism for the forgiveness of sins with
the baptism of Jesus. In Mark and John, the Baptist
proclaimed that Jesus "will baptize in (the) Holy Spirit"; while
in Matthew and Luke, he "will baptize with Holy Spirit and
fire".[12][13] Jesus is considered the first person to receive
the baptism with the Holy Spirit.[14] The Holy Spirit
descended on Jesus during his baptism, and he was anointed
with power.[15] Afterward, Jesus began his ministry and
displayed his power by casting out demons, healing the sick,
and teaching with authority.[16][17]
The phrase "baptized in the Holy Spirit" occurs two times in
Acts, first in Acts 1:4-5[18] and second in Acts 11:16.[19]
Other terminology is used in Acts to indicate Spirit baptism,
62
such as "filled".[20] "Baptized in the Spirit" indicates an

outward immersion into the reality of the Holy Spirit, while
"filled with the Spirit" suggests an internal diffusion. Both
terms speak to the totality of receiving the Spirit.[21] The
baptism with the Holy Spirit is described in various places as
the Spirit "poured out upon", "falling upon", "coming upon"
people.[22][23] To "pour out" suggests abundance and
reflects John 3:34,[24] "God gives the Spirit without limit".
Another expression, "come upon" is related to a statement
by Jesus in Lk 24:49, "I am sending the promise of my Father
upon you. But stay in the city until you are clothed with
power from on high". The language of "come on" and
"clothed with" suggest possession by and endowment with
the Holy Spirit.[21]
The narrative of Acts begins after Jesus’ crucifixion and
resurrection. The resurrected Jesus directed his disciples to
wait in Jerusalem for the baptism in the Holy Spirit and
promised, "you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has
come upon you, and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem
and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth".
[25] After his ascension, he was given authority to pour out
the Holy Spirit.[16] In the New Testament, the messianic
expectations found in early Judaism were fulfilled on the day
of Pentecost recorded in Acts 2:1-41. The Christian
community was gathered together in Jerusalem when a
sound from heaven like rushing wind was heard and tongues
like tongues of flame rested on everyone. They were filled
with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in tongues,
miraculously praising God in foreign languages. A crowd
gathered and was addressed by the Apostle Peter who stated
that the occurrence was the fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy,
"And in the last days it shall be, God declares, that I will pour
out my Spirit on all flesh, and your sons and your daughters
63
shall prophesy". He then explained how the Spirit came to be

poured out, recounting Jesus’ ministry and passion and then
proclaiming his resurrection and enthronement at the right
hand of God. In response, the crowd asked Peter what they
should do. He responded that they should repent and be
baptized for the forgiveness of sins in order to receive the gift
of the Holy Spirit. Peter finished his speech stating that the
promise "is for you and for your children and for all who are
far off, everyone whom the Lord our God calls to himself".[8]
Baptism in the Holy Spirit occurs elsewhere in Acts. The
gospel had been proclaimed in Samaria and the apostles
Peter and John were sent from Jerusalem. The new believers
had been water baptized, but the Holy Spirit had not yet
fallen on them. The Samaritans received the Holy Spirit when
Peter and John laid their hands on them.[26] The Apostle
Paul was also filled with the Holy Spirit when Ananias of
Damascus laid hands on him, and afterwards Paul was
baptized with water.[27] Later in Acts, Peter preached the
gospel to the household of Cornelius the Centurion, a
Gentile. While he preached, the Holy Spirit fell on the
gentiles, and they began to speak in tongues. The Jewish
believers with Peter were amazed, and the household was
water baptized.[28] While the apostle Paul was in Ephesus,
he found disciples there and discovered that they did not
know of the existence of the Holy Spirit and had only
received John the Baptist’s baptism. After baptizing them in
Jesus’ name, Paul laid his hands on them, and they began to
speak in tongues and prophesy.[29]
History[edit source | editbeta]
In the early Church, the imposition of hands on the newly

baptized to impart the gift of the Holy Spirit was the origin of
the sacrament of confirmation. In the Eastern church,
64
confirmation continued to be celebrated immediately after

water baptism. The two rites were separated in the Western
church.[30]
According to Pentecostal historian H. Vinson Synan, "the
basic premise of Pentecostalism, that one may receive later
effusions of the Spirit after initiation/conversion, can be
clearly traced in Christian history to the beginnings of the rite
of confirmation in the Western churches".[31] Synan further
traces the influence of Catholic and Anglican mystical
traditions on John Wesley's doctrine of Christian perfection
or entire sanctification, from which Pentecostal beliefs on
Spirit baptism developed. Wesley taught that while the new
birth was the start of the Christian life, "inbred sin" remained
and must be removed through a lifelong process of moral
cleansing.[32] John Fletcher, Wesley's designated successor,
called Christian perfection a "baptism in the Holy Spirit".[33]
His Checks to Antinomianism later became a standard for
Pentecostally-inclined holiness teachers. On the subject,
Fletcher wrote:
Lastly: if we will attain the full power of godliness, and be
peaceable as the Prince of Peace, and merciful as our
heavenly Father, let us go on to the perfection and glory of
Christianity; let us enter the full dispensation of the Spirit. Till
we live in the pentecostal glory of the Church: till we are
baptized with the Holy Ghost: till the Spirit of burning and the
fire of Divine love have melted us down, and we have been
truly cast into the softest mould of the Gospel: till we can say
with St. Paul, "We have received the Spirit of love, of power,
and of a sound mind;" till then we shall be carnal rather than
spiritual believers.[34]
In mid-19th century America, the Wesleyan holiness
movement began to teach that entire sanctification was less
a process and more of a state that one entered into by faith
65
at a definite moment in time. This second blessing, as it was

commonly called, allowed Christians to be freed from the
power of sin. The baptism in the Holy Spirit was generally
understood to be synonymous with second blessing
sanctification.[32] After his conversion in 1821, Presbyterian
minister and revivalist Charles Grandison Finney experienced
what he called "baptism in the Holy Spirit" accompanied by
"unutterable gushings" of praise.[35] Finney and other
Reformed writers, known as Oberlin perfectionists, agreed
that there was a life altering experience after conversion, but
unlike their Wesleyan holiness counterparts, they conceived
of it as an ongoing process enabling believers to devote
themselves wholly to Christ's service. Similarly, the English
Higher Life movement taught that the second blessing was
an "enduement of power". Spirit baptism gave Christians the
ability to witness and to serve. Wesleyan teachers
emphasized purity while Oberlin and higher life advocates
stressed power as the defining outcome of Spirit baptism.
[32]
In the early 1890s, R.C. Horner, a Canadian holiness
evangelist, introduced a theological distinction that would be
important for the development of Pentecostalism. He argued
in his books Pentecost (1891) and Bible Doctrines (1909) that
the baptism in the Holy Spirit was not synonymous with the
second blessing but was actually a third work of grace
subsequent to salvation and sanctification that empowered
the believer for service.[36] Charles Fox Parham would build
on this doctrinal foundation when he identified speaking in
tongues as the Bible evidence of Spirit baptism.[37]
Views[edit source | editbeta]
66
Russian Orthodox depiction of Pentecost, c. 1497.

The diverse views on Spirit-baptism held among Christian
traditions can be categorized into three main groups. These
are baptism with the Spirit as sacramental initiation
(Orthodox and Catholic churches), regeneration (Reformed
tradition), and empowerment for witness and vocation
(Pentecostals and charismatics).[38]
Eastern Orthodox[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Chrismation
Orthodox Churches believe that baptism in the Holy Spirit is
conferred with water baptism. The individual is anointed with
oil (chrism) immediately after baptism. According to Cyril of
Jerusalem:
This holy ointment is no more simple ointment, nor (so to
say) common, after the invocation, but the gift of Christ; and
by the presence of His Godhead, it causes in us the Holy
Ghost. It is symbolically applied to thy forehead and thy
other senses and while thy body is anointed with visible
ointment, thy soul is sanctified by the Holy and life-giving
Spirit.[39]
Roman Catholic[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Confirmation (Catholic Church)
The Catholic Church teaches that baptism, confirmation, and
the Eucharist—the sacraments of Christian initiation—lay the
foundations of the Christian life.[40] The Christian life is
based on baptism. It is "the gateway to life in the Spirit" and
"signifies and actually brings about the birth of water and the
Spirit".[41] The post-baptismal anointing (Chrismation in the
Eastern churches) signifies the gift of the Holy Spirit and
announces a second anointing to be conferred later in
confirmation that completes the baptismal anointing.[42]
Confirmation, then, is necessary for the completion of
baptismal grace.[43] When confirmed, Catholics receive the
67
"special outpouring of the Holy Spirit as once granted to the

apostles on the day of Pentecost".[44] For the confirmand it
increases the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit (wisdom,
understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear
of the Lord), unites more fully to Christ and the Church, and
gives strength to confess Christ and defend the faith.[45] The
rite of confirmation orients toward mission, and many
liturgical texts remind the initiate that the gift of the Holy
Spirit should be used for service to the church and the world.
[46]
Reformed[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Reformed theology
The Reformed position on Spirit baptism is that the gift of the
Holy Spirit is given at the moment of regeneration, which, in
Protestant terms, is not predicated on water baptism or
membership in the visible church. Rather, all who have faith
in Jesus Christ are members of the invisible church and as
such are given the Holy Spirit.[5]
Wesleyanism[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Wesleyanism
Within the Wesleyan tradition, baptism with the Holy Spirit
has often been linked to a sanctified life. The United
Methodist Church has a sacramental view of baptism,
believing that it is by both water and Spirit and "involves
dying to sin, newness of life, union with Christ, receiving the
Holy Spirit, and incorporation into Christ's church". It also
believes that baptism is the "doorway to the sanctified life"
defined as "a gift of the gracious presence of the Holy Spirit, a
yielding to the Spirit's power, a deepening of our love for God
and neighbor".[47]
The churches in the holiness movement emphasize entire
sanctification as a definite experience linked to Spirit
baptism. According to the Articles of Faith of the Church of
68
the Nazarene, sanctification is a work of God after

regeneration "which transforms believers into the likeness of
Christ" and is made possible by "initial sanctification" (which
is regeneration and simultaneous with justification), entire
sanctification, and "the continued perfecting work of the
Holy Spirit culminating in glorification".[48] Entire
sanctification (as opposed to initial sanctification) is an act of
God in which a believer is made free from original sin and
able to devote him or herself entirely to God:
It is wrought by the baptism with or infilling of the Holy Spirit,
and comprehends in one experience the cleansing of the
heart from sin and the abiding, indwelling presence of the
Holy Spirit, empowering the believer for life and service.[48]
Mormonism[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Confirmation (Latter Day Saints)
In the Latter Day Saint movement, the "Baptism of fire and of
the Holy Ghost" refers to the experience of one who
undergoes the ordinance of confirmation with the laying on
of hands to receive the gift of the Holy Ghost. It follows
baptism in water and is essential to salvation.[49] The gift of
the Holy Ghost is the privilege of receiving inspiration, divine
manifestations, direction, spiritual gifts, and other blessings
from the Holy Spirit.[50] It begins the lifetime process of
sanctification.[51]
Pentecostal and charismatic[edit source | editbeta]
Pentecostal and charismatic Christians believe that all
Christians have the Holy Spirit dwelling in them.[52]
However, they believe that the experience commonly called
"baptism in the Holy Spirit" is a separate and distinct
experience occurring sometime after regeneration. It is an
empowering experience, equipping Spirit-filled believers for
witness and ministry.[22] Extending from this is the belief
that all the spiritual gifts mentioned in the New Testament
69
are to be sought and exercised to build up the Church.[6] It is

Spirit baptism that initiates the believer in the use of the
spiritual gifts.
Pentecostals and charismatics look to the Bible to support
their doctrinal position. According to their biblical
interpretation, the Gospel of John 20:22 shows that the
disciples of Jesus were already born again before the Holy
Spirit fell at Pentecost. They then cite biblical examples in the
Book of Acts 2, 8, 10, and 19 to show that it was common in
the New Testament for Spirit baptism to occur after
conversion.[53] In following the biblical pattern, they argue,
Christians today should also ask Jesus for this baptism which
results in greater power for ministry and witness. There are
differences between Pentecostal and charismatic Christians'
understanding of Spirit baptism.
Classical Pentecostalism[edit source | editbeta]
The Apostolic Faith Mission on Azusa Street, now considered

to be the birthplace of Pentecostalism.
Classical Pentecostalism includes any denomination or group
which has origins in the Pentecostal revival that began in
1901 and is most identified with the Azusa Street Mission of
Los Angeles. Some Pentecostal denominations teach that
speaking in tongues (see glossolalia) will always follow Spirit
baptism, though this is by no means universally believed or
practiced among Pentecostals.[54]
On the subject of Spirit baptism, Donald Gee wrote:
Therein lies the dynamic source of the whole subject. The
early believers had all received the gift of the Holy Ghost as
promised by our Lord and by Peter on the Day of Pentecost.
With them it was not mere intellectual assent to some article
in a creed defining an orthodox doctrine concerning the Holy
70
Spirit. Neither were they satisfied to acquiescence to a vague

idea that in some indefinite manner the Holy Spirit had been
imparted to them upon conversion. They gladly and
thankfully recognized His gracious operations in their
regeneration and sanctification, but their own personal
reception of the Holy Spirit was an intensely vivid experience.
They knew when He came, where He came, and how he
came. Nothing reveals this more than Paul's searching
question to certain disciples whom he immediately sensed to
be spiritually lacking in a vital part of their Christian
inheritance—'Have ye received the Holy Ghost?' (Acts 19:2).
The challenge was to experience, not to doctrine. How
significant! An Ephesian 'Pentecost' speedily rectified their
shortcoming, and it was an experience as vivid as all the rest
had received—'They spake with tongues and
prophesied.'[55]
In Pentecostal experience, Spirit baptism can be quite
dramatic, as shown by William Durham's account of his Spirit
baptism:
I was overcome by the mighty fulness of power and went
down under it. For three hours He wrought wonderfully in
me. My body was worked in sections, a section at a time. And
even the skin on my face was jerked and shaken, and finally I
felt my lower jaw begin to quiver in a strange way. This
continued for some little time, when finally my throat began
to enlarge and I felt my vocal organs being, as it were, drawn
into a different shape. O how strange and wonderful it was!
and how blessed it was to be thus in the hands of God. And
last of all I felt my tongue begin to move and my lips to
produce strange sounds which did not originate in my mind.
[56]
71
In some accounts of Spirit baptism, Pentecostals report

receiving visions, such as the account of Lucy Leatherman, an
Azusa Street participant:
While seeking for the Baptism with the Holy Ghost in Los
Angeles, after Sister Ferrell [sic] laid hands on me I praised
and praised God and saw my Savior in the heavens. And as I
praised, I came closer and closer and I was so small. By and
by I swept into the wound in His side, and He was not only in
me but I in Him, and there I found that rest that passeth all
understanding, and He said to me, you are in the bosom of
the Father. He said I was clothed upon and in the secret place
of the Most High. But I said, Father, I want the gift of the Holy
Ghost, and the heavens opened and I was overshadowed,
and such power came upon me and went through me. He
said, Praise Me, and when I did, angels came and ministered
unto me. I was passive in His hands working on my vocal
cords, and I realized they were loosing me. I began to praise
Him in an unknown language.[57]
Charismatics[edit source | editbeta]
Charismatics trace their historical origins to the charismatic
movement of the 1960s and 1970s. They are distinguished
from Pentecostals because they tend to allow for differing
viewpoints on whether Spirit baptism is subsequent to
conversion and whether tongues is always a sign of receiving
the baptism.[6] Some charismatics remain within existing
Protestant and Catholic churches while others have started
new denominations.
The Catholic Charismatic Renewal believes that there is a
further experience of empowerment with the Holy Spirit.[58]
As stated by Rev. Fr. Raniero Cantalamessa, "baptism in the
Spirit is not a sacrament, but it is related to a sacrament…to
the sacraments of Christian initiation. The baptism in the
Spirit makes real and in a way renews Christian initiation".
72
[59] Emphasis of the event is on the release of existing

spiritual gifts already given to the individual through baptism
in water and confirmation.
During the 1980s, another renewal movement emerged
called the "Third Wave of the Holy Spirit" (the first wave was
Pentecostalism and the second wave was the charismatic
movement). Third wave charismatics stress that the
preaching of the gospel, following the New Testament
pattern, should be accompanied by "signs, wonders, and
miracles". They believe that all Christians are baptized with
the Holy Spirit at conversion, and prefer to call subsequent
experiences as "filling" with the Holy Spirit.[6] John Wimber
and the Vineyard churches are most prominently associated
with this label.
Bible references[edit source | editbeta]
Matthew 3:11: …He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit…"
Mark 1:8: …He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit…"
Luke 3:16: "He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit…"
Luke 24:49: …stay here in the city until you have been
clothed with power from on high." (see fulfillment in Acts 2).
John 1:33: …the one who baptizes with the Holy Spirit."
Acts 1:4-5: …the Promise of the Father…"; …you will be
baptized with the Holy Spirit…"
Acts 2:1-4: "All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and
began to speak in other languages…"
Acts 2:14-18: …I will pour out my Spirit…" (quoting Joel 2:28-
29).
Acts 4:31: …they were all filled with the Holy Spirit…"
Acts 8:14-17: …prayed for them that they might receive the
Holy Spirit…"; …as yet the Spirit had not yet come upon any
of them…"; …they received the Holy Spirit…"; …the Spirit was
given through the laying on of the apostles' hands…."
73
Acts 9:17: …Jesus…has sent me…that you may…be filled with

the Holy Spirit."
Acts 10:44-48: "The Holy Spirit fell upon all who heard the
word…"; …the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out…";
…people who have received the Holy Spirit…"
Acts 11:15-16: …the Holy Spirit fell upon them…"; …you will
be baptized with the Holy Spirit…"
Acts 19:1-6: "Did you receive the Holy Spirit…?"; …the Holy
Spirit came upon them, and they spoke in tongues and
prophesied…"
1 Cor 12:13: "For in one Spirit we were all baptized into one
body--Jews or Greeks, slaves or free..."
74
Chapter Six
Spiritual Gifts
Romans 12:6-8
Prophecy
Serving
Teaching
Exhortation
Giving
75
Leadership
Mercy
1 Corinthians 12:8-10
Word of wisdom
Word of knowledge
Faith
Gifts of healings
Miracles
Prophecy
Distinguishing between spirits
Tongues
Interpretation of tongues
1 Corinthians 12:28
Apostle
Prophet
Teacher
Miracles
Kinds of healings
Helps
Administration
Tongues
Ephesians 4:11
Apostle
Prophet
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Evangelist
Pastor
Teacher
1 Peter 4:11
Whoever speaks
Whoever renders service
Romans 12:6-10
Having then gifts differing, etc.—As the goodness of God,

with this view of our mutual subserviency and usefulness,
has endowed us with different gifts and qualifications, let
each apply himself to the diligent improvement of his
particular office and talent, and modestly keep within the
bounds of it, not exalting himself or despising others.
Whether prophecy—That prophecy, in the New Testament,
often means the gift of exhorting, preaching, or of
expounding the Scriptures, is evident from many places in
the Gospels, Acts, and St. Paul's Epistles, see 1 Corinthians
11:4, 5; and especially 1 Corinthians 14:3: He that
prophesieth speaketh unto men to edification, and
exhortation, and comfort. This was the proper office of a
preacher; and it is to the exercise of this office that the
77
apostle refers in the whole of the chapter from which the

above quotations are made. See also Luke 1:76; 7:28; Acts
15:32; 1 Corinthians 14:29. I think the apostle uses the term
in the same sense here—Let every man who has the gift of
preaching and interpreting the Scriptures do it in proportion
to the grace and light he has received from God, and in no
case arrogate to himself knowledge which he has not
received; let him not esteem himself more highly on account
of this gift, or affect to be wise above what is written, or
indulge himself in fanciful interpretations of the word of God.
Dr. Taylor observes that the measure of faith, Romans 12:3,
and the proportion of faith, Romans 12:6, seem not to relate
to the degree of any gift considered in itself, but rather in the
relation and proportion which it bore to the gifts of others;
for it is plain that he is here exhorting every man to keep
soberly within his own sphere. It is natural to suppose that
the new converts might be puffed up with the several gifts
that were bestowed upon them; and every one might be
forward to magnify his own to the disparagement of others:
therefore the apostle advises them to keep each within his
proper sphere; to know and observe the just measure and
proportion of the gift intrusted to him, not to gratify his pride
but to edify the Church.
The αναλογια της πιστεως, which we here translate the
proportion of faith, and which some render the analogy of
faith, signifies in grammar "the similar declension of similar
words;" but in Scriptural matters it has been understood to
mean the general and consistent plan or scheme of doctrines
delivered in the Scriptures; where every thing bears its due
relation and proportion to another. Thus the death of Christ
is commensurate in its merits to the evils produced by the
fall of Adam. The doctrine of justification by faith bears the
strictest analogy or proportion to the grace of Christ and the
78
helpless, guilty, condemned state of man: whereas the

doctrine of justification by WORKS is out of all analogy to the
demerit of sin, the perfection of the law, the holiness of God,
and the miserable, helpless state of man. This may be a good
general view of the subject; but when we come to inquire
what those mean by the analogy of faith who are most
frequent in the use of the term, we shall find that it means
neither more nor less than their own creed; and though they
tell you that their doctrines are to be examined by the
Scriptures, yet they give you roundly to know that you are to
understand these Scriptures in precisely the same way as
they have interpreted them. "To the law and to the
testimony," says Dr. Campbell, "is the common cry; only
every one, the better to secure the decision on the side he
has espoused, would have you previously resolve to put no
sense whatever on the law and the testimony but what his
favourite doctrine will admit. Thus they run on in a shuffling,
circular sort of argument, which, though they studiously
avoid exposing, is, when dragged into the open light, neither
more nor less than this; 'you are to try our doctrine by the
Scriptures only; but then you are to be very careful that you
explain the Scripture solely by our doctrine.' A wonderful
plan of trial, which begins with giving judgment, and ends
with examining the proof, wherein the whole skill and
ingenuity of the judges are to be exerted in wresting the
evidence so as to give it the appearance of supporting the
sentence pronounced before hand." See Dr. Campbell's
Dissertations on the Gospels, Diss. iv. sect. 14, vol. i, page
146, 8vo. edit., where several other sensible remarks may be
found.
Romans 12:7
79
Or ministry—Διακονια simply means the office of a deacon;

and what this office was, see in the note on Acts 6:4 (note),
where the subject is largely discussed.
Or he that teacheth—The teacher, διδασκαλος, was a person
whose office it was to instruct others, who thereby
catechizing, or simply explaining the grand truths of
Christianity.
Romans 12:8
Or he that exhorteth—Ὁ παρακαλων, The person who
admonished and reprehended the unruly or disorderly; and
who supported the weak and comforted the penitents, and
those who were under heaviness through manifold
temptations.
He that giveth—He who distributeth the alms of the Church,
with simplicity—being influenced by no partiality, but
dividing to each according to the necessity of his case.
He that ruleth—Ὁ προϊσταμενος, He that presides over a
particular business; but as the verb προϊσταμαι also signifies
to defend or patronize, it is probably used here to signify
receiving and providing for strangers, and especially the
persecuted who were obliged to leave their own homes, and
were destitute, afflicted, and tormented. It might also imply
the persons whose business it was to receive and entertain
the apostolical teachers who traveled from place to place,
establishing and confirming the Churches. In this sense the
word προστατις is applied to Phoebe, Romans 16:2: She hath
been a SUCCORER of many, and of myself also. The apostle
directs that this office should be executed with diligence, that
such destitute persons should have their necessities as
promptly and as amply supplied as possible.
He that showeth mercy—Let the person who is called to
perform any act of compassion or mercy to the wretched do
it, not grudgingly nor of necessity, but from a spirit of pure
80
benevolence and sympathy. The poor are often both wicked

and worthless: and, if those who are called to minister to
them as stewards, overseers, etc., do not take care, they will
get their hearts hardened with the frequent proofs they will
have of deception, lying, idleness, etc. And on this account it
is that so many of those who have been called to minister to
the poor in parishes, workhouses, and religious societies,
when they come to relinquish their employment find that
many of their moral feelings have been considerably blunted;
and perhaps the only reward they get for their services is the
character of being hard-hearted. If whatever is done in this
way be not done unto the Lord, it can never be done with
cheerfulness.
Romans 12:9
Let love be without dissimulation—Ἡ αγαπη ανυποκριτος·
Have no hypocritical love; let not your love wear a mask;
make no empty professions. Love God and your neighbor;
and, by obedience to the one and acts of benevolence to the
other, show that your love is sincere.
Abhor that which is evil—Αποστυγουντες το πονηρον· Hate
sin as you would hate that hell to which it leads. Στυγεω
signifies to hate or detest with horror; the preposition απο
greatly strengthens the meaning. Στυξ, Styx, was a feigned
river in hell by which the gods were wont to swear, and if any
of them falsified this oath he was deprived of his nectar and
ambrosia for a hundred years; hence the river was reputed to
be hateful, and στυγεω signified to be as hateful as hell. Two
MSS. read μισουντες, which signifies hating in the lowest
sense of the term. The word in the text is abundantly more
expressive, and our translation is both nervous and
appropriate.
Cleave to that which is good—Κολλωμενοι τῳ αγαθῳ· Be
CEMENTED or GLUED to that which is good; so the word
81
literally signifies. Have an unalterable attachment to

whatever leads to God, and contributes to the welfare of
your fellow creatures.
Be kindly affectioned one to another with brotherly love—It

is difficult to give a simple translation of the original: τῃ
φιλαδελφιᾳ εις αλληλους φιλοστοργοι. The word
φιλαδελφια signifies that affectionate regard which every
Christian should feel for another, as being members of the
same mystical body: hence it is emphatically termed the love
of the brethren. When William Penn, of deservedly famous
memory, made a treaty with the Indians in North America,
and purchased from them a large woody tract, which, after
its own nature and his name, he called Pennsylvania, he built
a city on it, and peopled it with Christians of his own
denomination, and called the city from the word in the text,
φιλαδελφια, PHILADELPHIA; an appellation which it then
bore with strict propriety: and still it bears the name.
The word φιλοστοργος, which we translate kindly
affectioned, from φιλος and στοργη, signifies that tender and
indescribable affection which a mother bears to her child,
and which almost all creatures manifest towards their young;
and the word φιλος, or φιλεω, joined to it, signifies a delight
in it. Feel the tenderest affection towards each other, and
delight to feel it. "Love a brother Christian with the affection
of a natural brother."
In honor preferring one another—The meaning appears to be
this: Consider all your brethren as more worthy than
yourself; and let neither grief nor envy affect your mind at
seeing another honored and yourself neglected. This is a hard
lesson, and very few persons learn it thoroughly. If we wish
to see our brethren honored, still it is with the secret
condition in our own minds that we be honored more than
82
they. We have no objection to the elevation of others,

providing we may be at the head. But who can bear even to
be what he calls neglected? I once heard the following
conversation between two persons, which the reader will
pardon my relating in this place, as it appears to be rather in
point, and is worthy of regard. "I know not," said one, "that I
neglect to do any thing in my power to promote the interest
of true religion in this place, and yet I seem to be held in very
little repute, scarcely any person even noticing me." To which
the other replied: "My good friend, set yourself down for
nothing, and if any person takes you for something it will be
all clear gain." I thought this a queer saying: but how full of
meaning and common sense! Whether the object of this
good counsel was profited by it I cannot tell; but I looked on
it and received instruction.
83
The manifestation of the Spirit—Φανερωσις του Πνευματος.

This is variably understood by the fathers; some of them
rendering φανερωσις by illumination, others demonstration,
and others operation. The apostle's meaning seems to be
this: Whatever gifts God has bestowed, or in what various
ways soever the Spirit of God may have manifested himself,
it is all for the common benefit of the Church. God has given
no gift to any man for his own private advantage, or exclusive
profit. He has it for the benefit of others as well as for his
own salvation.
1 Corinthians 12:8
Word of wisdom—In all these places I consider that the
proper translation of λογος is doctrine, as in many other
places of the New Testament. It is very difficult to say what is
intended here by the different kinds of gifts mentioned by
the apostle: they were probably all supernatural, and were
necessary at that time only for the benefit of the Church. On
the 8th, 9th, and 10th verses (1 Corinthians 12:8-10), much
may be seen in Lightfoot, Whitby, Pearce, and others.
1. By doctrine of wisdom we may understand, as Bp. Pearce
and Dr. Whitby observe, the mystery of our redemption, in
which the wisdom of God was most eminently conspicuous:
see 1 Corinthians 2:7, 10; and which is called the manifold
wisdom of God, Ephesians 3:10. Christ, the great teacher of
it, is called the wisdom of God, 1 Corinthians 1:24; and in him
are said to be contained all the treasures of wisdom and
knowledge, Colossians 2:3. The apostles to whom this
doctrine was committed are called σοφοι, wise men;
(Matthew 23:34); and they are said to teach this Gospel
according to the wisdom given them, 2 Peter 3:15.
2. By the doctrine of knowledge we may understand either a
knowledge of the types, etc., in the Old Testament; or what
are termed mysteries; the calling of the Gentiles, the
84
recalling of the Jews, the mystery of iniquity, of the beast,

etc., and especially the mystical sense or meaning of the Old
Testament, with all its types, rites, ceremonies, etc., etc.
3. By faith, 1 Corinthians 12:9, we are to understand that
miraculous faith by which they could remove mountains, 1
Corinthians 13:2; or a peculiar impulse, as Dr: Whitby calls it,
that came upon the apostles when any difficult matter was to
be performed, which inwardly assured them that God's
power would assist them in the performance of it. Others
think that justifying faith, received by means of Gospel
teaching, is what is intended.
4. Gifts of healing simply refers to the power which at
particular times the apostles received from the Holy Spirit to
cure diseases; a power which was not always resident in
them; for Paul could not cure Timothy, nor remove his own
thorn in the flesh; because it was given only on extraordinary
occasions, though perhaps more generally than many others.
5. The working of miracles, ενεργηματα δυναμεων, 1
Corinthians 12:10. This seems to refer to the same class as
the operations, ενεργηματων, 1 Corinthians 12:6, as the
words are the same; and to signify those powers by which
they were enabled at particular times to work miraculously
on others; ejecting demons, inflicting punishments or
judgments, as in the cases mentioned under 1 Corinthians
12:6. It is a hendyadis for mighty operations.
6. Prophecy. This seems to import two things:
1st, the predicting future events, such as then particularly
concerned the state of the Church and the apostles; as the
dearth foretold by Agabus, Acts 11:28; and the binding of St.
Paul, and delivering him to the Romans, Acts 21:10, etc.; and
St. Paul's foretelling his own shipwreck on Malta, Acts 27:25,
etc. And
85
2ndly, as implying the faculty of teaching or expounding the

Scriptures, which is also a common acceptation of the word.
7. Discerning of spirits. A gift by which the person so
privileged could discern a false miracle from a true one; or a
pretender to inspiration from him who was made really
partaker of the Holy Ghost. It probably extended also to the
discernment of false professors from true ones, as appears in
Peter in the case of Ananias and his wife.
8. Divers kinds of tongues. Γενη γλωσσων, Different
languages, which they had never learned, and which God
gave them for the immediate instruction of people of
different countries who attended their ministry.
9. Interpretation of tongues. It was necessary that while one
was speaking the deep things of God in a company where
several were present who did not understand, though the
majority did, there should be a person who could
immediately interpret what was said to that part of the
congregation that did not understand the language. This
power to interpret was also an immediate gift of God's Spirit,
and is classed here among the miracles.
1 Corinthians 12:11
But all these worketh that one and the self-same Spirit—All
these gifts are miraculously bestowed; they cannot be
acquitted by human art or industry, the different languages
excepted; but they were given in such a way, and in such
circumstances, as sufficiently proved that they also were
miraculous gifts.
1 Corinthians 12:12
For as the body is one—Though the human body have many
members, and though it be composed of a great variety of
parts, yet it is but one entire system; every part and member
being necessary to the integrity or completeness of the
whole.
86
So also is Christ—That is, So is the Church the body of Christ,

being composed of the different officers already mentioned,
and especially those enumerated, 1 Corinthians 12:28,
apostles, prophets, teachers, etc. It cannot be supposed that
Christ is composed of many members, etc., and therefore the
term Church must be understood, unless we suppose, which
is not improbable, that the term Ὁ Χριστος, Christ, is used to
express the Church, or whole body of Christian believers.
1 Corinthians 12:13
For by one Spirit are we all baptized, etc.—As the body of
man, though composed of many members, is informed and
influenced by one soul; so the Church of Christ, which is his
body, though composed of many members, is informed and
influenced by one Spirit, the Holy Ghost; actuating and
working by his spiritual body, as the human soul does in the
body of man.
To drink into one Spirit—We are to understand being made
partakers of the gifts and graces of the Holy Ghost agreeably
to the words of our Lord, John 7:37, etc.: If any man thirst, let
him come unto me and drink: this he spake of the Spirit
which they that believed on him should receive.
On this verse there is a great profusion of various readings,
which may be found in Griesbach, but cannot be
conveniently noticed here.
1 Corinthians 12:14
For the body is not one member—The mystical body, the
Church, as well as the natural body, is composed of many
members.
87
Now ye are the body of Christ—The apostle, having finished

his apologue, comes to his application.
As the members in the human body, so the different
members of the mystical body of Christ. All are intended by
him to have the same relation to each other; to be mutually
subservient to each other; to mourn for and rejoice with
each other. He has also made each necessary to the beauty,
proportion, strength, and perfection of the whole. Not one is
useless; not one unnecessary. Paul, Apollos, Kephas, etc.,
with all their variety of gifts and graces, are for the perfecting
of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of
the body of Christ, Ephesians 4:12. Hence no teacher should
be exalted above or opposed to an other. As the eye cannot
say to the hand, I have no need of thee, so luminous Apollos
cannot say to laborious Paul, I can build up and preserve the
Church without thee. The foot planted on the ground to
support the whole fabric, and the hands that swing at liberty,
and the eye that is continually taking in near and distant
prospects, are all equally serviceable to the whole, and
mutually helpful to and dependent on each other. So also are
the different ministers and members of the Church of Christ.
From a general acquaintance with various ministers of Christ,
and a knowledge of their different talents and endowments
manifested either by their preaching or writings, and with the
aid of a little fancy, we could here make out a sort of
correspondency between their services and the uses of the
different members of the human body. We could call one
eye, because of his acute observation of men and things, and
penetration into cases of conscience and Divine mysteries.
Another hand, from his laborious exertions in the Church.
Another foot, from his industrious travels to spread abroad
88
the knowledge of Christ crucified: and so of others. But this

does not appear to be any part of the apostle's plan.
1 Corinthians 12:28
God hath set some in the Church—As God has made evident
distinctions among the members of the human body, so that
some occupy a more eminent place than others, so has he in
the Church. And to prove this, the apostle numerates the
principal offices, and in the order in which they should stand.
First, apostles—Αποστολους, from απο from, and στελλο, I
send; to send from one person to another, and from one
place to another. Persons immediately designated by Christ,
and sent by him to preach the Gospel to all mankind.
Secondarily, prophets—Προφητας, from προ, before, and
φημι, I speak; a person who, under Divine inspiration,
predicts future events; but the word is often applied to these
who preach the Gospel. See on 1 Corinthians 12:8 (note).
Thirdly, teachers—Διδασκαλους, from διδασκω, I teach;
persons whose chief business it was to instruct the people in
the elements of the Christian religion, and their duty to each
other. See on Romans 8:8 (note).
Miracles—Δυναμεις· Persons endued with miraculous gifts,
such as those mentioned Mark 16:17, 18; casting out devils,
speaking with new tongues, etc. See on 1 Corinthians 12:8
(note), and at the end of the chapter, (1 Corinthians 12:31
(note))
Gifts of healings—Χαρισματα ιαματων· Such as laying hands
upon the sick, and healing them, Mark 16:18; which, as being
one of the most beneficent miraculous powers, was most
frequently conceded. See on 1 Corinthians 12:8 (note).
Helps—Αντιληψεις. Dr. Lightfoot conjectures that these were
the apostles' helpers; persons who accompanied them,
baptized those who were converted by them, and were sent
89
by them to such places as they could not attend to, being

otherwise employed.
The Levites are termed by the Talmudists helps of the priests.
The word occurs Luke 1:54; Romans 8:26.
Governments—Κυβερνησεις. Dr. Lightfoot contends that this
word does not refer to the power of ruling, but to the case of
a person endued with a deep and comprehensive mind, who
is profoundly wise and prudent; and he thinks that it implies
the same as discernment of spirits, 1 Corinthians 12:8 (note).
He has given several proofs of this use of the word in the
Septuagint.
Diversities of tongues—Γενη γλωσσων· Kinds of tongues; that
is, different kinds. The power to speak, on all necessary
occasions, languages which they had not learned. See on 1
Corinthians 12:8 (note).
1 Corinthians 12:29
Are all apostles, etc.—That is: All are not apostles, all are not
prophets, etc.; God has distributed his various gifts among
various persons, each of whom is necessary for the complete
edification of the body of Christ. On these subjects see the
notes on 1 Corinthians 12:7-10 (note).
1 Corinthians 12:31
But covet earnestly—To covet signifies to desire earnestly.
This disposition towards heavenly things is highly laudable;
towards earthly things, is deeply criminal. A man may possess
the best of all these gifts, and yet be deficient in what is
essentially necessary to his salvation, for he may be without
that love or charity which the apostle here calls the more
excellent way, and which he proceeds in the next chapter to
describe.
Some think that this verse should be read affirmatively, Ye
earnestly contend about the best gifts; but I show unto you a
more excellent way; i.e. get your hearts filled with love to
90
God and man—love, which is the principle of obedience,

which works no ill to its neighbor, and which is the fulfilling
of the law. This is a likely reading, for there were certainly
more contentions in the Church of Corinth about the gifts
than about the graces of the Spirit.
1. AFTER all that has been said on the different offices
mentioned by the apostle in the preceding chapter, there are
some of them which perhaps are not understood. I confess I
scarcely know what to make of those which we translate
helps and governments. Bishop Pearce, who could neither
see Church government nor state government in these
words, expresses himself thus: "These two words, after all
that the commentators say about them, I do not understand;
and in no other part of the New Testament is either of them,
in any sense, mentioned as the gift of the Spirit; especially it
is observable that in 1 Corinthians 12:29, 30, where the gifts
of the Spirit are again enumerated, no notice is taken of any
thing like them, while all the other several parts are exactly
enumerated. Perhaps these words were put in the margin to
explain δυναμεις, miracles or powers; some taking the
meaning to be helps, assistances, as in 2 Corinthians 12:9;
others to be κυβερνησεις, governments, as in Romans 8:38;
and from being marginal explanations, they might have been
at last incorporated with the text." It must, however, be
acknowledged that the omission of these words is not
countenanced by any MS. or version. One thing we may fully
know, that there are some men who are peculiarly qualified
for governing by either providence or grace; and that there
are others who can neither govern nor direct, but are good
helpers. These characters I have often seen in different
places in the Church of God.
2. In three several places in this chapter the apostle sums up
the gifts of the Spirit. Dr. Lightfoot thinks they answer to each
91
other in the following order, which the reader will take on his
authority.
Ephesians 4:11
He gave some, apostles—He established several offices in his

Church; furnished these with the proper officers; and, to
qualify them for their work, gave them the proper gifts. For a
full illustration of this verse, the reader is requested to refer
to the notes on 1 Corinthians 12:6-10 (note), 12:28-30 (note);
and to the concluding observations at the end of that
chapter.
92
Chapter Seven
Western Esotericism
93
Western esotericism (also Western Hermetic Tradition,

Western mysticism, Western Inner Tradition, Western occult
tradition, and Western mystery tradition) is a broad
spectrum of spiritual traditions found in Western society, or
refers to the collection of the mystical, esoteric knowledge of
the Western world. This often includes, but is not limited to,
philosophy and meditation, herbalism and alchemy, astrology
and divination, and various forms of ritual magic. The
tradition has no one source or unifying text, nor does it hold
any specific dogma, instead placing emphasis on spiritual
"knowledge" or Gnosis and the rejection of blind faith.
Although the protosciences were widespread in the ancient
world, the rise of modern science was born from occult
varieties of Western Esotericism reinterpreted in the "Age of
Enlightenment" and is documented within the field known as
the "History of Science". Various groups including
Hermeticists, Neopagans, Thelemites, Theosophists and
others still continue to practice modern variants of
traditional Western esoteric philosophies.
The roots of the Western mystery tradition are in occult
movements of Late Antiquity, Roman-Hellenistic religions
which in turn claimed to originate in ancient Egypt, Chaldea,
Persia or other parts of the ancient world. The Catholic
Encyclopedia sums up its origins thus:
Its beginnings have long been a matter of controversy and
are still largely a subject of research. The more these origins
are studied, the farther they seem to recede in the past.[1]
To make an accurate assumption of the tradition's origin (and
therefore age) it would be necessary to study the origin of
the various systems which have come to make up the
tradition. Of these systems the Egyptian and Hellenic Mystery
religions, the Hebrew Kabbalah, Gnosticism and Hermeticism
are generally considered the oldest, though at no stage prior
94
to the 1880s[clarification needed] were these doctrines ever

synthesized into one whole.
Due to their relative geographic restrictions they were
regarded very much as separate disciplines. It appears that
for the most part the specific teachings were preserved via
oral tradition (though not in all cases, the Nag Hammadi
Library for example) passed from teacher to initiate.
However, even in the ancient climates in which they
flourished, the Esoteric Philosophies were still highly elusive.
Manly P. Hall writes:
In all cities of the ancient world were temples for public
worship and offering. In every community also were
philosophers and mystics, deeply versed in Nature's lore.
These individuals were usually banded together, forming
seclusive philosophic and religious schools. The more
important of these groups were known as the Mysteries.
Many of the great minds of antiquity were initiated into
these secret fraternities by strange and mysterious rites,
some of which were extremely cruel. Alexander Wilder
defines the Mysteries as "Sacred dramas performed at stated
periods. The most celebrated were those of Isis, Sabazius,
Cybele, and Eleusis." After being admitted, the initiates were
instructed in the secret wisdom which had been preserved
for ages. Plato, an initiate of one of these sacred orders, was
severely criticized because in his writings he revealed to the
public many of the secret philosophic principles of the
Mysteries. Every pagan nation had (and has) not only its state
religion, but another into which the philosophic elect alone
have gained entrance.[2]
Middle Ages[edit source | editbeta]
After the fall of Rome, alchemy and philosophy and other
aspects of the tradition were largely preserved in the Arab
and Near Eastern world and introduced into Western Europe
95
by Jews and by the cultural contact between Christians and

Muslims that occurred due to the Crusades and the
Reconquista. The 12th century saw the development of the
Kabbalah in medieval Spain. The medieval period also saw
the publication of grimoires which offered often elaborate
formulas for theurgy and thaumaturgy. Many of the
grimoires seem to have kabbalistic influence. Figures in
alchemy from this period seem to also have authored or used
grimoires.
Early Modern Europe[edit source | editbeta]
The Renaissance saw a revival of classical learning, and a
revival of ancient and medieval occult practices in particular.
Renaissance magic revived the "occultist boom" of Late
Antiquity, recovering texts treating Greco-Roman magic and
Hermeticism as well as its continuations beyond antiquity in
the form of the Kabbalah, alchemy and the medieval
grimoires. Renaissance scholarship gave rise to a Christian
Kabbalah and later (in the Baroque period) to the Rosicrucian
Brotherhood. The witch trials in Early Modern Europe are at
least indirectly related to this revival of scholarly interest in
the occult.[citation needed]
1720s to 1850s[edit source | editbeta]
The Enlightenment saw another occult revival, perhaps
spurred by growing rejection of mainstream religion and
increased democracy and freedom of conscience. The period
saw the rise of occult fraternities, most notably Speculative
Freemasonry and a revived Rosicrucian Brotherhood.
Academic interest in ancient mystery cults such as those of
Mithras and Dionysus began to develop. Emanuel
Swedenborg pulled Christianity in a more mystical or occult
direction, and Franz Mesmer provided a quasi-scientific
method of thaumaturgy. While both these men had
profound contributions to the Western mystery tradition, it
96
appears neither was versed in it. The Count of St Germain,

whose life and legends influenced Theosophy, lived during
this period. Martinism also arose as an esoteric doctrine, as
did various Rosicrucian orders.
1850s to 1930s[edit source | editbeta]
Cover of the June 1904 edition of Lucifer-Gnosis, by Rudolf

Steiner
The late 19th century saw a radical split in the Western
mystery tradition. Helena Blavatsky was the main instrument
of this, by reinventing the tradition in a system called
Theosophy. Theosophy largely ignored the medieval
traditions, such as alchemy, thaumaturgy and Kabbalah,
instead focusing on more ancient mystery teachings and
incorporating Eastern systems of yoga. The extant tradition
prospered alongside Theosophy, especially under the
influence of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and
Ordo Templi Orientis and such teachers as Eliphas Levi,
Papus, Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, and Aleister
Crowley. This tradition began to see itself as a complete
alternative to Christianity, and, not surprisingly, began to
emphasize theurgy. This occult revival lasted through World
War II. Aspects of it were further revived in the 1960s.
Theosophy is still available through the Theosophical Society,
and Western theurgy strongly influenced the development of
neo-paganism.
World War II[edit source | editbeta]
Emergent occult and esoteric systems found increasing
popularity in the early 20th century, especially in Western
Europe. Occult lodges and secret societies flowered among
European intellectuals of this era who had largely abandoned
traditional forms of Christianity. The spreading of secret
97
teachings and magic practices found enthusiastic adherents

in the chaos of Germany during the interwar years. Many
influential and wealthy Germans were drawn to secret
societies such as the Thule Society. Thule Society activist Karl
Harrer was one of the founders of the German Workers'
Party,[3] which later became the Nazi Party; some Nazi Party
members like Alfred Rosenberg and Rudolf Heß were listed
as "guests" of the Thule Society, as was Adolf Hitler's mentor
Dietrich Eckart.[4] After their rise to power, the Nazis
persecuted occultists.[5] While many Nazi Party leaders like
Hitler and Joseph Goebbels were hostile to occultism,
Heinrich Himmler used Karl Maria Wiligut as a clairvoyant
"and was regularly consulting for help in setting up the
symbolic and ceremonial aspects of the SS" but not for
important political decisions. By 1939, Wiligut was "forcibly
retired from the SS" because of his institutionalisation for
insanity.[6]
Soviet Union[edit source | editbeta]
Little information is known about the status of the Western
mystery tradition in the officially atheist Soviet Union and its
"satellites" during the ruling of the Communist Party. It is
believed by some that the Soviets had a scientific interest in
subjects traditionally studied by the Western mystery
tradition, such as telepathy and astrology.
A number of people associated with mysticism chose to leave
the countries where Communism was installed. For example,
G.I. Gurdjieff, an influential individual from Armenia, fled to
France after the Bolsheviks overtook the ruling of Russia. The
Universal White Brotherhood of Bulgaria, founded by Peter
Deunov and extended by Omraam Mikhael Aivanhov, also
chose to continue its activities in France and other Western
countries after World War II and the introduction of
Communism into Bulgaria. Nicholas Roerich, founder of Agni
98
Yoga had also left Russia after the revolution - he and his
family first settled in Finland and India - and finally in the
United States. These three examples, although not directly
associated with the core of the Western mystery tradition,
demonstrate a pattern which supports the claim that the
Soviet-controlled states were negative not only to
mainstream religion but also to mysticism and occultism.
It is known that after the dissolution of the Soviet Union,
several mystical societies, such as the Rosicrucians, gained
profound revival in Eastern Europe and Russia which resulted
in the foundation of many new jurisdictions and lodges.
1990s to present[edit source | editbeta]
Today, the tradition is experiencing a revival in North
America and Europe, while many organizations of Western
Esotericism (or Wesotericism[citation needed]) have a
presence throughout the world. The tradition is now
undergoing reevaluation by the anthropological and
archaeological developments in the study of its root sources,
namely, Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Greco-Roman
world, Druidism and other pagan sources, as well as
Abrahamic (Judeo-Christian-Islamic) esotericism such as
Manichaeism, Sufism and Sikhism. The early incorporation of
Eastern ideas began, most notably, by the Theosophical
Society in the 19th century, continues increasingly today
particularly from Buddhism, Bon, Jainism, Hinduism, Taoism
and especially Yoga & Tantra.
Philosophy[edit source | editbeta]
Today, Western Esotericism is a syncretism of ancient

philosophy, Paganism and Abrahamic thought and imports
from Asia and modern science. The tradition focuses on
individual spiritual progress through initiation, either
personal or into a brotherhood, on personal or group rituals,
99
study of philosophy and "cosmic" laws and their practical

application, and encompasses alchemy, meditation,
divination, and ritual magic.
Initiation[edit source | editbeta]
The concept of initiation plays a very important role in the
Western mystical tradition, and many people participating in
this tradition are initiated in one or more mystical
organisations. Initiatory societies existed in ancient Greece
and ancient Egypt, working as schools or colleges for the
spreading of their secret teachings to worthy individuals.
These teachings were not accessible to the general public,
symbolized by the Greek phrase "Ουδείς αγεωμέτρητος
εισείτω" (which may be translated as "no person without
knowledge of Geometry should get in") found in Plato's
Academy.
The tradition of initiation and secrecy is well preserved today,
although it is criticised by many people, mainly those related
to the New Age phenomenon, where many participants have
adopted the view that access to knowledge should be as
open as possible. However, many New Age schools and
doctrines still require a process of initiation and the private
tutelage of a guru, as with many forms of yoga) or other
enlightened master (e.g., Zen Buddhism) in order for the
passing of wisdom or knowledge to occur.
Variation[edit source | editbeta]
Beginning in the early to mid-Nineteenth century, and with
the incorporation of Eastern mystical concepts into the
existing traditions, the Western mystery tradition
experienced a major divergence between the esoteric
Hermetic rites of the Masonic and Rosicrucian traditions, and
the Theosophical schools (with the major divergence
occurring during the life of Madame Blavatsky). Some people
considered Theosophy to be grouped under the general
100
rubric of New Age spirituality although others do not agree,

since they consider the New Age as an over-simplification of
several theosophical concepts and having self-centered aims.
The New Age schools preached an openness not seen in the
esoteric Hermetic fraternal organizations, which continue to
rely heavily on initiatory rites for the dissemination of
spiritual information. However, although New Age spirituality
is more open in its presentation, it continues to rely more or
less on a syncretic and esoteric methodology in the
formulation of its methods and in the transmission of its
wisdom/enlightenment.
Ethics and morality[edit source | editbeta]
With the enormous variation of beliefs and methods among
the proliferating spiritual and esoteric groups have come
concerns from some regarding the moral quality or ethical
content of certain doctrines. As a consequence, there has
been an effort by some[who?] to attempt a supposed
objective dichotomy between the ethical philosophies of
spiritual or religious groups by categorizing them under the
Left-Hand Path and Right-Hand Path modality. Those on the
"Right-Hand Path" are said to focus on the elevation of the
spiritual over the carnal, faith-based worship of something
greater than themselves, and the observance of strict moral
codes, all of which are supposed by their adherents to bring
humans closer to the Divine or a moral good, as opposed to
those on the "Left-Hand Path" who focus on the
advancement and preservation of the self, glorification of the
earthly, and the development of personal power. This usage
of terms, however, is invoked almost exclusively by
proponents of groups[who?] who consider themselves "on
the Left-Hand Path"; opponents of this terminology (groups
that are almost always described by those who subscribe to
this distinction as being on the "Right-Hand Path")
101
argue[weasel words] either that this distinction is invalid

because it results from a mislabeled or false dichotomy, or
that much of what is called "left-handed" is simply not
"legitimate".
102
103
Chapter Eight
Emanuel Swedenborg
Emanuel Swedenborg (About this sound listen (help·info);

born Emanuel Swedberg; 29 January 1688[1] – 29 March
1772) was a Swedish scientist, philosopher, theologian,
revelator, and, in the eyes of some, Christian mystic.[2] He
termed himself a "Servant of the Lord Jesus Christ" in True
Christian Religion,[3] a work he published himself.[4] He is
best known for his book on the afterlife, Heaven and Hell
(1758).
Swedenborg had a prolific career as an inventor and scientist.

In 1741, at the age of 53, he entered into a spiritual phase in
which he began to experience dreams and visions, beginning
on Easter weekend of April 6, 1744. This culminated in a
'spiritual awakening', in which he received revelation that he
was appointed by the Lord to write a heavenly doctrine to
reform Christianity. According to Swedenborg’s writings the
Lord had opened Swedenborg's spiritual eyes, so that from
then on he could freely visit heaven and hell, and talk with
angels, demons and other spirits; and that the Last
Judgement had already occurred, in 1757.[7] However, he
tells us that at this day it is very dangerous to talk with spirits,
unless a person is in true faith, and is led by the Lord.
For the remaining 28 years of his life, Swedenborg wrote 18

published theological works, and several more which were
unpublished. Some followers of Swedenborg’s writings
believe that, of his theological works, only those which
Swedenborg published himself are fully divinely inspired.
104
Swedenborg's father, Jesper Swedberg (1653–1735),

descended from a wealthy mining family. He travelled abroad
and studied theology, and on returning home he was
eloquent enough to impress the Swedish king, Charles XI,
with his sermons in Stockholm. Through the King's influence
he would later become professor of theology at Uppsala
University and Bishop of Skara.[11][12]
Jesper took an interest in the beliefs of the dissenting
Lutheran Pietist movement, which emphasised the virtues of
communion with God rather than relying on sheer faith (sola
fide).[13] Sola fide is a tenet of the Lutheran Church, and
Jesper was charged with being a pietist heretic. While
controversial, the beliefs were to have a major impact on his
son Emanuel's spirituality. Jesper furthermore held the
unconventional belief that angels and spirits were present in
everyday life. This also came to have a strong impact on
Emanuel.[11][12][14]
Swedenborg completed his university course at Uppsala in
1709, and in 1710 made his grand tour through the
Netherlands, France, and Germany, before reaching London,
where he would spend the next four years. It was also a
flourishing center of scientific ideas and discoveries. Emanuel
studied physics, mechanics, and philosophy, and read and
wrote poetry. According to the preface of a book by the
Swedish critic Olof Lagercrantz, Swedenborg wrote to his
benefactor and brother-in-law Eric Benzelius that he believed
he (Swedenborg) might be destined to be a great scientist.
[15][16]
Scientific period[edit source | editbeta]
The Flying Machine, sketched in his notebook from 1714. The

operator would sit in the middle, and paddle himself through
105
the air. See Smithsonian model and explanation by Dr. Paul

Garber, former Curator of the Smithsonian Air and Space
Museum, on the principle of flight of the aircraft. His
descriptions may be found in a chapter of the Söderburg
book,[17] p. 32, or on the video clip at 5:48 on its timeline.
[18]
In 1715 Swedenborg returned to Sweden, where he devoted
himself to natural science and engineering projects for the
next two decades. A first step was his meeting with King
Charles XII of Sweden in the city of Lund, in 1716. The
Swedish inventor Christopher Polhem, who became a close
friend of Swedenborg, was also present. Swedenborg's
purpose was to persuade the king to fund an observatory in
northern Sweden. However, the warlike king did not consider
this project important enough, but did appoint Swedenborg
assessor-extraordinary on the Swedish Board of Mines
(Bergskollegium) in Stockholm.[19]
From 1716 to 1718, Swedenborg published a scientific
periodical entitled Daedalus Hyperboreus ("The Northern
Daedalus"), a record of mechanical and mathematical
inventions and discoveries. One notable description was that
of a flying machine, the same he had been sketching a few
years earlier (see Flying Machine (Swedenborg)).[16]
Upon the death of Charles XII, Queen Ulrika Eleonora
ennobled Swedenborg and his siblings. It was common in
Sweden during the 17th and 18th centuries for the children
of bishops to receive this honour as a recognition of the
services of their father. The family name was changed from
Swedberg to Swedenborg.[20]
In 1724, he was offered the chair of mathematics at Uppsala
University, but he declined and said that he had mainly dealt
with geometry, chemistry and metallurgy during his career.
He also said that he did not have the gift of eloquent speech
106
because of a stutter, as recognized by many acquaintances of

his; it forced him to speak slowly and carefully, and there are
no known occurrences of his speaking in public.[21] The
Swedish critic Olof Lagerkrantz proposed that Swedenborg
compensated for his impediment by extensive
argumentation in writing.[22]
New direction of studies, ahead of his time[edit source |
editbeta]
During the 1730s, Swedenborg undertook many studies of
anatomy and physiology. He had the first anticipation, as far
as known, of the neuron concept.[23] It was not until a
century later that science recognized the full significance of
the nerve cell. He also had prescient ideas about the cerebral
cortex, the hierarchical organization of the nervous system,
the localization of the cerebrospinal fluid, the functions of
the pituitary gland, the perivascular spaces, the foramen of
Magendie, the idea of somatotopic organization, and the
association of frontal brain regions with the intellect. In some
cases his conclusions have been experimentally verified in
modern times.[24][25][26][27][28]
In the 1730s Swedenborg became increasingly interested in
spiritual matters and was determined to find a theory which
would explain how matter relates to spirit. Swedenborg's
desire to understand the order and purpose of creation first
led him to investigate the structure of matter and the process
of creation itself. In the Principia he outlined his philosophical
method, which incorporated experience, geometry (the
means whereby the inner order of the world can be known),
and the power of reason. He also outlined his cosmology,
which included the first presentation of his Nebular
hypothesis. (There is evidence that Swedenborg may have
preceded Kant by as much as 20 years in the development of
this hypothesis.[29][30])
107
In Leipzig, 1735, he published a three volume work entitled

Opera philosophica et mineralis ("Philosophical and
mineralogical works"), where he tries to conjoin philosophy
and metallurgy. The work was mainly appreciated for its
chapters on the analysis of the smelting of iron and copper,
and it was this work which gave Swedenborg international
reputation.[31] The same year he also published the small
manuscript de Infinito ("On the Infinite"), where he
attempted to explain how the finite is related to the infinite,
and how the soul is connected to the body. This was the first
manuscript where he touched upon these matters. He knew
that it might clash with established theologies, since he
presents the view that the soul is based on material
substances.[32][33] He also conducted dedicated studies of
the fashionable philosophers of the time such as John Locke,
Christian von Wolff, Leibniz, and Descartes; and earlier
thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus and Augustine.[34]
In 1743, at the age of 55, Swedenborg requested a leave of
absence to go abroad. His purpose was to gather source
material for Regnum animale (The Animal Kingdom, or
Kingdom of Life), a subject on which books were not readily
available in Sweden. The aim of the book was to explain the
soul from an anatomical point of view. He had planned to
produce a total of seventeen volumes.[35]
Journal of Dreams[edit source | editbeta]
By 1744 Swedenborg had traveled to the Netherlands.
Around this time he began having strange dreams.
Swedenborg carried a travel journal with him on most of his
travels, and did so on this journey. The whereabouts of the
diary were long unknown, but it was discovered in the Royal
Library in the 1850s and published in 1859 as Drömboken, or
Journal of Dreams.
108
Swedenborg experienced many different dreams and visions,

some greatly pleasurable, others highly disturbing.[36] The
experiences continued as he traveled to London to progress
the publication of Regnum animale. This process, which one
biographer has proposed as cathartic and comparable to the
Catholic concept of Purgatory,[37] continued for six months.
He also proposed that what Swedenborg was recording in his
Journal of Dreams was a battle between the love of his self
and the love of God.[38]
Visions and spiritual insights[edit source | editbeta]
In the last entry of the journal from October 26–27, 1744,
Swedenborg appears to be clear as to which path to follow.
He felt he should drop his current project, and write a new
book about the worship of God. He soon began working on
De cultu et amore Dei, or The Worship and Love of God. It
was never fully completed, but Swedenborg still had it
published in London in June 1745.[39]
One explanation why the work was never finished is given in
a well-known and often referenced story. In April 1745,
Swedenborg was dining in a private room at a tavern in
London. By the end of the meal, a darkness fell upon his
eyes, and the room shifted character. Suddenly he saw a
person sitting at a corner of the room, telling Swedenborg:
"Do not eat too much!". Swedenborg, scared, hurried home.
Later that night, the same man appeared in his dreams. The
man told Swedenborg that He was the Lord, that He had
appointed Swedenborg to reveal the spiritual meaning of the
Bible, and that He would guide Swedenborg in what to write.
The same night, the spiritual world was opened to
Swedenborg.[40]
However, the Robsahm transcriptions on which this story is
based were second hand, despite Robsahm's presenting
them in the first person[41] and accuracy cannot be achieved
109
since there are several versions of this story, in whole or part

[42][43][44] differing in important respects, e.g. Lord figure
seen in corner vs. close by, conditions of dimness or darkness
vs. bright light and date of 1744 vs. 1745. However,
Swedenborg did not publish any of these documents himself
so the doctrinal aspects are not authoritative.[45]
Scriptural commentary and writings[edit source | editbeta]
Arcana Cœlestia, first edition (1749), title page

In June 1747, Swedenborg resigned his post as assessor of
the board of mines. He explained that he was obliged to
complete a work he had begun and requested to receive half
his salary as a pension.[46] He took up afresh his study of
Hebrew and began to work on the spiritual interpretation of
the Bible with the goal of interpreting the spiritual meaning
of every verse. From sometime between 1746 and 1747, and
for ten years henceforth, he devoted his energy to this task.
Usually abbreviated as Arcana Cœlestia and under the Latin
variant Arcana Caelestia[47] (translated as Heavenly Arcana,
Heavenly Mysteries, or Secrets of Heaven depending on
modern English-language editions), the book became his
magnum opus and the basis of his further theological works.
[48]
The work was anonymous and Swedenborg was not
identified as the author until the late 1750s. It consisted of
eight volumes, published between 1749 and 1756. It
attracted little attention, as few people could penetrate its
meaning.[49][50]
His life from 1747 until his death in 1772 was spent in
Stockholm, Holland, and London. During these 25 years he
wrote another 14 works of a spiritual nature of which most
were published during his lifetime.
110
The Last Judgment and Second Coming of Christ[edit source |

editbeta]
One of Swedenborg's lesser known works presents a startling
claim, that the Last Judgment had begun in the previous year
(1757) and was completed by the end of that year[51] and
that he had witnessed the whole thing.[52] According to
Swedenborg, the Last Judgment took place, not in the
physical world, but in the World of Spirits, which is located
half-way between heaven and hell, and which everyone
passes through on their way to heaven or hell.[53] The
Judgment took place because the Christian church had lost
its charity and faith, resulting in a loss of spiritual free will
that threatened the equilibrium between heaven and hell in
everyone’s life[54][55]
Swedenborg’s writings also teach that the Last Judgement
was followed by the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, which
occurred, not by Christ in person, but by a revelation from
Him through the inner, spiritual sense of the Word[56]
through Swedenborg.[57]
In another of his theological works, Swedenborg wrote that
eating meat, regarded in itself, "is something profane," and
was not practiced in the early days of the human race.
However, he said, meat-eating today is a matter of
conscience and no one is condemned for doing it.[58]
Nonetheless, the early-days ideal appears to have given rise
to the idea that Swedenborg was a vegetarian. This
conclusion may have been reinforced by the fact that a
number of Swedenborg's early followers were part of the
vegetarian movement that arose in Great Britain in the 19th
century.[59] However, the only reports on Swedenborg
himself are contradictory. His landlord in London,
Shearsmith, said he ate no meat but his maid, who served
Swedenborg, said that he ate eels and pigeon pie.[60]
111
In Earths in the Universe, it is stated that he conversed with

spirits from Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Saturn, Venus, the Moon,
as well as spirits from planets beyond our solar system.[61]
From these 'encounters' he concluded that the planets of our
solar system are inhabited, and that such an enormous
undertaking as the universe could not have been created for
just one race of people; nor one 'heaven' derived from it.[62]
[63] He argued: “What would this be to God, Who is infinite,
and to whom a thousand or tens of thousands of planets, and
all of them full of inhabitants, would be scarcely anything!”.
[64] Swedenborg and the life on other planets question has
been extensively reviewed elsewhere.[65]
Swedenborg published his work in London or Holland due to
the freedom of the press unique to those countries.[66][67]
Swedenborg's crypt in Uppsala Cathedral

In July 1770, at the age of 82, he traveled to Amsterdam to
complete the publication of his last work. The book, Vera
Christiana Religio (The True Christian Religion), was published
in Amsterdam in 1771 and was one of the most appreciated
of his works. Designed to explain his teachings to Lutheran
Christians, it was the most concrete of his works.[68]
In the summer of 1771, he traveled to London. Shortly before
Christmas he suffered a stroke and was partially paralyzed
and confined to bed. His health improved somewhat, but he
died on March 29, 1772. There are several accounts of his
last months, made by those he stayed with, and by Arvid
Ferelius, a pastor of the Swedish Church in London, who
visited him several times.[69]
There is evidence that Swedenborg wrote a letter to John
Wesley, the founder of Methodism, in February, saying he
(Swedenborg) had been told in the world of spirits that
112
Wesley wanted to speak with him.[70] Wesley, startled, since

he had not told anyone of his interest in Swedenborg, replied
that he was going on a journey for six months and would
contact Swedenborg on his return. Swedenborg replied that
that would be too late since he (Swedenborg) would be going
to the spiritual world for the last time on March 29.[71]
(Wesley later read and commented extensively on
Swedenborg's work.)[72] Swedenborg's landlord's servant
girl, Elizabeth Reynolds, also said Swedenborg had predicted
this date, and that Swedenborg was as happy about it as if
was "going on holiday or to some merrymaking".[73]
In Swedenborg's final hours, his friend, Pastor Ferelius, told
him some people thought he had written his theology just to
make a name for himself and asked Swedenborg if he would
like to recant. Raising himself up on his bed, his hand on his
heart, Swedenborg earnestly replied, "As truly as you see me
before your eyes, so true is everything that I have written;
and I could have said more had it been permitted. When you
enter eternity you will see everything, and then you and I
shall have much to talk about".[74] He then died, in the
afternoon, on the date he had predicted, March 29.[74]
Swedenborg House, London

He was buried in the Swedish Church in Shadwell, London.
On the 140th anniversary of his death, in 1912/1913, his
earthly remains were transferred to Uppsala Cathedral in
Sweden, where they now rest close to the grave of the
botanist Carolus Linnaeus. In 1917, the Swedish Church in
Shadwell was demolished and the Swedish community that
had grown around the parish moved to West London. In 1938
the site of the former church where he had been buried in
113
London was redeveloped, and in his honor the local road was
renamed Swedenborg Gardens. In 1997, a garden, play area
and memorial near the road were created in his memory.[75]
[76][77]
Note: There are a list of biographies of Swedenborg available
at “The Biographies” section of the Swedenborg Digital
Library. [78] Further reviews of Swedenborg and his thought
are available at online encyclopedias: [79][80] [81] [82]
Veracity[edit source | editbeta]
Swedenborg's transition from scientist to revelator or mystic

has fascinated many people ever since it occurred (see list of
some of the people involved above, in introduction).
Swedenborg has had a variety of biographers, favorable and
critical.[83] Some propose that he did not in fact have a
revelation at all, but rather developed his theological ideas
from sources ranging from his father to earlier figures in the
history of thought, notably Plotinus.This position was first
and most notably taken by the Swedish writer Martin Lamm,
who wrote a biography of Swedenborg in 1915, which is still
in print.[84][85] Olof Lagercrantz, the Swedish critic and
publicist, had a similar point of view, calling Swedenborg's
theological writing "a poem about a foreign country with
peculiar laws and customs".[86]
Swedenborg's approach to demonstrating the veracity of his
theological teachings was to find and use voluminous
quotations from the Old Testament and New Testament to
demonstrate agreement between the Bible or Word of God
and his theological teachings. The demonstration of this
agreement is found throughout his theological writings, since
he rejected blind faith and declared true faith is an internal
acknowledgment of the truth. The vast and consistent use of
Biblical confirmations in Swedenborg's theological writings
114
led a Swedish Royal Council in 1771, examining the heresy

charges of 1770 against two Swedish supporters of his
theological writings, to declare "there is much that is true
and useful in Swedenborg's writings."[87]
Beginning in the 20th century, the medical community[who?]
began to notice similarities between the accounts of
Swedenborg concerning the afterlife and the experiences of
those who were revived after their heart had stopped.[88]
[self-published source?][89][not in citation given] Among
hundreds and then later thousands of witness accounts,
[citation needed] the experiences of these people shared
common traits which eventually became known as the "Near
Death Experience" (NDE). Raymond Moody, a psychologist
and medical doctor who first coined the term for NDE,
observed that similar to these accounts, Swedenborg
described death as a pulling away from the physical body,
followed by encounters with departed ones and a life review
drawn from the person's memory.[90] Many of these
witnesses describe encountering a supreme Being of Light, or
a light at the end of a tunnel, which Swedenborg had
described as the Sun of heaven in which the Lord resided.[91]
[original research?] These experiences are still being studied
by various researchers.[who?]
Scientific beliefs[edit source | editbeta]
Swedenborg proposed many scientific ideas during his

lifetime. In his youth, he wanted to present a new idea every
day, as he wrote to his brother-in-law Erik Benzelius in 1718.
Around 1730, he had changed his mind, and instead believed
that higher knowledge is not something that can be acquired,
but that it is based on intuition. After 1745, he instead
considered himself receiving scientific knowledge in a
spontaneous manner from angels.[92]
115
From 1745, when he considered himself to have entered a

spiritual state, he tended to phrase his "experiences" in
empirical terms, claiming to report accurately things he had
experienced on his spiritual journeys.
One of his ideas that is considered most crucial for the
understanding of his theology is his notion of
correspondences. But in fact, he first presented the theory of
correspondences in 1744, in the first volume of Regnum
Animale dealing with the human soul.[16]
The basis of the correspondence theory is that there is a
relationship between the natural ("physical"), the spiritual,
and the divine worlds. The foundations of this theory can be
traced to Neoplatonism and the philosopher Plotinus in
particular. With the aid of this scenario, Swedenborg now
interpreted the Bible in a different light, claiming that even
the most apparently trivial sentences could hold a profound
spiritual meaning.[93] Swedenborg argued that it is the
presence of that spiritual sense which makes the Word
Divine.[94]
Prophetic accounts[edit source | editbeta]
Four incidents of purported psychic ability of Swedenborg

exist in the literature.[95] There are several versions of each
story.
Fire anecdotes[edit source | editbeta]
On Thursday, July 19, 1759 a great and well-documented fire
broke out in Stockholm, Sweden.[96][97][98][99] In the high
and increasing wind it spread very fast, consuming about 300
houses and making 2000 people homeless.[97]
When the fire broke out Swedenborg was at a dinner with
friends in Gothenburg, about 400 km from Stockholm. He
became agitated and told the party at six o'clock that there
116
was a fire in Stockholm, that it had consumed his neighbor’s

home and was threatening his own. Two hours later, he
exclaimed with relief that the fire had stopped three doors
from his home. In the excitement following his report, word
even reached the ears of the provincial governor, who
summoned Swedenborg that same evening and asked for a
detailed recounting.
At that time, it took two to three days for news from
Stockholm to reach Gothenburg by courier, so that is the
shortest duration in which the news of the fire could reach
Gothenburg. The first messenger from Stockholm with news
of the fire was from the Board of Trade who arrived Monday
evening. The second messenger was a royal courier, who
arrived on Tuesday. Both of these reports confirmed every
statement to the precise hour that Swedenborg first
expressed the information. The accounts are fully described
in Bergquist, pp. 312–313 and in Chapter 31 of The
Swedenborg Epic.[100][101]
(Bergquist states, but does not document, that Swedenborg
confirmed his vision of the fire incident to his good friend,
Consul Christopher Springer, "one of the pillars of the church,
… "a man of enviable reputation for virtue and intelligence",
[102] "and that Swedenborg's innkeeper, Erik Bergström,
heard Swedenborg affirming the story.[103])
It seems unlikely that the many witnesses to Swedenborg’s
distress during the fire, and his immediate report of it to the
provincial governor,[104][105] would have left room for
doubt in the public eye of Swedenborg’s report. If
Swedenborg had only received news of the fire by the normal
methods there would have been no issue of psychic
perception recorded for history. Instead, “when the news of
Swedenborg's extraordinary vision of the fire reached the
117
capital, public curiosity about him was very much aroused.”<

ref>Sigstedt, Chapter 35</ref>
In a second fire anecdote, similar to the first one, but less

cited, is the incident of the mill owner Bolander. Swedenborg
warned him, again abruptly, of an incipient fire in one of his
mills.[106]
Queen of Sweden[edit source | editbeta]
The third event was in 1758 when Swedenborg visited Queen
Louisa Ulrika of Sweden, who asked him to tell her something
about her deceased brother Prince Augustus William of
Prussia. The next day, Swedenborg whispered something in
her ear that turned the Queen pale and she explained that
this was something only she and her brother could know
about.[107][108]
Lost document[edit source | editbeta]
The fourth incident involved a woman who had lost an
important document, and came to Swedenborg asking if a
recently deceased person could tell him where it was, which
he (in some sources) was said to have done the following
night.[109]
Although not typically cited along with these three episodes,
there was one further piece of evidence: Swedenborg was
noted by the seamen of the ships that he sailed between
Stockholm and London to always have excellent sailing
conditions.[110] When asked about this by a friend,
Swedenborg played down the matter, saying he was
surprised by this experience himself and that he was
certainly not able to do miracles.[110]
Kant on Swedenborg[edit source | editbeta]
In 1763, Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), then at the beginning

of his career, was impressed by these accounts and made
118
inquiries to find out if they were true. He also ordered all

eight volumes of the expensive Arcana Cœlestia (Heavenly
Arcana or Heavenly Mysteries). One Charlotte von Knobloch
wrote Kant asking his opinion of Swedenborg’s psychic
experiences.[111][112] Kant wrote a very affirmative reply,
referring to Swedenborg's "miraculous" gift, and
characterizing him as "reasonable, agreeable, remarkable
and sincere" and "a scholar", in one of his letters to
Mendelssohn,[113] and expressing regret that he (Kant) had
never met Swedenborg.[114][115] An English friend who
investigated the matter for Kant, including visiting
Swedenborg’s home, found Swedenborg to be a "sensible,
pleasant and openhearted" man and, here again, a scholar.
[116]
However, three years later, in 1766, Kant wrote and
anonymously published a small book entitled Träume eines
Geistersehers (Dreams of a Spirit-Seer)[117] that was a
scathing critique of Swedenborg and his writings. He termed
Swedenborg a "spook hunter"[118] "without official office or
occupation".[119] As rationale for his critique Kant said that
he wanted to stop "ceaseless questioning”[120] and inquiries
about Dreams from "inquisitive" persons, “both known and
unknown",[121] and "importunate appeals from known and
unknown friends",[122] as well as from "moon calves".[122]
He also said he did not want to expose himself to
”mockery.”[123] More significantly, he became concerned
about being seen as an apologist for both Swedenborg and
for Spiritism in the guise of the interest in Swedenborg,[124]
which might have damaged his career.[125] Dreams was
intended as a refutation of all such thinking.[126] This left
Kant in the ironic or hypocritical position of trying to free
himself of ridicule while at the same time applying ridicule to
Swedenborg.[124]
119
However, there has long been a suspicion among some

scholars that, despite Dreams, Kant actually had a behind-
the-scenes respect for Swedenborg.[127] Certainly there
were inconsistencies in Kant's handling of this issue. For
instance,
(1) Kant's writing style was usually "complex, labored,
dry ...and earnest"[128] but in Dreams was often “playful,
ironic and humorous".[128]
(2) While he mocked Swedenborg in print, in the preserved
notes of Kant's lectures on metaphysics taken by a student
named Herder, Kant treated Swedenborg with respect, "not
to be sneezed at".[129][130] At one point, Herder’s notes
term Swedenborg's visions as "quite sublime".[131]
(3) Kant's friend Moses Mendelssohn thought there was a
"joking pensiveness" in Dreams that sometimes left the
reader in doubt as to whether Dreams was meant to make
"metaphysics laughable or spirit-seeking credible".[132]
(4) In a one of his letters to Mendelssohn, Kant refers to
Dreams less-than-enthusiastically as a "desultory little essay".
[133]
For more examples of these discrepancies, see Heron's list in
the original[134] and with the Dole corrections.[135][136]
Finally, a case has been made that Kant wrote Dreams
before, not after, the Knobloch letter and that this was
accomplished by accidentally or deliberately falsifying the
dates of the documents involved, notably that of the
Knobloch letter.[137] This alteration, if true, would
strengthen the case for Swedenborg’s work being viewed by
Kant, in the last analysis, positively. However, the fact of the
matter is difficult to determine since the key date involved is
that of the original of the Knobloch letter, which is lost.[137]
Theology[edit source | editbeta]
120
According to the Doctrine of the New Church the teachings of

the Second Coming of Jesus Christ were revealed to and
published by Emanuel Swedenborg.[138]
Swedenborg considered his theology a revelation of the true
Christian religion that had become obfuscated through
centuries of theology. However, he did not refer to his
writings as theology since he considered it based on actual
experiences, unlike theology,[16] except in the title of his last
work. Neither did he wish to compare it to philosophy, a
discipline he discarded in 1748 because it "darkens the mind,
blinds us, and wholly rejects the faith".[139]
The foundation of Swedenborg's theology was laid down in
Arcana Cœlestia (Heavenly Mysteries), published in eight
Latin volumes from 1749 to 1756. In a significant portion of
that work, he interprets the Biblical passages of Genesis and
Exodus. He reviews what he says is the inner spiritual sense
of these two works of the Word of God. (He later made a
similar review of the inner sense of the book of Revelation in
Apocalypse Revealed.[140]) Most of all, he was convinced
that the Bible describes a human's transformation from a
materialistic to a spiritual being, which he calls rebirth or
regeneration. He begins this work by outlining how the
creation myth was not an account of the creation of Earth,
but an account of man's rebirth or regeneration in six steps
represented by the six days of creation. Everything related to
mankind in the Bible could also be related to Jesus Christ,
and how Christ freed himself from materialistic boundaries
through the glorification of his human presence by making it
Divine. Swedenborg examines this idea in his exposition of
Genesis and Exodus.[141]
Marriage[edit source | editbeta]
One aspect of Swedenborg's writing that is often discussed is
his ideas on marriage. Swedenborg himself remained a
121
bachelor all his life, but that did not hinder him from writing
voluminously on the subject. His work on Marriage Love
(Conjugial Love in older translations) (1768) was dedicated to
this purpose.[142][143]
A central question with regard to marriage is whether it stops
at death or continues into heaven. The question arises due to
a statement of Jesus’ that apparently says there is no
marriage in heaven (Luke 20:27-38, Matthew 22:23-32, and
Mark 12:18-27). For a detailed analysis of what He actually
meant, see The Lord God Jesus Christ on Marriage In Heaven.
[144]
The quality of the relationship between husband and wife
resumes in the spiritual world in whatever state it was at
their death in this world. Thus, a couple in true marriage love
remain together in that state in heaven into eternity. A
couple lacking in that love by one or both partners, however,
will separate after death and each will be given a compatible
new partner if they wish. A partner is also given to a person
who loved the ideal of marriage but never found a true
partner in this world. The exception in both cases is a person
who hates chaste marriage and thus cannot receive such a
partner.[145]
Swedenborg saw creation as a series of pairings, descending
from the Divine love and wisdom[146] that define God and
are the basis of creation. This duality can be seen in the
pairing of good and truth,[147] charity and faith,[148] God
and the church,[149] and husband and wife.[150] In each
case, the goal for these pairs is to achieve conjunction
between the two component parts. In the case of marriage,
the object is to bring about the joining together of the two
partners at the spiritual and physical levels, and the
happiness that comes as a consequence.
Trinity[edit source | editbeta]
122
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please

help improve this article by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (August 2013)
Swedenborg explicitly rejected the common explanation of
the Trinity as a Trinity of Persons, which he said was not
taught in the early Christian church. There was, for instance,
no mention in the Apostolic writings of any "Son from
eternity".[151] Instead he explained in his theological
writings how the Divine Trinity exists in One Person, in One
God, the Lord Jesus Christ, which he said is taught in
Colossians 2:9. (See also 1 John 5:20, Matthew 28:18 and
Acts 20:21) According to Swedenborg, Jesus, the Son of God,
came into the world due to the spread of evil here.[152][153]
[154][155][156] The hells were over-running the World of
Spirits, which is midway between Heaven and Hell, and parts
of Heaven as well, threatening the whole human race with
damnation. God needed to correct this situation to preserve
the spiritual freedom of all people. Swedenborg tells us God
corrected this situation by redeeming the human race. But
God as He is in Himself could not come in direct contact with
any evil spirit, which would destroy that spirit (Exodus 33:20).
So God impregnated a human woman from the Holy Spirit
(Luke 1), thereby creating a person – Jesus Christ – Who had
a Divine soul in a material body. The human body from Mary
provided Jesus access to the evil heredity of the human race.
He then set up two cyclical processes, one of redemption and
one of glorification. In the redemption process the human
part of Jesus was tempted by different hells, and He
conquered them one by one (Matthew 4). In that way God
and evil spirits could engage each other. At the same time
Jesus went through the glorification process, in which He
123
successively united His human external with His Divine

humanity from God (Colossians 2:9). In this way the Human
Jesus became one with the Divine Humanity of His Father
and was then no longer the son of Mary. The glorification
process involved alternation between a state of humiliation
(or “emptying out”, as in Isaiah 53:12), when Jesus was only
aware of His human from Mary, and a state of glorification,
or union, with Jehovah. When Jesus was in the humiliation
state He prayed to the Father as someone other than
Himself. At times when Jesus was in the glorification state He
spoke with the Father as Himself. The passion of the cross
was Jesus’ final combat with and victory over the hells, in
which He completely conquered them and glorified His
Human form.
Jesus put off the human taken from the mother, and put on
the Human from the Divine in Himself, as is evident from the
fact that whenever He addressed His mother directly He
called her “Woman,” not “Mother.” (John 2:3,4, 19:26, 27).
Once he did not recognize her as His mother. (Luke 8:20, 21)
In other places Mary is called His mother, but not by Jesus
(e.g. Luke 1:43, 2:34).
That Jesus became fully Divine is also illustrated by the fact
that He rose bodily out of the tomb (Matthew 28) and
entered a closed room (John 20).
Swedenborg spoke in virtually all his works against what he
regarded as the incomprehensible Trinity of Persons concept.
He said that people of other religions opposed Christianity
because of its doctrine of a Trinity of Persons. He considered
the separation of the Trinity into three separate Persons to
have originated with the First Council of Nicaea and the
Athanasian Creed. According to Swedenborg the Athanasian
Creed is true, however, if by a trinity is understood to mean a
124
trinity in one person and that person is in the Lord God Jesus
Christ.
Swedenborg's theological teachings about the Trinity being in
the One Person Jesus Christ is labeled by some as modalism
because it identifies three aspects (not persons) of One God,
a unitarian God.
Sola Fide (Faith Alone)[edit source | editbeta]
Swedenborg’s writings reject the concept of salvation
through faith alone (sola fide in the original Latin), since he
considered both faith and charity necessary for salvation, not
one without the other, whereas the Reformers taught that
faith alone procured justification, although it must be a faith
which resulted in obedience. The purpose of faith, according
to Swedenborg’s writings, is to lead a person to a life
according to the truths of faith, which is charity, as is taught
in 1 Corinthians 13:13 and James 2:20.
In other words, Swedenborg spoke sharply against faith
alone, or that justification based upon imputed righteousness
before God is achievable by a gift of God's grace (sola gratia),
through faith alone, not on the basis of the person's deeds in
life. Sola fide was a doctrine averred by Martin Luther, John
Calvin, Ulrich Zwingli and others during the Protestant
Reformation, and was a core belief especially in the theology
of the Lutheran reformers Martin Luther and Philip
Melanchthon. Although the sola fide of the Reformers also
emphasized that saving faith was one that effected
works[157] (by faith alone, but not by a faith which is alone),
Swedenborg protested against faith alone being the
instrument of justification, and held that salvation is only
possible through the conjunction of faith and charity in a
person, and that the purpose of faith is to lead a person to
live according to the truths of faith, which is charity. He
further states that faith and charity must be exercised by
125
doing good out of willing good whenever possible, which are

good works or good uses or the conjunction perishes. In one
section he wrote:
It is very evident from their Epistles that it never entered the
mind of any of the apostles that the church of this day would
separate faith from charity by teaching that faith alone
justifies and saves apart from the works of the law, and that
charity therefore cannot be conjoined with faith, since faith
is from God, and charity, so far as it is expressed in works, is
from man. But this separation and division were introduced
into the Christian church when it divided God into three
persons, and ascribed to each equal Divinity.
— True Christian Religion, section 355[158]
Later History[edit source | editbeta]
Swedenborg made no attempt to found a church.[159][160]

A few years after his death – 15 by one estimate[161] – for
the most part in England, small reading groups formed to
study the truth they saw in his teachings.[162] As one scholar
states, Swedenborg’s writings particularly appealed to the
various dissenting groups that sprang up in the first half of
the 18th century who were "surfeited with revivalism and
narrow-mindedness" and found his optimism and
comprehensive explanations appealing.[163]
A variety of important cultural figures, both writers and
artists, were influenced by Swedenborg's writings, including
Johnny Appleseed, William Blake, Jorge Luis Borges, Daniel
Burnham, Arthur Conan Doyle,[164] Ralph Waldo Emerson,
[165] John Flaxman, George Inness, Henry James Sr., Carl
Jung,[166] Immanuel Kant, Honoré de Balzac, Helen Keller,
Czesław Miłosz, August Strindberg, D. T. Suzuki, and W. B.
126
Yeats. His philosophy had a great impact on the Duke of

Södermanland, later King Carl XIII, who as the Grand Master
of Swedish Freemasonry (Svenska Frimurare Orden) built its
unique system of degrees and wrote its rituals. In contrast,
one of the most prominent Swedish authors of Swedenborg's
day, Johan Henric Kellgren, called Swedenborg "nothing but a
fool".[167] A heresy trial was initiated in Sweden in 1768
against Swedenborg writings and two men who promoted
them.[168]
In the two and a half centuries since Swedenborg's death,
various interpretations of his theology have been made, and
he has also been scrutinized in biographies and psychological
studies.[169][170] Of note is that, just as Jesus Christ, with
his new teachings, was considered insane by some (John
10:20, Mark 3:21), so Swedenborg, with his claimed new
dispensation, has been considered by some to suffer from
mental illness.[171][172][173] “While the insanity
explanation was not uncommon during Swedenborg's own
time, it is mitigated by his activity in the Swedish Riddarhuset
(The House of the Nobility), the Riksdag (the Swedish
parliament), and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Additionally, the system of thought in his theological writings
is considered by some to be remarkably coherent.[174]
Furthermore, he was characterized by his contemporaries as
a "kind and warm-hearted man", "amiable in his meeting
with the public", speaking "easily and naturally of his spiritual
experiences",[175][176][177] with pleasant and interesting
conversation.... An English friend of Kant's who visited
Swedenborg at Kant's behest described Swedenborg as a
"reasonable, pleasant and candid man and scholar".[178] Of
note here is Swedenborg's statement that he was
commanded by the Lord to publish his writings and "Do not
believe that without this express command I would have
127
thought of publishing things which I knew in advance would

make me look ridiculous and many people would think
lies..."[179]
Works[edit source | editbeta]
Copies of the original Latin version in which Swedenborg

wrote his revelation are available from the following sources:
[180][181]
List of referenced works by Swedenborg and the year they
were first published.[182][183]
Within parenthesis is the common name used in a New
Church listing[184] Then follows the title in its original
publication. All the titles listed were published by
Swedenborg, except one, The Spiritual Diary, which was not.
[185] Various minor reports and tracts have been omitted
from the list.
1716–1718, (Daedalus Hyperboreus) Swedish: Daedalus
Hyperboreus, eller några nya mathematiska och physicaliska
försök. (English: The Northern inventor, or some new
experiments in mathematics and physics)
1721, (Principles of Chemistry) Latin: Prodromus
principiorum rerum naturalium: sive novorum tentaminum
chymiam et physicam experimenta geometrice explicandi
1722, (Miscellaneous Observations) Latin: Miscellanea de
Rebus Naturalibus
1734, (Principia) Latin: Opera Philosophica et Mineralia
(English: Philosophical and Mineralogical Works), three
volumes
(Principia, Volume I) Latin: Tomus I. Principia rerum
naturlium sive novorum tentaminum phaenomena mundi
elementaris philosophice explicandi
(Principia, Volume II) Latin: Tomus II. Regnum subterraneum
sive minerale de ferro
128
(Principia, Volume III) Latin: Tomus III. Regnum subterraneum

sive minerale de cupro et orichalco
1734, (The Infinite and Final Cause of Creation) Latin:
Prodromus Philosophiz Ratiocinantis de Infinito, et Causa
Finali Creationis; deque Mechanismo Operationis Animae et
Corporis.
1744–1745, (The Animal Kingdom) Latin: Regnum animale, 3
volumes
1745, (The Worship and Love of God) Latin: De Cultu et
Amore Dei, 2 volumes
1749–1756, (Arcana Cœlestia (or Caelestia) (Heavenly
Mysteries) Latin: Arcana Cœlestia, quae in Scriptura Sacra seu
Verbo Domini sunt, detecta, 8 volumes
1758, (Heaven and Hell) Latin: De Caelo et Ejus Mirabilibus et
de inferno. Ex Auditis et Visis.
1758, (The Last Judgment) Latin: De Ultimo Judicio
1758, (The White Horse) Latin: De Equo Albo de quo in
Apocalypsi Cap.XIX.
1758, (Earths in the Universe) Latin: De Telluribus in Mundo
Nostro Solari, quæ vocantur planetæ: et de telluribus in
coelo astrifero: deque illarum incolis; tum de spiritibus &
angelis ibi; ex auditis & visis.
1758, (The New Jerusalem and Its Heavenly Doctrine) Latin:
De Nova Hierosolyma et Ejus Doctrina Coelesti
1763, (Doctrine of the Lord) Latin:Doctrina Novæ
Hierosolymæ de Domino.
1763, (Doctrine of the Sacred Scripture) Latin: Doctrina Novæ
Hierosolymæ de Scriptura Sacra.
1763, (Doctrine of Life) Latin: Doctrina Vitæ pro Nova
Hierosolyma ex præceptis Decalogi.
1763, (Doctrine of Faith) Latin: Doctrina Novæ Hierosolymæ
de Fide.
129
1763, (Continuation of The Last Judgement) Latin:

Continuatio De Ultimo Judicio: et de mundo spirituali.
1763, (Divine Love and Wisdom) Latin: Sapientia Angelica de
Divino Amore et de Divina Sapientia. Sapientia Angelica de
Divina Providentia.
1764, (Divine Providence) Latin: Sapientia Angelica de Divina
Providentia.
1766, (Apocalypse Revealed) Latin: Apocalypsis Revelata, in
quae detegunter Arcana quae ibi preedicta sunt.
1768, (Conjugial Love, or Marriage Love) Latin: Deliciae
Sapientiae de Amore Conjugiali; post quas sequumtur
voluptates insaniae de amore scortatorio.
1769, (Brief Exposition) Latin: Summaria Expositio Doctrinæ
Novæ Ecclesiæ, quæ per Novam Hierosolymam in Apocalypsi
intelligitur.
1769, (Interaction of the Soul and the Body) Latin: De
Commercio Animæ & Corporis.
1771, (True Christian Religion) Latin: Vera Christiana Religio,
continens Universam Theologiam Novae Ecclesiae
1859, Drömboken, Journalanteckningar(Journal of Dreams),
1743–1744
1983–1997, (Spiritual Diary) Latin: Diarum, Ubi Memorantur
Experientiae Spirituales.
130
131
Chapter Nine
Evelyn Underhill
Evelyn Underhill (6 December 1875 – 15 June 1941) was an

English Anglo-Catholic writer and pacifist known for her
numerous works on religion and spiritual practice, in
particular Christian mysticism.
In the English-speaking world, she was one of the most
widely read writers on such matters in the first half of the
20th century. No other book of its type—until the
appearance in 1946 of Aldous Huxley's The Perennial
Philosophy—met with success to match that of her best-
known work, Mysticism, published in 1911.
Underhill was born in Wolverhampton. She was a poet and
novelist, as well as a pacifist and mystic. An only child, she
described her early mystical insights as "abrupt experiences
of the peaceful, undifferentiated plane of reality—like the
"still desert" of the mystic—in which there was no
multiplicity nor need of explanation."[2] The meaning of
these experiences became a lifelong quest and a source of
private angst, provoking her to research and write.
132
Both her father and her husband were writers (on the law),
London barristers and yachtsmen. She and her husband,
Hubert Stuart Moore, grew up together and were married on
3 July 1907. The couple had no children. She travelled
regularly within Europe, primarily Switzerland, France and
Italy where she pursued her interests in art and Catholicism,
visiting numerous churches and monasteries. Neither her
husband (a Protestant) nor her parents shared her interest in
spiritual matters.
Underhill was called simply "Mrs Moore" by many of her
friends, but was not without her detractors. She was a
prolific author and published over 30 books either under her
maiden name, Underhill, or under the pseudonym "John
Cordelier", as was the case for the 1912 book The Spiral Way.
Initially an agnostic, she gradually began to acquire an
interest in Neoplatonism and from there became increasingly
drawn to Catholicism against the objections of her husband,
becoming eventually a prominent Anglo-Catholic. Her
spiritual mentor from 1921 to 1924 was Baron Friedrich von
Hügel, who was appreciative of her writing yet concerned
with her focus on mysticism and who encouraged her to
adopt a much more Christocentric view as opposed to the
theistic and intellectual one she had previously held. She
described him as "the most wonderful personality. ..so
saintly, truthful, sane and tolerant" (Cropper, p. 44) and was
influenced toward more charitable, down-to-earth activities.
After his death in 1925, her writings became more focused
on the Holy Spirit and she became prominent in the Anglican
Church as a lay leader of spiritual retreats, a spiritual director
for hundreds of individuals, guest speaker, radio lecturer and
proponent of contemplative prayer.
Underhill came of age in the Edwardian era, at the turn of the
20th century and like most of her contemporaries had a
133
decided romantic bent. The enormous excitement in those

days was mysteriously compounded of the psychic, the
psychological, the occult, the mystical, the medieval, the
advance of science, the apotheosis of art, the re-discovery of
the feminine and an unashamedly sensuous and the most
ethereally "spiritual". Anglicanism seemed to her out-of-key
with this, her world. She sought the centre of life as she and
many of her generation conceived it, not in the state religion,
but in experience and the heart. This age of "the soul" was
one of those periods when a sudden easing of social taboos
brings on a great sense of personal emancipation and desire
for an El Dorado despised by an older, more morose and
insensitive generation.[1]
As an only child she was devoted to her parents, and later to
her husband. She was fully engaged in the life of a barrister's
daughter and wife, including the entertainment and
charitable work that entailed, and pursued a daily regimen
that included writing, research, worship, prayer and
meditation. It was a fundamental axiom of hers that all of life
was sacred, as that was what "incarnation" was about.
She was a cousin of Francis Underhill, Bishop of Bath and
Wells.
Education[edit source | editbeta]
Underhill was educated at home, except for three years at a
private school in Folkestone, and subsequently read history
and botany at King's College London. She was conferred with
an honorary Doctorate of Divinity from Aberdeen University
and made a fellow of King's College. She was the first woman
to lecture to the clergy in the Church of England as well as
the first woman to officially conduct spiritual retreats for the
Church. She was also the first woman to establish ecumenical
links between churches and one of the first woman
theologians to lecture in English colleges and universities,
134
which she did frequently. Underhill was an award-winning

bookbinder, studying with the most renowned masters of the
time. She was schooled in the classics, well read in Western
spirituality, well informed (in addition to theology) in the
philosophy, psychology, and physics of her day, and acquired
the prestigious post of editor of The Spectator.
Early work[edit source | editbeta]
Before undertaking many of her better known expository
works on mysticism, she first published a small book of
satirical poems on legal dilemmas, The Bar-Lamb's Ballad
Book, which received a favorable welcome. Underhill then
wrote three highly unconventional though profoundly
spiritual novels. Like Charles Williams and later, Susan
Howatch, Underhill uses her narratives to explore the
sacramental intersection of the physical with the spiritual.
She then uses that sacramental framework very effectively to
illustrate the unfolding of a human drama. Her novels are
entitled The Grey World (1904), The Lost Word (1907), and
The Column of Dust (1909). In her first novel, The Grey
World, described by one reviewer as an extremely interesting
psychological study, the hero's mystical journey begins with
death, and then moves through reincarnation, beyond the
grey world, and into the choice of a simple life devoted to
beauty, reflecting Underhill's own serious perspective as a
young woman.
"It seems so much easier in these days to live morally than to
live beautifully. Lots of us manage to exist for years without
ever sinning against society, but we sin against loveliness
every hour of the day."[3]
The Lost Word and The Column of Dust are also concerned
with the problem of living in two worlds and reflect the
writer's own spiritual challenges. In the 1909 novel, her
heroine encounters a rift in the solid stuff of her universe:
135
She had seen, abruptly, the insecurity of those defences

which protect our illusions and ward off the horrors of truth.
She had found a little hole in the wall of appearances; and
peeping through, had caught a glimpse of that seething pot
of spiritual forces whence, now and then, a bubble rises to
the surface of things. .[4]
Underhill's novels suggest that perhaps for the mystic, two
worlds may be better than one. For her, mystical experience
seems inseparable from some kind of enhancement of
consciousness or expansion of perceptual and aesthetic
horizons—to see things as they are, in their meanness and
insignificance when viewed in opposition to the divine
reality, but in their luminosity and grandeur when seen
bathed in divine radiance. But at this stage the mystic's mind
is subject to fear and insecurity, its powers undeveloped. The
first novel takes us only to this point. Further stages demand
suffering, because mysticism is more than merely vision or
cultivating a latent potentiality of the soul in cosy isolation.
According to Underhill's view, the subsequent pain and
tension, and final loss of the private painful ego-centered life
for the sake of regaining one's true self, has little to do with
the first beatific vision. Her two later novels are built on the
ideal of total self-surrender even to the apparent sacrifice of
the vision itself, as necessary for the fullest possible
integration of human life. This was for her the equivalent of
working out within, the metaphorical intent of the life story
of Jesus. One is reunited with the original vision—no longer
as mere spectator but as part of it. This dimension of self-loss
and resurrection is worked out in The Lost Word, but there is
some doubt as to its general inevitability. In The Column of
Dust, the heroine's physical death reinforces dramatically the
mystical death to which she has already surrendered to. Two
lives are better than one but only on the condition that a
136
process of painful re-integration intervenes to re-establish

unity between Self and Reality.[1]
All her characters derive their interest from the theological
meaning and value which they represent and it is her
ingenious handling of so much difficult symbolic material that
makes her work psychologically interesting as a forerunner of
such 20th-century writers as Susan Howatch, whose
successful novels also embody the psychological value of
religious metaphor and the traditions of Christian mysticism.
Her first novel received critical acclaim, but her last was
generally derided. However, her novels give remarkable
insight into what we may assume was her decision to avoid
what St. Augustine described as the temptation of fuga in
solitudinem ("the flight into solitude"), but instead
acquiescing to a loving, positive acceptance of this world. Not
looking back, by this time she was already working on her
magnum opus.
Writings on religion[edit source | editbeta]
Mysticism (1911)[edit source | editbeta]

Underhill's greatest book, Mysticism: A Study of the Nature
and Development of Man's Spiritual Consciousness, was
published in 1911, and is distinguished by the very qualities
which make it inappropriate as a straightforward textbook.
The spirit of the book is romantic, engaged, and theoretical
rather than historical or scientific. Underhill has little use for
theoretical explanations and the traditional religious
experience, formal classifications or analysis. She dismisses
William James' pioneering study, The Varieties of Religious
Experience (1902), and his "four marks of the mystic state"
(ineffability, noetic quality, transcience, and passivity). James
had admitted that his own constitution shut him off almost
entirely from the enjoyment of mystical states thus his
137
treatment was purely objective. Underhill substituted (1)

mysticism is practical, not theoretical, (2) mysticism is an
entirely spiritual activity, (3) The business and method of
mysticism is love. (4) mysticism entails a definite
psychological experience. Her insistence on the psychological
approach was that it was the glamorous science of the pre-
war period, offering the potential key to the secrets of
human advances in intelligence, creativity, and genius, and
already psychological findings were being applied in theology
(i.e., William Sanday's Christologies Ancient and Modern).[1]
She divided her subject into two parts; the first, an
introduction, and the second, a detailed study of the nature
and development of human consciousness. In the first
section, in order to free the subject of mysticism from
confusion and misapprehension, she approached it from the
point of view of the psychologist, the symbolist and the
theologian. To separate mysticism from its most dubious
connection she included a chapter on mysticism and magic.
At the time, and still today, mysticism is associated with the
occult, magic, secret rites, and fanaticism, while she knew
the mystics throughout history to be the world's spiritual
pioneers.
She divided her map of "the way" into five stages: the first
was the "Awakening of Self." She quotes Henry Suso (disciple
of Meister Eckhart):
"That which the Servitor saw had no form neither any
manner of being; yet he had of it a joy such as he might have
known in the seeing of shapes and substances of all joyful
things. His heart was hungry, yet satisfied, his soul was full of
contentment and joy: his prayers and his hopes were
fulfilled." (Cropper p. 46)
Underhill tells how Suso's description of how the abstract
truth (related to each soul's true nature and purpose), once
138
remembered, contains the power of fulfilment became the

starting point of her own path. The second stage she
presents as psychological "Purgation of Self," quoting the
Theologia Germanica (14th century, anonymous) regarding
the transcendence of ego (Underhill's "little self"):
"We must cast all things from us and strip ourselves of them
and refrain from claiming anything for our own."
The third stage she titles "Illumination" and quotes William
Law:
"Everything in ...nature, is descended out that which is
eternal, and stands as a. ..visible outbirth of it, so when we
know how to separate out the grossness, death, and
darkness. ..from it, we find. ..it in its eternal state."
The fourth stage she describes as the "Dark Night of the Soul"
(which her correspondence leads us to believe she struggled
with throughout her life) where one is deprived of all that
has been valuable to the lower self, and quoting Mechthild of
Magdeburg:
"...since Thou hast taken from me all that I had of Thee, yet
of Thy grace leave me the gift which every dog has by nature:
that of being true to Thee in my distress, when I am deprived
of all consolation. This I desire more fervently than Thy
heavenly Kingdom."
And last she devotes a chapter to the unitive life, the sum of
the mystic way:
"When love has carried us above all things into the Divine
Dark, there we are transformed by the Eternal Word Who is
the image of the Father; and as the air is penetrated by the
sun, thus we receive in peace the Incomprehensible Light,
enfolding us, and penetrating us.' (Ruysbroech)
Where Underhill struck new ground was in her insistence
that this state of union produced a glorious and fruitful
creativeness, so that the mystic who attains this final
139
perfectness is the most active doer - not the reclusive

dreaming lover of God.
We are all the kindred of the mystics. ..Strange and far away
from us though they seem, they are not cut off from us by
some impassable abyss. They belong to us; the giants, the
heroes of our race. As the achievement of genius belongs not
to itself only but also to the society that brought it
forth;...the supernal accomplishment of the mystics is ours
also. ..our guarantee of the end to which immanent love, the
hidden steersman. ..is moving. ..us on the path toward the
Real. They come back to us from an encounter with life's
most august secret. ..filled with amazing tidings which they
can hardly tell. We, longing for some assurance. ..urge them
to pass on their revelation. ..the old demand of the dim-
sighted and incredulous. ..But they cannot. ..only fragments
of the Symbolic Vision. According to their strength and
passion, these lovers of the Absolute. ..have not shrunk from
the suffering. ..Beauty and agony have called. ..have
awakened a heroic response. For them the winter is
over. ..Life new, unquenchable and lovely comes to meet
them with the dawn."(Cropper, p.47)
The book ends with an extremely valuable appendix, a kind
of who's who of mysticism, which shows its persistence and
interconnection from century to century.
Ruysbroeck (1914)[edit source | editbeta]
A work on the 14th-century Flemish mystic, Jan van
Ruusbroec or Ruysbroeck (1293–1381), published in London
in 1914.[5] She had discussed him from several different
perspectives during the course of her earlier book on
Mysticism in 1911.
I. Life. She starts with a biography, drawn mainly from two
works on his life written by fellow monastics, Pomerius[6]
and Gerard Naghel.[7]
140
His childhood was spent in the village of Ruysbroeck. [page 7]

At eleven he ran away to Brussels, where he began to live
with his uncle, John Hinckaert, a Canon at the Cathedral of St.
Gudule, and a younger Canon, Francis van Coudenberg. [10]
At twenty-four he was ordained a priest and became a
prebend at St. Gudule. [12] At his first mass he envisioned his
mother's spirit released from Purgatory and entering Heaven.
[15] From age 26 to 50 Ruysbroeck was a cathedral chaplain
at St. Gudule. [15] Although he "seemed a nobody to those
who did not know him," he was developing a strong spiritual
life, "a penetrating intellect, a fearless heart, deep
knowledge of human nature, remarkable powers of
expression". [17] At one point he wrote strong pamphlets
and led a campaign against a heretical group, the Brethren of
the Free Spirit led by Bloemardinne, who practiced a self-
indulgent "mysticality". [18-20] Later, with the two now
elderly Canons, he moved into the countryside at
Groenendael ("Green Valley"). [21-22] Pomerius writes that
he retired not to hide his light "but that he might tend it
better" [22]. Five years later their community became a
Priory under the Augustinian Canons. [23]
Many of his works were written during this period, often
drawing lessons from nature. [24] He had a favorite tree
under which he would sit and write what the 'Spirit' gave to
him. [25] He solemnly affirmed that his works were
composed under the "domination of an inspiring power," she
writes. [26] Pomerius says that Ruysbroeck could enter a
state of contemplation in which he appeared surrounded by
radiant light. [26-27] Alongside his spiritual ascent, Naghel
says, he cultivated the friendship of those around him,
enriching their lives. [27-28] He also worked in the garden of
the priory, and sought to help out creatures of the forest.
[29-30] He moved from the senses to the transcendent
141
without frontiers or cleavage, she writes, these being for him

"but two moods within the mind of God". [30] He counseled
many who came to him, including Gerard Groot of the
Brothers of the Common Life. [31] His advice would plumb
the "purity and direction" of the seeker's will, and love. [32]
There, at Groenendael he finally "leap to a more abundant
life". [34] In The Sparkling Stone Ruysbroec wrote about
coming to know the love "which giveth more than one can
take, and asketh more than one can pay." [34]
II. Works. Next, she gives a bibliography of his eleven
admittedly authentic works, providing details concerning
each work's origin, nature, and contents, as well as their
place in his writings. 1. The Spiritual Tabernacle; 2. The
Twelve Points of True Faith; 3. The Book of the Four
Temptations; 4. The Book of the Kingdom of God's Lovers; 5.
The Adornment of the Spiritual Marriage; 6. The Mirror of
Eternal Salvation or Book of the Blessed Sacraments; 7. The
Seven Cloisters; 8. The Seven Degrees of the Ladder of Love;
9. The Book of the Sparkling Stone; 10. The Book of the
Supreme Truth; 11. The Twelve Béguines.
III. Doctrine of God. Several types of mystics are described.
The first (e.g., St. Teresa) deals with personal psychological
experiences and emotional reactions, leaving the nature of
God to existing theology. [page 52] The second (e.g.,
Plotinus) has passion sprung from the vision of a philosopher;
the intellect often is more active than the heart, yet like a
poet such a mystic strives to sketch his vision of the Ultimate.
[53] The greatest mystics (e.g., St. Augustine) embrace at
once "the infinite and the intimate" so that "God is both near
and far, and the paradox of transcendent-immanent Reality is
a self-evident if an inexpressible truth." Such mystics "give us
by turns a subjective and psychological, an objective and
142
metaphysical, reading of spiritual experience." Here is

Ruysbroeck. [53-54]
An apostolic mystic [55] represents humanity in its quest to
discern the Divine Reality, being like "the artist extending our
universe, the pioneer cutting our path, the hunter winning
food for our souls." [56] Yet, although his experience is
personal, his language is often drawn from tradition, [57] but
the words may "enchant rather than inform the soul" so
ineffable is the nature of God. [58] Ruysbroeck goes
venturing "to hover over that Abyss which is 'beyond
Reason,' stammering and breaking into wild poetry in the
desperate attempt to seize the unseizable truth." [55] "[T]he
One is 'neither This nor That'." [61]
"God as known by man" is the Absolute One who combines
and resolves the contradictory natures of time and eternity,
becoming and being; who is both transcendent and
immanent, abstract and personal, work and rest, the
unmoved mover and movement itself. God is above the
storm, yet inspires the flux. [59-60] The "omnipotent and
ever-active Creator" who is "perpetually breathing forth His
energetic Life in new births of being and new floods of
grace." [60] Yet the soul may pierce beyond this fruitful[8]
nature to the simple essence of God. There we humans
would find that "absolute and abiding Reality, which seems
to man Eternal Rest, the 'Deep Quiet of the Godhead,' the
'Abyss,' the 'Dim Silence'; and which we can taste indeed but
never know. There, 'all lovers lose themselves'." [60]
The Trinity, according the Ruysbroeck, works in living
distinctions, "the fruitful nature of the Persons." [61] Yet the
Trinity in itself is Unity of the Three Persons, which is the
Godhead. [60-61][9] Beyond and within the Trinity, or the
Godhead, then, is the "fathomless Abyss" [60] that is the
143
"Simple Being of God" that is "an Eternal Rest of God and of

all created things." [61][10]
The Father is the unconditioned Origin, Strength and Power,
of all things. [62] The Son is the Eternal Word and Wisdom
that shines forth in the world of conditions. [62] The Holy
Spirit is Love and Generosity emanating from the mutual
contemplation of Father and Son. [62][11] The Three Persons
"exist in an eternal distinction [emphasis added] for that
world of conditions wherein the human soul is immersed".
[63] By the acts of the Three Persons all created things are
born; by the incarnation and crucifixion we human souls are
adorned with love, and so to be drawn back to our Source.
"This is the circling course of the Divine life-process." [63]
But beyond and above this eternal distinction lies "the
superessential world, transcending all conditions,
inaccessible to thought-- 'the measureless solitude of the
Godhead, where God possesses Himself in joy.' This is the
ultimate world of the mystic." [63-64] There, she continues,
quoting Ruysbroeck: "we can speak no more of Father, Son
and Holy Spirit nor of any creature; but only of one Being,
which is the very substance of the Divine Persons. There
were we all one before our creation; for this is our
superessence... . There the Godhead is, in simple essence,
without activity; Eternal Rest, Unconditioned Dark, the
Nameless Being, the Superessence of all created things, and
the simple and infinite Bliss of God and of all the Saints." [64]
[12] "The simple light of this Being... embraces the unity of
the Divine Persons" as well as envelopes and irradiates the
ground and fruition of human souls in the Divine life-process.
"And this is the union of God and the souls that love Him."
[64-65][13]
IV. Doctrine of Humankind. For Ruysbroeck, "God is the
'Living Pattern of Creation' who has impressed His image on
144
each soul, and in every adult spirit the character of that

image must be brought from the hiddenness and realized."
[66][14] The pattern is trinitarian; there are three properties
of the human soul. First, resembling the Father, "the bare,
still place to which consciousness retreats in introversion... ."
[67] Second, following the Son, "the power of knowing Divine
things by intuitive comprehension: man's fragmentary share
in the character of the Logos, or Wisdom of God." [67-68]
"The third property we call the spark of the soul. It is the
inward and natural tendency of the soul towards its Source;
and here do we receive the Holy Spirit, the Charity of God."
[68].[15] So will God work within the human being; in later
spiritual development we may form with God a Union, and
eventually a Unity. [70-71][16]
The mighty force of Love is the 'very self-hood of God' in this
mysterious communion. [72, 73] "As we lay hold upon the
Divine Life, devour and assimilate it, so in that very act the
Divine Life devours us, and knits us up into the mysical Body,"
she writes. "It is the nature of love," says Ruysbroeck, "ever
to give and to take, to love and be loved, and these two
things meet in whomsoever loves. Thus the love of Christ is
both avid and generous... as He devours us, so He would feed
us. If He absorbs us utterly into Himself, in return He gives us
His very self again." [75-76][17] "Hungry love," "generous
love," "stormy love" touches the human soul with its Divine
creative energy and, once we become conscious of it, evokes
in us an answering storm of love. "The whole of our human
growth within the spiritual order is conditioned by the quality
of this response; by the will, the industry, the courage, with
which [we accept our] part in the Divine give-and-take." [74]
As Ruysbroeck puts it:
"That measureless Love which is God Himself, dwells in the
pure deeps of our spirit, like a burning brazier of coal. And it
145
throws forth brilliant and fiery sparks which stir and enkindle
heart and senses, will and desire, and all the powers of the
soul, with a fire of love; a storm, a rage, a measureless fury of
love. These be the weapons with which we fight against the
terrible and immense Love of God, who would consume all
loving spirits and swallow them in Himself. Love arms us with
its own gifts, and clarifies our reason, and commands,
counsels and advises us to oppose Him, to fight against Him,
and to maintain against Him our right to love, so long as we
may." [74-75][18]
The drama of this giving and receiving Love constitutes a
single act, for God is as an "ocean which ebbs and flows" or
as an "inbreathing and outbreathing". [75, 76] "Love is a
unifying power, manifested in motion itself, 'an outgoing
attraction, which drags us out of ourselves and calls us to be
melted and naughted in the Unity'." [76][19]
Next, the spiritual development of the soul is addressed. [76-
88] Ruysbroeck adumbrates how one may progress from the
Active life, to the Interior life, to the Superessential life; these
correspond to the three natural orders of Becoming, Being,
and God, or to the three rôles of the Servant, the Friend, and
the "hidden child" of God. [77, 85] The Active life focuses on
ethics, on conforming the self's daily life to the Will of God,
and takes place in the world of the senses, "by means". [78]
The Interior life embraces a vision of spiritual reality, where
the self's contacts with the Divine take place "without
means". [78] The Superessential life transcends the
intellectual plane, whereby the self does not merely behold,
but rather has fruition of the Godhead in life and in love, at
work and at rest, in union and in bliss. [78, 86, 87][20] The
analogy with the traditional threefold way of Purgation,
Illumination, and Union, is not exact. The Interior life of
Ruysbroeck contains aspects of the traditional Union also,
146
while the Superessential life "takes the soul to heights of

fruition which few amongst even the greatest unitive mystics
have attained or described." [78-79][21]
V, VI, VII, VIII. In her last four chapters, Evelynn Underhill
continues the discussion concerning the Active life [94-114],
the Interior life [115-163], and the Superessential or glorious
life [164-185].
"The Mysticism of Plotinus" (1919)[edit source | editbeta]
An essay originally published in The Quarterly Review (1919),
[22] and later collected in The Essentials of Mysticism and
other essays (London: J.M.Dent 1920) at 116-140.[23]
Underhill here addresses Plotinus (204-270) of Alexandria
and later of Rome.
A Neoplatonist as well as a spiritual guide, Plotinus writes
regarding both formal philosophy and hands-on, personal,
inner experience. Underhill makes the distinction between
the geographer who draws maps of the mind, and the seeker
who actually travels in the realms of spirit. [page 118] She
observes that usually mystics do not follow the mere maps of
metaphysicians. [page 117]
In the Enneads Plotinus presents the Divine as an unequal
triune, in descending order: (a) the One, perfection, having
nothing, seeking nothing, needing nothing, yet it overflows
creatively, the source of being; [121] (b) the emitted Nous or
Spirit, with intelligence, wisdom, poetic intuition, the "Father
and Companion" of the soul; [121-122] and, (c) the emitted
Soul or Life, the vital essence of the world, which aspires to
communion with the Spirit above, while also directly engaged
with the physical world beneath. [123]
People "come forth from God" and will find happiness once
re-united, first with the Nous, later with the One. [125] Such
might be the merely logical outcome for the metaphysician,
yet Plotinus the seeker also presents this return to the Divine
147
as a series of moral purgations and a shedding of irrational

delusions, leading eventually to entry into the intuitively
beautiful. [126] This intellectual and moral path toward a life
aesthetic will progressively disclose an invisible source, the
Nous, the forms of Beauty. [127] Love is the prevailing
inspiration, although the One is impersonal. [128] The mystic
will pass through stages of purification, and of
enlightenment, resulting in a shift in the center of our being
"from sense to soul, from soul to spirit," in preparation for an
ultimate transformation of consciousness. [125, 127] Upon
our arrival, we shall know ectasy and "no longer sing out of
tune, but form a divine chorus round the One." [129]
St. Augustine (354-430) criticizes such Neoplatonism as
neglecting the needs of struggling and imperfect human
beings. The One of Plotinus may act as a magnet for the
human soul, but it cannot be said to show mercy, nor to help,
or love, or redeem the individual on earth. [130] Other
western mystics writing on the Neoplatonists mention this
lack of "mutual attraction" between humanity and the
unconscious, unknowable One. [130-131] In this regard Julian
of Norwich (1342–1416) would write, "Our natural will is to
have God, and the good-will of God is to have us." [130]
Plotinus leaves the problem of evil unresolved, but having no
place in the blissful life; here, the social, ethical side of
religion seems to be shorted. His philosophy does not include
qualities comparable to the Gospel's divine "transfiguration
of pain" through Jesus. [131] Plotinus "the self-sufficient
sage" does not teach us charity, writes St. Augustine. [132]
Nonetheless, Underhill notes, Plotinus and Neoplatonism
were very influential among the mystics of Christianity (and
Islam). St. Augustine the Church Father was himself deeply
affected by Plotinus, and through him the western Church.
[133-135, 137] So, too, was Dionysius (5th century, Syria),
148
whose writings would also prove very influential. [133, 135]

As well were others, e.g., Erigena [135], Dante [136],
Ruysbroeck [136, 138], Eckhart [138], and Boehme [139].
Worship (1936)[edit source | editbeta]
The chapter headings give an indication of its contents.
Part I: 1. The Nature of Worship, 2. Ritual and Symbol, 3.
Sacrament and Sacrifice, 4. The Character of Christian
Worship, 5. Principles of Corporate Worship, 6. Liturgical
Elements in Worship, 7. The Holy Eucharist: Its Nature, 8. The
Holy Eucharist: Its Significance, 9. The Principles of Personal
Worship.
Part II: 10. Jewish Worship, 11. The Beginnings of Christian
Worship, 12. Catholic Worship: Western and Eastern, 13.
Worship in the Reformed Churches, 14. Free Church
Worship, 15. The Anglican Tradition. Conclusion.
Influences[edit source | editbeta]
Underhill's life was greatly affected by her husband's

resistance to her joining the Catholic Church to which she
was powerfully drawn. At first she believed it to be only a
delay in her decision, but it proved to be lifelong. He was,
however, a writer himself and was supportive of her writing
both before and after their marriage in 1907, though he did
not share her spiritual affinities. Her fiction was written in the
six years between 1903–1909 and represents her four major
interests of that general period: philosophy (neoplatonism),
theism/mysticism, the Roman Catholic liturgy, and human
love/compassion.[24] In her earlier writings Underhill often
wrote using the terms "mysticism" and "mystics" but later
began to adopt the terms "spirituality" and "saints" because
she felt they were less threatening. She was often criticized
for believing that the mystical life should be accessible to the
average person.
149
Her fiction was also influenced by the literary creed

expounded by her close friend Arthur Machen, mainly his
Hieroglyphics of 1902, summarised by his biographer:
There are certain truths about the universe and its
constitution - as distinct from the particular things in it that
come before our observation - which cannot be grasped by
human reason or expressed in precise words: but they can be
apprehended by some people at least, in a semi-mystical
experience, called ecstasy, and a work of art is great insofar
as this experience is caught and expressed in it. Because,
however, the truths concerned transcend a language attuned
to the description of material objects, the expression can
only be through hieroglyphics, and it is of such hieroglyphics
that literature consists.
In Underhill's case the quest for psychological realism is
subordinate to larger metaphysical considerations which she
shared with Arthur Machen. Incorporating the Holy Grail into
their fiction (stimulated perhaps by their association with
Arthur Waite and his affiliation with the Hermetic Order of
the Golden Dawn), for Machen the Holy Grail was perhaps
"the" hieroglyph, "the" crystallisation in one sacred emblem
of all man's transcendental yearning, "the" gateway to vision
and lasting appeasement of his discontents, while for her it
was the center of atonement-linked meanings as she pointed
out to Margaret Robinson in a letter responding to
Robinson's criticism of Underhill's last novel:
"Don't marvel at your own temerity in criticising. Why should
you? Of course, this thing wasn't written for you - I never
write for anyone at all, except in letters of direction! But, I
take leave to think the doctrine contained in it is one you'll
have to assimilate sooner or later and which won't do you
any harm. It's not "mine" you know. You will find it all in
Eckhart. ... They all know, as Richard of St Victor said, that
150
the Fire of Love "burns." We have not fulfilled our destiny

when we have sat down at a safe distance from it, purring
like overfed cats, 'suffering is the ancient law of love' - and its
highest pleasure into the bargain, oddly enough. ... A sponge
cake and milk religion is neither true to this world nor to the
next. As for the Christ being too august a word for our little
hardships - I think it is truer that it is "so" august as to give
our little hardships a tincture of Royalty once we try them up
into it. I don't think a Pattern which was 'meek & lowly' is
likely to fail of application to very humble and ordinary
things. For most of us don't get a chance "but" the humble
and ordinary: and He came that we might all have life more
abundantly, according to our measure. There that's all![25]
Two contemporary philosophical writers dominated
Underhill's thinking at the time she wrote "Mysticism":
Rudolf Eucken and Henri Bergson. While neither displayed an
interest in mysticism, both seemed to their disciples to
advance a spiritual explanation of the universe. Also, she
describes the fashionable creed of the time as "vitalism" and
the term adequately sums up the prevailing worship of life in
all its exuberance, variety and limitless possibility which
pervaded pre-war culture and society. For her, Eucken and
Bergson confirmed the deepest intuitions of the mystics.
(Armstrong, Evelyn Underhill)
Among the mystics, Ruysbroeck was to her the most
influential and satisfying of all the medieval mystics, and she
found herself very much at one with him in the years when
he was working as an unknown priest in Brussels, for she
herself had also a hidden side.
His career which covers the greater part of the fourteenth
century, that golden age of Christian Mysticism, seems to
exhibit within the circle of a single personality, and carry up
to a higher term than ever before, all the best attainments of
151
the Middle Ages in the realm of Eternal life. The central

doctrine of the Divine Fatherhood, and of the soul's power to
become the Son of God, it is this raised to the nth degree of
intensity...and demonstrated with the exactitude of the
mathematician, and the passion of a poet, which Ruysbroeck
gives us...the ninth and tenth chapters of The Sparkling Stone
the high water mark of mystical literature. Nowhere else do
we find such a combination of soaring vision with the most
delicate and intimate psychological analysis. The old Mystic
sitting under his tree, seems here to be gazing at and
reporting to us the final secrets of that Eternal World...
(Cropper, p. 57)
One of her most significant influences and important
collaborations was with the Nobel Laureate, Rabindranath
Tagore, the Indian mystic, author, and world traveler. They
published a major translation of the work of Kabir (100
Poems of Kabir) together in 1915, to which she wrote the
introduction. He introduced her to the spiritual genius of
India which she expressed enthusiastically in a letter:
This is the first time I have had the privilege of being with one
who is a Master in the things I care so much about but know
so little of as yet: & I understand now something of what
your writers mean when they insist on the necessity and
value of the personal teacher and the fact that he gives
something which the learner cannot get in any other way. It
has been like hearing the language of which I barely know
the alphabet, spoken perfectly.(Letters)
They did not keep up their correspondence in later years.
Both suffered debilitating illnesses in the last year of life and
died in the summer of 1941, greatly distressed by the
outbreak of World War II.
Evelyn in 1921 was to all outward appearances, in an assured
and enviable position. She had been asked by the University
152
of Oxford to give the first of a new series of lectures on

religion, and she was the first woman to have such an
honour. She was an authority on her own subject of
mysticism and respected for her research and scholarship.
Her writing was in demand, and she had an interesting and
notable set of friends, devoted readers, a happy marriage
and affectionate and loyal parents. At the same time she felt
that her foundations were insecure and that her zeal for
Reality was resting on a basis that was too fragile.
By 1939, she was a member of the Anglican Pacifist
Fellowship, writing a number of important tracts expressing
her anti-war sentiment.
After returning to the Anglican Church, and perhaps
overwhelmed by her knowledge of the achievements of the
mystics and their perilous heights, her ten year friendship
with Catholic philosopher and writer Baron Friedrich von
Hugel turned into one of spiritual direction. Charles Williams
wrote in his introduction to her Letters: 'The equal swaying
level of devotion and scepticism (related to the church)
which is, for some souls, as much the Way as continuous
simple faith is to others, was a distress to her...She wanted to
be "sure." Writing to Von Hugel of the darkness she struggled
with:
What ought I to do?...being naturally self-indulgent and at
present unfortunately professionally very prosperous and
petted, nothing will get done unless I make a Rule. Neither
intellectual work nor religion give me any real discipline
because I have a strong attachment to both. ..it is useless
advising anything people could notice or that would look
pious. That is beyond me. In my lucid moments I see only too
clearly that the only possible end of this road is complete,
unconditional self-consecration, and for this I have not the
nerve, the character or the depth. There has been some sort
153
of mistake. My soul is too small for it and yet it is at bottom

the only thing that I really want. It feels sometimes as if,
whilst still a jumble of conflicting impulses and violent faults I
were being pushed from behind towards an edge I dare not
jump over."[26]
In a later letter of 12 July the Baron's practical concerns for
signs of strain in Evelyn's spiritual state are expressed. His
comments give insight into her struggles:
"I do not at all like this craving for absolute certainty that this
or that experience of yours, is what it seems to yourself. And
I am assuredly not going to declare that I am absolutely
certain of the final and evidential worth of any of those
experiences. They are not articles of faith. .. You are at times
tempted to scepticism and so you long to have some, if only
one direct personal experience which shall be beyond the
reach of all reasonable doubt. But such an
escape. ..would ...possibly be a most dangerous one, and
would only weaken you, or shrivel you, or puff you up. By all
means...believe them, if and when they humble and yet
brace you, to be probably from God. But do not build your
faith upon them; do not make them an end when they exist
only to be a means...I am not sure that God does want a
marked preponderance of this or that work or virtue in our
life - that would feed still further your natural temperament,
already too vehement. (Cropper biography)
Although Underhill continued to struggle to the end, craving
certainty that her beatific visions were purposeful, suffering
as only a pacifist can from the devastating onslaught of
World War II and the Church's powerlessness to affect
events, she may well have played a powerful part in the
survival of her country through the influence of her words
and the impact of her teachings on thousands regarding the
power of prayer. Surviving the London Blitz of 1940, her
154
health disintegrated further and she died in the following

year. She is buried with her husband in the churchyard
extension at St John-at-Hampstead in London.[27]
More than any other person, she was responsible for
introducing the forgotten authors of medieval and Catholic
spirituality to a largely Protestant audience and the lives of
eastern mystics to the English speaking world. As a frequent
guest on radio, her 1936 work The Spiritual Life was
especially influential as transcribed from a series of
broadcasts given as a sequel to those by Dom Bernard
Clements on the subject of prayer. Fellow theologian Charles
Williams wrote the introduction to her published Letters in
1943, which reveal much about this prodigious woman. Upon
her death, The Times reported that on the subject of
theology, she was "unmatched by any of the professional
teachers of her day."
Veneration[edit source | editbeta]
Since 2000 the Church of England commemorates her

liturgically on 15 June.
Underhill is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical
calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on 15 June.
155
156
Chapter Ten
Gnosticism
Gnosticism (from gnostikos, "learned", from Ancient Greek:

γνῶσις ‹See Tfd›gnōsis, knowledge; Arabic: ‫‹ الغنوص ية‬See
Tfd›al-ġnūṣīh) is the belief that the material world created by
the demiurge should be shunned[citation needed] and the
spiritual world should be embraced (God's world). Gnostic
ideas influenced many ancient religions[1] which teach that
gnosis (variously interpreted as knowledge, enlightenment,
salvation, emancipation or 'oneness with God') may be
reached by practicing philanthropy to the point of personal
poverty, sexual abstinence (as far as possible for hearers,
total for initiates) and diligently searching for wisdom by
helping others.[2] However, practices vary. In Gnosticism, the
world of the demiurge is represented by the lower world
which is associated to the matter, to flesh, to time, to
molecules and more particularly to an imperfect world and
157
an ephemeral world. The world of God is represented by the

upper world, and is associated with the soul and perfection.
The world of God is eternal and not part of the physical. It is
impalpable, and time there doesn't exist. To rise to God, the
Gnostic must reach the "knowledge" which mixes philosophy,
metaphysics, curiosity, culture, knowledge, and secrets of
history and universe. [3][4]
Gnosticism was primarily defined in a Christian context.[5][6]
Some scholars have claimed that gnosticism predated
Christianity. Such discussions have included pre-Christian
religious beliefs and spiritual practices argued to be common
to early Christianity, Neoplatonism, Hellenistic Judaism,
Greco-Roman mystery religions, and Zoroastrianism
(especially Zurvanism). The discussion of gnosticism changed
radically with the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library and
led to revision of older assumptions.
The Egyptian Gnostic Basilideans referred to a figure called
Abraxas who was at the head of 365 spiritual beings
(Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, I.24); it is unclear what to
make of Irenaeus' use of the term "Archon", which may
simply mean "ruler" in this context. The role and function of
Abraxas for Basilideans is not clear.
The word Abraxas was engraved on certain antique
gemstones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which
may have been used as amulets or charms by Gnostic groups.
In popular culture, Abraxas is sometimes considered the
name of a god who incorporated both Good and evil (god
and demiurge) in one entity, and therefore representing the
monotheistic god, singular, but (unlike, for example, the
Christian God) not omnibenevolent. (See Hermann Hesse's
Demian, and Carl Jung's Seven Sermons to the Dead.)
Opinions abound on Abraxas, who in recent centuries has
been claimed to be both an Egyptian god and a demon,
158
sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of

Satan/Lucifer.
The above information relates to interpretations of ancient
amulets and to reports of Christian heresy hunters which are
not always clear.
Actual ancient Gnostic texts from the Nag Hammadi Library,
such as the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians, refer to Abraxas
as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the
Spiritual Fullness in the light of the luminary Eleleth. In
several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the luminaries
(Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and it is the Aeon
Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who encounters darkness
and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the
Demiurge and Archon's rule of this world, and the salvage
effort that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth,
including Abraxas, Sophia, and others, pertains to this outer
border of the Divine Fullness that encounters the ignorance
of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of
ignorance in the world of materiality.
Words like or similar to Abraxas or Abrasax also appear in the
Greek Magical Papyri. There are similarities and differences
between such figures in reports about Basiledes' teaching, in
the larger magical traditions of the Graeco-Roman world, in
the classic ancient Gnostic texts such as the Gospel of the
Egyptians, and in later magical and esoteric writings.
The Swiss psychologist Carl Jung wrote a short Gnostic
treatise in 1916 called Seven Sermons to the Dead, which
called Abraxas a God higher than the Christian God and Devil,
that combines all opposites into one Being.
Aeon
Main article: Aeon (Gnosticism)
In many Gnostic systems, the æons are the various
emanations of the superior God, who is also known by such
159
names as the One, the Monad, Aion teleos (Greek: "The

Complete Æon"),[citation needed] Bythos (Greek: Βυθος,
'Depth' or 'profundity'), Proarkhe (Greek: προαρχη, "Before
the Beginning'), HE Arkhe (Greek: ἡ ἀρχή, 'The Beginning'),
Ennoia (Greek: "Thought") of the Light[7] or Sige (Greek:
Σιγη, "Silence").[8] From this first being, also an æon, a series
of different emanations occur, beginning in certain Gnostic
texts with the hermaphroditic Barbelo,[9][10][11] from which
successive pairs of aeons emanate, often in male-female
pairings called syzygies;[12] the numbers of these pairings
varied from text to text, though some identify their number
as being thirty.[13] The aeons as a totality constitute the
pleroma, the "region of light". The lowest regions of the
pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical
world.[citation needed]
Two of the most commonly paired æons were Jesus and
Sophia (Greek: "Wisdom"); the latter refers to Jesus as her
"consort" in A Valentinian Exposition.[14] Sophia, emanating
without her partner, resulting in the production of the
Demiurge (Greek: lit. "public builder"),[15] who is also
referred to as Yaldabaoth and variations thereof in some
Gnostic texts.[9] This creature is concealed outside the
Pleroma;[9] in isolation, and thinking itself alone, it creates
materiality and a host of co-actors, referred to as archons.
The demiurge is responsible for the creation of mankind;
trapping elements of the Pleroma stolen from Sophia inside
human bodies.[9][16] In response, the Godhead emanates
two savior æons, Christ and the Holy Spirit; Christ then
embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to be able to
teach man how to achieve gnosis, by which they may return
to the Pleroma.[17]
Archon
Main article: Archon#Gnostic archons
160
In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term

Archon to refer to several servants of the demiurge.[16] In
this context they may be seen as having the roles of the
angels and demons of the Old Testament.
According to Origen's Contra Celsum, a sect called the
Ophites posited the existence of seven archons, beginning
with Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth, who created the six that
follow: Iao, Sabaoth, Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos and
Horaios.[18] Similarly to the Mithraic Kronos and Vedic
Narasimha, a form of Vishnu, Ialdabaoth had a head of a lion.
[9][19][20]
Demiurge
Main article: Demiurge
A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de

Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures
may be a depiction of the Demiurge; however, cf. Mithraic
Zervan Akarana [21]
The term Demiurge derives from the Latinized form of the
Greek term dēmiourgos, δημιουργός (literally "public or
skilled worker"), and refers to an entity responsible for the
creation of the physical universe and the physical aspect of
humanity. The term dēmiourgos occurs in a number of other
religious and philosophical systems, most notably Platonism.
Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group
within the broad category of Gnosticism — such judgements
usually correspond to each group's judgement of the status
of materiality as being inherently evil, or else merely flawed
and as good as its passive constituent matter will allow. In
Gnosticism the Demiurge, creator of the material world, was
not God but the Archon.[22]
161
As Plato does, Gnosticism presents a distinction between a

supranatural, unknowable reality and the sensible materiality
of which the demiurge is creator. However, in contrast to
Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought present the
Demiurge as antagonistic to the Supreme God: his act of
creation either in unconscious and fundamentally flawed
imitation of the divine model, or else formed with the
malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine in
materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge acts as a
solution to the problem of evil. In the Apocryphon of John
(several versions of which are found in the Nag Hammadi
library), the Demiurge has the name "Yaltabaoth", and
proclaims himself as God:
"Now the archon who is weak has three names. The first
name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Saklas, and the third is
Samael. And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him.
For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,'
for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he
had come."[citation needed]
"Samael", in the Judeo-Christian tradition, refers to the evil
angel of death, and corresponds to the Christian demon of
that name, one second only to Satan.[citation needed]
Literally, it can mean "blind god" or "god of the blind" in
Aramaic (Syriac sæmʻa-ʼel); another alternative title is
"Saklas", Aramaic for "fool" (Syriac sækla "the foolish one").
Gnostic myth recounts that Sophia (Greek, literally meaning
"wisdom"), the Demiurge's mother and a partial aspect of the
divine Pleroma or "Fullness", desired to create something
apart from the divine totality, and without the receipt of
divine assent. In this abortive act of separate creation, she
gave birth to the monstrous Demiurge and, being ashamed of
her deed, she wrapped him in a cloud and created a throne
for him within it. The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his
162
mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded that only he

himself existed, being ignorant of the superior levels of
reality that were his birthplace.
The Gnostic myths describing these events are full of
intricate nuances portraying the declination of aspects of the
divine into human form; this process occurs through the
agency of the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion of
power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in
unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm. Thus
Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the material forms
of humanity, themselves entrapped within the material
universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was typically the
awakening of this spark, which permitted a return by the
subject to the superior, non-material realities which were its
primal source. (See Sethian Gnosticism.)[citation needed]
Gnosis
Main article: Gnosis
The word "Gnosticism" is a modern construction, though
based on an antiquated linguistic expression: it comes from
the Greek word meaning "knowledge", gnosis (γνῶσις).
However, gnosis itself refers to a very specialised form of
knowledge, deriving both from the exact meaning of the
original Greek term and its usage in Platonist philosophy.
Ancient Greek was capable of discerning between several
different forms of knowing. These different forms may be
described in English as being propositional knowledge,
indicative of knowledge acquired indirectly through the
reports of others or otherwise by inference (such as "I know
of George Bush" or "I know Berlin is in Germany"), and
empirical knowledge acquired by direct participation or
acquaintance (such as "I know George Bush personally" or "I
know Berlin, having visited").
163
Gnosis (γνῶσις) refers to knowledge of the second kind.

Therefore, in a religious context, to be "Gnostic" should be
understood as being reliant not on knowledge in a general
sense, but as being specially receptive to mystical or esoteric
experiences of direct participation with the divine. Indeed, in
most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this
"knowledge of" ("acquaintance with") the divine. This is
commonly identified with a process of inward "knowing" or
self-exploration, comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus
(c. 205 – 270 AD). This is what helps separate Gnosticism
from proto-orthodox views, where the orthodox views are
considered to be superficial.[23] The inadequate take then
requires a correct form of interpretation. With "gnosis"
comes a fuller insight that is considered to be more spiritual.
Greater recognition of the deeper spiritual meanings of
doctrines, scriptures, and rituals are obtained with this
insight. However, as may be seen, the term "gnostic" also
had precedent usage in several ancient philosophical
traditions, which must also be weighed in considering the
very subtle implications of its appellation to a set of ancient
religious groups.
Monad
Main article: Monad (Gnosticism)
In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies), God is known as
the Monad, the One, The Absolute, Aion teleos (The Perfect
Æon), Bythos (Depth or Profundity, Βυθος), Proarkhe (Before
the Beginning, προαρχη), and HE Arkhe (The Beginning, ἡ
ἀρχή). God is the high source of the pleroma, the region of
light. The various emanations of God are called æons.
Within certain variations of Gnosticism, especially those
inspired by Monoimus, the Monad was the highest God
which created lesser gods, or elements (similar to æons).
164
According to Hippolytus, this view was inspired by the

Pythagoreans, who called the first thing that came into
existence the Monad, which begat the dyad, which begat the
numbers, which begat the point, begetting lines, etc. This
was also clarified in the writings of Plato, Aristotle and
Plotinus. This teaching being largely Neopythagorean via
Numenius as well.
This Monad is the spiritual source of everything which
emanates the pleroma, and could be contrasted to the dark
Demiurge (Yaldabaoth) that controls matter.
The Sethian cosmogony as most famously contained in the
Apocryphon ("Secret book") of John describes an unknown
God, very similar to the orthodox apophatic theology,
although very different from the orthodox credal teachings
that there is one such god who is identified also as creator of
heaven and earth. In describing the nature of a creator god
associated with Biblical texts, orthodox theologians often
attempt to define God through a series of explicit positive
statements, themselves universal but in the divine taken to
their superlative degrees: he is omniscient, omnipotent and
truly benevolent. The Sethian conception of the most hidden
transcendent God is, by contrast, defined through negative
theology: he is immovable, invisible, intangible, ineffable;
commonly, "he" is seen as being hermaphroditic, a potent
symbol for being, as it were, "all-containing". In the
Apocryphon of John, this god is good in that it bestows
goodness. After the apophatic statements, the process of the
Divine in action are used to describe the effect of such a god.
An apophatic approach to discussing the Divine is found
throughout gnosticism, Vedanta, and Platonic and
Aristotelian theology as well. It is also found in some Judaic
sources.
Pleroma
165
Main article: Pleroma

Pleroma (Greek πληρωμα) generally refers to the totality of
God's powers. The term means fullness, and is used in
Christian theological contexts: both in Gnosticism generally,
and in Colossians 2:9.
Gnosticism holds that the world is controlled by evil archons,
one of whom is the demiurge, the deity of the Old Testament
who holds the human spirit captive.
The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a region of
light "above" (the term is not to be understood spatially) our
world, occupied by spiritual beings such as aeons (eternal
beings) and sometimes archons. Jesus is interpreted as an
intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma, with
whose aid humanity can recover the lost knowledge of the
divine origins of humanity. The term is thus a central element
of Gnostic cosmology.
Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language and is
used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form since
the word appears under the book of Colossians. Proponents
of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine
Pagels of Princeton University, view the reference in
Colossians as something that was to be interpreted in the
gnostic sense.
Sophia
Main article: Sophia (wisdom)
In Gnostic tradition, the term Sophia (Σoφíα, Greek for
"wisdom") refers to the final and lowest emanation of God.
In most if not all versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births
the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of
materiality. The positive or negative depiction of materiality
thus resides a great deal on mythic depictions of Sophia's
actions. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew
equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version
166
of the Valentinian gnostic myth). Jewish Gnosticism with a

focus on Sophia was active by 90.[citation needed]
Almost all gnostic systems of the Syrian or Egyptian type
taught that the universe began with an original, unknowable
God, referred to as the Parent or Bythos, as the Monad by
Monoimus, or the first Aeon by still other traditions. From
this initial unitary beginning, the One spontaneously
emanated further Aeons, pairs of progressively "lesser"
beings in sequence. The lowest of these pairs were Sophia
and Christ. The Aeons together made up the Pleroma, or
fullness, of God, and thus should not be seen as distinct from
the divine, but symbolic abstractions of the divine nature.
Nature and structure[edit source | editbeta]
Common characteristics[edit source | editbeta]

A common characteristic of some of these groups was the
teaching that the realisation of Gnosis (esoteric or intuitive
knowledge) is the way to salvation of the soul from the
material world. They saw the material world as created
through an intermediary being (demiurge) rather than
directly by God. In most of the systems, this demiurge was
seen as imperfect, in others even as evil. Different gnostic
schools sometimes identified the demiurge as Ahriman, El,
Saklas, Samael, Satan, Yaldabaoth, or Yahweh.
Jesus is identified by some Gnostics as an embodiment of the
supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnōsis to the
earth.[17] Others adamantly deny that the supreme being
came in the flesh, claiming Jesus to be merely a human who
attained divinity through gnosis and taught his disciples to do
the same.[citation needed] Among the Mandaeans, Jesus
was considered a mšiha kdaba or "false messiah" who
perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist.
167
[24] Still other traditions identify Mani and Seth, third son of
Adam and Eve, as salvific figures.[25]
The Christian groups first called "gnostic" a branch of
Christianity, however Joseph Jacobs and Ludwig Blau (Jewish
Encyclopedia, 1911) note that much of the terminology
employed is Jewish and note that this "proves at least that
the principal elements of gnosticism were derived from
Jewish speculation, while it does not preclude the possibility
of new wine having been poured into old bottles."[26] The
movement spread in areas controlled by the Roman Empire
and Arian Goths,[27] and the Persian Empire; it continued to
develop in the Mediterranean and Middle East before and
during the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Conversion to Islam and
the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) greatly reduced the
remaining number of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages,
though a few Mandaean communities still exist. Gnostic and
pseudo-gnostic ideas became influential in some of the
philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of the
late 19th and 20th centuries in Europe and North America,
including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals
or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups.
The main features[edit source | editbeta]
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality

standards. The specific problem is: poorly integrated side-
notes, inconsistent list format, change of subject. Please help
improve this section if you can. (July 2011)
Gnostic systems (particularly the Syrian-Egyptian
schools[which?]) are typically marked out by:
"And the Sophia of the Epinoia [...] brought forth. And [...]
something came out of her which was imperfect and
different from her appearance, because she had created it
168
without her consort. And it was dissimilar to the likeness of

its mother, for it has another form.
"And when she saw (the consequences of) her desire, it
changed into a form of a lion-faced serpent. And its eyes
were like lightning fires which flash. She cast it away from
her, outside that place, that no one of the immortal ones
might see it, for she had created it in ignorance."
From The Secret Book of John (long version), Nag Hammadi
Library, Codex II, trans. Frederik Wisse.[9]
The notion of a remote, supreme monadic divinity, source —
this figure is known under a variety of names, including
"Pleroma" (fullness, totality) and "Bythos" (depth,
profundity);
The introduction by emanation of further divine beings
known as Aeons, which are nevertheless identifiable as
aspects of the God from which they proceeded; the
progressive emanations are often conceived metaphorically
as a gradual and progressive distancing from the ultimate
source, which brings about an instability in the fabric of the
divine nature;
The introduction of a distinct creator god or demiurge, which
is an illusion and a later emanation from the single monad or
source. This second god is a lesser and inferior or false god.
This creator god is commonly referred to as the demiourgós
(a technical term literally denoting a public worker the
Latinized form of Greek dēmiourgos, δημιουργός, hence
"ergon or energy", "public god or skilled worker" "false god"
or "god of the masses"), used in the Platonist tradition.[28]
The gnostic demiurge bears resemblance to figures in Plato's
Timaeus and Republic. In the former, the demiourgós is a
central figure, a benevolent creator of the universe who
works to make the universe as benevolent as the limitations
of matter will allow; in the latter, the description of the
169
leontomorphic "desire" in Socrates' model of the psyche

bears a resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as being
in the shape of the lion; the relevant passage of The Republic
was found within a major gnostic library discovered at Nag
Hammadi,[29] wherein a text existed describing the
demiurge as a "lion-faced serpent".[9]
Elsewhere, this figure is called "Ialdabaoth",[9] "Samael"
(Aramaic: sæmʻa-ʼel, "blind god") or "Saklas" (Syriac: sækla,
"the foolish one"), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior
god, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he
is correspondingly malevolent.
The demiurge typically creates a group of co-actors named
"Archons", who preside over the material realm and, in some
cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it;[9]
[The demiurge] is blind; because of his power and his
ignorance and his arrogance he said, with his power, "It is I
who am God; there is none apart from me." When he said
this, he sinned against the entirety. And this speech got up to
incorruptibility; then there was a voice that came forth from
incorruptibility, saying, "You are mistaken, Samael" — which
is, "god of the blind."
From The Hypostasis of the Archons or The Reality of the
Rulers, Nag Hammadi Library, Codex II, trans. Bentley Layton.
[16]
The estimation of the world, owing to the above, as flawed or
a production of "error" but possibly good as its constituent
material might allow.[30] This world is typically an inferior
simulacrum of a higher-level reality or consciousness. The
inferiority may be compared to the technical inferiority of a
painting, sculpture, or other handicraft to the thing(s) of
which those crafts are supposed to be a representation. In
certain other cases it takes on a more ascetic tendency to
view material existence, negatively. Which then becomes
170
more extreme when materiality, and the human body, is

perceived as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its
inhabitants;
The explanation of this state through the use of a complex
mythological-cosmological drama in which a divine element
"falls" into the material realm and lodges itself within certain
human beings; from here, it may be returned to the divine
realm through a process of awakening (leading towards
salvation). The salvation of the individual thus mirrors a
concurrent restoration of the divine nature; a central Gnostic
innovation was to elevate individual redemption to the level
of a cosmically significant event.
The model limits itself to describing characteristics of the
Syrian-Egyptian school of Gnosticism. This is for the reason
that the greatest expressions of the Persian gnostic school —
Manicheanism and Mandaeanism — are typically conceived
of as religious traditions in their own right; indeed, the typical
usage of "Gnosticism" is to refer to the Syrian-Egyptian
schools alone, while "Manichean" describes the movements
of the Persia school.
This conception of Gnosticism has in recent times come to be
challenged (see below). Despite this, the understanding
presented above remains the most common and is useful in
aiding meaningful discussion of the phenomena that
compose Gnosticism. Above all, the central idea of gnōsis, a
knowledge superior to and independent of faith made it
welcome to many who were half-converted from paganism
to Christianity. The Valentinians, for example, considered
pistis (Greek: "faith") as consisting of accepting a body of
teaching as true, being principally intellectual or emotional in
character.[31] The age of the Gnostics was highly diverse,
they seem to have originated in Alexandria and coexisted
with the early Christians until the 4th century AD and due to
171
there being no fixed church authority, syncretism with pre-

existing belief systems as well as new religions were often
embraced. According to Clement of Alexandria, "... In the
times of the Emperor Hadrian appeared those who devised
heresies, and they continued until the age of the elder
Antoninus."[32]
Prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library, much of
what we know today about gnosticism was preserved only in
the summaries and assessments of early church fathers.
Irenaeus declares in his treatise "Against Heresies"[33] that
Gnostic movements subjected all morality to the caprice of
the individual, and made any fixed rule of faith impossible.
The whim of the individual being a subject that is of concern
when discussing heresy and orthodoxy in relation to spiritual
mysticism, such as the mysticism of Henry Corbin,[34]
Thelema, and even in fiction such as The Theologians by
Jorge Luis Borges in Labyrinths.[35] According to Irenaeus, a
certain sect known as the "Cainites" professed to impart a
knowledge "greater and more sublime" than the ordinary
doctrine of Christians, and believed that Cain derived his
power from the superior Godhead.[36] Although a Christian
who valued gnosis, Clement of Alexandria, a 2nd-century
church father and the first notable member of the Church of
Alexandria, raised a criticism against the followers of
Basilides and Valentinus in his Stromata: in his view it
annulled the efficacy of baptism, in that it held no value faith,
the gift conferred in that sacrament.[37]
Dualism and monism[edit source | editbeta]
Typically, Gnostic systems are loosely described as being
"dualistic" in nature, meaning that they have the view that
the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental
entities. Hans Jonas writes: "The cardinal feature of gnostic
thought is the radical dualism that governs the relation of
172
God and world, and correspondingly that of man and

world."[38] Within this definition, they run the gamut from
the "radical dualist" systems of Manicheanism to the
"mitigated dualism" of classic gnostic movements;
Valentinian developments arguably approach a form of
monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic
manner.
Radical Dualism — or absolute Dualism which posits two co-
equal divine forces. Manichaeism conceives of two previously
coexistent realms of light and darkness which become
embroiled in conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the
latter. Subsequently, certain elements of the light became
entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation
is to enact the slow process of extraction of these individual
elements, at the end of which the kingdom of light will
prevail over darkness. Manicheanism inherits[39][40] this
dualistic mythology from Zurvanist Zoroastrianism,[41] in
which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his
antithesis, Angra Mainyu; the two are engaged in a cosmic
struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura
Mazda triumphant.
The Mandaean creation myth witnesses the progressive
emanations of Supreme Being of Light, with each emanation
bringing about a progressive corruption resulting in the
eventual emergence of Ptahil, a demiurge who had a hand in
creating and henceforward rules the material realm.
Additionally, general Gnostic thought (specifically to be found
in Iranian groups; for instance, see "The Hymn of the Pearl")
commonly included the belief that the material world
corresponds to some sort of malevolent intoxication brought
about by the powers of darkness to keep elements of the
light trapped inside it, or literally to keep them "in the dark",
173
or ignorant; in a state of drunken distraction.[citation

needed]
Mitigated Dualism — where one of the two principles is in
some way inferior to the other. Such classical Gnostic
movements as the Sethians conceived of the material world
as being created by a lesser divinity than the true God that
was the object of their devotion. The spiritual world is
conceived of as being radically different from the material
world, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home of
certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, these
systems were expressive of a feeling of acute alienation
within the world, and their resultant aim was to allow the
soul to escape the constraints presented by the physical
realm.[citation needed]
Qualified Monism — where it is arguable whether or not the
second entity is divine or semi-divine. Elements of
Valentinian versions of Gnostic myth suggest to some that its
understanding of the universe may have been monistic
rather than a dualistic one. Elaine Pagels states that
"Valentinian gnosticism [...] differs essentially from dualism";
[42] while, according to Schoedel "a standard element in the
interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms of
Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundamentally
monistic".[43] In these myths, the malevolence of the
demiurge is mitigated; his creation of a flawed materiality is
not due to any moral failing on his part, but due to his
imperfection by contrast to the superior entities of which he
is unaware.[30] As such, Valentinians already have less cause
to treat physical reality with contempt than might a Sethian
Gnostic
The Valentinian tradition conceives of materiality, rather
than as being a separate substance from the divine, as
attributable to an error of perception, which become
174
symbolized mythopoetically as the act of material creation.

[30]
Moral and ritual practice[edit source | editbeta]
Numerous early Christian Fathers accused some Gnostic
teachers of claiming to eschew the physical realm, while
simultaneously freely indulging their physical appetites;
however, there is reason to question the accuracy of these
claims. Evidence in the source texts indicates Gnostic moral
behaviour as being generally ascetic in basis, expressed most
fluently in their sexual and dietary practice.[44] Many monks
would deprive themselves of food, water, or necessary needs
for living. This presented a problem for the heresiologists
writing on gnostic movements: this mode of behaviour was
one which they themselves favoured and supported, so the
Church Fathers, some modern-day Gnostic apologist
presume, would be required perforce to offer support to the
practices of their theological opponents. In order to avoid
this, a common heresiological approach was to avoid the
issue completely by resorting to slanderous (and, in some
cases, excessive) allegations of libertinism (see the Cainites),
or to explain Gnostic asceticism as being based on incorrect
interpretations of scripture, or simply duplicitous in nature.
Epiphanius provides an example when he writes of the
"Archontics": "Some of them ruin their bodies by dissipation,
but others feign ostensible fasts and deceive simple people
while they pride themselves with a sort of abstinence, under
the disguise of monks" (Panarion, 40.1.4).
In other areas of morality, Gnostics were less rigorously
ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct
behaviour. Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora lays out a project of
general asceticism in which the basis of action is the moral
inclination of the individual:
175
"External physical fasting is observed even among our

followers, for it can be of some benefit to the soul if it is
engaged on with reason (logos), whenever it is done neither
by way of limiting others, nor out of habit, nor because of the
day, as if it had been specially appointed for that purpose."
—Ptolemy, Letter to Flora
This extract marks a definite shift away from the position of
orthodoxy, that the correct behaviour for Christians is best
administered and prescribed by the central authority of the
Church, as transmitted through the Apostles to the Church's
bishops. Instead, the internalised inclination of the individual
assumes paramount importance; there is the recognition that
ritualistic behaviour, though well-intentioned, possesses no
significance or effectiveness unless its external prescription is
matched by a personal, internal motivation.
Charges of Gnostic libertinism find their source in the works
of Irenaeus. According to this writer, Simon Magus (whom he
has identified as the prototypical source of Gnosticism, and
who had previously tried to buy sacramental authority of
ordination from St. Peter the Apostle) founded the school of
moral freedom ('amoralism'). Irenaeus reports that Simon's
argument was that those who put their trust in him and his
consort Helen need trouble themselves no further with the
biblical prophets or their moral exhortations and are free "to
do what they wish", as men are saved by his (Simon's) grace
and not by their "righteous works" (Adversus Haereses[45]).
Simon is not known for any libertinistic practice, save for his
curious attachment to Helen, typically reputed to be a
prostitute. There is, however, clear evidence in the
Testimony of Truth that followers of Simon did, in fact, get
married and beget children, so a general tendency to
asceticism can likewise be ruled out.
176
Irenaeus reports of the Valentinians, whom he characterizes

as eventual inheritors of Simon, that they eat food "offered
to idols" (idol-worship), are sexually promiscuous
("immoderately given over to the desires of the flesh") and
are guilty of taking wives under the pretence of living with
them as adopted "sisters". In the latter case, Michael Allen
Williams has argued plausibly that Irenaeus was here broadly
correct in the behaviour described, but not in his
apprehension of its causes. Williams argues that members of
a cult might live together as "brother" and "sister": intimate,
yet not sexually active. Over time, however, the self-denial
required of such an endeavour becomes harder and harder
to maintain, leading to the state of affairs Irenaeus criticizes.
Irenaeus also makes reference to the Valentinian practise of
the Bridal Chamber, a ritualistic sacrament in which sexual
union is seen as analogous to the activities of the paired
syzygies that constitute the Valentinian Pleroma. Though it is
known that Valentinus had a more relaxed approach to
sexuality than much of the Catholic Church (he allowed
women to hold positions of ordination in his community), it is
not known whether the Bridal Chamber was a ritual involving
actual intercourse, or whether human sexuality is here simply
being used in a metaphorical sense.
Of the Carpocratians Irenaeus makes much the same report:
they "are so abandoned in their recklessness that they claim
to have in their power and be able to practise anything
whatsoever that is ungodly (irreligious) and impious ... they
say that conduct is only good or evil in the eyes of man".[46]
Once again a differentiation might be detected between a
man's actions and the grace he has received through his
adherence to a system of gnosis; whether this is due to a
common sharing of such an attitude amongst Gnostic circles,
177
or whether this is simply a blanket-charge used by Irenaeus is

open to conjecture.
On the whole, it would seem that Gnostic behaviour tended
towards the ascetic. This said, the heresiological accusation
of duplicity in such practises should not be taken at face
value; nor should similar accusations of amoral libertinism.
The Nag Hammadi library itself is full of passages which
appear to encourage abstinence over indulgence.
Fundamentally, however, gnostic movements appear to take
the "ancient schema of the two ways, which leaves the
decision to do what is right to human endeavour and
promises a reward for those who make the effort, and
punishment for those who are negligent" (Kurt Rudolph,
Gnosis:The Nature and History of Gnosticism, 262).
Major Gnostic movements[edit source | editbeta]
Schools of Gnosticism can be defined according to one

classification system as being a member of two broad
categories. These are the "Eastern"/"Persian" school, and a
"Syrian-Egyptic" school. The former possesses more
demonstrably dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong
influence from the beliefs of the Persian Zurvanist
Zoroastrians. Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the
movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view.
Notable exceptions include relatively modern movements
which seem to include elements of both categories, namely:
the Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians which are included
in their own section.
Persian Gnosticism[edit source | editbeta]
The Persian Schools, which appeared in the western Persian
province of Babylonia (in particular, within the Sassanid
province of Asuristan), and whose writings were originally
produced in the Aramaic dialects spoken in Babylonia at the
178
time, are representative of what is believed to be among the

oldest of the Gnostic thought forms. These movements are
considered by most to be religions in their own right, and are
not emanations from Christianity or Judaism.
Mandaeanism is still practiced in small numbers, in parts of
southern Iraq and the Iranian province of Khuzestan. The
name of the group derives from the term Mandā d-Heyyi,
which roughly means "Knowledge of Life." Although the
exact chronological origins of this movement are not known,
John the Baptist eventually would come to be a key figure in
the religion, as an emphasis on baptism is part of their core
beliefs. As with Manichaeism, despite certain ties with
Christianity,[47] Mandaeans do not believe in Moses, Jesus,
or Mohammed. Their beliefs and practices likewise have little
overlap with the religions that manifested from those
religious figures and the two should not be confused.
Significant amounts of original Mandaean Scripture, written
in Mandaean Aramaic, survive in the modern era. The
primary source text is known as the Genzā Rabbā and has
portions identified by some scholars as being copied as early
as the 2nd century AD. There is also the Qolastā, or Canonical
Book of Prayer and The Book of John the Baptist (sidra ḏ-
iahia).
Manichaeism which represented an entire independent
religious heritage, but is now extinct, was founded by the
Prophet Mani (216 - 276 AD). The original writings were
written in Syriac Aramaic, in a unique Manichaean script.
Although most of the literature/scripture of the Manichaeans
was believed lost, the discovery of an original series of
documents have helped to shed new light on the subject.
Now housed in Cologne Germany, a Manichaean religious
work written in Greek, the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis,
contains mainly biographical information on the prophet and
179
details on his claims and teachings. Before the discovery of

these authentic Manichaean texts, scholars had to rely on
anti-Manichaean polemical works, such as the Christian anti-
Manichaean Acta Archelai (also written in Greek), which has
Mani saying, for example, "The true God has nothing to do
with the material world or cosmos", and, "It is the Prince of
Darkness who spoke with Moses, the Jews and their priests.
Thus the Christians, the Jews, and the Pagans are involved in
the same error when they worship this God. For he leads
them astray in the lusts he taught them."[48][49]
Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism[edit source | editbeta]
The Syrian-Egyptian school derives much of its outlook from
Platonist influences. Typically, it depicts creation in a series of
emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in
the creation of the material universe. As a result, there is a
tendency in these schools to view evil in terms of matter
which is markedly inferior to goodness, evil as lacking
spiritual insight and goodness, rather than to emphasize
portrayals of evil as an equal force. These schools of
gnosticism may be said to use the terms "evil" and "good" as
being relative descriptive terms, as they refer to the relative
plight of human existence caught between such realities and
confused in its orientation, with "evil" indicating the
extremes of distance from the principle and source of
goodness, without necessarily emphasizing an inherent
negativity. As can be seen below, many of these movements
included source material related to Christianity, with some
identifying themselves as specifically Christian (albeit quite
different from the Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms). Most
of the literature from this category is known to us through
the Library discovered at Nag Hammadi.
180
181
182
183
Chapter Eleven
Origen Adamantius
Origen (/ˈɒrɪdʒən/; Greek: Ὠριγένης Ōrigénēs), or Origen

Adamantius (184/185 – 253/254),[1] was a scholar, early
Christian theologian and Church Father,[2] who was born and
spent the first half of his career in Alexandria. He was a
prolific writer in multiple branches of theology, including
textual criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics,
philosophical theology, preaching, and spirituality. Some of
his reputed teachings, such as the pre-existence of souls, the
final reconciliation of all creatures, including perhaps even
the devil (the apokatastasis),[3] and the subordination of the
Son of God to God the Father, later became controversial
among Christian theologians. A later group of Egyptian
monks who came to be known as Origenists, and who
believed in the preexistence of souls and the apokatastasis,
were declared anathema in 553 AD. This condemnation is
attributed to the Second Ecumenical Council of
Constantinople, though it does not appear in the council's
official minutes.[4] For this reason Origen was and is not
called a "saint" in either the Catholic or Orthodox churches.
Origen was born in Alexandria to Christian parents. He was

educated by his father, Leonides of Alexandria, who gave him
a standard Hellenistic education, but also had him study the
Christian Scriptures. The name of his mother is unknown.
In 202, Origen's father was martyred in the outbreak of the
persecution during the reign of Septimius Severus. A story
reported by Eusebius has it that Origen wished to follow him
in martyrdom, but was prevented only by his mother hiding
184
his clothes. The death of Leonides left the family of nine

impoverished when their property was confiscated. Origen,
however, was taken under the protection of a woman of
wealth and standing; but as her household already included a
heretic named Paul, the strictly orthodox Origen seems to
have remained with her only a short time.
Origen allegedly studied under Clement of Alexandria and

was influenced by his thought.
Eusebius, our chief witness to Origen's life, says that in 203
Origen revived the Catechetical School of Alexandria where
Clement of Alexandria had once taught but had apparently
been driven out during the persecution under Severus.[6]
Many modern scholars,[7] however, doubt that Clement's
school had been an official ecclesiastical institution as
Origen's was and thus deny continuity between the two. But
the persecution still raged, and the young teacher visited
imprisoned Christians, attended the courts, and comforted
the condemned, himself preserved from persecution because
the persecution was probably limited only to converts to
Christianity. His fame and the number of his pupils increased
rapidly, so that Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria, made him
restrict himself to instruction in Christian doctrine alone.
Asceticism and Castration[edit source | editbeta]
Origen, to be entirely independent, sold his library for a sum
which netted him a daily income of 4 obols, on which he lived
by exercising the utmost frugality.[8] Teaching throughout
the day, he devoted the greater part of the night to the study
of the Bible and lived a life of rigid asceticism.[8]
Eusebius reported that Origen, following Matthew 19:12
literally, castrated himself.[9] This story was accepted during
the Middle Ages and was cited by Peter Abelard in his letters
185
to Heloise.[10] Edward Gibbon, in his work The History of the

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, also accepts this story
as true.[11] During the past century, scholars have often
questioned this, surmising that this may have been a rumor
circulated by his detractors.[12][13] Henry Chadwick points
out that, while the story may be true, it seems unlikely, given
that Origen's exposition of Matthew 19:12 "strongly deplored
any literal interpretation of the words".[14] However, many
noted historians, such as Peter Brown and William Placher,
continue to find no reason to deny the truth of Eusebius'
claims.[15]
Travels[edit source | editbeta]
During the reign of emperor Caracalla, about 211-212, Origen
paid a brief visit to Rome, but the relative laxity during the
pontificate of Zephyrinus seems to have disillusioned him,
and on his return to Alexandria he resumed his teaching with
zeal increased by the contrast. But the school had far
outgrown the strength of a single man; the catechumens
pressed eagerly for elementary instruction, and the baptized
sought for interpretation of the Bible. Under these
circumstances, Origen entrusted the teaching of the
catechumens to Heraclas, the brother of the martyr Plutarch,
his first pupil.
His own interests became more and more centered in
exegesis, and he accordingly studied Hebrew, though there is
no certain knowledge concerning his instructor in that
language. From about this period (212-213) dates Origen's
acquaintance with Ambrose of Alexandria, whom he was
instrumental in converting from Valentinianism to orthodoxy.
Later (about 218) Ambrose, a man of wealth, made a formal
agreement with Origen to promulgate his writings, and all
the subsequent works of Origen (except his sermons, which
186
were not expressly prepared for publication) were dedicated

to Ambrose.
In 213 or 214, Origen visited Arabia at the request of the
prefect, who wished to have an interview with him; and
Origen accordingly spent a brief time in Petra, after which he
returned to Alexandria. In the following year, a popular
uprising at Alexandria caused Caracalla to let his soldiers
plunder the city, shut the schools, and expel all foreigners.
The latter measure caused Ambrose to take refuge in
Caesarea, where he seems to have made his permanent
home; and Origen left Egypt, apparently going with Ambrose
to Caesarea, where he spent some time. Here, in conformity
with local usage based on Jewish custom, Origen, though not
ordained, preached and interpreted the Scriptures at the
request of the bishops Alexander of Jerusalem and
Theoctistus of Caesarea. When, however, the confusion in
Alexandria subsided, Demetrius recalled Origen, probably in
216.
Of Origen's activity during the next decade little is known, but
it was probably devoted to teaching and writing. The latter
was rendered the more easy for him by Ambrose, who
provided him with more than seven stenographers to take
dictation in relays, as many scribes to prepare long-hand
copies, and a number of girls to multiply the copies. At the
request of Ambrose, he now began a huge commentary on
the Bible, beginning with John, and continuing with Genesis,
Psalms 1-25, and Lamentations, besides brief exegeses of
selected texts (forming the ten books of his Stromateis), two
books on the resurrection, and the work On First Principles.
Conflict with Demetrius and removal to Caesarea[edit source
| editbeta]
Demetrius, the bishop of Alexandria, at first supported
Origen but later opposed him, disputing his ordination in
187
another diocese (Caesarea Maritima in Palestine).[16] This

ecclesiastical turmoil eventually caused Origen to relocate to
Caesarea, a move which he characterized as divine
deliverance from Egypt akin to that the ancient Hebrews
received. About 230, Origen entered on the fateful journey
which was to compel him to give up his work at Alexandria
and embittered the next years of his life. Sent to Greece on
some ecclesiastical mission, he paid a visit to Caesarea,
where he was heartily welcomed and was ordained a priest,
that no further cause for criticism might be given Demetrius,
who had strongly disapproved his preaching before
ordination while at Caesarea. But Demetrius, taking this well-
meant act as an infringement of his rights, was furious, for
not only was Origen under his jurisdiction as bishop of
Alexandria, but, if Eastern sources may be believed,
Demetrius had been the first to introduce episcopal
ordination in Egypt. The metropolitan accordingly convened
a synod of bishops and presbyters which banished Origen
from Alexandria, while a second synod declared his
ordination invalid.
Origen accordingly fled from Alexandria in 231-2, and made
his permanent home in Caesarea in Palestine, where his
friend Theoctistus was bishop.[17] A series of attacks on him
seems to have emanated from Alexandria, whether for his
self-castration (a capital crime in Roman law) or for alleged
heterodoxy is unknown; but at all events these fulminations
were heeded only at Rome, while Palestine, Phoenicia,
Arabia, and Achaia paid no attention to them. At Alexandria,
Heraclas became head of Origen's school, and shortly
afterward, on the death of Demetrius, was consecrated
bishop.
During this time at Caesarea in Palestine (232-5), he resumed
work on the Commentary on John, composing at least books
188
6-10, wrote the treatise On Prayer, and, some time in the

first half of the year 235, composed his Exhortation to
Martyrdom.[18] Approximately three years after his arrival in
Caesarea in Palestine, Origen's life as a scholar was again
interrupted by the persecution of Maximinus Thrax(AD235-
8). He took refuge at Caesarea in Cappadocia. At Caesarea,
Origen was joyfully received, was the guest of Firmilian,
bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, and perhaps also of the
empress-dowager Julia Avita Mamaea.[19]
After the death of Maximinus, Origen resumed his life in
Caesarea of Palestine. Little is known of the last twenty years
of Origen's life. He founded a school where Gregory
Thaumaturgus, later bishop of Pontus, was one of the pupils.
He preached regularly on Wednesdays and Fridays, and later
daily. He taught dialectics, physics, ethics, and metaphysics.
He evidently, however, developed an extraordinary literary
productivity, broken by occasional journeys; one of which, to
Athens during some unknown year, was of sufficient length
to allow him time for research.
After his return from Athens, he succeeded in converting
Beryllus, bishop of Bostra, from his adoptionistic (i.e., belief
that Jesus was born human and only became divine after his
baptism) views to the orthodox faith; yet in these very years
(about 240) probably occurred the attacks on Origen's own
orthodoxy which compelled him to defend himself in writing
to Pope Fabian and many bishops. Neither the source nor the
object of these attacks is known, though the latter may have
been connected with Novatianism (a strict refusal to accept
Christians who had denied their faith under persecution).
After his conversion of Beryllus, however, his aid was
frequently invoked against heresies. Thus, when the doctrine
was promulgated in Arabia that the soul died and decayed
with the body, being restored to life only at the resurrection
189
(see soul sleep), appeal was made to Origen, who journeyed

to Arabia, and successfully battled this doctrine.
There was second outbreak of the Antonine Plague, which at
its height in 251 to 266 took the lives of 5,000 a day in Rome.
This time it was called the Plague of Cyprian. Emperor Decius,
believing the plague to be a product of magic, caused by the
failure of Christians to recognize him as Divine, began
Christian persecutions.[20] This time Origen did not
escape[21] the Decian persecution. Eusebius recounted[22]
how Origen suffered "bodily tortures and torments under the
iron collar and in the dungeon; and how for many days with
his feet stretched four spaces in the stocks"[23] Though he
did not die while being tortured, he died three years later
due to injuries sustained at the age of 69.[24] A later legend,
recounted by Jerome and numerous itineraries, places his
death and burial at Tyre, but to this little value can be
attached.[25]
Works[edit source | editbeta]

removed. (May 2007)
This section possibly contains original research. Please

improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline
citations. Statements consisting only of original research may
be removed. (May 2007)
Origen, Illustration from "Les Vrais Portraits Et Vies Des

Hommes Illustres" by André Thévet
190
Origen excelled in multiple branches of theological

scholarship. For instance, he was the greatest textual critic of
the early Church, directing the production of the massive
Hexapla ("Sixfold"), an Old Testament in six columns:
Hebrew, Hebrew in Greek characters, the Septuagint, and the
Greek versions of Theodotion, Aquila of Sinope, and
Symmachus. He was one of the greatest biblical scholars of
the early Church, having written commentaries on most of
the books of the Bible, though few are extant. He interpreted
scripture both literally and allegorically. Origen was largely
responsible for the collection of usage information regarding
the texts which became the New Testament. The information
used to create the late-fourth-century Easter Letter, which
declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on
the Ecclesiastical History [HE] of Eusebius of Caesarea,
wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen
to create both his list at HE 3:25 and Origen’s list at HE 6:25.
Eusebius got his information about what texts were accepted
by the third-century churches throughout the known world, a
great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his
extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.[26]
In fact, Origen would have possibly included in his list of
“inspired writings” other texts which were kept out by the
likes of Eusebius, including the Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd
of Hermas, and 1 Clement. "Origen is not the originator of
the idea of biblical canon, but he certainly gives the
philosophical and literary-interpretative underpinnings for
the whole notion."[27] As a theologian, in De principiis (On
First Principles), he articulated one of the first philosophical
expositions of Christian doctrine. Having been educated in
classical and philosophical studies, some of his teachings
were influenced by and engaged with aspects of Neo-
Pythagorean, Neo-Platonist, and other strains of
191
contemporary philosophical thought. An ordained priest in

Palestine, he has left posterity numerous homilies on various
books of the Bible. Finally, he has also been regarded as a
spiritual master for such works as An Exhortation to
Martyrdom and On Prayer.
In 2012, 29 unpublished homilies by Origen were discovered
in the Bavarian State Library.[28]
Exegetical writings[edit source | editbeta]
According to Epiphanius,[29] Origen wrote about 6,000
works (i.e., rolls or chapters). A list was given by Eusebius in
his lost Life of Pamphilus,[30] which was apparently known
to Jerome.[31] These fall into four classes: textual criticism;
exegesis; systematic, practical, and apologetic theology; and
letters; besides certain spurious works.
By far the most important work of Origen on textual criticism
was the Hexapla, a comparative study of various translations
of the Old Testament.
The full text of the Hexapla is no longer extant. Some
portions were discovered in Milan indicating that at least
some individual parts existed much longer than was
previously thought. The Hexapla has been referred to by later
manuscripts and authors, and represented the precursor to
the parallel bible.
The Tetrapla was an abbreviation of the Hexapla in which
Origen placed only the translations (Aquila, Symmachus,
Theodotion, and the Septuagint) in parallels.
He was likewise keenly conscious of the textual difficulties in
the manuscripts of the New Testament, although he never
wrote definitely on this subject. In his exegetical writings he
frequently alludes to the variant readings, but his habit of
making rough citations in his dictation, the verification being
left to the scribes, renders it impossible to deduce his text
from his commentaries. Eusebius in Ecclesiastical History
192
6.25.7 strongly implies Origen disputed the authenticity of

the Letters of Paul when he wrote that Paul did not write to
all the churches that he taught and even to the ones he
wrote he only sent a few lines. However, Origen's own
writings refer often to the words of Paul.
The exegetical writings of Origen fall into three classes:
scholia, or brief summaries of the meaning of difficult
passages
homilies
"books", or commentaries in the strict sense of the term.
Jerome states that there were scholia on Leviticus, Psalms i.-
xv., Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, and part of John. The Stromateis
were of a similar character, and the margin of Codex Athous
Laura, 184, contains citations from this work on Rom. 9:23; I
Cor. 6:14, 7:31, 34, 9:20-21, 10:9, besides a few other
fragments.
Homilies on almost the entire Bible were prepared by Origen.
There are 205, and possibly 279, homilies of Origen that are
extant either in Greek or in Latin translations.[32] The
homilies preserved are on Genesis (16), Exodus (13), Leviticus
(16), Numbers (28), Joshua (26), Judges (9), I Sam. (2), Psalms
36-38 (9),[33] Canticles (2), Isaiah (9), Jeremiah (7 Greek, 2
Latin, 12 Greek and Latin), Ezekiel (14), and Luke (39). The
homilies were preached in the church at Caesarea, with the
exception of the two on 1 Samuel which were delivered in
Jerusalem. Nautin has argued that they were all preached in
a three-year liturgical cycle some time between 238 and 244,
preceding the Commentary on the Song of Songs, where
Origen refers to homilies on Judges, Exodus, Numbers, and a
work on Leviticus.[34]
It is not improbable that Origen gave no attention to
supervising the publication of his homilies, for only by such a
hypothesis can the numerous evidences of carelessness in
193
diction be explained. The exegesis of the homilies was

simpler than that of the scientific commentaries, but
nevertheless demanded no mean degree of intelligence from
the auditor. Origen's chief aim was the practical exposition of
the text, verse by verse; and while in such barren books as
Leviticus and Numbers he sought to allegorize, the wealth of
material in the prophets seldom rendered it necessary for
him to seek meanings deeper than the surface afforded.
On June 11, 2012, the Bavarian National Library announced
the discovery by philologist Marina Molin Pradel of unknown
original texts of homilies by Origenes in a twelfth-century
Greek manuscript.[2] The attribution to Origen has been
confirmed by experts like Prof. Lorenzo Perrone of the
Bologna University. [3]
Extant commentaries of Origen[edit source | editbeta]
The object of Origen's commentaries was to give an exegesis
that discriminated strictly against historical significance, in
favour of a "hidden" spiritual truth. At the same time, he
neglected neither philological nor geographical, historical nor
antiquarian material, to all of which he devoted numerous
excursuses.
In his commentary on John he constantly considered the
exegesis of the Valentinian Heracleon (probably at the
insistence of Ambrose), and in many other places he implied
or expressly cited Gnostic views and refuted them.[35]
Unfortunately, only meagre fragments of the commentaries
have survived. Three commentaries on New Testament
books survive in large measure. Of the 32 books in the
Commentary on John, only nine have been preserved.[36]
The Commentary on Romans is extant only in the
abbreviated Latin translation of Rufinus, though some Greek
fragments also exist.[37] The eight books preserved of the
Commentary on Matthew (Books 10-17) cover Matthew
194
13.36-22.33. There also exists a Latin translation of the

commentary by an unknown translator which covers
Matthew 16.13-27.66[38] One commentary on a book of the
Old Testament, the Commentary on the Song of Songs, has
also been preserved in part, in a Latin translation of Rufinus.
[39]
Fragments of some other commentaries survive. Citations in
Origen's Philocalia include fragments of the third book of the
commentary on Genesis. There is also Ps. i, iv.1, the small
commentary on Canticles, and the second book of the large
commentary on the same, the twentieth book of the
commentary on Ezekiel,[40] and the commentary on Hosea.
Of the non-extant commentaries, there is limited evidence of
their arrangement.[41]
Dogmatic, practical, and apologetic writings[edit source |
editbeta]
Study of On First Principles has occupied centre stage in
studies of Origen since the fourth century. It is perhaps
written for his more advanced pupils at Alexandria and
probably composed between 212 and 215. It is extant only in
the free translation of Rufinus of 397,[42] except for
fragments (books 3.1 and 4.1-3) preserved in Origen's
Philocalia, and smaller citations in Justinian's letter to
Mennas.
In the first book the author considers God, the Logos, the
Holy Ghost, reason, and the angels; in the second the world
and man (including the incarnation of the Logos, the soul,
free will, and eschatology); in the third, the doctrine of sin
and redemption; and in the fourth, the Scriptures; the whole
being concluded with a résumé of the entire system. The
work is noteworthy as the first endeavor to present
Christianity as a complete theory of the universe, and was
195
designed to remove the difficulties felt by many Christians

concerning the essential basis of their faith.
Between 232-235, while in Caesarea in Palestine, Origen
wrote On Prayer. This is preserved entire in Greek. After an
introduction on the object, necessity, and advantage of
prayer, ends with an exegesis of the Lord's Prayer, concluding
with remarks on the position, place, and attitude to be
assumed during prayer, as well as on the classes of prayer.
On Martyrdom, or the Exhortation to Martyrdom, also
preserved entire in Greek, was written some time after the
beginning of the persecution of Maximinus in the first half of
235. In it, Origen warns against any trifling with idolatry and
emphasizes the duty of suffering martyrdom manfully; while
in the second part he explains the meaning of martyrdom.
Against Celsus, preserved entire in Greek, was Origen's last
treatise, written about 248. Ambrose had requested that
Origen provide an answer to a book entitled The True
Doctrine which attacked Christianity, and had been written
some time in the second century by an unknown Middle
Platonic philosopher named Celsus.[43] In Against Celsus,
Origen drew freely on the Greek philosophers and poets as
well as the Bible to provide a rational basis for holding the
Christian faith.[44]
The papyri discovered at Tura in 1941 contained the Greek
text of two previously unknown works of Origen. Neither
work can be dated precisely, though both were probably
written after the persecution of Maximinus in 235. One is On
the Pascha. The other is Dialogue of Origen with Heraclides
and the Bishops with him concerning the Father and the Son
and the soul.[45][46]
Lost works include two books on the resurrection, written
before On First Principles, and also two dialogues on the
same theme dedicated to Ambrose.
196
Eusebius had a collection of more than one hundred letters

of Origen,[47] and the list of Jerome speaks of several books
of his epistles. Except for a few fragments, only three letters
have been preserved. The first, partly preserved in the Latin
translation of Rufinus, is addressed to friends in Alexandria.
[48] The second is a short letter to Gregory Thaumaturgus,
preserved in the Philocalia. The third is an epistle to Sextus
Julius Africanus, extant in Greek, replying to a letter from
Africanus (also extant), and defending the authenticity of the
Greek additions to the book of Daniel.
Forgeries of the writings of Origen made in his lifetime are
discussed by Rufinus in De adulteratione librorum Origenis.
The Dialogus de recta in Deum fide, the Philosophumena of
Hippolytus of Rome, and the Commentary on Job by Julian of
Halicarnassus have also been ascribed to him.
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Origen, allegedly trained in the school of Clement and by his
father, has long been considered essentially a Platonist with
occasional traces of Stoic philosophy. Patristic scholar Mark J
Edwards has argued that many of Origen's positions are more
properly Aristotelian than strictly Platonic (for instance, his
philosophical anthropology). Nonetheless, he was thus a
pronounced idealist, as one regarding all things temporal and
material as insignificant and indifferent, the only real and
eternal things being comprised in the idea. He therefore
regards as the purely ideal center of this spiritual and eternal
world, God, the pure reason, whose creative powers call into
being the world with matter as the necessary substratum.
Origen's cosmology is complicated and controverted, but he
seems to have held to a hypothesis of the preexistence of
souls, before the world we know was created by God, God
created a great number of spiritual intelligences. At first
devoted to the contemplation and love of their creator,
almost all of these intelligences eventually grew bored of
contemplating God, their love for him cooling off. Those
whose love for God diminished the most became demons.
Those whose love diminished moderately became human
souls, eventually to be incarnated in fleshly bodies. Those
whose love diminished the least became angels. One,
however, who remained perfectly devoted to God became,
through love, one with the Word (Logos) of God. The Logos
eventually took flesh and was born of the Virgin Mary,
198
becoming the God-man Jesus Christ. The diverse conditions

in which human beings are born is actually dependent upon
what their souls did in this pre-existent state. Thus what
seems unfair, some being born poor and others wealthy,
some sick and others healthy, and so forth, is, Origen insists,
actually in a by-product of the free-will of souls. Thus,
material creation is at least implicitly of a lesser ontological
category than the immaterial, or spiritual, and the heavy
material bodies that man assumes after the fall will
eventually be cast off. Origen, however, still insisted on a
bodily resurrection, but in contrast to Athenagoras, who
believed that earthly bodies would be precisely reconstituted
in the hereafter, Origen argued that Paul's notion of a
flourishing spiritual body is more appropriate.
He was, indeed, a rigid adherent of the Bible, making no
statement without adducing some Scriptural basis. To him
the Bible was divinely inspired, as was proved both by the
fulfilment of prophecy and by the immediate impression
which the Scriptures made on those who read them. Since
the divine Logos spoke in the Scriptures, they were an
organic whole and on every occasion he combatted the
Gnostic tenet of the inferiority of the Old Testament.
In his exegesis, Origen sought to discover the deeper
meaning implied in the Scriptures. One of his chief methods
was the translation of proper names, which enabled him, like
Philo, to find a deep meaning even in every event of history
(see hermeneutics), but at the same time he insisted on an
exact grammatical interpretation of the text as the basis of all
exegesis.
A strict adherent of the Church, Origen yet distinguished
sharply between the ideal and the empirical Church,
representing "a double church of men and angels",[49] or, in
Platonic phraseology, the lower church and its celestial ideal.
199
The ideal Church alone was the Church of Christ, scattered

over all the earth; the other provided also a shelter for
sinners. Holding that the Church, as being in possession of
the mysteries, affords the only means of salvation, he was
indifferent to her external organization,[49] although he
spoke sometimes of the office-bearers as the pillars of the
Church, and of their heavy duties and responsibilities.
More important to him was the idea borrowed from Plato of
the grand division between the great human multitude,
capable of sensual vision only, and those who know how to
comprehend the hidden meaning of Scripture and the
diverse mysteries, church organization being for the former
only.[49]
It is doubtful whether Origen possessed an obligatory creed;
at any rate, such a confession of faith was not a norm like the
inspired word of Scripture. The reason, illumined by the
divine Logos, which is able to search the secret depths of the
divine nature, remains as the only source of knowledge.[49]
Theological and dogmatic[edit source | editbeta]
Origen's conception of God is apophatic—God is a perfect
unity, invisible and incorporeal, transcending all things
material, and therefore inconceivable and incomprehensible.
He is likewise unchangeable, and transcends space and time.
But his power is limited by his goodness, justice, and wisdom;
and, though entirely free from necessity, his goodness and
omnipotence constrained him to reveal himself.
This revelation, the external self-emanation of God, is
expressed by Origen in various ways, the Logos being only
one of many. Revelation was the first creation of God (cf.
Prov. viii. 22), in order to afford creative mediation between
God and the world, such mediation being necessary, because
God, as changeless unity, could not be the source of a
multitudinous creation.
200
The Logos is the rational creative principle that permeates

the universe. Since God eternally manifests himself, the
Logos is likewise eternal. He forms a bridge between the
created and uncreated, and only through him, as the visible
representative of divine wisdom, can the inconceivable and
incorporeal God be known. Creation came into existence only
through the Logos, and God's nearest approach to the world
is the command to create. While the Logos is substantially a
unity, he comprehends a multiplicity of concepts, so that
Origen terms him, in Platonic fashion, "essence of essences"
and "idea of ideas".
The defense of the unity of God against the Gnostics led
Origen to maintain the subordination of the Logos to God,
and the doctrine of the eternal generation is later.[50] Origen
distinctly emphasised the independence of the Logos as well
as the distinction from the being and substance of God. The
term "of the same substance with the Father" was not
employed. The Logos (and the Holy Spirit also) however, does
share in the divinity of God. He is an image, a reflex of God, in
which God communicates his divinity, as light radiating from
the sun.
The Logos doctrine and cosmology[edit source | editbeta]
The activity of the Logos was conceived by Origen in Platonic
fashion, as the world soul, wherein God manifested his
omnipotence. His first creative act was the divine spirit, as an
independent existence; and partial reflexes of the Logos were
the created rational beings, who, as they had to revert to the
perfect God as their background, must likewise be perfect;
yet their perfection, unlike in kind with that of God, the
Logos, and the divine spirit, had to be attained. The freedom
of the will is an essential fact of the reason, notwithstanding
the foreknowledge of God. The Logos, eternally creative,
forms an endless series of finite, comprehensible worlds,
201
which are mutually alternative. Combining the Stoic doctrine

of a universe without beginning with the Biblical doctrine of
the beginning and the end of the world, he conceived of the
visible world as the stages of an eternal cosmic process,
affording also an explanation of the diversity of human
fortunes, rewards, and punishments. The material world,
which at first had no place in this eternal spiritual
progression, was due to the fall of the spirits from God, the
first being the serpent, who was imprisoned in matter and
body. The ultimate aim of God in the creation of matter out
of nothing was not punishment, but the upraising of the
fallen spirits. Man's accidental being is rooted in transitory
matter, but his higher nature is formed in the image of the
Creator. The soul is divided into the rational and the
irrational, the latter being material and transitory, while the
former, incorporeal and immaterial, possesses freedom of
the will and the power to reascend to purer life. The strong
ethical import of this cosmic process can not remain
unnoticed. The return to original being through divine reason
is the object of the entire cosmic process. Through the
worlds which follow each other in eternal succession, the
spirits are able to return to Paradise. God so ordered the
universe that all individual acts work together toward one
cosmic end which culminates in himself. Likewise as to
Origen's anthropology, man conceived in the image of God is
able by imitating God in good works to become like God, if he
first recognizes his own weakness and trusts all to the divine
goodness. He is aided by guardian angels, but more
especially by the Logos who operates through saints and
prophets in proportion to the constitution of these and man's
capacity.
Christology[edit source | editbeta]
202
The culmination of this gradual revelation is the universal

revelation of Christ. In Christ, God, hitherto manifest only as
the Lord, appeared as the Father. The incarnation of the
Logos, moreover, was necessary since otherwise he would
not be intelligible to sensual man; but the indwelling of the
Logos remained a mystery, which could be represented only
by the analogy of his indwelling in the saints; nor could
Origen fully explain it. He speaks of a "remarkable body", and
in his opinion that the mortal body of Jesus was transformed
by God into an ethereal and divine body, Origen
approximated the Docetism that he otherwise abhorred. His
concept of the soul of Jesus is likewise uncertain and
wavering. He proposes the question whether it was not
originally perfect with God but, emanating from him, at his
command assumed a material body. As he conceived matter
as merely the universal limit of created spirits, so would it be
impossible to state in what form the two were combined. He
dismissed the solution by referring it to the mystery of the
divine governance of the universe. More logically did he
declare the material nature of the world to be merely an
episode in the spiritual process of development, whose end
should be the annihilation of all matter and return to God,
who should again be all in all. The doctrine of the
resurrection of the body he upholds by the explanation that
the Logos maintains the unity of man's existence by ever
changing his body into new forms, thus preserving the unity
and identity of personality in harmony with the tenet of an
endless cosmic process. Origen's concept of the Logos
allowed him to make no definite statement on the
redemptive work of Jesus. Since sin was ultimately only
negative as a lack of pure knowledge, the activity of Jesus
was essentially example and instruction, and his human life
was only incidental as contrasted with the immanent cosmic
203
activity of the Logos. Origen regarded the death of Jesus as a

sacrifice, paralleling it with other cases of self-sacrifice for
the general good. On this, Origen's accord with the teachings
of the Church was merely superficial.[citation needed]
Eschatology[edit source | editbeta]
His idealizing tendency to consider the spiritual alone as real,
fundamental to his entire system, led him to combat the
"rude"[51] or "crude"[52] Chiliasm (see Christian
eschatology) of a sensual beyond. His position on the literal
resurrection of physical bodies is difficult, but in both the
Contra Celsum and On First Principles, Origen affirms some
form of bodily resurrection, but eschews the notion that
earthly bodies will be raised, on account of their gross
materiality.[53] Yet he constrained himself from breaking
entirely with the distinct celestial hopes and representations
of Paradise prevalent in the Church. He represents a
progressive purification of souls, until, cleansed of all clouds
of evil, they should know the truth and God as the Son knew
him, see God face to face, and attain a full possession of the
Holy Spirit and union with God. The means of attainment of
this end were described by Origen in different ways, the most
important of which was his concept of a purifying fire which
should cleanse the world of evil and thus lead to cosmic
renovation. By a further spiritualization Origen could call God
himself this consuming fire. In proportion as the souls were
freed from sin and ignorance, the material world was to pass
away, until, after endless eons, at the final end, God should
be all in all, and the worlds and spirits should return to a
knowledge of God; in Greek this is called Apokatastasis.
Character[edit source | editbeta]
In Origen the Christian Church had its first theologian.[54] His

teaching was not merely theoretical, but was also imbued
204
with an intense ethical power. To the multitude to whom his

instruction was beyond grasp, he left mediating images and
symbols, as well as the final goal of attainment. In Origen
Christianity blended with the pagan philosophy in which lived
the desire for truth and the longing after God. Origen had
many admirers and followers, one in particular, Dionysius of
Alexandria, who caused controversy throughout Libya in 259
due to his theology in regards to the unity of the trinity.[55]
Three centuries later his very name was stricken from the
books of the Church; yet in the monasteries of the Greeks his
influence still lived on, as the spiritual father of Greek
monasticism.
Origen's influence on the later church[edit source | editbeta]
Anathemas (544, 553)[edit source | editbeta]

Patriarch Mennas of Constantinople condemned Origen and
a form of apocatastasis at the Synod of Constantinople (543);
the Fifth Ecumenical Council in 553 ratified the
condemnation. Many heteroclite views became associated
with Origen, and the 15 anathemas attributed to the council
condemn a form of apocatastasis along with the pre-
existence of the soul, animism (a heterodox Christology), and
a denial of real and lasting resurrection of the body.[4] Some
authorities believe these anathemas belong to an earlier
local synod.[56] The anathema against Origen in his person,
declaring him (among others) a heretic, reads as follows:
If anyone does not anathematize Arius, Eunomius,
Macedonius, Apollinaris, Nestorius, Eutyches and Origen, as
well as their impious writings, as also all other heretics
already condemned and anathematized by the Holy Catholic
and Apostolic Church, and by the aforesaid four Holy Synods
and [if anyone does not equally anathematize] all those who
have held and hold or who in their impiety persist in holding
205
to the end the same opinion as those heretics just

mentioned: let him be anathema.[57]
As a result of this condemnation, the writings of Origen
supporting his teachings in these areas were destroyed. They
were either destroyed outright, or translated with the
appropriate adjustments to eliminate conflict with orthodox
Christian doctrine. Therefore, little direct evidence remains
to fully confirm or disprove Origen's support of the nine
points of anathema against him.
The Fifth Ecumenical Council addressed what was called "The
Three Chapters"[58] and opposed a form of Origenism which
truly had nothing to do with Origen and Origenist views. In
fact, Popes Vigilius (537-555), Pelagius I (556-61), Pelagius II
(579-90), and Gregory the Great (590-604) were only aware
that the Fifth Council specifically dealt with the Three
Chapters and make no mention of Origenism or Universalism,
nor spoke as if they knew of its condemnation - even though
Gregory the Great opposed the belief of universalism.[13]
The Emperor Justinian denied[clarification needed]
apocatastasis.[59]
Origen in the 1970s[edit source | editbeta]
The book Reincarnation in Christianity, by the theosophist
Geddes MacGregor (1978) asserted that Origen believed in
reincarnation. MacGregor is convinced that Origen believed
in and taught about reincarnation but that his texts written
about the subject have been destroyed. He admits that there
is no extant proof for that position.[60] The allegation was
also repeated by Shirley MacLaine in her book Out On a Limb.
[citation needed]
He wrote about the Greeks' transmigration of the soul, with
which he did not agree.[61] This can be confirmed from the
extant writings of Origen. He was cognizant of the concept of
transmigration (metensomatosis transformation, and loses
206
what it once was, the human soul will not be what it

was[62] ) from Greek philosophy, but it is repeatedly stated
that this concept is not a part of the Christian teaching or
scripture. In his Comment on the Gospel of Matthew, which
stems from a 6th-century Latin translation, it is written: "In
this place [when Jesus said Elijah was come and referred to
John the Baptist] it does not appear to me that by Elijah the
soul is spoken of, lest I fall into the doctrine of
transmigration, which is foreign to the Church of God, and
not handed down by the apostles, nor anywhere set forth in
the scriptures" (ibid., 13:1:46–53 [63]). Conversely, in Against
Celsus, Origen says:
. . . .but we know that the soul, which is immaterial and
invisible in its nature, exists in no material place, without
having a body suited to the nature of that place. Accordingly,
it at one time puts off one body which was necessary before,
but which is no longer adequate in its changed state, and it
exchanges it for a second; and at another time it assumes
another in addition to the former, which is needed as a
better covering, suited to the purer ethereal regions of
heaven. When it comes into the world at birth, it casts off the
integuments which it needed in the womb; and before doing
this, it puts on another body suited for its life upon earth.
207

Esoteric Christianity

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Esoteric Christianity

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ESOTORLOGY,

Early Christians used the Greek word μυστήριον (mysterion)

This esoteric knowledge would allow a deep comprehension

Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for

1 Original Sacred Mysteries of Christianity

5 Baptism of the Holy Spirit

The term sacred mysteries generally denotes the area of

Religious beliefs, rituals or practices which are kept secret

Although the term is not used equally by all Christian

Resurrection of Jesus. These are mysteries in the sense that

The word mysterion (μυστήριον) is used 27 times in the New

In the Roman Catholic Church the First Vatican Council re-

In parts of the Early Church many aspects of Christian

churches. This is not usually so in the West, though

Although all the official doctrines of Christian churches have

The term is used in Eastern Christianity to refer to what the

Sacrament, the Divine Liturgy refers to the Eucharist as the

Though Orthodox instructional materials may list seven

Christian life is centered in the Mystery of the Incarnation of

reliable manners which He Himself has established," i.e., in

Heterodoxy in a religious sense means "any opinions or

Heterodoxy is also an ecclesiastical term of art, defined in

Christian theology is the enterprise which seeks to construct

Systematic theology is a discipline of Christian theology that

The Old Testament is a Christian term for a collection of

The books can be broadly divided into the Pentateuch, which

conquest of Canaan to their defeat and exile in Babylon; the

The New Testament (Koine Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē

The New Testament is an anthology, a collection of Christian

century, at different times by various writers, who were early

Collections of related texts such as letters of the Apostle Paul

The New Testament consists of

"Apocalypse" (Ἀποκάλυψις) is a Greek word meaning

"Apocrypha" means "things put away" or "things hidden"

they would not be classified in the same category by

The canon of the New Testament is the set of books most

Century, when the Old Testament Canon was finalized in the

In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria,

The Incarnation in Christianity is the belief that Jesus Christ

The Incarnation is a fundamental theological teaching of

In the Incarnation, as traditionally defined by those Churches

celebrated each year at Christmas, and also reference can be

This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians.

In the early Christian era, there was considerable

Council of Nicea, 325.

Eventually, the Christian Church accepted the teaching of St.

Jesus was a divine being that took on human appearance but

Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic

The significance of the Incarnation has been extensively

O only begotten Son and Word of God,

Deigned for our salvation

West Syriac Churches

The West Syriac Churches - Syriac Orthodox, Malankara

I exalt Thee, Lord and King,

Who are one of the Holy Trinity?

The link between the Incarnation and the Atonement within

Alternative views of the Incarnation.

classical Trinitarians were essentially tritheists who had

In describing Servetus' theology of the Logos, Andrew Dibb

Post-Reformation Arians such as William Whiston often held

Manner in the Father as his Wisdom or Word before his real

Socinian and Unitarian

Servetus rejected Arianism because it denied Jesus' divinity

The Oneness view of the Incarnation