GEOMETRY

GE OME T R Y
A C O N TE M P O R A R Y COURSE
 P R O G R A M IN

ODER N
I M ATHEMATICS

M A T H E M A T IC S — A M O DERN APPROACH, Book 1, Second Edition

Peters, Schaaf
M A T H E M A T IC S — A M ODERN APPROACH, Book 2, Second Edition
Peters, Schaaf
A L G E B R A -A MODERN APPROACH, Book 1, Second Edition
Peters, Schaaf
ALGEBRA AND TRIG O NO M ETRY— A MODERN APPROACH, Book 2
Peters, Schaaf
G EO M ETR Y— A CONTEMPORARY COURSE, Second Edition
Lewis

D r. H arry Lewis is principal o f A rts High School, Newark, New Jersey, He
•was form erly the chairm an u f the M athem atics Department of East Side High
Sch ool of New ark, having taught mathematics for many years in the Newark
P u b lic School System . He is the coauthor o f textbooks on business mathematics
a n d has taught at the New Y ork University School o f Education.
V a n N o s t r a n d R e g io n a l O f f ic e s : New York, Chicago, San Francisco
D . V a n N o s t r a n d C o m p a n y , L t d ., London
D. V a n N o s tr a n d C om pany (C a n a d a ), L td ., Toronto
D . V a n N o s t r a n d C o m p a n y A u s t r a l i a P t y . L t d ., Melbourne
C o p y rig h t © 19 64 , 1968, by D . V A N N O S T R A N D C O M P A N Y , IN C .
Pu blish ed simultaneously in Canada by
D . V a n N o s t r a n d C o m p a n y (C an ad a), L t d .
N o reproduction in any fo rm o f this' book, in whole or
i n part (except fo r brief guolation in critical articles or
r e v ie w s ), may be made without w ritten authorization
f r o m the publisher.
L ibrary of Congress Catalog C ard No. 6 7 -3112 6
016S1bl50
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Preface
G eom etry — A C ontem porary Course reflects the influence
of a n u m b er of sources. Not the least of these is the w eight of the experi­
m en tatio n conducted in the teaching of geom etry during the p a st tw enty-
five years by both the author and his colleagues. T he data collected over
this p eriod strongly indicated the need for b o th the arrangem ent and the
developm ent of elem entary m ath em atical concepts as presen ted in this
text. F u rth e r evidence th at this presentation appears to b e desirable is
the fact th a t the most frequent com m ent of teachers using the first edition
is th a t a m uch larger percent of stu d en ts u n d e rstan d the n a tu re of proof
th an h a v e ever done so in the past.
E v en a cursory exam ination of this text reveals th a t the a u th o r has
leaned heavily on the geom etry p ro g ram p re p are d b y the School M athe­
m atics Study Group. The sym bolism — the distinction b etw een line, line
segm ent, a n d ray—the em phasis on the concept of “betw eenness" as
re la te d to points or to rays—the use o f congruence ra th e r th an equality—
a n d o n a n d on, all indicate a very a p p a re n t a tte m p t to a d h ere to certain
b ro a d a n d desirable aspects of the SM SG proposals. Similarly, the b le n d ­
ing of synthetic, coordinate and three-space geom etries gives am ple evi­
den ce th a t the report of the Com m ission on M athem atics o f th e C ollege
E n tra n c e Exam ination Board has left its im pact on the w riter.
D istin ctiv e Features
1. T h e introductory concepts on definitions and postulates are totally
se p a ra te d from one another.
( a ) T h e first chapter is devoted to th e need for definitions in a n y
discussion, the m ethods of form ulating a definition, a n d the o u t­
grow th of undefined term s as a consequence of the stru ctu re of th e
connotative definition.
'
( b ) T he second ch ap ter dw ells only on the definitions of a re la ­
tively few geometric term s and th eir application to geom etric
figures. Distinction is m ade beUveen reasoning from a definition as
a gainst reasoning from the reverse of the definition.
( c ) T he third chapter is w holly devoted to justifying the need for
p ostulates in any discussion and in p a rticu la r to the field o f geom ­
etry. G reat pains are taken to apply the operational postulates to
geom etric situations rather th an algebraic ones. It has been show n
 vii
vi PREFACE
PREFACE
E very effort has been m ade to gear the level o f the w ritin g to students
th a t m any students, although d isin terested in algebra, seem “to in th e ten th and eleventh grades. In fact, our experience has show n th a t
com e to life” w hen exposed to the n a tu re of pro o f in geom etry. it is possible"for students to re ad and com prehend the explanations w ith ­
In view of this, exam ples involving excessive algebraic m anipula­
tion have been om itted tvom the early ch ap ters of the book. out the aid of a teacher.
2. T h e indirect p ro o f has been p re sen te d b o th slowly and carefully by
S e c o n d Edition
m aking use of A ristotle’s second and third law s of logic. E xperience in d i­ in this, the second edition, the definition of th e in te rio r of an angle
cates th a t th e stu d en t has difficulty in expressing him self w hen attem p tin g was revised to overcom e certain inconsistencies. T h is w as achieved b y
to develop an indirect proof in the “T w o-C olum n” form , hence the “P a ra ­ establishing m ore rigorous definitions of “b etw een n ess" as related to
graph" p ro o f is introduced, and this form at is re q u ire d for all problem s points and as related to rays. By these changes, a d istu rb in g loophole was
calling for an in d irect proof. To establish a feeling for this proof, a section closed in the proof of the theorem on p erp en d icu la rity of lines— T heorem
containing m any p roblem s ranging from those th a t a re alm ost obvious to 15. L argely aifected w as the c ontent o) C h a p te r 3 of the earlier edition.—
others th a t w ill challenge the brightest stu d e n ts a re in clu d ed . From this
point on in th e text th ere appear problem s re q u irin g the indirect proof and little else.
in alm ost every set o f exercises. A n u m b er of teachers w ho h a d used the first edition suggested th at
m aterial b e included in th e c u rre n t revision c overing the circum ference
3. T h e n arrativ e problem does not a p p e a r in th e tex t u n til th e tec h ­
and area o f a circle, th e volum e a n d surface a re a of a sp h ere, th e volum e
niq u e of expressing a proof has been firmly established. O nly then are the
a n d surface area of a cylinder, and, of course, th e volum e a n d surface area
conditional a n d categorical statem ents intro d u ced , and, again, a large
of a cone. In view of this, these topics w ere a d d e d to those o f C hapters
n um ber of problem s are available to th e stu d e n t so th a t he. can achieve
17 a n d 18. T h e postulates used in the d ev elo p m en t of th e theorem s p e r­
som e skill in h a n d lin g this segm ent of the course.
tain in g to these concepts are q u ite different from those fre q u e n tly found
4. T h e ch ap ters on coordinate geom etry are b o th extensive and
a t this level. T h ey are, how ever, far m ore in k eep in g w ith th e in te rp reta ­
thorough. T h ey w ere not included m erely to p a y lip service to th e C om ­
tion of a “lim it" as used in advanced courses in m athem atics th an th e
m ission’s R eport. T h e concept of locus as a "set o f poin ts” in coordinate
vague sym bolism norm ally em ployed w hen this topic is d eveloped in
geom etry h e lp s p a v e th e w ay for an u n d e rstan d in g of locus in synthetic
geom etry. In a d d itio n to th e usual loci problem s involving equalities, there secondary school m athem atics classes.
I w ould like to express m y gratitude to M r. Sidney Flam m , M r.
are m any th a t are devoted to inequalities. In keeping w ith the current
Angelo Rosam ilia, a n d Mrs. L au ra Schefter— all o f E ast Side H igh School,
trend, se t notatio n is used to describe these loci.
N ew ark, N ew Jersey— who offered valuable criticism ;after h a v in g tau g h t
5. I t w as felt th a t introducing elem ents of th re e dim ensional geom ­
this m aterial in m im eographed form . A nd, b y all m eans, I am thankful
etry a t th e very outset w ould only add to th e b u rd e n o f learning too m any
for a n d d eeply touched by th e m any m oving a n d sincere letters th a t I
. u nfam iliar term s too early in the work. I t is only a fte r th e properties o f
have received from teachers a n d students across th e nation. T his is the
p e rp en d icu la rity in a p lan e have been established th a t w e find any refer­
ence to sp a c e geom etry. By this time the stu d e n t should feel secure in his h e ad y w ine on w hich an a u th o r nourishes.
H arry L e w is
u n d e rstan d in g of th e subject m atter and b e ready to extend som e of the
notions h e h a s learned to a ‘‘broader” space. January, 1968
6. T h e book is designed so that the teach er w ho p re fe rs to restrict the
course to topics related only to synthetic plane geom etry can do so w ith ­
o u t fear th a t she m ay be assigning problem s in e ith e r three dim ensional
o r co o rd in a te geom etry.
7. E ac h c h a p te r contains a test or review of th a t chapter. In addition
t h e r e is o ften a sh o rt section pertaining to an interesting a n d unusual
p ro b le m th a t freq u e n tly has some historical significance.
8. In a d d itio n to a very careful grading of th e p roblem s w ithin each
s e t of exercises, the n arrative problem s are kept distinct from those
'w herein, th e diagram , G iven D ata, and Conclusion are given to the stu­
d e n t, a n d these, in turn, are separated from th e n u m erical problem s.
 Contents

1 D efinitions and T heir Place in a P roof 1

NEED FOR DEFINITIONS 2 W HO DETERMINES THE DEFINITIONS OF
WORDS? 3 CONSTRUCTING A DEFINITION 4 NEED FOR UNDE­
FINED TERMS 6 THE LANGUAGE OF GEOMETRY 9 TEST 20

2 D efinitions of G eom etric T erm s 22

THE MEASURE OF A LINE SEGMENT 2 3 THE MEASURE OF AN ANGLE 2 7
DRAW ING A CONCLUSION BASED O N THE REVERSE OF A DEFINITION 4 0
DRAW ING CONCLUSIONS O N THE BASIS OF DEFINITIONS AND THE REVERSE
OF DEFINITIONS 43 TEST 46

3 A ssum ptions and T h eir Place in aProof 50

H O W DO THE BLIND DRAW CONCLUSIONS? 51 POSTULATES IN GE­
OMETRY 54 THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TW O LINE SEGMENTS 5 7
THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF T W O ANGLES 5 9 THE ADDITION POSTU­
LATE 62 THE SUBTRACTION POSTULATE 65 THE MULTIPLICATION
AND DIVISION POSTULATES 68 THE POSTULATES OF EQUALITY' 7 2
APPLICATIONS OF THE POSTULATES OF EQUALITY 7 3 APPLICATIONS OF
THE POSTULATES OF GEOMETRY 7 7 TCST 80

4 T he “ Simple” Theorem s 85
THEOREM O N RIGHT ANGLES 89 THEOREM O N STRAIGHT ANGLES 95
THEOREMS O N SUPPLEMENTARY AND COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES 9 5
VERTICAL ANGLES 101 TEST 107

5 C o n g ru e n c e o f T r ia n g le s 110
CORRESPONDENCE 112 CORRESPONDENCE RELATED TO POLYGONS
114 CONGRUENT POLYGONS 118 v POSTULATES FOR PROVING
TRIANGLES CONGRUENT 120 APPLICATIONS OF THE POSTULATES O N
CONGRUENCE TO FORMAL PROOFS 126 PROVING LINE SEGMENTS
OR ANGLES CONGRUENT THROUGH CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 131 . FUR­
THER CONCLUSIONS THAT CAN BE DRAWN O N THE BASIS OF CONGRUENT
TRIANGLES 136 OVERLAPPING TRIANGLES 139 . THE ISOSCELES
TRIANGLE 141 THE S.S.S, THEOREM 153 THE HYPOTENUSE-LEG
METHOD OF CONGRUENCE 160 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CONGRUENCE

Ix
 CONTENTS CONTENTS
OF MORE THAN ONE PAIR OF TRIANGLES 164 TEST ' AND REVIEW
168 TRY THIS FOR FUN 171
13 Coordinate G eom etry—T he G raph 409
THE STRAIGHT. LINE 4 1 4 INTERSECTION OF T W O SETS 419 ANA­
LYTIC PROOFS OF PROBLEMS FROM SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY 4 2 3 THE
6 P e r p e n d ic u la r ity 172
GRAPHS O F INEQUALITIES 425 LOCUS OF POINTS 434 THE
M EANING OF DISTANCE AND ITS RELATION TO PERPENDICULAR LINES 179 CIRCLE 440 TEST AND REVIEW 4 4 7 TRY THIS FOR FUN 449
CONDITIONAL AND CATEGORICAL STATEMENTS 191 TEST A N D of.
VIE W 196
14 T he Circle 450
CHORDS EQUIDISTANT FROM THE CENTER OF A CIRCLE 4 6 0 TANGENTS
7 P erpendicularity in Space G eom etry 198 AND SECANTS 4 6 6 THE SPHERE 477 ■ THE RELATION BETWEEN
ANGLES AND ARCS 4 8 2 APPLICATIONS OF THE THEOREMS O N ANGLfj? '
V THE MEANING O F DETERMINE 2 0 0 FURTHER CONDITIONS UNDER
MEASUREMENT 491 CHORDS, TANGENT SEGMENTS, AND SECANT SEG­
' W HICH A PLANE IS DETERMINED 203 METHODS OF DETERMINING A
MENTS 498 TEST AND REVIEW 508 TRY THIS FOR FUN 513
PLANE 2 0 5 PERPENDICULARITY BETWEEN A LINE AND A P U N E 2 0 7
TEST AND REVIEW 2 1 4
15 Locus—Synthetic G eom etry 514
8 T h e In d irect P roof and Parallelism 218 THEOREM, CONVERSE, INVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE 5 1 7 LOCUS
THEOREMS 5 2 4 COM PO UND LOCI IN SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY 5 3 3
NONINTERSECTING LINES AND THE INDIRECT PROOF 224 PARALLELISM
STRAIGHTEDGE AND COMPASS CONSTRUCTIONS 5 3 9 MORE ABOUT
— SECTION I 2 3 3 PARALLELISM— SECTION II 2 3 9 PARALLELISM—
CONSTRUCTION WITH STRAIGHTEDGE AND COMPASS 5 4 6 TEST AND
SECTION III 2 4 5 UNIQUENESS AND EXISTENCE 2 5 5 THE PARAL­
REVIEW 557 TRY THESE FOR FUN 559
LELOGRAM— PART I 2 5 8 THE PARALLELOGRAM— P^RT II 2 6 7 TEST
A N D REVIEW 2 7 4 TRY THIS FOR FUN 277
16 Inequalities 565
9 Parallelism in Space 279 TEST AND REVIEW 577 TRY THIS FOR FUN 578

DIHEDRAL ANGIES 2 8 9 TEST AND REVIEW 296 TRY THIS FOR ' 17 Areas of Polygons and Circles 580
FUN 298
AREA OF THE PARALLELOGRAM, THE TRIANGLE, AND THE TRAPEZOID 5 8 4
AREAS OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES 594 AREAS OF REGULAR POLYGONS 6 0 2
.0 ,.The Angles of a Polygon 300 CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE 6 0 6 AREA O F A CIRCLE 6 1 2 TEST
THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON 3 0 9 A BRIEF JOURNEY INTO N O N - AND REVIEW 618 TRY THIS FOR FUN 621
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 3 1 3 TEST AND REVIEW 3 1 9
18 Volumes 622
1 Sim ilar T riangles 323 , VOLUME OF A PRISM 6 2 6 VOLUME O F A PYRAMID 631 SUR­
FACE AREA AND VOLUME OF A CYLINDER AND A .C O N E 6 3 6 VOLUME
RATIOS AND PROPORTION 329 THEOREMS BASIC TO THE PROOFS OF
AND SURFACE AREA O F A SPHERE 6 4 2 TEST A N D REVIEW 6 4 7 TRY
SIMILARITY 3 3 3 SIMILAR TRIANGLES 342 PROVING RATIOS EQUAL
THIS FOR FUN 648
AND PRODUCTS EQUAL 3 5 2 THE RIGHT TRIANGLE 3 6 0 THE THE­
OREM OF PYTHAGORAS 3 6 5 TEST AND REVIEW 371 TRY THIS
FOR FUN 374

2 C oordinate G eo m etry —A n Introduction 375

PLOTTING POINTS 3 7 6 DISTANCE BETWEEN T W O POINTS AND DIVID­
IN G A LINE SEGMENT INTO ANY GIVEN RATIO 3 8 2 PARALLELISM AND
PERPENDICULARITY 3 9 3 TEST AND REVIEW 4 0 5 TRY THIS FOR
FUN 4 0 7
 L IS T O F SY M BO LS

AB Arc AB
0 Circle
O Circles
A Triangle
A Triangles
O Parallelogram
AB Segment AB
AB Line AB
—>
AB R ay AB
ZA Angle A
m AB Measure of AB
m ZA Measure of Z A
Z.A— BC— D Dihedral angle A — BC— D
1 Perpendicular
£ Not perpendicular
ii Parallel
X Not parallel
Congruent
m Not congruent
Similar
= Equal
N ot equal
> G reater than
< Less than
> G reater th an or equal to
< Less than or equal to
N ot greater th an
< N ot less th an
v ~ Square root
{} Set
1 Such th at
h Intersection
Ay D elta y
M Absolute value of a
Therefore
A * -* H A corresponds to H
P~*9 If p then q
~p Not p

xiii
 1

Definitions and Their

Place in a Proof

T H E A R G U M E N T HAD R E A C H E D A ST A L E M A T E . .
Finally, in disgust, the taller and heavier m an shouted, “ If you don’t
believe me, I ’ll prove it for you!” W ith that, he took off his jacket, rolled
up his sleeves, clenched his fist, and laid his opponent low.
Well-, you m ay not w ant to consider this a “ proof,” but certainly the
argum ent was forceful and, needless to say, the conclusion was no longer
in doubt. Yes, this is one of m any ways in w hich decisions are arrived a t or
“ argum ents” are “ proved.” T hough most intelligent people would prefer
n o t'to resort to violence in order to prove their point, w ith m any prim itive
people, with young children, and even w ith some nations, this seems only
too often to be a way of im posing ideas on a weaker opponent. This method
of proof is frequently referred to as proof by force.
I t is very likely th a t during the m any discussions you have had w ith
friends, you m ay have tended to use various appeals to convince them of
the correctness of your cause. In some cases you m ay have sought their pity.
In others, if you were certain they were unfam iliar w ith the topic at h in d ,
you m ay have deliberately used their ignorance to drive your point home.
A nd in still others, perhaps you clinched your argum ent By an appeal to
authority such as, your teacher, your clergyman, your paren t, your doctor,
or, in desperation, possibly an advertisem ent on T V . All these m ethods of

1
 2 3
DEFINITIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF W HO DETERMINES THE DEFINITIONS OF WORDS?

“ p ro o f’ rely heavily on an appeal 10 the em otions of the listeners or to In all likelihood we would agree with the accuracy of the first sentence
their respect for authority. but question that of the second. Yet both are merely a rew ording of the
M a th e m a tic a l p ro o fs, on th e o th e r hand, a re d e s ig n e d so th a t th e sentence, Most people receive an adequate education, wherein the word “ educa­
c o n c lu s io n s d r a w n b y m a th e m a tic ia n s a r e b u r a n o u t g io w th o f a r e la tiv e ly tion” has been replaced by two of its definitions.
few s ta t e m e n t s t h a t ;h e y h a v e a g re e d u p o n . D u rin g { h e c o m i n g year you
w ill ! c a m s e v e ra l m e th o d s e m p lo y e d b y m a th e m a tic ia n s fo r p ro v in g s ta te ­
m e n t s . T h is u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l a l s o e n a b l e y o u t o d e t e r m i n e t h o s e c i r c u m ­ EXERCISES
s t a n c e s f o r w h i c h i t is b e t t e r t o a p p l y o n e m e t h o d r a th e r th a n a n o th e r. In
a d d i t i o n , t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f e a c h o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s o f p r o o f w ill b e s h o w n . 1. W hy did we reach two completely opposite conclusions concerning the
tru th or falsity of the statem ent Most people receive an adequate education?
2. W hich of the definitions of education w ould you say is the correct one?
■ Need (or Definitions
3. M ake up your own definition of the w ord “ education” th a t w ould m ake

M ost of us rarely th in k tw ice a bout the words w e h e ar the sentence true.

during the course of th e day. Perhaps this is as it should be. T h ere a re times,
however, w hen a slight reflection on our p a r t m ay cause us to w o n d er w h a t
in the w orld was m ean t by w h at w e have ju st heard. T o illustrate, consider
the incident, oft used by com ic strip writers, of th e m o th er asking her five-
year-old son to w ash himself. W ithin a few m om ents th e boy appears,
proudly displaying his “ clean” fingers, b u t only to b e m et by the in d ig n a n t
o utburst from his p a re n t insisting th a t he retu rn to the bathroom to wash
himself. T o th e boy, washing m eant cautious dipping of the finger tips in
w ater a n d rem oval of th e w ater as quickly as possible by rubbing vigorously
w ith a towel. T o the m other, on the other hand, washing im plied the ap p lic a ­
tion of soap from elbows to finger tips— from neck through forehead—
certainly a grossly different interpretation of washing th an had been giver
to it by her offspring!
In a m ore serious vein, a great deal has been said recently ab o u t the
n a tu re of o u r education. W ere we confronted w ith .the statem ent th a t .,
~ "** Ti ... • • *
“ Most people receive an a dequate education”
we w ould very likely declare, “ W hy, of course it is so!” Yet, were we to
reflect for b u t a m oment, we would soon realize th a t there are several words
in th e statem ent th a t are a b it vague. T hus, the w ord education m eans m any
things to m any people.
T o some, education means occupying a seat in a building w here
there are other students a n d a teacher. To others, this word implies having
a thorough understanding of m athem atics, physics, chem istry, and a t least
tw o foreign languages. Rem oving the word education from the original
sentence and replacing it w ith each of the interpretations just stated, we
obtain these two sentences:
(1) M ost people occupy (or have occupied) a seat in a building w here
there are other pupils a n d teachers.
(2 )' M ost people have a thorough understanding of m athem atics, physics,
chem istry, and at least two foreign languages.
4. W hat other words in the statem ent Most people receive an adequate education
need clarification?
5. State one reason why people m ay have com pletely contradictory views
about simple statements.
I W ho Determines the Definitions of Words?
From the illustration in the preceding section we should
have learned that one of the reasons why people arrive at different conclu­
sions is because they attach different m eanings to the key words in the
discussion. But who is to say whose definition is the correct one? Frankly,
no one person can say. T he people participating in any discussion m ust .
agree on the meanings of the term s in question. O nce they have reached
an understanding, however, it is im portant th a t no one change th e defini­
tions of these terms w ithout notifying the others. N ot to notify the others
would be quite foolish, for then this person- w ould arrive a t conclusions
based on private definitions th a t would be m eaningless to the others.
So, too, will be the case w ith the m any, m any words th a t will be con­
sidered in geometry. O nce th e definitions o f term s have been, agreed upon
(they will be those th a t appear in this textbook), we can n o t be fickle and;
change them to suit ourselves as we m ight change o u r clothes. O n the o th er ’
h a n d there is nothing sacred ab o u t w hich definition has been agreed upon.
W h at is im portant is th a t w e do not change horses in m idstream . W h at
w ould happen if p a rt way through the course several students in the class,
w ithout consulting the others, decided to go back and change th e definitions
of all the words they h a d learned to date?
Briefly, we can now say
(1) Definitions are m ade to suit the needs of the people involved in a n y
discussion.
(2) Or.cc a definition has been agreed upon, it can not be changed by
any single m em ber w ithout consulting the others of the group.
 4
d e f in it io n s a n d t h e ir p l a c e i n a
EXERCISES
D e f in e th e u n d e r lin e d w o r d s in tw o w a y s : (a ) to m a k e th e
s e n t e n c e t r u e a n d ( b ) t o TY iakc i t f a l s e .
1. A te le v is io n s e t is a p ie c e o f f u r n i t u r e .
2. A dog is m a n ’s best friend.
3 . A r e f r i g e r a t o r is a n i c e b o x .
4. T h e school nurse is a teach er.
5. A m ag az in e is a tex tb o o k .
6. George W ashington was an intellectual.
7 . A c a n d y b a r is fo o d .
8. C lim bing the school stairs is participating in gym nastic activities.
■ Constructing a D e fin itio n
A lthough we have been discussing th e need for clearly
defined term s, in addition to th e fact th a t we have been called u p o n to
define several words, nothing, absolutely nothing, has been said concerning
how to construct a good definition. T his m ay ap p ear as a n oversight. Yet,
on th e o th er hand, it provided an opportunity to fo rm ulate several defi­
nitions th a t can now be exam ined carefully. In this w ay w e will be able to
select th e special ingredients from w hich definitions a re brewed. T hese
ingredients are frequently called the chara cteristic s o r p ro p ertie s of a definition.
I f each of us had w ritten the definition of a teacher called for in Prob-
lem 4 of the preceding Exercises, one o f these w ould p ro b ab ly be
“ A teacher is a person who im parts inform ation to h e r students,”
T h e re are two features of this definition th a t m ust be em phasized:
(1) T h e subject of the sentence is the w ord being defined.
(2) T h e v e rb is sotnt form of the verb “ to b e .”
E qually as im portant, though, is the fact th a t the w ord following th e
v erb p ertains to a collection of objects w hich have sim ilar traits.N In this
situation the collection is th e w ord person. O ther things th a t would have •
sim ilar traits to the word teacher th at w ould also belong to th e collection of
things called person w ould be: policem an, fireman, engineer, man, w om an,
• taxi driver, and m any, m an y more. C an you nam e a t least six o th er things
th a t belong to the collection o f person? Should you exam ine some o f th e
o th er definitions you m ad e for the preceding Exercises, you m ay find th a t
th e collections to w hich each of the first three words belonged w ere
(1) A piece o f furniture is a household article. . . .
(2) A friend is a person. . . .
(3) A n icebox is a piece of furniture. . . .
|
pR oof CONSTRUCTING A DEFINITION 5
Quite apparently our definition did not end w hen we placed the word
being defined into the collection of articles that had sim ilar features. R eturn­
ing to the definition of teacher, you will notice th at a m odifying clause was
placed after the word person. W hat is the purpose of this clause? W hy is it
that the definition could not have ended with the w ord person? If it had
ended with the word person, nam e several o ther words whose m eaning
would be identical to th at of the word teacher.
From your answers to the last four questions it should be clear that
every good definition must contain a clause or phrase m odifying the collec­
tion of objects. T he purpose of this clause is to show how the word being
defined differs from all the other words in the collection to w hich it belongs.
If the modifying clause were not added, then all the words in the collection
would have identical meanings. T hus, in the case of teacher, the modifying
clause is
. . who im parts information to her students.”
Were this clause not in the definition, then the words teacher, police­
m an, fireman, engineer, m an, w om an, and all the other words classified as
person would have the same m eaning. In each of the definitions that you
wrote for the underlined words in the Exercises on .page 4, how did you
distinguish the word you defined from the other words in th a t collection?
A third im portant property of a definition can be illustrated by asking
you to criticize the following "definition”.:
“ A teacher is a person who teaches.”
T his definition certainly complies w ith the first two properties of a definition:
(1) T he w ord is placed into a collection (persons) th a t contains objects
having sim ilar features.
(2) T he word is distinguished from the other objects in the collection
by the m odifying phrase who teaches.
B ut yet there is something confusing in this definition. T h e person who did
not know the m eaning of the word teacher w ould certainly not know the
m eaning of the word teaches. T hus, he would be no closer to an understand­
ing of the w ord teacher after he heard the definition th an before he h a d heard
it. Hence, w hat relationship should exist between the words in the definition
and the w ord being defined?
T he fourth and last property of a definition is not q uite as apparent
as the earlier three. R eturn again to the definition of a teacher:
“A teacher is a person who im parts inform ation to her students.”
W ere we to reverse, this sentence— th at is, interchange the predicate nom ­
inative w ith the subject of the sentence—it w ould become
“ A person who im parts inform ation to her students is. . . . ”
Q uite apparently, it would be best if this person was a teacher, not a ikenian,
nor a doctor, nor a lawyer.

6 DEFINITIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
Thus, our definition o f teacher is r eversible. Every definition m ust be
reversible. By this w e m ean th a t w hen th e predicate nom inative a n d the
subject of a definition are interchanged, th e new sentence will be true.
T his is not so w ith all sentences. To illustrate, the reverse of
“ All kings are m en”
is
“ A ll m e n a r e k i n g s . ”
Although m ost m en w ould prefer to believe th a t the latter sentence is true,
most women know all too well that it is n ot! Can you m ake up five other
statem ents that are not reversible?
T hus, we c an now say th a t the properties of a definition are
(1) T h e word being defined m ust be placed in to its nearest class. E arlier
this class was referred to as a collection of w ords having sim ilar properties.
(2) I t is necessary to show how the word being defined differs from the
other words in its class. This was done by adding th e m odifying clause
or phrase.
(3) T h e words in the definition m ust be sim pler th an the word being
defined.
(4 ) T h e definition m ust b e reversible.
EXERCISES
1. W hich of the properties of a definition are n o t com plied w ith in each of
the following “ definitions”?
(a ) An autom obile is a vehicle.
( b ) A desk is th a t which is used to w rite on.
(c) A history book is a book th a t contains history.
(d ) An instrum ent used for keeping tim e is a clock.
(e ) If a rectangle is a square, then it has four equal sides.
2. R ew rite each of the sentences in Problem 1 so th a t they w ill conform
w ith th e properties of a definition.
3. U sing the properties of a definition, define each of th e following w ords:
(a ) ru n n in g shoes (b ) biography (c) football helm et
(d ) w riting p a p e r (e) chair (f) garage
■ Need for Undefined Terms
T h e m ethod w e have used for defining words is certainly
n o t the only way to form ulate definitions. By reflecting a m om ent, you
w ould realize th a t no dictionary gives a definition in sentence form. T h e
definitions th a t you find in a dictionary are called synonymous definitions.
W hy was this nam e chosen?
A very com m on ty p e of definition is the one used w hen teaching a
■ baby h o v to speak. I t w ould be a bit absurd to say to a young child;
7
NEED FOR UNDEFINED TERMS
“ A tabic is an article of furniture upon w hich food is placed.”
N ot only would this approach be nonsense, b u t by insisting upon defining
words in this m anner to an infant we w ould probably retard his ability to
speak by m any years! A parent would norm ally point to the object and repeat
its nam e m any times. In due course the child w ould begin to m um ble some­
thing th a t vaguely resembled the word. N o, this is not a scientific definition,
but a definition nevertheless, as any proud p a ren t would vouch for. Defi­
nitions of this variety are called demonstrative definitions. W hen pointing to. a
table and repeating the word "ta b le ,” w e never know w hether the child
m ay be thinking only of the four legs ra th e r th an the entire object. Hence,
to him , every desk, every chair, every stool, in fact every four-legged object
m ight be a table!
T h e type of definition whose properties were listed on page 6 is
called a connotative definition. T his m ethod for defining term s is used in most
areas of elem entary m athem atics, including geom etry. W ithout realizing it,
in your study of algebra you defined such w ords as term , m onom ial, binomial,
trinom ial, and polynomial by em ploying th e properties of the connotative
definition. If you are now studying biology, you will find th a t all the words
in this science are defined in term s of the connotative definition. Similarly,
if you study physics and chem istry, here, too, application will be m ade of
the connotative definition.
T h e fact th a t we insist upon the use of the connotative definition in
geom etry leads us squarely into a ra th e r nasty predicam ent. Let us suppose
th a t we did not understand the m eaning of th e w ord “ person” a t the time
we w ere w riting a definition of the w ord “ teacher.” W ere we to look for the
w ord “ person” in the dictionary, it w ould lead us to the classification of
“ hu m an beings.” Again, assum ing th a t this phrase m eant little or nothing
to us, we moved on undaunted to seek its m eaning in the dictionary also.
A nd so we continued to investigate the m eaning of each new class th a t we
encountered until finally o u r a rra y of w ords resem bled the picture below:
teacher
4
person
hum an being
>1
m an
*I
prim ate
i
m am m al
i
anim al
i
living organism
anim al

8 THE LANGUAGE OF GEOMETRY
DEFINITIONS AND THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
W hat criticism w ould you have of a dictionary th a t led us from “ a n im a l”
to “ living organism ” and from “ living organism ” back to “ an im al” ? W hich
of the properties of th e c c n n o ta tiv definition was not com plied w ith by a
dictionary th at w ould lead us into a “ circular definition” such as this?
U nfortunately, were we to trace words from class to class, we w ould
find th a t the authors of m ost dictionaries will lead us in circles as in the case
above. T hey do, however, have an o th er choice. At some p o in t in this process
of “ back stepping,” the authors can call a h a lt saying, “ I think th a t this
w ord is so elem entary th a t its m eaning is known to all. Since th ere a re no
sim pler words in m y language w ith w hich to define this w ord, I will not
define it a t a ll.” W ords such as this are referred to as first words. T h e m ath ­
e m a tic ia n w ould call them primitive terms, or elemental terms, or sim ply un­
defined terms. In the diagram on page 7 “ living organism ” should have
been considered as an undefined term , for in this case there app eared to be
n o w ord in the language in which to classify it.
W ere we perm itted to use the dem onstrative definition, it w ould have
b een possible to have pointed to the object and in th a t w ay “ defined” it.
I n geom etry, however, we insist th a t the connotative, a n d only the connota-
tiv e , definition be used. H ence, in order to define a w ord, it must be classified.
S in ce we must begin our language— and our language will b e th e language
o f geom etry—w ith some words, these first words will have no p rior w ords
b y w hich they can be classified. They must, therefore, of necessity remain undefined.
EXERCISES
1 . P repare a diagram in w hich the w ord being defined is led from class
to class to th e undefined term that..appears a t the very end. Use the
following group of words, w here the first word is the undefined term :
living organism , anim al, person, citizen, teacher, m athem atics instructor,
M r. Clark.
2 . D raw a sim ilar d iagram for th e following term s w here the undefined
term is the last one: rhom bus, parallelogram , quadrilateral, polygon.
3 . In each of the following problem s rearrange the term s in their proper
order, then draw a diagram sim ilar to that found on page 7,
(a) num ber, im proper fraction, fraction, nine-fifths
.(b) furniture, m oveable article, desk, table
4 . U sing a dictionary, trace each of th e following w ords to th eir original
source. D raw a diagram sim ilar to the one on page 7, showing the
class into w hich each w ord fell.
(a ) fable (b) gold (c) rose (d) carpet (e) brick
5 . Will' it be possible to define the first word you learn in the subject of
geometry? J ustify your answer.
9
■ The Language of Geometry
Point
T h e language of geometry is frequently opened with a
discussion of the term point. I t goes w ithout saying th a t this word, of all
words in geometry, can not be defined as it is the very first word in our
language. A lthough it is not possible to define t this term , we are still faced
w ith the problem of how to m ake its m eaning clear to all. T his is done by
listing some of the properties, or characteristics, of the w ord w ithout classify­
ing it. W henever a w ord can not be defined, th a t w ord is described. F u n d a­
mentally, the difference between a description and a definition lies only in
the fact that
(1) W hen a w ord is defined, it is classified.
(2) W hen a w ord is described, properties of the word are given without
classifying it.
T o get some idea of why the properties of a point were so chosen, try
to visualize the very fine end of a needle or a pin. A lthough you m ay con­
sider th a t it is extrem ely pointed in its present condition, im agine w hat this
end would be like if the refining or sharpening process were to continue
indefinitely. I t is ju st such a notion th at the m athem atician would like us
to keep in m ind w hen we think of a point. H e w ants the point to indicate
some fixed position such as the end of the needle or pin. A nd yet he does
not w ant it to occupy any space as the needle end does! H ence, he asks us
to consider this needle end in the process of refinem ent a t the m om ent it is
vanishing. A t th a t tim e, it represents a point to him . T hus, we obtain the
properties of a point.
A poin t has neith er len gth nor w idth b u t ind icates position.
Line
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ W hen trying to define a line, we have two avenues of attack
dpen to us. If th e w ord is definable, there exists only one class into w hich
it can b e placed. W hy? If it is n o t definable, it will be th e second of our
undefined term s. T h e m athem atician prefers th a t it be undefined. T h ere
are a n um ber of ways, though, in which we can visualize a line:
(1) T h e fine edge of a form ica counter.
(2) T h e fine th re a d by w hich a spider lowers itself.
(3) T h e crease m ade by folding a piece of paper.
(4) T h e “ line of sight” of a gun.
(5) A piece of elastic stretched to the breaking point.
(6) T h e edge o f a ruler.
t W h e n ev er th e w o rd “ d e fin e " ap p e a rs h en cefo rth in th is book, it w iii im ply th e u se of.
th e c o n n o tativ e d efin itio n .
 THE LANGUAGE OF GEOMETRY 11
10 DEFINITIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF As an exam ple, if the set of elem ents B is given as

Perhaps one of the better ways of picturing what- the m athem atician B = {2, 3, 4 , 5}
conceives of as a line is the piece of elastic m entioned above. Assume th a t
then, if
it will never break. As it is stretchcd m ore and m ore, it becomes thinner A = { 2 , 3}

and thinner. Should this process be continued indefinitely, the elastic w ould
A w ould be a subset of B. O ther subsets of B are
become m inutely narrow and yet extend infinitely far in either direction.
{ 3 , 4 ,5 } { 3 ,5 } {5}
It is with this view in m ind that the properties of a line were established.
A lin e has no w id th b u t can b e exte n d e d as far as d e sire d in e ith e r C an you nam e a t least four other subsets of B?
d ir e c tio n ,^ ( 2 ) Intersection of Sets: T he intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all
At this stage of our work we have com e to a roadblock. W e can not elem ents th a t are members of both A and B.
proceed w ith our w ork unless we recall some of the things we learned in As an exam ple consider the sets
algebra. O f g re at im portance to us now is an understanding of the term set.
A = { 1 ,3 , 5 ,7 ,9 }
Set B = { 3 ,4 ,5 , 6, 7}

T h e intersection of A and B is the set

T h e w ord set will be third of our undefined term s. As in
{3, 5, 7}
th e case of the other two words we will try to m ake its m eaning clear by
describing it. T hus,. for this set consists of all elements th a t a re m em bers of both A and B,
A set is a “ w e ll-d e fin e d ” collection. ) I f th e tw o sets have no elem ents in com m on, then the set representing
their intersection will have no m em bers. T hus, the intersection of the sets
E m phasis is placed on the words “ well-defined,” for
(1) If the members or elements of the set arc known to us, we should be C = { 1 ,3 , 5 ,7 ,9 }
able to describe how they were found. D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
(2) Should we be given a description of a set of elem ents, it will be possible will be th e em pty set or null set { }, for there are no elements th a t are
for us to list the m em bers of this set.
com m on to both C and D .
T o illustrate, given the set of elements (3) Union of Sets: T h e union of two sets A a n d B is the set of all elemen.ts
{a, e, i, o, w} th a t are m em bers of either A or B.
i t is possible for us to describe this set by saying th a t it consists of all the As a n exam ple consider the sets
vow els in the alphabet. Notice th a t the letters a, e, i, o, and u are the elements A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
o r members of this set and th a t they are enclosed in braces { }. B => {2, 4, 6, 8}
Now, secondly, w ere the m em bers of a set described to us, this descrip­
t io n would have to be such th at we could list these m em bers. T hus, consider T h e union of A and B is the set
t h e description 0 , 2 , 3, 4, 6, 8}
“ T h e set of elem ents consisting of the names of the
for the m em bers of this set a re in either A or B .
days of the week beginning w ith the letter S.”
T h is w ould be a “ well-defined” collection, for from this description it is
p ossible to list the elem ents in this set :
EXERCISES
(Saturday, Sunday}
l. F ro m th e description given below, list the elem ents of each of th e follow­
R elative to the background th a t we will need, there are three concepts
■yet to be recalled. These are (1) subsets, (2) intersection of sets, and (3) union in g sets:
(a ) 'T he set o f all integers greater th an 1 0 and less th an 20 .
o f sets.
(b ) T h e set o f all odd num bers g reater th a n 2 a n d less th an 10.
< *) Subsets: A set A is said to be a subset of the set B if every clem ent of A
i s an elem ent of JS.
12 THE LANGUAGE OF GEOMETRY 13
DEFINITIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
(c) T he set of all m ultiples of 4 th a t are greater than 20 a n d less th a n 30.
(d ) T he set of all prim e num bers greater than 10 and less th an 20.
(e) T he set of all the nam es of the days of the week th at begin w ith the
letter “ M .”
(f) T he set of all one digit integers greater than 9.
(g) The set of al! num bers greater than 0 and less than 10 th a t consist
of '.he cubes of integers.
(h ) T he set of all m ultiples of 9 th at are greater than 12 and less th an 15.
(d )
(i) T he set of all proper fractions whose num erator and denom inator
are m em bers of {1, 2, 3, 4}.
2. W h at is the description of each of the sets below?
(a) {2, 4, 6, 8}
(b ) {5, 10, 15, 20,25}
(c ) { 3 ,6 ,9 ,1 2 , t5 , 18} 10. D raw diagram s sim ilar to the ones below and, in color, m ark those
(d ) {Tuesday, Thursday} elem ents th a t represent the union of the sets shown in each situation.
(e) {a, b , c , d , . . . , x , y, z}
(f) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9 , 1 1 , . . . , 2 * + 1 , . . . } (a)

(g ) . . . , ! / ( » + ! ) , • • •}
3. (a) List three subsets of {a, b, c, d, e}.
(b ) List all the subsets of {1,2}. (Both the original set and the null set
should be included am ong the subsets of any set.)
(c) List all the subsets of {1, 2, 3}.
11. (a ) Is the intersection of two sets a subset of either of the two sets?
(d ) By analyzing problem s (b ) and (c) can you state how m any subsets
Illustrate by using the sets S and T in exercise 5.
th ere will be for {1, 2, 3, 4} w ithout listing them?
(b ) Is the union of two sets always a subset of either set? Illustrate by
4 . If K — (a, b, c, d) and M — {c, d, « ,/} , find a t least two sets of elem ents using the sets 5 and T in exercise 5.
th a t will be subsets of both K and M . (c) G ive a n illustration w here the unio'n of two sets is a subset of one
5. If S = 0 , 2, 3, 4, 5} and T = {2, 4, 6, 8}, find of these sets.'
(a ) T h e intersection of S and T. 12. Sentences 2 and 3 concerning the intersection and union of sets th a t
(b ) T h e union of S and T. 1 ap p ear on page l l are actually the definitions of these term s. In w hat
6. If R = {a, e, i, o, «} and Y = {a, b, c, i , e}, find way were these definitions m ade to comply w ith the properties of the
(a) T h e intersection of R and connotative definition?
(b ) T h e union of R and Y.

7. If A — {1, 3, 5, 7} and B — {2, 4, 6, 8}, then find the intersection of Betweenness

A and B.
8. If A is th e set of integers g reater than 2 and B is the set of integers less
th an 10, then find the intersection of A and B.
9. A “ geom etric figure” is often described as a set of points. D raw diagram s
sim ilar to the ones a t the top of page 13 and, in color, m ark those elem ents
th a t represent the intersection of the two sets in each situation.
■■■■■■■■ U ntil recently m athem aticians showed little concern about
the term “ betw een,” although they had used it quite often. C urrently,
however, efforts are being m ade to indicate precisely w hat this term shall
m ean w hen used in a geom etric discussion. If you are w ondering why a n y ­
one w ould be confused by the use of the word ‘'betw een,” consider the
diagram*' in Figure l - l . Is A, in each case, “ betw een” B a n d C; or is B
“ betw een” A and C; or is C “ betw een” A and B?
 14 DEFINITIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF THE LANGUAGE OF GEOMETRY 15

F ig u re 1-1. F i g u r e 1-5.

A llhough “ betw een” will be another of o u r undefined terms, confusion the m an n er in which we approached them on the line. In all four cases,
o f th e ;'n a tu re show n above will not exist, for a t no tim e shall we ever use however, B is between A and C , for the order in which they appear on the
th is te rm unless the three points are points of the same line. A t this tim e it w ould line, no m atter how we approach them on the line, is either A, 3 , C or
b e well to state th a t points are nam ed by using a single capital letter. In C, B, A.
In general, for any three points on a line one and only one of the
th e diagram s of Figure 1-1 the three points w ere nam ed by the capital
letters A , B , a n d C. Furtherm ore, by considering a line to be a set of points th e following orders m ust exist:
expression th a t points “ fall on” a line will m erely im ply th at these points A, B, C A, C, B B, A, C
a r e m em bers of th e set th a t comprise the points of the line. R e m e m b e r , o f c o u rse , th a t th e o r d e r A, B, C is n o d i f f e r e n t t h a n C, B, A,
Before we can speak of arranging things, it seems essential th at these fo r in e a c h c a se B is b e t w e e n A a n d C. »
thin g s be distinct. T hus, we would not think of “ arranging” a single book
o n a shelf, for there is no other book w ith reference to which it can be Line Segment
a rra n g e d . H ow ever, had we two books, we w ould have our choice of placing ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ H I W e are now in a position w here we can define the very
o n e first a n d th e o th er second or in th e reverse order. Should we be arranging first term in the language of geom etry: line segment. As the w ord itself
th re e books— a history, an English, and a science book— on the shelf, then implies, we would like this term to denote a segment or piece of a line and
o n e of three situations m ight arise:
exclude from it the rem aining points of this line. T o do this, we m ake the
(1) T h e history book will b e betw een th e E nglish a n d the science books. following definition:
(2) T h e English book will be between the history and the science books. D e f in it io n 1 : A lin e s e g m e n t AB is a s e t o f p o i n ts o f a l in e c o n s is tin g o f t h e
(3) T h e science book will be between the E nglish and the history books. p o in ts A and B a n d a ll t h e p o in ts b e tw e e n th e m .

I n F igure 1-6 the points A and B and all the points of the line betw een
them is said to comprise the line segment A B . T h e points A and B themselves

F ig u re 1-2. F igure 1-3. Figure 1-4.
I t w ould m ake no difference to us were the order in Figure 1-2 English,
history, science or science, history, English, for in either event the history
book w o u lJ be betw een the other two.
So, too, is the case when referring to three points on a line. Were their
order on the line either A, B, C or C, B, A, we would speak of B as being be­
tween A and C. As seen in the diagram s of F igure 1-5, it w ould m ake very
little sense to speak of the order of the points as the first point in question, the
second, and the th ird , for how we num bered the points would depend on
F ig u r e 1-6.
are called the endpoints of the segment. O ddly enough, the line of w hich A
a n d B are points can also be nam ed by the same two capital letters and,
hence, be called the line A B . T o distinguish the line A B from the segm ent
A B , th e following symbols are used:
lin e .4 B : A B
segm ent A B : A B
T h e double arrow head over the A B helps to recall the property th a t the
line can be extended infinitely, far in either direction.
 16 17
DEFINITIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF THE LANGUAGE OF GEOMETRY
A lthough a line segm ent m ust be nam ed by using only those letters at a t the endpoint, w hile the second is the nam e of any other po in t of the ray.
its endpoints, a line m ay be nam ed by referring to any two points of th a t
T o illustrate, the ray in Figure 1-12 is ray A B , w ritten A B ] Figure 1-13 is
t t V-V > i—^ >
line. T hus, in Figure 1-7 ihis line m ay be called A B , B A , AD, D A , o r any
tf

A 8 C D E
F ig u re 1-7.

one of a n um ber of o th er ways. C an you nam e this line in a t least ten w ays
not already given?
F i g u r e 1-13. F i g u r e 1-14.
Ray
■ B H M W e have often heard people speak of sun rays, o r m oon the ray CD (CD); whiie Figure 1 - 1 4 -is the ray F E (PE) or ray FG (FG).
rays, or a ray of light. So, too, in geom etry we w ould like to speak of a ray N otice th a t only single headed arrows are placed over the two capital letters.
fro m a sim ilar point of view. W e can picture a ray by visualizing th e th re a d
T his is to indicate th a t a ray can be extended in one direction only. W hy is
o f light th at would be seen if a flashlight w ere placed behind a d a rk sheet —►
o f p a p e r th at h a d been punctured by a pin. As show n in Figure 1-8 th e ra y it not possible to n am e the ray w ith endpoint F in Figure 1 - 1 4 as GE?
D e fin itio n 3: O pposite ra ys are two distinct rays of the sa m e line th a t
have a com m on endpom T ---------——----------
—^
In Figure 1-15 A B and AC are opposite rays, for they a re
(1) distinct
(2) of the same line (EF)
(3) have a common endpoint (A)

F igure 1-8.
F i g u r e 1-15.
•would sta rt a t the paper and go off to the right. N o p a rt of this ra y w ould
e x is t to the left of the paper. --> . “4
O n the o th er h an d A B and A F would not be opposite rays, although they
T his description is clear, but it is far from being m athem atically precise. -4
T o m ake it so, we will have to clarify w hat is m eant by the statem ent th a t have a com m on endpoint and are on the same line, for A B and A F are m erely
tw o points are on the sam e side of a third point. T hus, if B and C a re on the two1different nam es for the sam e r a y !
sam e side of A, then either B is between A and C as in Figure 1-9 or C is
b e tw e e n A and B as in Figure 1-10. W ere A between B and C, th en B and Angle
C a re said to be on opposite sides of A as in Figure 1-11. ■■■■■■■ M uch of geom etry concerns itself w ith relationships th a t
exist am ong line segm ents and am ong angles. It is unlikely th a t this is the
A b C~ B ~r~ C A~ 8~ a C~ very first tim e th a t the w ord angle has come to your attention. However,

F igure 1-9. F igure 1-10. F igure 1-11.

D e f in it io n 9 • A ra v is a se t o f p o in ts consisting of th e u n io n of a fixed
p o in t o f a lin e a n d a ll th e p o in ts o f t h a t lin e o n th e sa m e aide o f th e
fjxed-poinl^

T h e fixed point is called the endpoint.oi the ray, while the ray itself is
n a m e d by using two cap ital letters. T h e first of these roust be th e letter
 18
DEFINITIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF 19
THE LA N G U A G E OF GEOMETRY
as you realize by now, vague notions of w hat this w ord m ay m ean can !ead
to difficulties. H ence, by exam ining Figure 1-16 see if you can form ulate a A
clear definition of an angle. After having done this, com pare your definition 3.
with that given here.

D e f i n i t i o n 4 : An a n g le is th e set_of p o in ts c o n s is tin g of th e u n i o n of tw n
rays th at have a c om m on endpoint.
> C i- _
C D
T h e common endpoint is called the vertex oj the angle, w hile the. tw o rays
are referred to as th e sides oj iht angle. An angle is nam ed by using three angle m a r k e d 1 in two different ways.
(a) Name the
capital letters. T h e letter nam ing the vertex m ust always ap p ear as 'h e m iddle
(b ) N am e the angle marked 2 in two different ways.
letter. T h e other two letters are names of two points, one from each of th e angle marked 3 in four different ways.
(c) Nam e the -.1 --- >
sides. T h u s, in F igure 1-17 the angle m ay be nam ed either angle ACE,
(d ) N am e the angle whose sides are A B and AC.
► -4

(e) N am e the angle whose sides are CB and CA.

(f). N am e the two sides of /A .C B \ of / A C D ; of /.B C D .

4.

F ig u re 1-17,

w ritten as / A C E \ or angle ECA ( /E C A ) ; o r / B C E ] o r a n y one of a n um ber

of other ways w herein C is always the m iddle letter. H ow w ould you nam e
this angle in a t least four ways not already given?
(a) N am e the angle m arked 1 in four different ways.
( b ) N am e the angle marked 2 in two different ways.
(c) N am e the angle m arked 3 in two different ways.
EXERCISES
(d ) Give two other names for the line BD .

1.
(e ) Give four other names for the line A E.
(f) A t w hat point do the lines AC and B D intersect?

(g ) N am e the intersection of A B and EC.

8 C O

(a ) N am e th e line m arked 1 in two different ways.

(b ) N am e th e line m arked 3 in two different ways.
(c) N am e the line m arked 4 in six different ways.
(d ) N am e th e line m arked 5 in six different ways.
(e) N am e the line segm ent m arked 1 in tw o different ways,
(f) N am e th e line segm ent m arked 2 in two different ways.
(a) N am e the angle formed by A B and AC.
2. (a) In the d iagram in Problem 1, at w hat point do th e lines and
(b ) N am e the rays th at form the angle whose vertex is C.
D A intersect?
(c) N am e two angles th a t have a comm on ray as a side of e ach 'o f th e
<—>
■ (b ) In the diagram in Problem 1, w hat is the intersection of B D and angles.
(d ) N am e an angle whose sides are a pair of opposite rays.

(e) W h at is the intersection of AC and BD?

 21
20 DEFINITIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF TEST

6. Using the properties of a connotative definition, explain w hy

(c ) { J a n u a ry , J u n e , J u ly )
a line
(d ) { 1 ,4 ,9 ,1 6 ,2 5 }
can not be defined as: “ A line is a set of points.” 6 . F i n d t h e i n te r s e c t io n o f t h e tw o s e ts in e a c h o f t h e f o ll o w i n g p r o b l e m s :

7 . Using the diagram below, how m ight it be possible to describe ~A3 (a) {Mary, Betty, Jane} and {Doris, M ary, Jane}
in terms of A C a n d BD? (b ) {1, 3, 5, 9} and (2, 4, 6, 8}
7. (a) E x p l a in w h a t t h e c o n d it i o n s w o u ld h a v e to b e s o t h a t t h e i n te r s e c -

D A S C t i o n o f A B w i t h CD w a s AB.
( b ) E x p la in w h a t th e c o n d itio n s w o u ld h a v e to b e so t h a t t h e in te r s e c -
8 . Illustrate how two rays can have a point in comm on a n d y et th eir
■
<—*
union will n o t be an angle. tio n o f AB w ith CD w a s t h e n u l l s e t,
(c ) E x p la in w h a t th e c o n d itio n s w o u ld h a v e to b e so t h a t t h e u n io n o f
9. T h e set of points of a line on one side of a given point is called a half-
line. H ow does a half-line differ from a ray? A B w ith CD was AB.
1 0 . (a ) W hat is the intersection of A B and AB? 8. a is the set of points of one line, b the set o f points of a second line, and c
the set of points of a third line.
( b ) W h at is the intersection of A B and A B ? (a) D raw a diagram in w hich the intersection of a a n d 6 is a n elem ent
<— _____
(c) W hat is the union of A B a n d AB? of c.
(b ) D raw a diagram in w hich the intersection of a a n d A, the intersec­
tion of a and c, and the intersection of 4 a n d c a re three distinct
■ Test
elements.
9. Each of the problem s below should be answered in term s of this diagram .
1. Explain why it is not possible to define the first w ord w hen b uilding th e
language of a new science.
— r -----------------
2. H ow is a “definition” distinguished from a “ description” ?

3. W hich of the properties of a connotative definition were n o t com plied

w ith when each of the following definitions was m ade?
(a ) A new spaper informs its readers of events th at have recently oc­
curred.' (a) N am e the angle m arked 1.
(b ) N am e the rays that form the sides of Z.AED.
(b ) An Englishm an is a person. —> >
(c) An isosceles triangle is a triangle that is isosceles, (c) N am e the angle whose sides are B E and BA.
' (d ) N am e a pair of opposite lays.
4 . F ro m th e descriptions given below, list the elements of each of the fol­
lowing sets: (e ) N am e the intersection of B E and CD.
(a ) T h e set of all one-digit integers th a t are m ultiples of 3. (f) N am e the intersection of AC and AE.
(b ) T h e set of num bers th a t a re the squares of the first five odd num bers. 10. (a ) I f two rays intersect, will their point of intersection be the vertex of
(c ) T h e set of all prim e num bers th a t a re greater th a n 23 a n d less aii angle of which th e rays are the sides of th a t angle? Justify your
th an 29.
answer.
(d ) T h e set of all fractions w hose num erator comes from the set {1, 2, 3} (b ) Tw o rays have a com m on endpoint and they are subsets of the
and whose d enom inator comes from the set {5, 7}. sam e line. Does this im ply th a t they are opposite rays? Justify y our
S . Give a description for each of the sets below, answer.
(a ) { 4 ,8 ,1 2 ,1 6 ,2 0 } (c) T h e intersection of A T and B S is B Y . D raw a diag ram illustrating
(b ) { 2 ,3 ,5 ,7 ,1 1 ,1 3 ,1 7 ,1 9 } this situation.
 23
THE MEASURE OF A LINE SEGMENT
/.X Y Z = / .R S T
would be m athem atically inaccurate, for the left m em ber of the equation
is the n am e of one angle, while the right m em ber is the nam e o f a com pletely
different angle. Yet, there does exist an equality of some n atu re th a t can
be exam ined between line segments and between angles. O f w hat character
this equality is will be our concern for m uch of this chapter.

■ The Measure of a Line Segment

An im portant u n it of your study of algebra centered around
the “ one-to-one” correspondence th at exists between the points on a line
and the real numbers. R ather briefly, the real num bers consist of all the

2 Z num bers you examined during th at course except for the im aginary num bers
such as V —5. Specifically, these num bers did include positive and negative
integers, positive and negative fractions, plus irrational num bers of the form
V 2 , V 68, a n d ir. Furtherm ore, the term “ one-to-one” correspondence as
used here m erely implies that for each point on the num ber line there exists
Definitions of but one real num ber nam ing th at point and, m oreover, for every real n um ­
b e r there exists but one point to represent it on the num ber line.

Geometric Terms Such a correspondence is called a coordinate system. In addition, the

n u m b er nam ing any particular point of the num ber line is called the

D w
-2 0 l JT 2 3~jr "

T H E T E R M S T H A T W E W IL L C O N S ID E R IN T H IS F ig u re 2-1.
ch ap ter will enable us to exam ine the relationships th a t exist between angles
coordinate of th at p o in t. For the num ber line in Figure 2-1 the coordinate of A
and betw een line segments. T hese relationships concern themselves with the
is 2. W hat are the coordinates of B and C? In the study of geom etry, we are
notion of equality— a concept th at was exam ined q u ite thoroughly by you -- y
du rin g your course in algebra. interested only in th at p art of the num ber line consisting of the CM; th a t is,
As you recall, the equality
the point zero and all the positive points on the num ber line.
a = b W hat we have tried to do is m ake the num ber line resemble an infinitely
was a m eans th a t was used to express the fact.th at a a n d b were b u t different long ruler. By varying the position of the point nam ed “ 1” we can in tu rn
symbols representing the same “ thing.” And, to a large extent, these “ things” m ake the num ber line appear to be either the “ inch” ruler, the “ centim eter”
in algebra w ere sim ply num bers. T hus, the equality
inch ruler
3 + 4 = 5+ 2 3"
expressed the fact th a t the sym bols on th e rig h t of th e equality sign and the c e n tim eter ru le r
symbols o n th e left w ere m erely tw o different ways of representing the n u m ­ i . ■ -1-------1------ >------ ------- ■
--------------------
ber seven. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 2-2.
I n view of this, it w ould b e both inconsistent and unwise to state a t any
tim e th a t
ru ler, the “ foot” ruler, in fact any dimension ruler we care to m ake it.
A B = UD C hanging the position of the 1 changes the unit of m easure. W hether w.e
use the inch, the centim eter, the foot, the yard, the m eter, or any one of a
for A B and CD a re th e names of two different line segments and, as such,
m ultitu d e of other units in creating the num ber line, is not im portant. W h at
are n o t symbols representing the same “ thing.” Sim ilarly, to say th a t

22
 25
THE MEASURE OF A LINE SEGMENT
24 DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS
Midpoint of a Line Segment
tm m m ttm im I Since we have a means of expressing equality, w e w ould like
is of great im portance, however, is that we do not change the u n it on the
to examine several situations in which this will occur. T h e first o f these is
n um ber Jine when p art way through a problem . In fact, to avoid any m is­
understanding, we will agree th at the num ber lines encountered in any singie w ith reference to th e m idpoint of a line segment,
problem Will have identically the same unit. D efinition 5: T h e m idpoint of a line segment is a p o in t of th a t line seg­
W e are now in a position w here we can form ulate a very im p o rta n t m ent such th a t the tw o segments formed have equal m easures.
concept. Starting with any given line segment, '.ve can establish a c o ordinate To illustrate, if C is the m id p o in t of A B , then by definition th e m easure
system on the line containing th a t segment. By making the co o rd in ate of one
endp o in t of that segment 0, the coordinate oj the other endpoint will be called the ______________ i______________i--------------------- 1-------------------- -
measure oj the line segment. A C 6
2-3) we create a coordinate system whereby the coordinate of A , one end- Figure 2-5.

A 8 of AC will be equal to the measure of CB. T his is expressed as

1 1 1 i
------ a------------------------------ --------------------- --------------------- _____________________ ___________________ - ■ -
C 0 1 2 3 d m AC = m C B
F i g u r e 2-3. T here are m any, m an y lines that contain th e m idpoint o f a line seg­
m ent. Each of these, o th er th an the one of w hich th e line segm ent is a
p o in t of A B , is 0. Since the coordinate of the other endpoint, B, is 2, the subset, is called the bisector oj the line segmtnt.
n u m b er 2 is said to be the m easure of A B . Using symbols, this is expressed as D e f i n i t i o n 6: T h e bisector of a line segment is a line th a t intersects th e

m ~AB — 2 (1) line segm ent a t the m idpoint o f the line segm ent.
^4 ——-
Q uite apparently, we are saying no m ore here than If, in Figure 2-6, A B is th e bisector o f CD, it will im ply th a t B m ust be
If a ruler is placed on line segm ent A B to determ ine its length, the m idpoint of CD , P ursuing this further: since B is th e m idpoint of CD ,
this length would be 2.
A_____________________ 6 th en as before
m C B ~ m BD
1 ---------— I---------- T~ r~ -
2 3 4
ru le r

F ig u r e 2-4.

N ote th a t when we referred to the m easure of "AB in (1) above, we did

n o t state th a t it was 2 centim eters, or 2 inches, or 2 feet, or 2 of a n y u n it
w hatsoever. T his is so since th e m easure of a line segment is the coordinate
o f one of its endpoints (when its other endpoint is 0). A nd as a coordinate, Frequently, inform ation in problems will .be given as
i t is sim ply a real num ber and nothing else! L ine segm ent X Y is the bisector of line segm ent R S (Figure
W ith the establishment of the m easure of a line* segm ent, w e have
overcom e the difficulty raised in the opening paragraphs of this c h ap ter. I t 2-7).
■was pointed out that it would be im proper to say th a t

~AB = CD

f o r A B and CD are the names of two different line segments. N ow , how ever,
t o say th at
m AB — mCD
Figure 2-7.
'w ill sim ply im ply th a t the symbols on the left of the equality sign a n d th e
sy m b o ls on th e right represent identically the same coordinate.
 26
DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS
T his m ay a p p e a r to be an THE MEASURE OF AN ANGLE. 27
lu oe a n inconsistency, for th e bisector of a line segm ent
as a line, ni
was defined as a line, n o t a line segment. I t is not in error, however, for the
segm ent X Y _ .44 noweve
W »T
- is m erely a subset o f rthe line X Y . H ence, if X Y contains the m id-
point c f RS, th en so too m ust X Y .
O ne m ore p o in t to be noted is th'1
m ents are equivalent: fact th a t the following tw 0 state-

0 ) X Y is the bisector of fiS. 2. Based on the property of a line, explain why it would not be possible for
(2) X Y bisects RS. a line to have a midpoint.
Statem ents such as these will be used 3. If, in the diagram at the right,
sam e m eaning. interchangeably, f0r they will have the
m BC = m CD = m D E
then C and D are called the trisection
EXERCISES points of BE. How would you define
the “ trisectiori points of a line seg­
m en t” ?
1. W h at conclusion can be draw n from
I-— below?
lems l > th e d a ta given in each of th e prob- __ __ ___
4. In the diagram in Problem 3 where m BC = m CD = m D E , then AC
(a) £> is the m idpoint of AC.
f4 _____
and A D are called the trisectors of BE. H ow would you define the “ tri­
(b ) V T is th e bisector of ■SM/ .
A, sectors of a line segment” ?
5. “ If m E F = m FG, this will not necessarily im ply that F is the m idpoint
of E g .”
(a) D raw a diagram justifying this statem ent.
(b ) U nder w hat conditions will F be the m idpoint of £G?
6. W hat is the name of the point of intersection of the bisector of a line
segm ent and the segment itself? Justify your answer.

I The Measure of an Angle

In trying to express an equality between angles we run
into the same difficulty as we did w ith line segments. T h a t is, to say th a t in
Figure 2-8
(e ) F is the m idpoint of AB .
(f) £>E bisects A B .
A.
A
Z ABC = / D E F

C F
Figure 2-8.
(g ) ^ a n d B D bisect each other.
(h) A B and CD bisect each other. w ould not be correct, for the nam e on the righjt of the equality refers to an
(D raw two conclusions.)
angle that is different from the angle th a t is referred to by the nam e on th e
left. By now we realize th at the equality sign can be used only if the symbols
on both sides of it are names for the sam e thing. Thus, we are forced into a

28 DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS
position of having to create a m easure for an angle as we had created a
m easure for a line segment.
W hereas the num ber line, or infinitely long ruler, was used to enable
us to express the m easure of a line segm ent, to express the m easure of an
angle w e fall back upon the protractor. Ignoring the instrum ent itself a n d
thinking only of its outline, w e obtain Figure 2-9. T o point A a t th e rig h t
we assign the num ber 0, w hile to the end point, B, of th e red figure— N O T
the segm ent A B — we assign th e n u m b er 180. F or la te r inform ation, it is
im p o rtan t to notice th at the outline of the p ro trac to r begins a t po in t A on
—¥ -—>
ra y KS a n d ends at point B on the ray opposite K9; th a t is, VP. T h is outline
is th en divided into 180 equal parts. T h e po in t C a t th e end of th e first of
these equal parts is m arked “ 1.” In th e sam e way, each of th e succeeding
endpoints of every one of the equal parts is m arked w ith th e consecutive
integers 2, 3, 4...........T h e last of which, of course, is 180,
As a m atter of fact, in a m an n er sim ilar to th at used .on the n um ber
line, we establish a pairing off, or one-to-one correspondence, between every
point on this red outline of the p ro tracto r and the real num bers from 0 to 180
inclusive. W here will the point representing the n u m b er 1 j appear? T he
p o in t representing the num ber .25? T h e point representing the num ber
179.99? N otice th a t once again w e have created a(coordinate system^This time,
th o u g h , th e points lie on the outline of th e protractor, wKIle th e coordinates
THE MEASURE OF A N ANGLE 29
are the real, n.urnbers greater .Uxan.or equal to 0 a n d iess th an o r equal to l 80.
Now, were we to place the vertex of an angle a t the point V a n d one
of th e sides along the ray VA, the other side of the angle will intersect the
arc at some point. T h e coordinate of this point is called th e measure of the angle.
In Figure 2-10 the m easure of Z.RVS is 50, for the side VR intersects the>
o utline of the p rotractor ai the point whose coordinate is 50. W ith symbols,
this is expressed as
s m Z R V S = 50 N
A nd, in the same way a$.ye>tt4}ad interpreted this in-previous worjc in m athe­
m atics, we do say thatj’Z.RP.S' an angle nf 50 decrees rso 0*). Inst as th e inch
a n d the foot are n a m e ^ fo r emits of m easure for a ljne segm ent/so the degree _
is the nam e fqr the u n il oTm easure of an angle. ' ' '
----- R etam frig to'Flgure 2-id, we notice tEat ------
m Z W V S = 75
and
m Z M V S = 149
W h a t is the m easure of Z N V S? O f Z T V S? O f ZPVS?
Before we leave this topic, two features m ust be stressed. T h e first of
these is the fact th a t th e m easure of an angle is m erely the coordinate of the
point on the a rc . As such it j s a num ber and no m ore. H ence, we should
never express the measure of an angle as, "let us say, 15 degrees, for the co­
o rdinate oTa point is the num ber itself w ithout.the w ord “ degree.” Secondly,
b y lim iting the outline of the protractor we drew , we have restricted o u r­
selves to angles whose m easure can be no greater than 180.~This will exclude
angles such as the one (Z C B A ) pictured in Figure 2-11. A lthough angles of
Figure 2-11.
this nature—and others m uch larger, too— occur in m ore advanced courses
in m athem atics,, they do not arise in our work. W e shall, therefore, ignore
them . ------------- --------- ""
W ith the understanding o f the m easure of an angle a t o u r disposal,
we are in a position to define a great m any new term s.
Right Angle and Straight Angle
9EBBMEBSH T h e angles discussed most frequently in the study of geom ­
etry a te the angles about to be defined. T hey have further im portance since
m any other term s are defined in term s of these angles.
 30 DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS
D e f in it io n 7: A rig h t angle is an angle of 90 degrees.

E qually as often, a right angle is referred to as being an angle whose

m easure is 90. T his, too, is correct, for the statem ent th a t

“ T h e m easure of an angle is 90”

is equivalent to th e statem en t th a t

“ A c ertain a n gle is an angle of 90 degrees.” a n a c u te a n g le a n o b t u ie a n g le

T o help fix this in your m ind, these statements will be used interchangeably F i g u r e 2-13.
in this book.

D ef in it io n 8: A straig h t angle is an angle of 180 degrees. W ith these two definitions we have com pleted the process of nam ing
all angles whose measures are greater th an 0 but less th an or equal to 180.
H ow m ight this definition have been worded if th e w a rd “m easure”
appeared in th e definition? You m ay have noticed that no nam e was given to the angle of 0 m easure.
This was done deliberately, for reference to this angle does not occur in the
At study of geometry. W hat can be said concerning the sides of an angle of 0
measure?

Complementary and Supplem entary Angles

r i0 h ,O n 8 1 9 . J tr a ig h t a n g l e
F i g u r e 2-12.
T h e re is a very im p o rta n t property th at follows from this definition th a t
m u st not be overlooked. In th e discussion of the m easure of an angle on
p a g e 28 it w as iipplied th a t an angle whose m easure was 180 would be
su c h th a t its sides w ould form a p air of opposite rays. Being opposite rays,
i t is possible to say th a t the sides of such an angle fall on the sam e line.
H ence, it follows th a t
The sides of a straight angle fall on a line.
T h is, of course, gave rise to the use of the word straight in the nam e straight
■angle.
Acute Angle and Obtuse Angle
H M B B M A t present w e have names for angles whose m easure is
e ith e r 90 o r 180. I t is q uite app aren t th at it would be impossible to have
different nam es for every angle as there are infinitely m any angles of different
m easures. W hy is this so? T o simplify this nam ing process, angles other than
t h e right or straig h t are grouped so as to belong either to the set whose
m easures fall betw een 0 a n d 90 or to the set whose measures fall between 90
a n d 180.
D 9: A n acute angle is an angle whose m easure is g reater th an
e f in it io n
an d less th a n 90.
D e f in it io n 10: An obtuse angle is an angle whose m easure is greater than
90 and less th an 180.
Throughout the study of m athem atics we often find refer­
ence to quantities being treated in pairs. T h e first illustration of this n atu re
th a t occurs in geometry is the pairing of two angles wherein the sum of
their measures is 90. Two such angles w ould be those whose measures are
63 and 27, or 15 and 75, or 89 and 1. Pairs of angles such as these are called
complementary angles.
D e f in it io n 11: Com plem entary angles are two angles, the sum of whose
m easures is 90. •
W hen two angles are com plem entary, one is said to be the complement
of the other. Thus, an angle whose m easure is 10 is the com plem ent of one
whose m easure is 80; an angle of 40 degrees is the com plem ent of one of 50
degrees. W hat is the complement of an angle of 70°? 25°? 1°? 54°? £°r
It m ust have been app aren t to you th a t if a special n am e was given
to £ p air of angles the sum of whose m easure was 90, th a t a special nam e
w ould also be given were the sum 180. T w o angles having this p roperty are
called supplementary angles.
D . 12: Supplem entary angles a re two angles the sum of whose
e f in it io n
m easures is 180.
If one of two supplem entary angles has a m easure of 150, w hat is the
m easure of the other? Each of these angles is said to be the supplement of the
other. In this illustration the angle whose m easure is 150 is the supplem ent
0
of the angle whose m easure is 30. W hat is the supplem ent of a n angle of 25°?
40°? 2°? 179°?
Since the m easure of a straight angle is also 180, the definition of
supplem entary angles m ight have been stated as
 32 DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS
THE MEASURE OF AN ANGLE 33
D e f in it io n 1 2 a : S upplem entary a n g l e s a r e tw o angles th e s u m of w h o se
m e a s u r e s is the measure oj a straight angle. (d) Name four angles th at appear to be acute angles.
(e) Name two angles th at appear to be obtuse angles.
T his statem ent is equivalent to th a t of Definition 12, for the mr-asurr. oj a
straight angle and ISO are the sam e num ber, the num ber 180! 4. (a) W hat is the complement of an angle of
Sim ilarly, the definition of com plem entary angles is equivalent to the 15°, 48°, 1°, 5J°,
statem ent
(b) W hat is the supplem ent of an angle whose m easure is
D e f in it io n 1 1 a : C o m p le m e n ta ry an g les a r e tw o an gles th e su m o f w h o se
m easu res is th e m easu re o f a r ig h t an gle. 126, 57, 38J, 129?, A + B

5. If the measures of an angle and its supplem ent are equal, w hat is the
EXERCISES m easure of each?
6. If the m easure of an angle is five times as large as its supplem ent, w hat
t. Classify each of the following angles as to w hether they are acute, right, are the measures of the angle and its supplem ent? (H in t: Let * equal
obtuse, or straight angles. the measure of the supplem ent, then 5x will be the m easure of the angle.)
(a ) 124° ( b ) 56° (c) 90° 7. If the m easure of a n angle is 46 more than its supplem ent, then w hat is
( d ) 12J° (e ) 180° (f) 179}° the measure of this angle?

(a ) O n the basis of your observation, w hat w ould you ju d g e th e m easure
of Z A B C to be? In view of its m easure, w hat nam e can be given
to ZABC?
(b ) Angle ACD is an angle of approxim ately how m any degrees?
(c) A pproxim ately w h a t is the m easure of /B A C ? W ere this so, by w h a t
nam e should / BAC be called?
—►
(d ) I f CD and CB are a p air of opposite rays, w h at is th e n am e of
/ B C D ? W h a t is the m easure of /B C D ?
8. (a) W hen a right angle was defined, into w hat classification was this
figure placed?
(b) How was a right angle distinguished from the o ther m em bers of its
class?
9. Criticize the following statem ents as “ definitions.”
(a) T he measure of a straight angle is 180.
(b ) A right angle is the union of two rays having a com m on endpoint.
10. If the num ber 200 h a d been assigned to point B in Figure 2-10 on
page 28 rath er than 180, how would each of the following term s have
been defined?
(a) right angle (b) straight angle
(c) acute angle (d) obtuse angle
11. State your answer and then justify it for each of the following questions:
(a) Is it possible for two obtuse angles to be supplem entary?
(b) Is it possible for an obtuse angle to be com plem entary to an acute
angle?
(c) Can a right angle be one of two supplem entary angles?
(d) Can a right angle be one of two com plem entary angles?

(a ) A pproxim ately w hat is th e m easure of ZD CB? W h at is th e nam e Perpendicular Lines

of this angle? ' ■ B im B IS W hen two lines intersect, the m easures of the angles form ed
(b ) Approxim ately w h at is th e m easure of Z A D C ? W h at is the nam e m ay be any real num bers between 0 and 180. T hus, in Figure 2-14, Z D B C
of this angle? appears to be acute, while Z A B D is apparently obtuse. If. however, a t least
(c) N am e two straight angles in this figure. one of the angles form ed w hen two lines intersect is a right angle, then th e
lines are said to be perpendicular.
 34 35
DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS THE MEASURE OF AN ANGLE

3. A C 1 BD
RS X R W 4.

F ig u r e 2-14.

D e f in it io n 13: Perpendicular lines are two lines th a t intersect and form

rig h t angles.

F ig u re 2-15. F ig u re 2-16. F ig u re 2-17.

In F igure 2-15 th e rays BA and B C form a right angle, L A B C . H ence,
7. ACXCD OP X A B 8.
these rays a re said to be perpendicular. Being rays, however, they are subsets
of lines, and as such, their opposite rays can be draw n. I f in Figure 2-15
—V
the ra y opposite to BC is draw n, then two right angles will be form ed as in
Figure 2-16. Can you justify why L.ABD will have to b e a rig h t angle? If
—y —>
in F igure 2-15 the rays opposite both BA and BC were draw n, then four
rig h t angles w ould be formed as in Figure 2-17. Since angles A B C and A B D
a re rig h t angles, can you justify why angles D B E and E B C should be right
angles also?
Bisector of an Angle
T h e sym bol used to represent the word “ perpendicular” is ± . In view ■■■■■■■■ Earlier we learned th a t it was possible to have a point, the
m idpoint, forming two line segments of equal m easure on a given line seg­
o f this, the expression A B X CD is read as, A B is perpendicular to CD.
m ent. So, too, is it possible to have a ray whose endpoint is th e vertex of a n
angle and creating two angles of equal m easure from this angle. A ray such
EXERCISES as this is called the bisector of an angle.
D e f in it io n 14: T h e bisector of an angle is a ray such th a t its endpoint is
U sing the inform ation given, nam e the right angles in each
of th e figures below. the vertex of the angle and it forms two angles of equal m easure w ith
< -+
t the sides of the angle.
1. A B X BD RT X ST 2. I
. -t
 31
THE MEASURE O F A N A NG LE
36 DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS BD bisects /A B C .
4.
3. B E bisects /A B C .
W ere we given the inform ation for Figure 2-18 that BD is the bisector A
of (or bisects) /.A B C , the definition of an angle bisector would perm it us to
conclude that m / A B D = m /D B C .
Frequently, students beginning their study of geometry find it a bit
difficult to select the two angles of equal m easure when an angle has been
bisected. This is particularly tru e when the figure contains m any lines.
Should this occur to you, the following points m ay help clear u p your
difficulty. 5 C is the bisector of / A D B . 6.

(1) T h e vertex of the angle th a t has been bisected and the vertices of the
angles of equal m easure are identically the sam e point.
(2) T h e bisector of the angle will be a side of cach of the two new angles
th a t have been formed.
(3) E ach side of the bisected angle will be a side in each of the new angles
th a t have been formed.

As a last resort, ignore everything in the diagram other than the three
rays consisting of the angle bisector and the two sides of the angle th a t has
been bisected. T hus, in Figure 2-19 w ith the data given, think only of these 7, W S is the bisector of / R W T .
—4 "4
rays: R W , RS, R T . By so doing, it should soon become apparent th a t the
angles of equal m easure m ust be / W R S and / T R S .

R S is the bisector of / W R T .

9.

-4 ■
, “ C D

EXERCISES If in the diagram above m /BAC = m / CAD = m /DAE, then AC

and AD are said to be the trisectors of /.BAE, How would you define the
In Problems 1 through 8 w hat conclusion can be draw n in
te r m s of the d a ta given? trisectors of an angle?

*1. D B is the bisector of /A D C . I AC is the bisector of /B A E . 2.

Congruency of Angles and Line Segments
■ ■ ■ H i The symbols that ws have used in expressing the equality
of measures between line segments or between angles have been found to
berather cumbersome. To overcomethisfeature, a newsymbol wasinvented,
this being It is read as the word “ congruent” and appears in relations
such as
 39
THE MEASURE OF AN ANGLE
38 DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS
H ,d £ » F « „ , . 2 .® b « » „ive„ . . U *
(1) A B SS CD
draw n would be EC
and (2) Z X Y Z S Z R S T
These relations are read as
< o r « * « » »« “ ‘iPOin,
( t ) A B is congruent to CD. of a line segment.
and (2) Z .X Y Z is congruent to Z R S T .
T o m ake this symbol operational, the following two definitions a re
necessary: EXERCISES
D e f i n i t i o n 15: C ongruent line segments are line segm ents having equal W hat conclusion about congruence can be d raw n from the
measures.
d a ta given in each of the problem s below?
D e f in it io n 16: Congruent angles are angles having equal measures.
D.B bisects ZAD C.
2.
In view of these definitions, where formerly we spoke of the equality of 1. D is the m idpoint of AC.
the m easures of line segments, now we can refer directly to the congruence
0
of these segm ents. And a sim ilar relation will hold w ith angles. H ence, the
following statem ents are said to be equivalent:
m A B — m CD is equivalent to A B = CD.
m Z X Y Z = m Z R S T is equivalent to Z X Y Z S Z R S T .
F urtherm ore, the definitions of the m idpoint of a line segm ent and bisector
A E is the bisector of Z D A B .
o f a n angle c an be restated in terms of congruence ra th e r th an in term s of 3. BD bisects AC.
tqual measures. T hus, D

T h e m id p oin t o f a lin e segm ent is a poin t on that segm ent such that
th e two segm ents formed are congruent.
C om pare this definition with the definition of the m idppint th at appears op
page 25. C an you write a sim ilar definition for the bisector of an angle?
T he following problem will illustrate the m an n er in which conclusions
will henceforth be made. 5. E is the m idpoint of BD.

__ o
M is th e m idpoint a( A B . V ■
7. D B is the bisector of EG.
O n the basis of the data given, we shall say th at G
Z B A D S Z D AC
a n d justify our conclusion by quoting the revised definition of the bisector
o f an angle:
I 1E
T h e bisector o f an angle is a ray such that its endp oint is the vertex
o f th e an gle and it forms two congruent angles w ith the sides o f the
g -iv en angle.
 CONCLUSION BASED ON REVERSE OF DEFINITION 41
the ray-ihat fo rm congruent angles with the sides of the angle is the bisector of the angle.
As another illustration, in Figure 2-22 A D S DC. From this it can be

H Drawing a Conclusion Based on the Reverse of a Definition
You m ay recall th at the fourth property given to a con­
notative definition was the fact th a t it was reversible. T his was interpreted as
I f th e su b je c t an d p r e d ic a te n o m in a tiv e o f a d e fin itio n a r e in te r ­
c h a n g e d , t h e n th e n e w s e n te n c e w ill b e a tr u e statem ent.
T h u s, the reverse o f the definition of the bisector of an angle will be
A ra y w h o se e n d p o in t is th e v er te x o f a n a n g le a n d th a t form s
c o n g r u e n t a n g le s w ith th e sid e s o f t h e a n g le is t h e b isec to r o f t h e a n g le .
W h a t is the reverse of the definition of the bisector of a line segm ent?
O f the m idpoint of a line segment? O f perpendicular lines? O f a rig h t angle?
O f a straig h t angle?
concluded th at D is the m idpoint of AC. T o justify the conclusion, we w ould
say
“ A point on a line segment th a t forms two congruent
line segments is the m idpoint of th a t line segm ent.”
T h e reverse of th e definition is given since it is know n th a t point D forms
two congruent line segments on~A5. T h e definition of th e m id p o in t of a line
segm ent was not given as the reason, for th e fact th a t D is th e m id p o in t was
n o t known to us a t the outset of th e problem ,
EXERCISES
W hat conclusion can be draw n on the basis of th e d a ta given

T o illustrate how the reverse of a definition can be applied, let us sup- in each of the problem s below? Justify your conclusion by statin g the reverse
—■'V of one of the definitions you have had. In ord er th a t your w ork will follow
p ose th at Z A B D ~ Z D B C in Figure 2-21. In order th a t this can b e so, BD th e pattern th a t will be used throughout the year, arran g e your conclusion
a n d reason as it is shown below. D

Illustration.*

A
Given: Z A B C is a straight angle.
F ig u re 2-21.

w i l l have to be th e bisector of ZA B C . Hence, w e say th a t B D is th e bisector

REASON
o f Z A B C . T o justify this conclusion we m erely refer to the reverse of the CONCLUSION
d e fin itio n of the bisector of an angle that appears in red above. T w o angles the sum of whose m easures
Z A B D and Z D B C are supple­
You m ay be questioning this procedure by saying, "W hy isn't it pos­ is the measure of a straig h t angle are
m entary angles.
s ib le to justify this conclusion by sim ply referring to the definition o f the supplem entary angles.
b is e c to r of an angle rather than the reverse?” . T h e definition of the bisector
o f an angle can be used as justification of a conclusion only if th e d a ta given 1. Given; Z B A D ^ Z D A C Given: Z A C B is a right angle.

s t a te d th a t the ra y was the bisector. In this problem , however, this was not A-
s ta te d . You knew only that there were two congruent angles, and from this
y ou, yourself, concluded th a t the ray BD m ust be th e bisector of th e angle.
W h e n such a conclusion is m ade, it is justified by quoting the reverse of the
d e fin itio n . T his is so since it is the reverse of the definition that, states th a t
42
DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS DEFINITIONS AND REVERSE OF DEFINITIONS 43
3. C-iven: A D S D C
Given: Z A B C is a right angle. A.
A,: | Drawing Conclusions on the Basis of Definitions and
(Give two conclusions.)
the Reverse of Definitions
A ------------------------------------------
At the outset of this text it was pointed out th at there are
a great m any ways in which argum ents can be “ proved.” O u r objective this
year is to show how the m athem atician justifies the conclusions th a t he
makes. T hus far, you have learned th a t he can justify these conclusions
C
through one of two ways :
G iven: m Z A B C = 62
Given: Z A B C is a straight 6. (1) He can refer to the accepted definitions of the words th a t ap p ear in
A, angle. the data th at have been given.
(2) H e can refer to the reverse of the definitions that have been agreed
upon.

O u r attitude toward m athem atics is determ ined largely on how well we

understand the work we are called upon to do. T h e following set of problem s
is designed to help you gain confidence in draw ing conclusions and then
• G iven: m Z A B C = 134 justifying these conclusions through either the definitions of term s or the
A ----------------— reverse of the definitions. Arrange your work as illustrated in the problem
below.
- O -
Illustration:

G iven: BD JL AC
. G iven: Z A C B S ZA C D
G iven: Z A D B is a right 10.
angle.

CONCLUSION REASON

Z A D B and Z C D B are right P erpendicular lines are two lines th a t

G iven: Z A B C is a straight
angle.
Given: A E S EC 12. angles. * intersect and form right angles. (Def.)

EXERCISES

Draw a conclusion in each of the problem s below. Y our

conclusion should be based only on the d a ta th a t has br.en given, not on w h a t
you believe the diagram m ay imply. Im m ediately following your reason,
indicate w hether this reason is a definition (Def.) or the reverse of a defini­
tion (Rev. of Def.).
44
DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS 45
DEFINITIONS AND REVERSE OF DEFINITIONS
1. G iven: E is the m idpoint of
Given: CA bisects Z D C B . 2. Given: AD X BC 12.
AC. 11. Given: “
a B bisects CD.

3. G iven: Z A C B is an acute
Given: Z A B C and Z C B D are 4. 14.
angle.
supplem entary angles.
13. Given: Z A B C is a right
Given: m Z C A B — 55;
m Z C B A =■ 35
angle. (Give two
conclusions.)

* B 0

Given: CE bisects ZA C D . 6.

15. Given: Z R V S is a straight

G iven: A C is the perpendicu- 16.
lar bisector of B D .
angle. (Give two
conclusions.) (Give two
conclusions.)
7. Given: A is the m idpoint of
BC.

17. G iven: A B =. BC

A.

angle.
G iven: Z A B D a n d Z D B C 10.
are com plem entary
angles.
19. G iven: FC bisects BE.
angle.
 46 DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS
TEST 47
21. G iven: B and C are the tri­ G iven: Z Y ± X Y 22. 4. If ZA B C is an acute angle, w hat can be said concerning the m easure
section points of AD of its supplement?
(See page 27.
Problem 3.) 5. (a) If A B = BC, does this imply that B is the m idpoint of *4C? Justify

A___ B C your answer.

Al (b ) If Z.ABC = ZCBD, does this im ply that BC is the bisector of

Z A B D ? Justify your answer.
6. U nder w hat conditions only would it be possible to w rite the following
equality?
23. G iven: L A C B and A BC D G iven: R T and S fV bisect 24. A B = CD
are com plem entary each other. (Give 7. Classify each of the following angles as to w hether they a re acute, right,
angles. tw o conclusions.)
obtuse, or straight.
A v ----------------------------------------- .C R (a ) 90° (b ) 156° (c) 84°

8. (a) W hat is the measure of an angle if the m easure of its com plem ent
is 82?
(b ) W h at is the measure of an angle if its supplem ent is a n angle o fy
degrees?

25. Given: /.A D C is a right G iven: Z B E C ^ Z D E C 26. 9. (a) W hat is the measure of an angle th a t is four times as large as its
angle. complement?
8 (b ) T h e m easure of an angle is 15 m ore th an twice its supplem ent. How
large is the angle?

10. T h e definition of a reflex angle is

A reflex angle is a n angle whose m easure

is greater than 180 and less th a n 360.

Answer the following questions in term s of this definition:

■ Test r (a) W hat is the reverse of this definition?
(b ) E xplain why a reflex angle is n o t discussed in plane geom etry?
(c) H ow was a reflex angle classified?
IAJ (d ) H ow was a reflex angle distinguished from the o th er m em bers of its
class?
1. (a) W h at is m eant by the m easure of a line segment?
(e) W hat can be said concerning the supplem ent of a reflex .angle?
(b ) Is it possible for the sam e line segm ent to have two different m eas­
ures? Justify your answer.

2. (a) W h at is m eant by the m easure of an angle?

(b ) Is it possible for the same angle to have two different m easures?
0
Draw a conclusion in cach of th e problem s below. Im m e­
■ > • —^ <—»

3. I f VR and TO are subsets of RS, then w hat are the two possibilities con­ diately following your reason for this conclusion, indicate w hether this
cerning th e m easure of Z R V S ? reason is a definition or the reverse of a definition.
 48 DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRIC TERMS 49
TEST
1. G iven: F is the m idpoint of AE. G iven: A D _L ED 9. Given: D E bisects /B D C . G iven: BD is the _L bisector 10.
of AC. (Give two
conclusions.)

3. G iven: / .D A E i s / C A E G iven: / B D A is a right angle. 4.

5. G iven: B E = CE G iven: A f bisects/4C.

A B

7. G iven: / C D E and / A D E are Given: / A B C is a straight

com plem entary angles, angle.
 H C W D O THE BUND DRAW CONCLUSIONS'?

T he Blind M en and t h e E leph a n t

by John Godfrey Saxe
It was six m en of Indostan,
T o learning m uch inclined,
Who went to see the elephant
(Though each of them was blind,)
T h at each by observation
M ight satisfy his m ind.
T he first approached the elephant.
And happening to fall
Against his broad and sturdy side,
At once began to bawl:
“ God bless me! but the elephant
Is very m uch like a w a ll!”

3 T he second, feeling of the tusk,

Cried: “ H o! w hat have we here
So round, and sm ooth, and sharp?
T o me ’tis very clear

Assumptions and Their This w onder of a n elephant

Is very like a spear!”

Place in a Proof T he third approached the anim al,

A nd happening to take
The squirm ing tru n k w ithin his hands,
T hus boldly up he spake:
“ I see,” quo th he, “ the elephant
E A R L IE R W E D IS C U SS E D T H E IM P O R T A N T Is very m uch like a snake!”
role definitions play in helping to mold the decisions we m ake each day of T he fourth reached out his eager hand,
our lives. T h e re are, however, factors other th an th e interpretation of words And fell upon the knee:
th a t lead us to the conclusions we m ake or the acts we do. T h e decision of “ W hat most this w ondrous beast is like,
w hether J o h n or Bill is the better candidate for president of th e student Is very plain,” quoth he;
council frequently has little bearing on how term s are defined. O u r attitude “ ’Tis clear enough the elephant
tow ard questions such as this is shaped m ore by the convictions we hold Is very like a tre e !”
about these young m en th an by the clarification of term s they m ay have
T he fifth w ho chanced to touch the ear
used. T h is c h ap ter is devoted to showing a t least a few of the ways in w hich
Said: “ E ’en the blindest m an
convictions are born and, when related to m athem atics, their significance
C an tell w hat this resembles most:
to the developm ent of this subject.
Deny the fact who can,
This marvel of an elephant
■ How Do the Blind Draw Conclusions? Is very like a f a n !”
A m ong the poems you m ay have read and enjoyed is the T he sixth no sooner had begun
one below ab o u t the blind men and the elephant. As you read it through About the beast to grope,
now, ask yourself w hy a poem such as this should appear in a geometry T h en , seizing on the swinging tail
book. Is there any connection between this poem a n d the basis for conclu­ T h a t fell w ithin his scope,
sions th a t we, as hum an beings, reach each day of our lives?
 52
ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
“ I see,” q u o th he, "th e elephant,
POSTULATES IN GEOMETRY 53

Is very like a rope!”

And so these m en of Indostan
D isputed load and long,
E ach in his own opinion
Exceeding stiff and strong,
T hough each was p artly in the right,
A nd all were in the wrong!
U p o n w h at evidence d id the first blind m an draw his conclusion th a t
th e ele p h an t resem bled a wall? W hy d id the second blind m an arrive a t the
decision he h a d made? W h at had led each of them to the conclusion he
h a d draw n?
A r e W e So D iffe r e n t fro m th e B lin d ?
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ H i Y ou w ere probably a little am used as you re ad the poem ,
for you knew th a t each “ saw” b u t a sm all p a rt of the elephant. W ere these
m en capable of seeing the an im al in its entirety, they w ould n o t h a v e com e
to su ch com pletely different points of view. A n d yet, perhaps w e should n o t
tre a t this poem too lightly. W e norm al hu m an beings m ay be w earing
blinders w ithout realizing it. In term s o f one interpretation th a t some
scientists give to light rays, the g ra p h below presents a pictu re of the relative
sizes o f th e wavelengths of “ light” com ing from the sun.
light' Wavelengths
viiibl* light
naked eye might ever see. Thus, it appears that of all the “ light” waves th at
strike the earth, only a very small fraction of these are visible to the hum an
eye. Hence, we m ay be ju st a little removed from the blind m en of the poem.
Were we suddenly granted the ability to observe “ light” whose wavelengths
varied between 1 millionth of a centimeter in length and 1 hun d red th of a
1 c e n tim e te r
centimeter, then the things that seem “ obvious” to us now m ight appear
rather silly under our newly found “ vision.” M any of the things we say and
m any of the ideas we have are based on the observation of things as. we see
them. And this vision of ours may not only be faulty but is certainly lim ite d !
The Faulty Eyesight of Man
■■■■■■■ Since m an first began to think, his eye-sight led him to
create m any beliefs that he felt were justifiable. A t the present we realize
that a great num ber were completely groundless. Am ong these was the
notion th at the earth was flat. For, so it was reasoned, if the e arth was round,
how m ight a m an stand a t the south pole w ithout tum bling off into nothing­
ness! Yes, there were some scientists who realized th a t the earth was “ ro u n d .”
In fact, an early Greek m athem atician gave a ra th e r close approxim ation
for the circumference of the earth, These men, however, were in the m inority,
a very small m inority a t that. T he great m ultitude of people “ realized”
th at the earth had to be flat, for did not their eyes tell them s o !

-J--- !_
Hi III EXERCISES

W o o ~o
W a v e l e n g t h { c e n tim e te r * )
T o be exact, a w avelength of light th a t can be seen by the hu m an eye
ranges from 4 hundred-thousandths to 7 hundred-thousandths o f a c enti­
m eter! T h e length of each “ w ave" is the length of the line segm ent jo in in g
1. List three beliefs in the field of aviation th at had been held for m any
years yet now have been discarded.
2. List three beliefs in the field of medicine th a t were discarded because of
•medical research.
3. List five beliefs in general th at people held for m any years b u t now feel
that they are probably not so.

Figure 3-1.
tw o peak's such as A a n d B. T h e centim eter itself is a very sm all distance,
while 4 hundred-thousandths of a centim eter is far, far sm aller th an the
H Postulates in Geometry
T h e early G reek m athem atician laid the foundation for his
work on certain “ beliefs” th a t he referred to as “ self-evident tru th s,” for to
him they reflected the world about him as he saw it. T h e m ere sophisticated
m odern m athem atician, however, recognizes the principles from w hich he
evolves his subject for w hat they really are; th at is, no m ore th an a a t of
mutually agreed upon properties about figures that he himself has created. T o illus­
trate, he created the line and the real num ber system; he then linked the

54
ASSUMPTIONS AND THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
two together by the property th a t to every real n um ber there exists one and
only one point on this line and further, th a t to every p o in t there exists one
and only one real num ber. A statem ent such as this the m athem atician
accepts in order to lay the foundation for further discussion. T his discussion
can not take place w ithout some core of ideas or fram e of reference from
which to begin. T hese fundam ental principles from w hich m athem atics
springs are the postulates or, as they are often called, axioms or assumptions.
C urrent interpretation of m athem atics has divorced a postulate from
its original in terpretation as a “ belief.” W hen considering a belief, we are
sometimes left w ith a feeling of vagueness as to the tru th or falsity of the
statem ent. O n the other hand, a postulate carries w ith it no such squeam ish­
ness; it is like asking, “ A re the rules of baseball true or false?” T h e question,
obviously, makes little sense. These are the rules established to create the
game; they are neither true nor false! So, too, are the postulates, the “ rules”
to create th e subject of m athematics.
I t w ould be inaccurate to leave you w ith the impression th a t creating
m athem atics is com parable to creating a gam e w here the rules are estab­
lished at the w him of the creator. Far from this! M athem aticians frequently
form ulate their postulates as a model o f w h at they perceive in the w orld th a t
exists ab o u t them . It is tru e th a t some aspects of m odern m athem atics
appear to bear no rem ote resemblance to any practical application. H ow ­
ever, as has happened alm ost always in the past, future scientists will very
likely discover a need for these branches o f m athem atics in their work.
In view of the foregoing analysis, it w ould seem wise if we, too, placed
our cards face up on the table and adm itted to a num ber of postulates we
had failed to establish in Chapters 1 and 2, although we had m ade use of
them . Briefly, they w ere concerned w ith these points:
(1) T h e possibility of extending a line as far as desired in either direction.
(2) T h e notion of "betw eenness” th a t im plied th a t betw een a n y two
points on a line there existed a third point.
(3) T h e existence of a pairing betw een the points on a line and the real
num bers.
T hese principles we will now state form ally as our first three postulates:
P o s tu la te1: A line m ay be extended as far as desired in either direction.
P o s tu la te2: For any two points on a line, there exists a third po in t th at
is betw een them.
P ostulate 3: T h ere exists a one-to-one correspondence between the points
on a line and the real num bers.
T h e last of the principles concerning a line th a t w e w a n t to consider
at this tim e is one th a t you have used each time you drew a m argin on a
piece of paper. In draw ing a “ half-inch” m argin, it is likely th a t you placed
a point \ inch from the edge n ear the top of the paper and repeated this
process at the bottom . After which you laid the ruler along these two points
55
POSTULATES IN GEOMETRY
and drew the line. In so doing, you were using the principle stated here:
P o s t u l a t e 4: T here exists one and only one line through two points.
T h e com bination of Postulate 3 and the interpretation we have given
to the m easure of a line segm ent as being the coordinate of one endpoint
when the coordinate of the other endpoint is zero is but a m odified form of
two postulates that are often called T h e R u ler Postulate a n d T h e R u ler
Placem ent Postulate. H ad these two postulates been a t o u r disposal earlier,
we could have created a m ore forma) definition of "betw eenness.” T hus,
Point B being between points A a n d C m eans th a t the three
points are different elem ents of the sam e line and,
m A B -f m ~BC = m AC
By exam ining Figure 3-2 it becom es evident th at in a ra th e r elaborate
way this definition says no m ore th a n if it so happens th a t w hen the “ dis­
tance” from A to B is added to the “ distance” from B to C the sum turns
Figure 3-2.
out to be the "distance” from A to C, then B is between A and C.
A t the tim e we established the m easure of a line segm ent we in some
ways trapped ourselves into an aw kw ard position. Consider the coordinate
system below. T here would be no problem in determ ining the m easure of
-5 -4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 1 2 13 14 15 I t 17 18 19 20
______ I___ I___ I ... I___I___I___ _______I I - I l I I___ 1 1 , 1 , 1 ___ I___I______ ^
B S P /t S C D
F i g u r e 3 -3 .
TA for the coordinate of P is zero a n d hence, the coordinate of A w hich is 5
represents the measure of PA. Sim ilarly, finding the m easures of ~FB, TC,
and TT) also presents no difficulty for in each case the coordinate of one o f
the endpoints, P, is zero. However, finding the m easure o l A B does create a
problem for the coordinate of neither A nor B is zero. H ence, either we set
up a new coordinate system w ith A o r B as the zero point or we develop
another device for determ ining the m easure of a line segm ent. T h e latter
of these alternatives frees us from constantly having to shift the zero point,
By simply counting the num ber of units from A to B we can see th a t
m A B = 3, D oing the same for the n um ber of units from B to C, we discover
th a t tr.'SC = 7 and, sim ilarly m 7tP = 2 while m HB = 10. Obviously,
counting the units between the two endpoints of a line segm ent is not very
practical and by now you m ust certainly have discovered th a t the 3 which
is the m easure of A B can be determ ined by subtracting th e coordinate, 5,
of A from the coordinate, 8, of B. In the sam e way,
 57
56 THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO LINE SEGMENTS
ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
j' fA and B are given in each of the problem s
171 'EC = 1 5 — 8 = 7 2. T h e coordinates of points A ana 6
and m~AB = 17 — 5 = 12 below. Find the measure of I S .
(c) 8; B: - 1
(b ) A: 26; B: 5
H ow '.vould you find the m easure of 5 5 ? T h e m easure of UB? W e d o (a) A: 10; B: 7 - 2 ; B: 6
( e ) A: 0; B: - 8 (f)
run into a slight difficulty, though, in determ ining the m easuie cf S 3 for the (d) A: 6; B: - 5 - 1 ; B: - 5
(h ) A: - 3 ; B: 3 (i)
coordinate of R is a negative num ber. By recalling the tech n iq u e for com ­ ( g ) A: - 5 ; B: 8
p uting the difference between two signed num bers, this p roblem is easily
elim inated. T hus,
3. -3 -2
mK? = 5 - (-2 ) = 7
and m 315 = 17 —( —1)= 18
Using the coordinate system above, determ ine the m easure of each of
W h a t w ould happen, however, if we inadvertently interchanged the th e following line segments.
positions of the coordinates in finding th e difference? T h en ,
(a) Z5is (b ) ~UQ (c) b B
m ~B = 5 — 8 = —3 (d ) W (e ) T5S (f) F R
m ~E€ = 8 — 15 = —7 (g) T J U (h) TO (i) W
and m Z D = 5 — 17 = —12 0‘) ~EA (k ) AT) (1) UB
4. Given the information th a t B is between A and C, d eterm ine the answer
H ence it appears th a t each of the answers turns out to be th e negative of
w h a t w e w ould w ant it to be. T o elim inate this from occurring w e m ake use to each of the following problems.
of th e concept of the absolute value of a number th a t we h a d learned in o u r (a) m Z § = 6, m BU = 2, m JSU = ?
study of algebra.
(b ) m ~Kf3 — 5, m E C = 9, m 1C = ?
|12 - 3| = |9| =9 (c) m A fi = 9, m EC = 2, m AB = ?
( d ) m Z C = 16, m E C = 1, m ~AB = ?
|3 - 12) = | —9| = 9
(e ) m A B — 5, m A C *= 12, m E C = ?
R ecall th a t the absolute value of either a positive or a negative n u m b er was ( f ) m A S — a, m ISC ~ b, m Z C = ?
the n u m b er itself devoid of its sign. T hus, in the situations above we will say, 5. If m TQ - 7, m = 12, and m 1FR = 5, and P, Q a n d R are points
mW = |8 - 15| = | —7| = 7 of the same, line, then w hich of these points is betw een the other two?
and mAB = |5 - 17| = |- 1 2 | = 12 6. (a) T he coordinate of A is 4 while m Z B = 15. If th e coordinate of B
Sim ilarly, m TlB — | —2 — 8| = | —10) = 10 is a positive num ber, w hat is that num ber?
and m TJR = |15 - ( - 2 ) | = |17| = 17 (b ) In a coordinate system the coordinate of A is 2 while the coordinate
of B is 7, If the same un it is used for a coordinate system where the
Now we are in a position w here w e can conceive of th e m easure of a
lin e segm ent: coordinate of A is changed to 0, then w hat is the coordinate of B
in this system?
T h e m easure of a line segm ent is the absolute value of
th e difference of th e coordinates of its endpoint?.
B The Sum and Difference of Two Line Segments
T h e postulates used most often in geom etry are called the
EXERCISES “ operational” postulates, for they are concerned w ith the operations of
addition, subtraction, m ultiplication, and division. Before they are investi­
gated, it is apparent th a t we will have to in terp ret these operations w ith
1. Express each of the following in term s of a single num eral,
reference to geometric figures.
. (a) |8 — 2| (b) |15 - 6| (c) ]12 - 5] D efinition 17: T h e sum o f tw o line segments, I B and BC, is J C if, and
(d ) |3 — 7 | (e ) |5 - 6| (f) |0 - 2| only if, B is hetw een A and C.
(g ) 1 - 2 - 5| ( h ) | - 6 - 3| (i) | - 1 - 7|
G) |6 - ( ~ 2 ) | ( k ) |5 - ( - 4 ) 1 : (1) |8 - ( —9 )|
(m ) |- 2 - (-3 )| (n ) | - 7 - ( - 7 ) | (o) |0 - ( - 5 ) | Figure 3-4.

58 ASSUMPTIONS AND THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
By using symbols this relationship will be expressed as
A B + BC = AC
H aving used th e equality sign, we m ean tc im ply no m ore or no less th an
that the nam e used on the left (A B + BC) and the nam e used on the rig h t
(/ft?) are but two different nam es for the sam e segm ent (~AC). T his situation
is sim ilar to saying th at 4 -j- 3 ■-* 7 for both the 4 + 3 and the 7 are m erely
two different nam es for the num ber seven.
T he definition, furtherm ore, states th a t the sum of two line segm ents
exists only if the two line segments lie on the sam e line and their intersection
is one and only one point. In Figure 3-4 I S a n d ~BC lie on line AC, w hile B
is th e only p o in t they have in comm on.
W ith reference to the definition explain w hy the sums given below c a n
not be found.
8
THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO ANGLES 59
By using symbols this relationship w illb e expressed as
IB - W = AC
H ere, as in the addition of line segments, the use of the equality sign signifies
m erely th at the two names (I B — BC) and (ZC) are but different names
for the same segment (AC). Also, as before, subtraction of line segm ents can
exist only if the two segments are subsets of the same line a n d their intersec­
tion is one of these segments. In the d iag ram above, A B and ~EC are subsets
of line AB, while their intersection consists of all the points of one of these
segments (BC).
EXERCISES
In each of the problem s below, you a re asked to find the
sum or difference of two line segments. If it is hot possible to find this line
segm ent, simply write “ no answer” after the problem num ber.

A________ C B A 1C D 1. (a) I B + BC = ?
(b ) AC - BC = ?
XI + sc Si + CB
F i g u r e 3 -5 .

T h e diagram s we will encounter will frequently have m any, m any lines 2. (a ) 2Z5 + Z5C = ?
in them . W hen trying to find the line segm ent th a t represents the sum of two (b ) EC - BC = ?
line segments, direct your attention to that line on which the two segm ents
fall. All o ther lines will have no im portance a t th a t time. Thus, if you a re (c) IB +BU = ?
- 1> (d) C E - EZ5 = ?
looking in Figure 3-6 for A F + FE, focus your atten tio n on A E a n d ignore

3. (a) a E + EC = ?
(b ) 1C - EC = ?
(c) W + UD = ?
•, (d) J B - BE = ?
.(e) W . + M » ?
F ig u re 3-6, (f) a D - BC = ?
all other lines. T h e definition enables you to say th at
■ The Sum and Difference of Two Angles
IF + TE =A E
In the same way th a t we defined a point as being betw een
In this sam e d iag ram w h a t is th e sum of B £ a n d £ £ ? Z D and T>C? "BP two points so, too, is it possible to define a ray asbeing between two rays.
an d FZ5? E xplain why the sum of A F and FD does not exist. T hus,
D e f in it io n18: T h e difference between tw o line segments, A B and BC, D e f in it io n 19: T he ray P S being betw een two rays PA and PC m eans that,
is ~AC if, and only if, C is between A and B.
m Z APB + m L B P C = m LAPQ
. . . A '__________ ________________ C___________ 8
A nd here again we seem to be saying no m ore th an th a t we w a n t th e
Figure 3-7,
 60 61
ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF THE SUM A N D DIFFERENCE OF TW O ANGLES

sum of the measures of / A P B and ZB P C to be the sam e as th e m easure A

of /A P C . I n Figure 3-8 this would im ply

•/

in s t io n 21: i n e u m c i u ^ . . --------- 0 ,
—> > # ►
if, and only if, BC is between BA and BD.
F ig u re 3-8. F ig u re 3-9. F ig u re 3-10.

a n d 40 of th e tw o sm aller angles are added, their sum of 70 m ust be the

m easure of Z A P C . In Figure 3-9 we see th a t this definition holds equally
w ell w here th e ra y P B happens to be between the pair of opposite rays PA
a n d PC.
—V ■-■> - ■")
As seen in Figure 3-10, P B is not considered to be betw een PA and P C
for th e sum of th e m easures of Z A P B a n d Z B P C does not equal the m easure
o f ZA P C .

W ith D efinition 19 a t o u r disposal, defining the sum or difference of Symbolically we express this as
two- angles will present little difficulty. Z A B D - ZA B C = ZC B D

D e f in it io n 20; T h e su m of tw o angles, Z A B C and Z D B C , is Z A B D if, w here the two names (Z A B D — Z A B C ) and (Z C B D ) are b u t different

a n d only if, BC is betw een BA and BD. names representing the same angle (ZC B D ),

EXERCISES
In each of the problems below, you are asked to find the
sum o r difference of two angles. If it is not possible to find this angle, simply
write “ no answer” after the problem num ber,

(a) LE A D + Z D A B = ?
(a) ZB A C + / C A E = ? 2.
(b) ZA C B + Z A C E = ?
(b ) Z A B D y ZCBD — ?
(c) Z C A E + / B E A = ?
F i g u r e 3-11,
(c) Z A D E + Z A D B = ?
(d ) /B D C + Z E D C = ?
(d ) Z A E D + ZB C D = ?
By using symbols this relationship can be expressed as (e) ZA B C - / A B E = ?
(e) Z E A B - ZD AB = ?
(f) Z B C E - / B A E - ?
Z A B C + Z D B C = ZA B D (f) Z A B C - / C B D •= ?
(g) ZA E C — ZBCE — ?
(g) Z B A E - Z C A E = ?
H e r e again, th e equality sign is used to im ply the fact th a t although the nam e (h) /A D C - /A D E = ?
(h ) ZE D C - ZAD C = ?
t h a t appears o n the left ( Z A B C -f Z D B C ) is different from the nam e
A
a p p e a r in g on th e rig h t (Z A B D ), both represent the same angle (Z A B D ).
In Figure 3-12 the sum of Z B A D and ZC A D is ZB A C . I n this figure,
—> —V —>
<AD is betw een A B a n d AC. W h at is the sum of Z A B D a n d ZCBD? How
w o u l d you express Z A C D .-h Z B C D by nam ing a single angle?
 THE ADDITION POSTULATE 63
62 ASSUMPTIONS AND THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
we could conclude th a t
| The Addition Postulate ( 1) JB + W'S*7TE + W
H aving defined w hat is m eant by the “ sum ” and “ differ­ M o reo v er, since ~AE + 5 C is b u t a n o th e r n a m e for "AC, w h ile T JE + E F is
ence” with reference to line segments and angles, we a r t now prepared to a n o th e r n a m e for U P , it is p re fe ra b le to w rite (1) as
introduce the first of the “ operational” postulates. T hese are the postulates JC ^T JF
that were needed in determ ining the solution set. or roots, cf an equation
T his can be expressed in q u ite an elem entary way as follows:
at the tim e you studied algebra. As an example,
If the measure of ~A& is 9 (inches), th en D E m ust have a m easure of 9
If (1) x - 2 = 7
(inches), for the two segments by being congruent have the sam e m easure.
then (2) x ~ 2 + 2 = 7 + 2
Sim ilarly, if the measure of BU is 5 (inches), th en the m easure of F F m ust
T he reason enabling you to w rite step (2) based on the inform ation given
in step (1) was the " la w ” stating that 9* b 5“
________ _— - o -
If
then a + ac == 61 + (A)c
9"
In the illustration above, a — x —2, 6 — 7, while c = 2. Perhaps you -V -
D £ F
learned this postulate as
F ig u re 3-15.
“ If equals are added to equals, the sums are e q u al.”
ra th e r th an w ith the symbols given in (A). In either event, we shall need be 5 (inches). T he conclusion th a t ~XC S ~BF can be interpreted here as
this postulate, and the o th er operational postulates, as a foundation for the m erely im plying th a t both segments have a m easure of 14 (inches).
geom etry work. H ence, it will be repeated here, in a slightly different form.
I t frequently happens th at there are m any lines in the diagram th a t
P o stula te 5: T he A ddition Postulate are com pletely irrelevant to the d a ta given. T ry to ignore these lines. T o
If a= b illustrate, Figure 3-15 m ight have been draw n as
and c= d C
then a + c= b+ d
O r as a statem ent: G iv en : A S — B E
If equals are added to equals, the sums are equal. W ^T ZF
W hen this postulate was applied in algebra, th e symbols a, b, c, and d
were placeholders for num bers. Furtherm ore, the statem ent a — b implied
th a t the symbol a and the symbol b were m erely different names for the F i g u r e 3-16.

sam e num ber. T h is will still be true in our w ork in geom etry. Now, however,
we m ust realize th a t since the. statem ents
m l B = m CZ5 and ~AB — V B
a re equivalent, we can and will treat the congruence symbol ( ~ ) in iden­
tically the sam e w ay as we h a d treated the equality sym bol («=) in algebra.
H ence, were we to apply the A ddition Postulate in the following situation:
A^ before, the conclusion would still be A C ~ B F and for the reason stated;
th a t is, the A ddition Postulate. N am e five lines in the d iagram th a t are in
no w ay related to the inform ation stated.
T h e A ddition Fostulate as applied to angles would occur u nder condi­
tions such as the following:

Given: J B ^ T J E G iven: /LABD — Z.ACD

W s i'E ? ZD BC — ZD GB

Figure 3-14.
Figure 3-17.
 65
the SUBTRACTION POSTULATE
64 ASSUMPTIONS AND THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF Given: A F
5. Given: SU ■pE c x W
W h a t conclusion can be draw n on the basis of the given data? T h e use of
■pE& W
num bers m ay help m ake the picture a little clearer to you. If /.A B D has a
m easure c f 20, then /A C D will also have the measure of 20, for as siated in
the given data, these two angles are congruent. So, too, if the m / D BC = 30,
w hat can be said of / DCB? W h at is the m easure of /A B C ? O f /A C B ?
■Since the measure of both is 50, w hat conclusion should follow?
T h is same conclusion could have heen arrived at by resorting to the
A ddition Postulate ra th e r th an to specific num bers. T h e form al arran g em en t G iven: / A C B ~ / E C D 8.
of the problem is identical to th a t used on page 41. T his time, however, 7 G iv e n : /E E C £ /C D F /A C F S /E C F
the reason th a t justifies the conclusion is a postulate rath er than a definition /D E C 9 Z Z-EDF
or the reverse of a definition.

CONCLUSIO N REASON

/ A B C S /A C B T he Addition Postulate: If congruent

angles ( / A B D and /A C D ) are added
to congruent angles ( / D B C and
G iv e n : X E s E E
/D C B ), their sums will be congruent 9. G iv e n : T J E s C E M & ’SC
angles ( / A B C and /A C B ) .

EXERCISES
By using the A ddition Postulate only, w hat conclusion can
b e d ra w n in each of the following problems? State your conclusion and
re a s o n exactly as shown above.

1. G iven: / A B G — / D E H Given: A E £= ~BF

/G B C £* / H E F ~ E D S iT €
A / 0 / A
| The Subtraction Postulate
T h e second of the operational postulates w as first enco u n ­
tered a t the tim e it was necessary to determ ine the solution set of the equation
(1 ) * + 5 = 17
- V -
S
T o find this num ber we first w rote (A)

3 • Given: A B = ~AE Given: /D A B '-. /D B A 4. (2 ) x ■+• 5 — 5 = 17 — 5

1 /D A C ', ; /D B G In justifying step (2) on the basis of the inform ation given in step (1), we

applied th e following postulate:

P ostu la te 6: The Subtraction Postulate
If a = b
and c —d
th en a —t ~ b — d
 67
THE SUBTRACTION POSTULATE
66 ASSUMPTIONS AND THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF

O r as a statem ent'.
G iv e n : A C ~ ~AB
1 . G iv e n : S PC
If equals are subtracted from equals, the differences are equal. m ^ E B
A E ^D F
In illustration (A) above, a = x + 5, b = 17, c = 5, and i - 5. K ence
a — c is x + 5 — 5, while b — d is 17 — 5.
In the study of geom etry this postulate wiil be applied to line segments
and angles very m uch the sam e way we had used the A ddition Postulate.
Consider Figure 3-18.

i ----------------------------- L V - ■? Given: I B S UD

3,
E E ^F D G iv e n : /.B A D ~ . / C D A
Given: /.A B C S /A C B
/ B A E S* Z CDE
/ ABD SS /A C D
C F 0
t------------------ * --------------------}
F ig u re 3-18.

If the m easure of IE is 8, while th a t of AS is 20, w h at can be said of the

m easures of FB and CD? W ith this in mind, w hat w ould the measures of
both A E and UF have to be? W h at should follow th en concerning AE and
UF?
W ithout resorting to num bers, the steps leading to the conclusion th a t
AE ~ UF would be
Given: /.B A D = / C D A 6.
If (1) A B ^U D If (1) a = b
5• G iv e n : AD £=SU / E A D S /F D A
and (2) ~EE FD W S 5F
and (2) c = d
then (3) AS - IB US - FD then (3) a — c — b — d
or 'Z 2 S UP
T h e steps w ere arranged in parallel columns to point out the sim ilarity
betw een the S ubtraction Postulate and the segments in this problem . W hat £ F
segm ents represent a, b, c, and d! Since A l and U F are b u t other names for
AS — EE and US —7<T> respectively, the conclusion is w ritten in the pre­
ferred form of

AESZU F
Given: / A F E == /.C D E 8.
7• G iven: U S — / BFA S /B D G
W & 'E F
EXERCISES

By using the Subtraction Postulate w h a t conclusion can

be draw n in each of th e following problems? W hen you w rite your conclu­
sion a n d your reason, p u t the conclusion a t the left a n d the reason a t the
rig h t as shown in the illustration on page 64.
 68 ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN ' A PROOF THE MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION POSTULATES 69

9. G iven: AC BD Given: /LEAD S Z C A D 10. most frequent application. Situations,calling for its need w ould be those in
which the bisector of a n angle, the bisector of a line segm ent, o r the m idpoint
AESZD E ZB A E ^ZC A F
of a line segment were found in the problem . Let us illustrate by using the
m idpoint of a line segm ent. This point will separate the segm ent into two
congruent segments. T h e measure of each of these segm ents will be half of
the original segment. Thus,
^ / A ____________ 8 Given: M is the m idpoint of AB.
B F r
F i g u r e 3-19.
H The Multiplication and Division Postulates
m AM = AB
T h e need for the third of the operational postulates rarely
also
arises in the study of geometry. It will be stated here so th a t you m ay see m M B = \m A B
t h e com plete p attern of all the operational postulates. Furtherm ore, there
a r e several, instances that arise later in our work when we will w a n t to refer Sim ilarly, if B D is the bisector of Z A B C , then by definition
t o this postulate. ZABD £ ZD BC
P ostu la te 7: T h e M ultiplication Postulate
If a = b
and c —i
th e n ac = bd
O r as a statem ent:

If equals are m ultiplied by equals, the products will be equal.

T h e last of the operational postulates is
O r this relation can be stated as
P ostulate 8 : T h e Division Postulate
m ZABD — ZABC
If a = b
and
and c = d (w here c and d are n o t zero) m Z D B C = \m Z A B C
th e n a _ b Two illustrations of the application of Postulate 8 ap p ear below. W hat
c d
conclusion based on all the given data can be draw n in each case?
O r as a statem ent:

If equals art' divided by nonzero equals, Illustration 1:

the quotients will be equal.
G iven: A B ^ A C
In actual practice this postulate has widespread use in geom etry, b a t . '
D is the m idpoint of A B .
o n l y w here th e divisors c and d are the num ber “2.” In this case th e con­
c lu s io n becom es '^•C £ is the m idpoint of A C ..
a _ b
F ig u re 3-21.
2~ 2
w h e r e a /2 and b /2 are but halves of the original equal num bers a a n d b. REASON
U n d e r this special circum stance, th e postulate is stated as C O N CLUSIO N

a d ^ laE Division postulate: Halves {AD and A E)

Halots of equals a n equal.
of congruent segments (A B and AC) are
I t is only natu ral th a t this form of th e Division P ostulate w ould find congruent.
 70 ASSUMPTIONS AN D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF THE MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION POSTULATES 71
T o avoid confusion, it m ight be well to point out that the term "halves”
G iv en : CA == CB
as used in these exam ples refers to the fact th a t the measures of both A D 3, Given: /.A D C £ /-BCD
and A E are halves of the m easures of A B and AC. T he Division Postulate D E bisects CA and CB.
D F bisects /A D C .
will also enable uo to conclude th a t BD S? CE, for their measures, too, are (H int: W rite these
CE bisects /B C D . d a ta as two pieces of
halves of those of the congruent segments AB and ~A£. W hat two other
conclusions can be draw n in this problem? information.)

illustration 2:
A F
Given: / B A E ^ / D E A

AC bisects / B A E .
B c D
l, EC bisects /D E A .
Figure 3-22.
t G iven: AC = BD
5. G iven: / A B E ^ / D C E
AC and TlD bisect each
BG bisects / A B E .
CONCLUSION REASON other. (H int: W rite
_►
CF bisects /E C D . these data as two
/ B A C = /D E C Division postulate: Halves ( / B A C and
/D E C ) of congruent angles ( / B A E and pieces of inform ation.)
/D E A ) are congruent.
i

I
EXERCISES

In each of the following problem s draw a single conclusion

based on all th e d a ta given. Do your work as shown in the two illustrations
G iven: PB £ PC 8.
above. 7. G iven: / A D B £ /B C A
A is the m idpoint
D E bisects /A D B .
1. G iven: A B ~ DC G iven: A B £ AC 2. of P S .
CE bisects /B C A . D is the m idpoint
E is the m idpoint of A B . D E bisects AB.
of PC.
F is the m idpoint of DC. D F bisects AC.
72 ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF APPLICATIONS OF THE PROPERTIES OF EQUALITV 73

9. Given: OF bisects DC. Given: AC bisects /.B A D . 10. equal to the sam e th ird num ber. Although the inform ation in th e T ransitive
_ Property was given as
OE bisects AB. CA bisects /.B C D . a —b
AB==UC /B A D S /B C D and
b = c
by applying the Sym m etric Property to the second of these equalities, it can
be w ritten as
c= 6

T hus, Postulate 1X can be w ritten as

If a = 4
and c= b
then a - c
■ The Postulates of Equality
W hen stated in this way, we can easily recognize th a t both a and c are equal
W e have been m aking some ra th e r vague references to the to b. T h en by the T ransitive Property we will conclude th a t
fact th a t in the relation
a = c
a = b
T h e equivalence of the following statem ents was noted several times in
the sym bol on the left and the symbol on the right are but two different
nam es for the sam e “ thing," w here m ost frequently this “ th in g ” has been the p a s t:
m A B = m CD is equivalent to A B — CD.
a num ber. To express this concept formally, the m athem aticians created
three postulates setting forth w hat they call the properties of an equality. Since it follows from the Sym m etric Property th a t
P ostu la te 9 : Reflexive Property of Equality if m A B ~ m CD
then m CD = m A B

P ostulate 10: Sym m etric Property of Equality T herefore, it can be said that

If if A B S CD
a —b
then b= a then CD — A B

P ostulate 11: T ransitive Property of Equality T h e sam e relations will hold with reference to the Reflexive P roperty
and '.he T ransitive Property. T h a t is, henceforth,
If a=b
and b —c T h e Reflexive, Sym m etric, and T ransitive Properties of Equality
then a- c 1 will also be interp reted as Reflexive, Sym m etric, and T ransitive
Properties of Congruence of line segments and C ongruence of
T h e first of these properties has-a. very long history, having been first angles.
noted by the Greek phi!osopher*Aristotle. Hj) referred to it by saying th a t a
q u a n tity m ust b e identically eqvral to itself and noted this as his first law
of logic. It was called the Law of Identity. TJiere are two other laws of logic B Applications of the Properties of Equality
th a t Aristotle established. Both of these will play an im p o rtan t role in our T h e reflexive property of equality has some very special
w ork la te r in th e course.
applications w hen used in conjunction w ith the addition and subtraction
T h e Sym m etric Property establishes the idea th a t an equality betw een postulates, T h e four illustrations below wili help point u p .those situations
n u m b ers will hold in both directions, T h a t is, if a is equal to b, then so, too, u n d e r which this occurs. Before reading the “ Conclusion” a n d “ R eason”
m ust b be equal to a. Finally, the third, or transitive, property of equality th a t appear lo» each problem , try to draw your own conclusion and justify
enables us' to discover two num bers th a t are equal by showing th a t they are it in term s of the postulates.
 74 ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF APPLICATIONS OF THE PROPERTIES OF E Q U A L S 75

C O N C L U S IO N REASON

/.C A D £ LCAD Reflexive property of con g ru en t angles.

/ B A D £ /C A E Addition postulate: If congruent angles
( /C A D and /C A D ) are added to con­
gruent angles ( / B A C and / D A E ) , the
sums will be congruent angles ( / B A D
F ig u re 3-23, and /C A E ) .

CON C LU SIO N REASON Illustration 4:

CD £ CD Reflexive p roperty of congruent seg­
ments.
B D £ CE Addition postulate: If congruent seg­
m ents (CD a n d CD) are added to con­ B G iven: / A B D £ / C B E
gruent segm ents (B C and D E ), the sums
will be congruent segments (B D and
C l) .
Illustration 2:
5 -

CONCLUSION REASON
G iven: S W £ TV
/E B D £ /E B D Reflexive property of congruent angles.
/ A B E £ /C B D S ubtraction postulate: If congruent
angles ( / E B D and / E B D ) are sub­
Figure 3-24.
tracted from congruent angles ( / A B D
and /C B E ) , the differences will be con­
| CON C LU SIO N REASON gruent angles ( / A B E and /C B D ) .
T F £ TW Reflexive property of congruent seg­
ments. An illustration of the transitive property of congruence is given below
Subtraction postulate: If congruent seg­ Before reading the conclusion and reason th a t appears for the problem , try
S r ^ iW v to,form ulate your own.
ments ( T W and T W ) are subtracted
from congruent segments (S W and T V ),
Illustration 5:
the differences will be congruent seg­
m ents (S T and W V ).
Illustration 3:
/ k Given: Z1 £ / 2 \
Z3 £ Z2
/ ........................_

- p i

Figure 3-27.

t A ngles a re freq u en tly n am ed w ith num bers r a th e r th a n w ith th re e c a p ita l letters.

 76
ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE
IN A PROOF
APPLICATIONS OF THE POSTULATES OF GEOMETRY 77
CONCLUSION
REASON
a ? Z3 7. Given: / I S / 2 I Given: B E S = F C 8.
T ransitive property
of congruence: If Z3 S Z2
two angles ( Z l a n d Z 3) are c o n g ru en t
to th e sam e angle { / 2), then th ey are
congru e n t to each other.

e x e r c is e s

In each of these problem s, state one conclusion a n d th e

reason ju
justifying this conclusion. Do
your w ork as show n in the five illustra-
9. Given: BC = /! £ Given: / R Y T ^ . Z W Y S 10.
tions above.
AESG D
y
1. G iven: A G ~ E E
G iven: /A B C S Z /.B A G 2.
/A C B ^ /B A C
A

11. G iven: £>£ = BF Given: / B A D = / E A C 12.

FC = D E

H Applications of the Postulates of Geometry

T hough we will learn other postulates throughout the year,
the few we have studied in this chapter have w ider application th a n any
G iven: / A E C S Z / D E B of the others. If you understand these thoroughly, there is little likelihood
th a t you will encounter any great difficulty w ith the work th a t follows.
A.— E O n the other hand, should you still feel unsure of yourself w ith the applica­
tion o f these postulates, it w ould be best to go back and redo each o f the sets
of exercises in this chapter. T o help you decide w hether this review is neces­
sary, do all the problem s in the exercises th a t follow. If you h ave no difficulty
in determ ining which postulate should be used to justify each conclusion,
th en it is very likely th at you understand how and w hen to. apply the o pera­
tional postulates.
78 ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
APPLICATIONS OF THE POSTULATES OF GEOMETRY

EXERCISES Given: / A B C = . / A C B 1
Z1 S / 2
U nless otherwise stated, draw only one conclusion on the
basis of th e d a ta given in each of the following problem s. T o th e rig h t of
each of you" conclusions, state the pustulate you have used to justify this
conclusion.

1. G iven: m / \ = 35 G iven: A B S D E
m / 2 = 35 B C ^E F
A 11. Given: BC £= BD G iven: / C E A ^ A B E D
B E = SF
A B C
.A

o E

G iven: M N = 0 ? 4.
Given: Z1 S= /'b
Z 2 = Z4

0 E H

5. G iven: / \ £= / A
/ 2 = Z3
C iven: Z1 S Z 2 6.
15. G iven: Z l £ ^ 2
/I £ /i

7. G iv e n : /.C A D ^ /C B D G iv e n : S PR 8.
/ D A B S /D B A m n ^ F q G iven: Z1 ^2
17. G iv e n : / i — / 2
C t_ M N Z 4 £ Z2 ZCCD S
 80 ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF 81
TEST

G iven: Z A B C £= Z D C B 20. Given: C A ^ C B

<—► . ..-
28.
D E bisects CA and
B E bisects Z A B C .
CB.
CE bisects Z D C B .

21, G iven: Z l ^ Z2 G iven: A B ^ D C 22.

Z 2 S * Z3

29. Gitfen: Z A B C ^ Z E F C Given: BA £ BC 30.

Z\ “ Zl A D ^C E

23. G iven: A B ^ D C
E is the m idpoint
of AB.
F is the m idpoint 31. G iven: Z A B C = Z A D C Given: Z A E C = Z D E B 32.
of CD. Z l = Zl
A D
A----------------------------.0

25. G iven: Z A B C £ Z A C B G iven: E C ^ A B 26. M Test

BD bisects Z A B C . EDS* AS

1. In w hat w ay does a “ postulate" differ from a “ belief” ?

2. Two m athem aticians in different parts of the world develop subjects th at

they call plane geom etry. T h e postulates used by one are com pletely
different th an those used by the oth^r. Does this im ply tn a t one of these
m en is right while th e other is w r|8grjfu$tify your answer.
 j
i
1 83
82 ASSUMPTIONS AND THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF TEST
3. State the postulate th a t was used in concluding Step B on the basis of G iven: CE bisects ZA C B . 2.
1. Given : AD S
the inform ation given in Step A in each of the following problem s.
D C ^E C
(a) Step A: 3x = 12 (b) Step A : x + 4 = 10
Step B: j —4 Step B: x = 6
(c) Step A : 2x - 5 = 13 (d) Step A: 5x + 10 = 5
Step B: 2a = 18 Step B: x + 2 = 1

4. I f points A, B , and C are elem ents of RS, then under w hat condition will
A C + CB = AB? B
i—► <—>
5. If A B and CD intersect in points X and Y, then w hat conclusion can be
draw n?
6. A nswer each of the questions below in terms of this diagram . If an answ er 3, G iven: /.D B A = Z E B C
G iven: E D = BC 4.
F is the m idpoint of ED .
is not possible, sim ply w rite “ no answer” after the problem num ber.
G is the m idpoint of BC.
A — ~___________________________ _ C

(a) A D + D B = ? ■ (b) CE + ED = ?
(c) A E + E D = ? (d ) B S - FC = ?
(e) AC - A E = ? (f) Z B A C - / FAC = ?
(g ) Z BCD + / B C A = ? (h ) / A E F - Z D E F = ? Given: / E D C ~ / F D B 6>
5, G iv e n : EF -L AC
A
7. Express each of the following in terms of a single num eral.
(a ) \1 - 3| (b ) |4 — 9| ' (c) |3 - ( —7)|

8. I f the coordinate of A is 9 and the coordinate of B is 15,w hat is the

m easure of A~E?

9. If P is betw een R and Q, w hat is m S ? if m RQ = 17 and m FQ = 9? G iven: AD bisects /.B A F . 8.

7. G iven: AD S A E
10. T h e m / A P B = 60 and m Z B P C = 20,
AB AC A
(a ) If P B is betw een PA and PC, w hat is the m ZAPC1
—y — ■■ >
(b ) If PC is betw een PA and P B , w hat is the m /A P C ?

T¥1
f D raw a conclusion in each of the problem s below. Im m e ­
diately following your reason for this conclusion, indicate w hether this reason
is a postulate, a definition, or the reverse of a definition.
 84
ASSUMPTIONS A N D THEIR PLACE IN A PROOF
9. G iven: AC £ BD
G iven: Z B J F ^ Z C G E 10.
J K bisects Z B J F .
C H biscots z 'CGE.

C /G
F

11. G iven: A B and CD bisect

each other.
G iven: RA £ RC
R C = iR B
12. 4
The “Simple”
Theorems

G iv en : Z A F D ^ ZBEC 14. IN T H E F IR S T T H R E E C H A PT E R S W E L A ID T H E
s ZC£/1
foundation blocks of the course in geometry. These blocks are our ckfinitians--
A f _____ n and postulates. Now we are prepared to build a large (superstructure; based
on these few primitive ideas. W hat, however, is the m o rtar th a t binds the
superstructure to these definitions and assumptions? It is known either as
the “ Rules of Reasoning' 1 or the “ Form ulas for D raw ing V alid Inferences.”
O nly one of these rules is im portant to us at this time,
E C , Consider the following two statem ents:
15. G iven: A E ^ E B
G iven: A C SsZD B 16. (1) “ If I receive a passing grade on my exam, then I shall pass for the
<■4 _ term .”
£ H bisects J C and (2) “ I received a passing grade on my exam .”
$
~BB. O n the basis of these two statem ents, w hat conclusion do you believe should
—__D
follow? Q uite apparently, by virtue of the.fact that I received a passing g rade
on m y exam , I shall pass for the term .
r A statem ent of the form
/ F G - \
----- \ h
“ If I receive a passing grade on my exam,
u then I shall pass for the term ”
is called a conditional statement. T h a t p art of the statem ent following the w ord
“ if” is referred to as the antecedent, while the clause following the w ord “ th en ” '
 86 THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS
is t h e consequent or conclusion. If, a s in t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n a b o v e , w e a s s e r t t h e “ If a person is a king, then th at person is a m an .”
tr u th o T b o th th e c o n d itio n a l s ta te m e n t
Should we assert the truth of the consequent,
“ I f I re c e iv e a p a s sin g g r a d e o n m y e x a m ,
“ Joe Sm ith is a m an ”
th en I s h a ll p a s s f o r t h e t e r m ''

a n d th e a n te c e d e n t it would surely not infer the tru th of the antecedent,

“Jo e Sm ith is a king.”
“ I r e c e i v e d a p a s s in g g r a d e o n m v e x a m ”

t h e n it w ill f o llo w t h a t t h e consequent w il l also be tr u e :

“ I shall pass for the term .”

If this relationship is expressed w ith the symbols fi a n d q w h e re /; re p ­

resents the antecedent and q th e consequent, w hat we have ju st discovered
w ould take the form of

P ostu la te 12: Accepting the conditional statem ent: I f p then q.

A nd asserting th e tru th of p : G iven p F i g u r e 4-2.
Affirms the tru th of q; T hen q follows.
T his sam e situation can be illustrated ra th e r clearly through the use
T h e application of Postulate 12 to geom etric situations will occur as of a Venn diagram . Here we see that both “ Jo e S m ith” and “ K ings” are
follow s:
subsets of the universal set called “ M en.” Jo e Sm ith, however, is not neces­
A ccepting the conditional statem ent: If an angle is a right angle, then its sarily a m em ber of the set called “ K ings.” T hus, reasoning of the form
m easure is 90. A ccepting the conditional statem ent: If p , then q.
A nd asserting th e tru th of the antecedent: / A B C is a right angle. A nd asserting the tru th of q : Given q
Affirms the tru th of the consequent: T h e m easure of /.A B C is 90.
Affirms the truth of p: T h en p follows.
In this illustration th e conditional statem ent is nothing m ore th a n is F A L S E, or IN C O R R E C T , R E A SO N IN G .
a n o th er form of the definition of a right angle. In fact the entire problem Sim ilarly, if we were-to deny the antecedent, this w ould not im ply the
was encountered earlier in our work as
tru th of a denial of the consequent. T hus, with reference to the conditional
statem en t '
“ I f a person is a king, then th a t person is a m an .’’

if we deny the antecedent

"J o e Sm ith is not a king”

this denial does hoi imply the tru th of a denial of the consequent
“Jo e Sm ith is not a m an”

T h e conclusion we drew was identically the sam e as the consequent-in this By exam ining the Venn diagram above, we can see th a t although Jo e
illustration. A pparently, each tim e we drew a conclusion in the first three Sm ith is not an elem ent in the set “ K ings,” he is an elem ent in the set “ M e n .”
chapters we w ere accepting Postulate 12 w ithout being aw are of this! H ence, reasoning following this p attern is incorrect.
A reasonable question fo ask a t this point is, “ If we assert th e tru th of Incorrect Reasoning
the consequent in a conditional statem ent, will this in tu rn affirm the tru th of
A ccepting the conditional statem ent: If/i.th e n f
the antecedent?” T o answer this question, let us exam ine the conditional And asserting the truth of a dental of p : G iven not-/)
sta te m en t
Affirms the tru th of a denial of q : T h en n o t- f follows.
 88 THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS THEOREM ON RIGHT ANGLES

EXERCISES.
11
A G ranting the truth or the conditional statem ent and the
i___ statem ent th at follows it, w hat further statem ent will be true? If no further
In cach of the following problem s state w hether the reason­ statem ent can be m ade by “ correct’’ reasoning, sta te w hy this is so.
ing is correct or incorrect. Justify your answer in either event.
1. If a substance is an acid, it will tu rn blue litm us paper red.
1. If M r. Strong is elected senator, then our taxes will be reduced. T his substance turns blue litm us paper red.
M r. Strong was elected senator.
2. If a student is not a senior, he can not run for office in th e senior class.
f O u r taxes will be reduced.
Fred W illiams is a senior.
2. You wiil have no th ro at irritation if you smoke R obin cigarettes.
3. If x = —2, then x t = 4.
Y ou smoke R obin cigarettes.
B ut = l
You will have no th ro at irritation.
4. If two angles are congruent to the sam e angle, th en th eir m easures are
3. If it rains, we shall not go to the dance.
It is not raining. equal.
/LA and /-B are not congruent to the same angle.
W e shall go to th e dance.
5. A B = 'BC if B is the m idpoint of AC.
4. I f you are a good citizen, then you will vote a t election tim e.
You voted a t election time. B is the m idpoint of AC.
You are a good citizen. 6. Z l is not a right angle if A B is not perpendicular, to CD.
5. I f th e price of goods is, n ot increased, it will not be necessary to raise the
A B X CD.
salaries of employees.
T h e price of goods was increased. 7. Two angles are supplem entary if the sum of their m easures is 180. ■
It will be necessary to raise the salaries of employees. m Z A + m /.B = 1 8 0 .

8. x is an element of B if x is an elem ent of A.

6. I f A B _L CD, then Z l and Z 2 are right angles.
x is an elem ent of B.
G iv e n : A B JL CD
4—^ 4—
♦ v <■}
Z l a n d Z 2 are rig h t angles. 9. If the intersection of A B and CD is the em pty set, th en A B a n d CD a re

7. If a ray is the bisector of an angle, then two congruent angles will be , not equal sets.
form ed. T he intersection of A B and CD is not the em pty set.

G iven: BA bisects Z B . 10. 11 a point is the vertex of an angle, then it is a com m on elem ent to eac h
T w o congruent angles are formed. of the sides of the angle.
8. You will be able to write quickly if you use R A P ID pencils. P is an elem ent com m on to each of two rays.
You do not use R A P ID pencils.
Y ou are not able to w rite quickly.
H Theorem on Right Angles
9. I f a = 6 a n d c — d, then a + c = i> + d.
W e spoke earlier of the superstructure th a t w e p lanned to
a does not equal b, and c does not equal d,
build on the foundation of definitions and postulates. T his su p erstru ctu re
a + c does not equal b + d.
consists of statem ents, m any of them conditional, whose tru th we propose
t The symbol .'. is used to represent the word "therefore," to justify. T o do this, w e will m ake frequent use of Postulate 12, for it is th e
 90 THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS
only m eans w e h ave at our.disposal for ' ‘reasoning correctly.” Q uite often
the words “ rei'soning correctly” are used interchangeably w ith “ reasoning
logically” or “ d raw ing valid conclusions.” T h ro u g h o u t this book these three
p h n se s will have exactly the same meaning.
T o a very large extent the nature of our w ork will be to show why we
m us; accept q in the statem ent
“ If p, then q”
if w e accept th e tru th of p. T hen, with the knowledge that both p and q are true,
we will agree that the statement “If p, then q ” is also true.
M any of the statem ents th at we prove— th a t is, justify by reasoning
correctly—will have little consequence in the developm ent of our w ork in
geom etry. T hose statem ents that are im portant will be singled out and re ­
ferred to as theorems. T heorem s are used in the justification o f the proofs of
o th er statem ents.
All of this can be m ade a great deal clearer by show ing an application
to a specific illustration.
T H E O R E M 1: I f tw o a n g les a re rig h t angles, th e n th e y a r e c o n g ru e n t.
A t the outset we m ust realize th at the/> of this statem ent is
“ Two angles are right angles”
w hile the q is
“ These two angles are congruent”
THEOREM O N RIGHT ANGLES vt
Third Application oj Postulate 12
I f a - b and b = c, then a = c.
m /-A = 90 and m /LB = 90
m /LA - m /LB
Fourth Application of Postulate 12
If two angles have equal measures, then they are congruent,
/.A and L B have equal measures.
.'. /LA and /LB are congruent.
T hus, accepting the statem ent th a t /LA and /LB were right angles led
us to th e conclusion that /.A and L B were congruent. T h e justification for
this was based on the method of “ correct reasoning” given to us b y P ostulate
12. In addition, w e fell back upon the definition of a right angle, th e reverse
of the definition of congruent angles, and the transitive property of equality.
W here did these three statem ents ap p ear in the proof?
I t is q u ite apparent th a t this m ethod of proof is not only lengthy but
also ra th e r tedious. In view of this fact, the “ T w o-C olum n” m ethod was
developed to shorten and simplify the proof of a statem ent, T h e proof p re ­
sented above will now be repeated in its “ T w o-C olum n” form.

O u r o bjective now will be to accept p and show w hy q m ust also be accepted. Given: L A \ is a right angle.
T h is is done by m aking several applications of P ostulate 12. T o simplify /LB is a right angle.
o u r w ork, let us call th e two right angles L A and L B . C oncl.: /LA = /LB

F i g u r e 4-1
PRO OF F o rm a l p.t W-f ■
REASONS
frR O O F 1 STATEMENTS
First Application of Postulate 12
1. /LA is a right angle. 1. Given
If an angle is a right angle, then its m easure is 90. 2. Definition of a right angle
2. m /LA = 90
L A is a rig h t angle, 3. G iven
3. L B is a right angle.
m L A = 90 4. Sam e as 2
4. m L B — 90
5. m /LA — m /LB
5. Transitive, property of equality
Second Application oj Postulate 12 6. Reverse of the definition of congru­
6. L A S L B
ent angles
If an angle is a rig h t angle, then its m easure is 90.
L B is a rig h t angle, f A n a n g le c a n b e nam etf w ith th e single leU cr a t its v ertex if th e re are no o th e r an g les
m L B = 90 in th e d ia g ra m h av in g th e sam e vertex.
 92
THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS THEOREM O N RIGHT ANGLES 93
T here are several features a b o u t the preceding proof th a t should be called statem ent in terms of the previous postulates th at are already a t his disposal.
to your attention, for they will be repeated in most proofs.
T h ere will be occasions in the future when we shall m ake statem ents whose
(1) Notice th a t the Conclusion you are working tow ard is stated directly proofs are possible, and yet we shall postulate them . W e do this so as not to
below the Given Data. Y our objective will be to try to reach this conclusion bewilder you with small details at this early stage of your m athem atical
by m aking a series of Statements, E ach of these statem ents will have to be developm ent.
justified either by the fact th a t it is p a rt of the G iven B a ta or by virtue Now, on to an application of Theorem 1'.
of the definitions or postulates th a t have been agreed upon.
(2) In developing the proof it is best not to leave any piece of the G iven
D a ta w ithout pointing out its value in the proof. Thus, before leaving th e Given: A B J- CD
statem ent th a t " Z A is a rig h t angle,” it was shown th a t because o f the Concl.'. Z \ = Z 2
definition of a right angle, th e m easure of Z A m ust be 90. T his w a s im ­
po rtan t, for arriving a t o u r conclusion was dependent upon th e fact th a t
th e m easures of both L A a n d Z B be shown equal to the sam e n um ber, 90.
(3) W henever the sam e reason appears m ore th an once in a proof, it is
unnecessary th a t it b e repeated. In th e proof illustrated, the reason for
REASONS
statement 4 was the same as that for statement 2. This was signified by STATEMENTS
writing, “ Same as 2.” PROOF
1. Given
T h e proof of the theorem , “ If tw o angles are rig h t angles, then th ey a re 1. A B JL CD 2. Definition o f perpendicular lines
congruent” was based on tw o definitions a n d the postulate, the transitive 2. Z l and Z2 are right angles. 3. If two angles are rig h t angles, then
property of equality. You m ay say, “ W h a t if we had decided n o t to accept 3. Z 1 S Z 2 they are congruent. (T heorem 1)
this postulate?” T hen, w e w ould very likely not have been able to prove
this theorem . In the sam e vein, should a postulate be discarded a t any tim e
N ote that we d id not have to prove T heorem 1 over again in arriving
during th e period in which you a re learning this subject, it w ould be neces­
a t Z l = Z l . Since the two angles were shown to be rig h t angles, then
sary, too, to discard those theorem s th a t w ere based upon this postulate. All
is n o t lost, however, for an equally elegant superstructure can be built on T heorem 1 enables us to conclude th at they are congruent.
th e postulate th a t replaced th e discarded one!
Along the same line, the question is often raised, “ W hich has greater
‘tru th ,’ the postulates th a t w e have accepted or the theorem s w e prove?”
EXERCISES
A m om ent's reflection on how the theorem s were justified will m ake you
realize th a t th e question is meaningless. Show how to arrive a t the conclusion in each of th e follow­
O nce a theorem has been proved, it can be used thereafter as justifica­ ing problems. Use th e sam e m ethod as illustrated above.
tio n for statem ents in the sam e m an n er as definitions and postulates have
b e e n used in the past. B ut do, d o be careful—never use them as a reason
1 . Given: Z B is a right angle.
G iven: Z B is a rig h t angle. 2.
b e fo re they have been proved. As an exam ple, refer to statem ent 6 in the Z D is a right angle. DC X BC
p ro o f on page 91. C ould th e reason for this statem ent have been given as, ZC
Concl.: Z B S Z D Concl.: Z B
“ If tw o angles are right angles, then they are congruent” ? Justify y o u r
a n sw er.

O n e final point m ay still b e annoying you. W hy bother to prove th a t

r i g h t angles a re congruent or, in fact, w hy prove any statem ents? W hy n o t
m a k e things a great deal easier for ourselves by accepting this statem ent and
a l l others! T h e answer to this lies in th e n a tu re of m athem atics. A lthough
t h e m athem atician wants th e postulates and definitions to be clearly set
F o rth a t the outset, he prefers to keep th eir num ber a t a m inim um . T h a t is,
h e will call no new statem ent a postulate if it is a t all possible to prove this
 94
THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS
3. G iven: A B ± CD
Given: A B A. BC 4*
SUPPLEMENTARy A N D COMPLEMENTARV ANGLES 95

10.
C oncl.: Z A B C ^ / A B D «-» <->
E C i . BC 9. Given: A B and DC J_ BC Given: Z \ and Z 3 are com-
C onci.: Z B 9 z Z C ZC = ZD plem entary to Z Z .
Concl.: ZD Concl.: Z D B F S= Z C B E

5. G iven: A B 1 B C
<-*
Given: Z \ and Z2 are com- 6.
E D J. AC plementary angles.
C oncl.: Z A B C g x / A D B Z D C B is a right angle. ■ Theorem on Straight Angles
Concl.: ZABCSZZD CB It should have been app aren t to you th a t ju st as we had
been able to prove th at if two angles are right angles, then they are con­
gruent, so, too, is it possible to prove th at if two angles are straight angles,
then they will be congruent.
T H E O R E M 2: K two angles a re stra ig h t an g les, th e n th e y a r e c o n g ru ­
ent.
T h e proof of this statem ent is very m uch the sam e as the one given on
page 91. In w hat m anner will the diagram have to be altered in order to
conform with the information given in this theorem ra th e r th an in the one
on right angles? How would you change the G iven D ata? W h at w ord in
7. G iven: Z1 and Z 2 are com ­
G iven: A B X CD 8.
reason 2 will have to be changed? W hat other changes will have to be m ade
plem entary angles. in the proof? W rite out the com plete proof of T heorem '2.
Z 1 com plem entary
L 2 and Z 4 are com ­
to Z 3
plem entary angles. ■ ^ Theorems on Supplementary and Complementary Angles
C oncl.: Z A C B S Z Z 1
C oncl.: / A B C £~ Z D C B
If Z B was supplem entary to Z A a n d the m Z A was 20,
w h at w ould be the measure of Z B ? W h at operation did you perform to
arrive a t 160? If Z C was also supplem entary to Z A , th en w hat w ould be
the m easure of Z C i In view of w hat you found the m easures of both Z B
and Z C to be, w hat conclusion can be drawn? H ow were both Z B a n d Z C
related to ZA? W hat relationship existed between Z B and Z C based on
the fact th a t they were both supplem entary to ZA ? In general then, w hat
do you think we will be able to prove concerning two angles th a t are sup­
plem entary to the same angle?
THEOREM 3: If two angles are supplem entary to the same an gle,
th en they are congruent.
 SUPPLEMENTARY-AND COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES 91
96 THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS
In order to arrive a t our conclusion, we will try to show th a t
A n a l y s is :
A n a l y sis : T h e proof will be p a tte rn e d after the m ethod used to show th a t
both Z \ and Z l are congruent and also A A B C and EFG m ust be congruent
two right angles are congruent. T h a t is, w e will show th a t b oth angles have
(see Figure 4-6). O nce this has been accomplished, Z A B D a n d Z E F H will
the sam e m easure; hence, th ey w ill be congruent to each other.
• Since Z B and Z A are supplem entary, then m Z B -|- m /LA = 180. If have to be congruent by th e subtraction property o f congruence.
this is so, then w hat is the m easure of ZB?. In a sim ilar m a n n e r w e c an show
th a t m Z C is also 18Q — m Z A . H ence, it follows th a t Z B == ZC.
Given: Z A B D is supplem entary to Z l .
Z E F H is supplem entary to Z l .
Z l S Z2
G iven: Z B is supplem entary to Z A ,
Concl.: Z A B D S Z E F H
Z C is supplem entary to Z A .
C oncl.: Z B = Z C

Figure 4-6.
F ig u re 4-5.

REASONS
PROOF STATEMENTS PR O O F STATEMENTS
REASONS
1. Z B is supplem entary to Z A . 1. Z A B D is supplem entary to 1. Given
1. Given
2. m Z B + m Z A = 180 Z l.
2. Definition of supplem entary angles 2. Supplem entary angles are two angles
3. m Z B = 180 - m Z A 2. ZA B C is a straight angle.
3. Subtraction pro p erty of equality the sum of whose m easures is th e
4. Z C is supplem entary to Z A .
4. Given m easure of a straig h t angle. (See
5. m Z C + m Z A = 180
5. Sam e as 2
6. m Z C = 180 - m Z A Definition 12a, page 32.)
6. Sam e as 3
7. m Z B = m Z C 3. Z E F H is supplem entary to 3. Given
7. T ran sitiv e property of equality
8. Z B S * Z C Z l.
8. Reverse of definition of congruent 4. Same as 2
4. ZEFG is a straight angle.
angles 5. If two angles are straig h t angles, th en
5. Z A B C '= ZEFG
they are congruent. (T heorem 2)

6. Z 1 S / 2 6. Given
Before exam ining the theorem below, you should realize th a t there will
7. If congruent angles ( Z l a n d Z 2 ) are
b e a n o th e r theorem whose w ording will be very m uch th e sam e as th a t of 7. Z A B D = ZE F H
T h e o re m 3. W h a t do you think this theorem will be? subtracted from c o n g ru en t angles
(Z A B C and ZE F G ), the differences
'TH EO REM 4: I f two angles are com plem entary to th e same an gle, will be congruent angles. (S u b trac­
th en th ey are congruent.
tion property of congruence)
A n a l y sis :R efer to the proof above, W hy will the d iagram for the proof
o f this theorem have to be changed from the one used in the proof of T h e­
T h e theorem th a t follows differs from T heorem 5 o nly b y th e fact th a t
o r e m 3? W hat inform ation in the G iven D ata will have to be changed?
the word “ com plem entary’’ will replace the w ord “ supplem entary."
W h y is no change necessary ift th e Conclusion? E xam ine each step o f th e
p r o o f to d eterm ine w hich w ords a n d w hich num bers w ill h a v e to b e changed. THEOREM 6 : I f two an gles are com plem entary to tw o con gru en t
Using the proof above as a guide, write the com plete proof of T h e­ angles, th e n th ey are congruent.
o r e m 4,
T h e next tw o theorem s sound very m u ch the same as T heorem s 3 a n d 4. Using th e proof of T h eo re m 5 as a guide, w rite the com plete proof of
T h e i r proofs, however, will be q uite different. T heorem 6.
T h e illustration th a t follows is a n exam ple of how T h eo rem 6 can be
T H E O R E M 5: I f two angles.^are sup p lem entary to tw_fl_co n g ru en t
angles, th en they are congruent. applied in the proof of a problem .
 99
98 THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS UPPLEMENTARy AND COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES

Illustration: 3. G iven: Z A B C is a siraigln G iven: A B X BC

4.
angle- _ D E L EF
/.D E F is a straight ^
Given: A B ± B D
<—V ► angle' C oncl.: Z 3 S Z 4
CD 1 BD Z l S* ZZ
zi s zz C oncl.: Z 3 = Z 4
Cone!.: Z 3 ^ Z 4

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

1. A B ± BD 1. Given
2. Z A B D is a right angle. 2. Def. of _L lines
3. Z i is com plem entary to Z l. 3. Rev. of def. of com plem entary angles

4. CD 1 BD 4. Given
5. G iven: Z l is supp. to Z l .
G iven: Z i is supp. to Z l ,
Z E F G is a straight
6.

Z i is supp. to Z l .
5. Z C D B is a right angle. 5. Sam e as 2 angle.
6. Z 4 \s com plem entary to Z2. 6. Sam e as 3 Concl.: Z l = Z i
C oncl.: Z i S l Z Z
7. But, Z l S Z l 7. Given
8. Z 3 £■! Z4 8. If two angles are com plem entary to
two congruent angles, then th ey a re
congruent. (T heorem 6)

T h ere is an altern ate m ethod for arriving a t the conclusion in this

illustration. Since Z A B D and Z C D B w ere.show n to be right angles, then
by T heorem 1 we can conclude th at they are congruent. From the G iven

8.
D a ta we know th a t Z l = Z2. Hence, why should it follow th a t Z 3 = Z4?

7. G iven: ZE G H is a straight
G iv e n : BC D E is a straight
EXERCISES line.
angle.
< ZFH G is a straight Z l S ZZ
C oncl. : Z i & Z 4
1• Given Z \ is comp, to ZZ. G iven: Z l is com p, to ZZ. angle.

Z i is com p, to Z t . Zl m &
CB 1 A B C oncl.: Z 3 S / 4
C oncl.: Z \ 9* Z l
Concl.: Z i ~ Z \
 100
THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS
VERTICAL ANGLES 101
9. Given: Z C is comp, to Z l .
G iven: Z \ is supp. to Z 2. 10.
A B 1 BC
Z A B C is a straight
15. Given: A B 1 AC G iven: AC and BD are 16.
Cone!.: Z C S Z l <-> <-> straight lines.
j anele. AD 1 AE
C oncl.: Z l ^ Zl
| Cone!.: Z l ^ Z l C oncl.: Z l S Z l

■ Vertical Angles
In doing Problem 16 of the preceding set of exercises, you
11. Given: BC extended to
12 .
A G iven: Z \ is comp, to Z l . have actually proved a very im portant theorem . T h e angles 1 and 2 in
th a t diagram are called vertical angles. Notice that in order to obtain the
D E extended to F Z l is comp, to ZA.
--► sides of Z l , it was necessary to extend the sides of Z \ back through the
Z l^ Z A
B E bisects ZA B C . vertex E. Similarly, had Z l been draw n first, then to obtain the sides of
Concl.: Z \ S Z 2
C oncl.: Z l ^ Z l
Z l , it would have been necessary to have extended the sides of Z l , ED and

Figure 4-8.
13. Given: AC J. BD
Given \ D B
Z l S Z2
± AC
14. EC, through vertex E. In defining vertical angles we m ake use of this p rop­
C o n cl.: Z 3 S ZA B D bisects Z E B F . erty. Into w hat class would you place vertical angles? How would you show
C oncl.: Z l ^ ZA hoi# these angles differ from the other words in its class?
D 2 2 : V ertical angles are two angles such th a t the sides of one
e f in it io n

are rays th at are opposite to those of the sides of the other.

W ere Problem 16 expressed as the statem ent of a theorem , it w ould
have been:
TH EO R EM 7: If two angles are vertical angles, then they are con­
gruent.
A n a l y s is : T h e d iagram in Problem i6 suggests th at we m ake use o f Z l .
Since Z B E D is a straight angle, then Z 2 will J>e supplem entary to Z l .
Sim ilarly, Z A E C is a straight angle. H ence, w hat relation exists between
Z l and Z3? If Z l and Z 2 are both supplem entary to Z 3, then w hat sh o u ld '
follow?
 102 VERTICAL ANGLES 103
THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

G iven: Z l and Z2 are vertical angles. 1. Z3 = Z2 1. Given

Concl.: Z l S Z2 2. Z l ^ Z2 2. If two angles are vertical angles, \
then they are congruent.
3. / I Z3 3. T ransitive property of congruence

A few of the problem s in the next group of exercises involve the neces­
sity of applying the transitive property of equality several times before the
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS conclusion can be inferred. Since this same approach is found in the proofs
of quite a num ber of the problem s in the developm ent of geom etry, it seems
1. Z l and Z 2 are vertical 1. Given
only wise th at a theorem be established now to cover this situation.
angles.
—» —y THEOREM 8 : If a = x (1 )
2. EA and E C are opposite rays. 2. Definition of vertical angles and b = V (2)
3. Z.AEC is a straig h t angle, 3. Reverse of definition of a straight but also, x = y (3)
angle th e n a —b
4. Z l is supplem entary to Z3. 4. Reverse of definition of supplem en­
A n a l y s is : By applying the transitive property to equations (1) and (3 ), we
tary angles
find th at a - y. Using this inform ation and the fact th at b — y (2), we dis­
5. E B and E D are opposite rays. 5. Sam e as 2 cover th a t another application of the transitive property will enable us to
6. Z B E D is a straight angle. 6. Sam e as 3 say th a t a = b.
-7. Z 2 is supplem entary to Z3. 7. Sam e as 4 G iven: a = x
8. Z l SS Z 2 8. I f two angles are supplem entary to b= y
the same angle, then they a re con­ x = y
gruent. (T heorem 3) Cone!.: a = b

T h e re is a nother p a ir of vertical angles in th e diagram above. C an PROOF | STATEMENTS REASONS |

you nam e this p a ir of angles? U sing the same m ethod as in the proof ju st
1. a = x 1. Given
given, pro v e th a t these tw o angles a re also congruent.
2. x =y 2. Given
3. a —y 3. Transitive property of equality
Illustration of an Application of Theorem 7: 4. -But, b = y 4. Given
5 a —b 5. Same as 3

G iven: Z 3 S Z 2
Concl.: Z l £= Z 3
A nalysis : Since Z 3 is already congruent to Z2, if we can show th a t Z l
is also congruent to Z 2, then o u r conclusion would follow. Why?
T his theorem will most frequently be applied to line segm ents and to
angles. Therefore, we will use the following statem ents for these special
situations.
THEOREM 8 a: If two lin e segments are congruent to two congruent
lin e segm ents, then they are congruent.
TH EOREM 8 b: If two angles arc congruent to two congruent angles,
then th ey are congruent.
t It is unnecessary lo point out in the proof that / I and i l are vertical angles.
 105
104 THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS VERTICAL ANGLES

J Illustration of an Application of Theorem 8: 3. Given: ZA — Zl

Z Z ) S Z2
G iv en : Z B £= Z \
Z C S Z2

Concl.: Z A S Z D C oncl.: Z B £= Z C
Given: Z l S= Z2
Z4 3 ; Z3

A B bisects ZC A D .
C oncl.: Z l = Z4

F igure 4-11.

A n a l y sis : If it were possible to show th at Z2 — Z3, then by T h eo re m 8, G iven: Z 3 Z4

5 . G iven: Z 2 S Z3
Z \ and Z4 would also be congruent. Consideiing the G iven D ata, do you C oncl.: Z \ = Z2
C oncl.: Z \ = ZA
see any reason why Z2 should be congruent to Z3?

PROOF | STATEMENTS REASONS

1. Z l £ Z2 1. Given
2. Z 4 S Z 3 2. Given
- >
3. Given
I . A B bisects ZCAD .
4. Definition of the bisector of an angle
4. Z2 S Z3
5. If two angles are congruent to two
5. Hence, Z l S Z4
congruent angles, then they are con­ EXERCISES
gruent. (Theorem 8) Review of T heorem s 1 through 8.

1 . G iven: Z \ = Z l G iven: Z l == Z2
EXERCISES C oncl.: Z 3 = ZA C oncl.: Z3 •= Z4

T h e proofs of each of the following problem s is based

prim arily on Theorem s 7 and 8, definitions, and postulates.

1 . G iven: Z \ £ Z3 G iven: Z D — Z 2 2.
C oncl.: Z \ SS Z 2 C oncl.: Z D S Z l

3 . G iven: Z l is supp. to Z 2. G iven: Z 3 is supp. to Z 2.

C oncl.: Z l S Z l C oncl.: Z l = Z3
106
THE "SIMPLE" THEOREMS
TEST 107
5 . Given: Z 3 is comp, to Z2. Given:
Z A C B is a right angle. Z D C B 3s Z2 11. Given: Z A C F = Z D BE Given: AB _L BC 12.
C oncl.: Z 3 b? Z l Concl.: Z A BC £= Z D C B Concl.: Z l £* Z2 Z 2 is com p, to Z l .
Concl.: Z2 = Z3

7 . G iven: Z3 £ Z l G iven: Z D is com p, to Z2. 8.

Z 4 £ Z2
C o n c l.: Z 3 •= Z4
Z E is comp, to Z l.
C oncl.: Z D ^ Z E
13. Given: Z A is comp, to Z l. Given: Z l is supp. to Z3. 14.
Z C is comp, to Z2. Concl.: Z2 ■= Z4

BD bisects ZA B C .
Concl.: Z A = Z C

9. G iven: Z t is supp. to Z2. G iven: Z A B C is a right 10.

Z 3 is supp. to Z4. angle.
C oncl.: Z i £ Z3 Z D C B is a right Test
angle.
Z \ =* Z 2

1. In each of the following problems state whether the reasoning is correct

or incorrect. Justify your answer in either event.
(a) If Jo e M oran plays basketball this season, our team will win the
pennant.
O u r team won the pennant.
Jo e M oran played basketball this season.
(b ) If I do not pass this geometry test, I .shall receive a failing grade for
this cycle.
I passed this geom etry test.
I shall receive a passing grade for this cycle.
 109
108 THE “SIMPLE" THEOREMS TEST
(c) If I brush my teeth with W hite Tooth Paste, m y teeth will have no
3 . Given: Z A is comp, to Z l.
G iven: CA is extended to E. 4.
cavities. Zl Z2
Z C is comp, to Z2.
I do no? brush my tcelh w ith W hite T ooth Paste. C oncl.: Z 3 ~ Z4
Concl.: Z A ^ Z C
M y teeih have cavities.
(d ) If M is the m idpoint of AB, then A M = M B .
M is t h e m i d p o i n t o f AB.
am = Wb

2. G ran tin g the truth of the conditional statem ent and the statem en t th a t
follows it, w hat further statem ent will be true? If no further sta te m en t
can be m ade by “ correct” reasoning, state w hy this is so.
(a ) If the field is m uddy, our team will not win today.
T h e field is not m uddy.
5 . G iven: Z A is comp, to Z l . G iven: ZC S Z l 6.
(b ) If a ray is not the bisector of an angle, it will not form two congruent
A B 1 ED Z D S Z2
angles w ith the sides of the angle.
Concl.: Z I S Z ^ B A bisects Z E B F .
A B does not bisect Z D AC.
C oncl.: Z C ^ Z D
(c) If th e measures of two angles are not equal, th en th e angles a re n o t
rig h t angles.
£ |A F
m ZA — m ZB
(d ) W e will enjoy our stay in high school if we p articip ate in th e school
activities.
W e enjoyed the years we spent in high school. C B D

G iven: Z l is supp. to Z 4. 8.
7 . G iven: A P JL CP
C oncl.: Z 2 = Z3
BP L D P
W rite the proof for each of the following problem s:
C o n cl.: Z l S Z l

1 , G iven: Z l = Z4 G iven: A B ± BC
<-> *->
C oncl.: Z 2 = Z3 AD X D C
C oncl.: Z A B C S Z Z A D C
 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES 111

F ig u re 5-3. F ig u re 5-4.

5
Figure 5-2.
excluded from the set. Notice th at Figure 5-1 consists of line segments;
w hile Figure 5-2 does not. Hence, if we insisted th a t the polygon consist
of line segments, Figure 5-2 would be elim inated. But this still leaves us
w ith Figures 5-3 and 5-4, since both of these consist of line segm ents. Note,

Congruence of though, that in Figure 5-3 two of the line segments (AC and B E ) have a
point in common other th an one of the points A, B, C, D, or E. Perhaps
this feature will help us to elim inate Figure 5-3. Finally, the a p p a re n t differ­
T riangles ence between Figures 5-4 and 5-1 lies in the fact th at the latter is “ closed,”
w hile the former is “ open.”
T hese properties are now combined into the form al definition of a
polygon.
D e f in it io n 23: A polygon is the union of the set of points
A. V E R Y L A RG E AND IM P O R T A N T U N IT OF
w ork in geom etry is concerned with the relationships that exist am ong A t, ft, Pi, . . '. , Pn-n P«
triangles. A lthough the word “ triangle” has been part of your vocabulary w ith the line segments
for some years, it should be quite a p p are n t to you by now th at launching P\Pi, PlPit • • ■, Pr>-lP„, PnP\
into a discussion of this figure before clearly defining it would be foolhardy.
such th a t if any two of these line segments intersect, their intersection will
W h at m ay seem ra th e r odd, however, is the fact th a t to define this term we
be one of the points
exam ine n o t th e triangle b u t the m uch m ore complex figure called th e P\) Pi) Pi, • - - , Pn—l, Pn
polygon. W e do this, surprisingly, not to create greater difficulty for you in a n d no other point.
learning this subject but rath er to establish a general class of figures. N ot
only will the triangle be classified as a polygon but m any other geom etric
figures will be so grouped too.
W e w ould like the definition of a polygon to be so designed th a t Fig­
u re 5-1 will be a m em ber of this set, while Figures 5-2, 5-3, and 5-4 will be

Figure 5-5.
Figure 5-1,
f This is read as tlP one” or “P sub-one.”
110
112 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES CORRESPONDENCE 113
Now let us exam ine this definition to see how Figures 5-2, 5-3, and 5-4 elements of these two sets. And a m atching such as the one above w ould
w ere elim inated. be read as
(1) Figure 5-2 is elim inated by the fact th a t a polygon consists of the D avid is m atched with Doris or D avid corresponds to Doris
unior. of a set of points and the hr.c segments joining those points. H arry is m atched with H arriet or H arry corresponds to H a rrie t
(2) Figure 5-3 is elim inated by the fact th at the line segm ents have no Jam es is m atched with Ja n e or Jam es corresponds to Ja n e
point of intersection other th an the points Ph P;, . . . , P.,.
By using symbols this is simplified to
(3) Figure 5-4 is elim inated by the fact th at a line segm ent m ust be
draw n between the last point P„ and the first po in t Pi, thus “ closing" David *-* Doris
the figure. H arry <-> H arriet
Jam es <-* Ja n e
T h e set of points P., P 2, P3, . . . , P„_,, P„ are called the vertices of the
polygon, while the line segm ents T j \ , 7\Pj, ■ ■ . , KP> are the sides of T he doubleheaded arrow, however, implies two things. It is not only
the polygon. And, lastly, the angles Z P h Z P 7, . . . , Z P„_,, Z P n are the angles true th a t “ D avid is matched with Doris,” but also th a t “ Dovis is m atched
of the polygon. w ith D avid.” T h a t is, the matching holds in both directions.
A polygon is nam ed by simply referring to the letters at its vertices in R ath er than express the m atching w ith the three separate statem ents
either a clockwise ( ^ i ) or counterclockwise order (r-\). Several ways of David <-* Doris
nam ing the polygon below are polygon ABODE, or polygon A E D C B , or H arry <-> H arriet
polygon CDEAB. Can you nam e this polygon in a t least three o th er ways? Jam es <-+J a n e
it is m uch preferred to write this in the single form of
David H arry Jam es <-* Doris H a rrie t Jane

This will be read as either

(1) D avid H arry Jam es corresponds to Doris H arriet Jan e

or
(2) T h e correspondence of David H arry Jam es and Doris H a rrie t
Ja n e
T h e order in which the elements appear in a correspondence is very
im portant, for there exists a num ber of correspondences, or m atchings,
B Correspondence between the elements of two sets. T hus, a correspondence of the form,

In C hapter 2 we discussed a one-to-one correspondence D avid H arry Jam es H arriet Doris Ja n e (1)
when exam ining the points on the num ber line and th e real num bers. At
is vastly different than
this tim e we would like to examine the notion of correspondence a bit
m ore intensively. Consider the two sets of elements D avid H arry Jam es <-> Doris H a rrie t Ja n e (2)
{David, H arry, Jam es} and {Doris, H a rrie t, Jane} W hile th e first implies a m atching of
T h e boys in the first set can be paired, or m atched, w ith the girls in the D avid w ith H arriet H arry with Doris Ja m es w ith J a n e . (1)
second set as follows:
David with Doris the m atching of the second is
H arry w ith H arriet D avid w ith Doris H arry with H a rrie t Jam es w ith J a n e (2)
Jam es w ith J a n e
Any three couples will tell you that w hereby the first m atching m ay
W hen each elem ent of one set is m atched w ith one and only one ele­ be the ingredients for a very pleasant evening, the second m ay invite dis­
m ent of a second set, we say th at a one-to-one correspondence exists betw een the
aster!
 114 CORRESPONDENCE RELATED TO POLYGONS 115
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
meaning. T o illustrate, a pair of corresponding angles of two polygons will
EXERCISES
be two angles whose vertices are a pair of corresponding elem ents. T hus, in

1. E x p re ss th e c o rre sp o n d e n c e
correspondence (1)
A *-> E, B <-+ F, C *-* G, D <-» H
J o e «-* M ary Fred *-* Aun Bil! «-►C arol
/.A and Z E are considered to be corresponding angles a n d the sam e can
by a single double a n e w ,
be said of Z B and Z F , Z C and Z C , and Z D and Z H . For correspondence
2. List the m atchings th at exist in the correspondence n b «-» x y .
(2), however, since
3. For the two sets of elements {a, b, c} and {1, 2, 3},there are exactly six A <-*H, B E, C ^F , D ~G
correspondences. T w o of these are a b c <-» 1 2 3 and a b c *-> 2 1 3. N am e
then Z A will correspond to Z H , Z B to Z E , Z C to Z F , a n d Z D to ZG .
the rem aining four.
In the same way, a pair of corresponding sides are two sides whose end
4. “ A one-to-one correspondence exists between the students in your geom ­ points are pairs of corresponding elements in a correspondence betw een the
etry class a n d the seats in your geom etry classroom.” In terp re t this sta te ­ vertices of two polygons. Before retreating in despair, let us exam ine the
m ent. (E xclude the seats th a t are vacant.) m eaning of this sentence in the light of correspondence (1) in the preceding
5. U sing the replacem ents below for the equality x + y = 5, list the one- paragraph. Since
to-one correspondence that exists between the replacem ents of x and y A *-» E and B «-> F
such th a t each pair of values in this correspondence will m ake this e q u a ­ then
tio n tru e. side A B w ould correspond to side E F

x replacem ents: {0, .1, 2, 3, 4, 5} T his can be pictured as

y replacem ents: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} 4 B C D ^* E F G H

6. T h e 2, 3, and 4 of Clubs are removed from a deck of cards. If these three

cards are shuffled thoroughly and then placed face up one a t a tim e o n a Similarly,
A <-> E and D «-* H
table, there is only one chance in six th at these cards will appear in the
o rd er 2— 3— 4. By using correspondences can you explain w hy this therefore
side A D w ould correspond to side E H
is so?
W e can illustrate this as
A BCD <-> EFGH
■ Correspondence Related to Polygons
Two pairs of corresponding sides have been nam ed in correspondence (1).
Should two polygons have the same num ber of vertices,
then it is possible to draw u p one-to-one correspondences between these C an you nam e the rem aining two pairs of corresponding sides? W h a t are
the four pairs of corresponding sides in correspondence (2)?
D 2 4 : Corresponding angles of two polygons a re two angles whose
e f in it io n

vertices are a pair of corresponding elements in a correspondence be­

tween the vertices of two polygons.
D e fin it io n 25: Corresponding sides of two polygons are two sides whose
endpoints are a pair of corresponding elements in a correspondence
betw een the vertices of two polygons.
Before leaving this topic, it is im portant to clarify tw o m ore points.
vertices. T h u s, for the two polygons in Figure 5-7 we m ight investigate T h e first.of these is concerned with the equivalence of two correspondences. T h e
correspondences as
correspondence
(1) A B C D ^ E F G H or (2) A BCD <-> HEFG ABCD <-> EFG H

or any one of a num ber of others. It is only in terms of a correspondence is said to be equivalent to the correspondence
th a t such w ords as corresponding sides and corresponding angles can take on CDAB <-> CHEF
 116 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
for in both
A*-* E, B <-> F, C<-*G, £><-* H
T hus, there are a g reat m any equivalent correspondences betw een the ele­
m ents in two sets. Correspondences that are equivalent are those that preserve the
same one-to-one correspondence between the elements. Can you explain why the
first three correspondences below are equivalent, while the fourth is not
equivalent to any one of the first three?
A BCD <-» EFG H A C D B *-» EGHF BCD A *-* FGHE
ABDC HGFE
T he other point to be raised is the fact that we can not select a t ran d o m
two pairs of vertices in a correspondence and say th at they will be the end
points of a pair of corresponding sides. T o illustrate, again refer to the
diagram on page 114 and the correspondence
A BCD <-* EFGH
A lthough A «-* E and C <-+ G, the “ side” AC does not correspond to the
“ side” EG, for neither is a side of the polygons!
EXERCISES
1. List the six different correspondences th a t exist betw een th e vertices of
the polygons below.
2. In the correspondence R S T <-* Y X Z for the two polygons below, nam e
(a) T h e three pairs of corresponding angles.
(b) T h e three pairs of corresponding sides.
3. If in the diagram in Problem 2 the correspondence had been R S T <-> Y Z X ,
then
(a) W hat are the three pairs of corresponding angles?
(b) W hat are the three pairs of corresponding sides?
CORRESPONDENCE RELATED TO POLYGONS 117
(c) Are there any corresponding sides or corresponding angles in this
problem and in Problem 2 that did not change?
4. If ZA = Z B , Z.C<= ZF, and Z E = Z D , then w rite a correspondence
between the polygons ACE and BD F so th at the corresponding angles
will be congruent.
5. If & ? = W Y , 3 T = YX, and T t i S X W , then w rite a correspondence
between polygons R S T and X Y W so that the corresponding sides would
be congruent.
(a) Draw a diagram for the polygons R S T and X Y W w here the corre­
sponding sides are congruent. Do the corresponding angles appear
to be congruent also?
(b ) Draw a diagram for the polygons ACE and B D F of Problem 4
where the corresponding angles are congruent. Do the corresponding
sides appear to be congruent also? If the corresponding angles are
congruent, can the polygons be so draw n th a t the corresponding
sides are not congruent?
6. For the polygons below, write a correspondence so th a t the correspond­
ing angles will be congruent as m arked in the diagram .
(a) Are the corresponding sides in this correspondence also congruent?
(b ) If th e corresponding angles in a correspondence betw een two poly­
gons are congruent, then are the corresponding sides also congruent?
7. For the polygons below, write a correspondence so th a t the correspond­
ing sides will be congruent as m arked in the diagram .
(a) Are the corresponding angles in this correspondence also congruent?
(b ) If the corresponding sides in a correspondence between two polygons
are congruent, then are the corresponding angles also congruent?
A ______________ D E,----------------------- e---------------------- , h
-tt-
B. (a) In term s of the markings of the two polygons on page 118, write two
correspondences which are not equivalent b u t in which the cor­
responding angles will be congruent.
118 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
(b ) In term s of the m arkings of the two polygons below, w rite two
correspondences which are not equivalent but in w hich the corre­
sponding sides will be congruent.
■ Congruent Polygons
O ne of the principal topics w ith which the study of geom ­
etry is concerned is the discovery of those conditions th at m ust exist before
two polygons can be placed “ on top of one another and m ade to fit exactly.”
Polygons th a t do “ fit exactly,” or coincide, are called congruent polygons. Yet
to use this as the definition of congruent polygons w ould severely han d icap
us, for it is difficult to prove that polygons “ fit exactly.” In order to develop
a m ore usable definition of congruent polygons, it is necessary to fall back
upon the concept of correspondence.
D 26: Congruent polygons are two polygons in which there exists
e fin it io n
a one-to-one correspondence between the vertices such th a t
(1) All the corresponding sides are congruent.
(2) All the corresponding angles are congruent.
F rom a sim ple point of view this seems to say m uch the sam e as the
earlier statem en t th at congruent polygons are polygons th a t can be m ade
to fit exactly w hen placed on top of one another. For, if they did “ fit ex-
' actly,” th en their corresponding sides and corresponding angles w ould have
to be congruent. In our formal definition, however, we have no need to
concern ourselves with such vague terms as “ fit exactly,” “ no overlapping,”
or “ placed on top of one another.” Furtherm ore, com plicated as this defi­
nition m ay seem, it will m ake the developm ent of new w ork far sim pler
th a n h a d we fallen back upon congruent polygons as m eaning “ to fit
exactly.”
F or the polygons in Figure 5-8, as we know, there are m any corre­
spondences th a t exist between the vertices. N ot all of these will lead to th e
CONGRUENT POLYGONS 119
information th at the polygons are congruent. Several of these correspond- >
ences are
ABCD *-* EHGF and its equivalent forms
or
ABCD <-> GFEH and its equivalent forms
If, however, there is at least one correspondence in w hich all the correspond­
ing sides are congruent and all the corresponding angles are congruent,
then by the reverse of the definition of congruent polygons the polygons will
be congruent. In this case, that correspondence is
ABCD <-» EFGH
for from the markings in the diagram the corresponding sides and the cor­
responding angles of this correspondence are congruent.
Q uite apparently, there will be many polygons for w hich there will
exist no correspondence such that the corresponding sides a n d corresponding
angles will be congruent. These polygons will not be congruent. This is
the case with the two polygons in Figure 5-9.
F ig u re 5-9.
Although there are some corresponding sides and some corresponding
angles that are congruent in the correspondence
ABCD EFGH
not all are congruent. In fact, no correspondence exists betw een these two
polygons in which all the corresponding parts, sides and angles, are con­
gruent. Hence, these polygons can not be shown to ,be congruent.
O f the m any types of polygons th at exist, the most im p o rtan t in geom etry
is the one having the fewest num ber of sides. As you are probably aware,
this polygon is the triangle. How w ould you classify a triangle? W h at is the
120 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES POSTULATES FOR PRO VING TRIANGLES CONGRUENT 121
fewest num ber of sides th a t a polygon m ay have? W hy? H ow w ould you W ith your ruler find the m easure of B A. T hen by using D as one endpoint
distinguish the triangle from all the other polygons?
of a line segment, m ark off D F so th at the m easure of D F will be the same
D ef in it io n 27: A triangle is a polygon th at has three sides. as that of BA.
T o prove triangles congruent by resorting to the reverse of the definition
of congruent polygons would necessitate proving three pairs of correspond­
ing sides congruent and three pairs of corresponding angles congruent.
This, apparently, would require a 'great deal of work. H ence, th e rem ain d er
of this chapter will be devoted to ways of proving triangles to be congruent
w ithout the need of showing th a t all the corresponding parts a re congruent.
In addition, we will also learn w hat conclusions will follow once th e tri­
angles are congruent.
Figure 5-13.

Now com plete A F D E by draw ing the line segm ent joining the points F
■ Postulates (or Proving Triangles Congruent
and E.
So th a t you m ight have some justification for the reason­
ableness of the next postulate, you will need a ruler and protractor. O n a
piece of paper draw a triangle sim ilar to the one in Figure 5-10. W e call
this A ABC', th e symbol A represents the word triangle.

F ig u re 5-14.

In the correspondence A B C <-* F D E we know by o u r m easurem ents

th a t f l C S M , Z B = Z D , and A B = FD. From the appearance of th e
two triangles, w hat other corresponding parts do you believe will be con­
gruent? Using your ruler, find the m easure of F E a n d com pare it w ith th at
O n a second piece of paper draw a line segm ent whose m easure is the sam e
of AC. W ith your protractor find the m easure of Z E and com pare it w ith
as th at of BU. Call this DE.
th a t of Z C . Finally, find the m easure of Z F a n d com pare it w ith th a t of
Z A . If your draw ing was accurate, you should find th a t AC ~ FE, Z A —
* _ h •
ZF \ and Z C = Z E , Although originally we knew of only three pairs of
Figure 5-11. corresponding parts th a t were congruent, now it appears th a t all six pairs
of corresponding parts are congruent. W hat conclusion can be draw n if the
U sing your protractor, find the m easure of Z B and m ark off an angle a t corresponding sides and the corresponding angles are respectively con­
point D whose m easure is the sam e as th a t of Z B . gruent? Why?
You will notice th a t the two angles th at were congruent were not ju st
any angles in the triangles but the angles formed betw een the corresponding
sides whose measures were also being m ade congruent. T h u s, Z B w as
form ed by the sides A B and BC, while Z D was form ed by the sides FD a n d
D E. It was through our efforts th a t the m easures of A B and ¥ 5 w ere m ad e
E equal, as were the measures of BC and DE. An angle formed in this m anner
Figure 5-12. is referred to as an included angle.
122 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES POSTULATES FOR PR O VIN G TRIANGLES CONGRUENT 123

so by virtue of the fact th a t corresponding sides and corresponding angles

In Figure 5-15 Z S is the included angle between the sides S T and SR ;
Z T is the included angle between the sides T S and T R . W ith reference to
w hat sides would Z R be considered the included angle?
K set up a correspondence in w hich the corresponding parts are not c o n g ru en t!
F i g u r e 5 -1 5 ,
W ith these term s at our disposal, we can now say
P o s t u l a t e 1 3 : Tw o triangles are congruent if there exists a correspondence
between the vertices in which two sides and the included angle of one
triangle are congruent respectively to those corresponding parts in the
second triangle. (T he symbols used to express this entire statem ent
a re
W h at is the distinction between a theorem and a postulate? In view
of the discussion presented on the preceding few pages, should we not have
called Postulate 13 a theorem rather than a postulate?
of congruent triangles are congruent. O n the other hand, the Given D ata
states that A B is congruent to DF, not to ED, and th a t Z B is congruent to
Z F , not to Z D \ Hence, w riting the letters carelessly in the congruence m ay
T here is yet another postulate through w hich triangles can be proved
to be congruent. Showing th a t this postulate is plausible can be done in the
same m anner as we had for Postulate 13. This will be left as an exercise for
you to do.
P o s t u l a t e 14: T w o triangles are congruent if there exists a correspondence
between the vertices in w hich two angles and the included side of one
triangle are congruent respectively to those corresponding parts in the
second triangle. (T he symbols used to express this entire statem ent
are A S ./l.)
A side is said to be included between two angles if the vertices of the
angles form the endpoints of the side.
Illustration: ,

Illustration: f

\ I G iven: A B = D F
ZB — ZF

If we were to apply Postulate 14, w hat rem aining p arts w ould have
to be congruent before we m ight conclude th a t A A C B = A ftS T ? If
Z C Sr ZS, would A A C B ~ A R S T ? W hy or why not? If Postulate 13
F i g u r e 5 -1 6 ,
were to be applied, w hat rem aining parts would have to be show n congru­
In order to prove A A B C = A D F E \ by th e use of Postulate 13, w hat re ­ e nt in order th a t A A C B be congruent to A R ST ? A rrange the letters in the
m aining parts will have to be congruent? If we knew th at B U was congruent correspondence ACB <-> R S T so th a t they will represent a correspondence
equivalent to this one. Will the parts in the Given D a ta be corresponding
to FE, why could we conclude that A A BC = A DFE? R ather than BC =
parts in your correspondence? W rite a correspondence in w hich the parts
FE, suppose we knew th at AC = DE, could we still conclude th a t A A B C in the Given D a ta will n o t be corresponding parts.
was congruent to A DFE?
Assuming th a t the Given D ata included the fact th at BC -= FE, we
w ould know by Postulate-13 that & A B C S= A D F E . Q uite often the letters EXERCISES
A B C and D E F are arranged in any order whatsoever. Although m any
m athem aticians see nothing wrong in this, it w ould be best if we were a bit
m ore careful. Specifically, to say th a t A B C A — A D F E will imply the
congruency correspondence of BCA <-* DFE. In turn, the definition of con­
0
g ru en t polygons enables us to say that A B £ ED and Z B = Z D . This is In each of the problem s below, nam e th e parts th at will
still have to be shown to be congruent before the triangles will be congruent
t Read this as: triangle ABC congruent to triangle DFE.
 124 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES 125
POSTULATES FOR PROVING TRIANGLES CONGRUENT
by the £./!,£. postulate. T h e m arkings on the triangles indicate those parts
th a t are congruent on the basis of the Given D ata. 9. Concl.: A A E B = ZCFD | C oncl.: A E A C ~ A E D B 10.
1. O onci.: A A B C S i A D F E Concl.: A R S T — A Y X W 2,
k w X

B
3. Concl.: A A B D ^ A A C D In each of the problem s below, nam e the parts th a t will
have to be congruent before the triangles can be shown to be congruent by
A_
th e A.S.A. postulate. T h e m arkings on the triangles indicate those p arts
th a t are congruent on the basis of the G iven D ata.

1. Concl.: AABC— AFED’ C oncl.: A A B F — A C D E 2.

A . f

5. Concl.: A A C D A BCD Concl.: A A B C 3 * A A E D 6.

B CD £

3 . C oncl.: A C D B == A A E B

A-

7. C oncl.: A A E B ^ A D E C Concl.: A A E C S Z A A B D 8.
5. Conci.: A A D B S Z A C D B C oncl.: A A C B — A F D E 6.
 126
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
POSTULATES ON CONGRUENCE TO FORMAL PROOFS 127
7.
8.
Concl.: A F A C ^ A E D B
C o n cl.: A A EC S A D E B
A 8 C o Illustration 1 '■1

Given: AD and BC bisect each other

at E.
£
Concl.: A A E B Z Z A D E C

9. C oncl.: A A D F S t A C B E
C oncl.: A A G F & . A C G E
A o
A _ _ _ _
11. C oncl.; a A B C S i A DCB
G iven: A B ^ A S
Z C E A S Z DBA
? •= ?
C oncl.: A A D B z= A A C E
Figure 5-18,
10. A nalysis : T he very first thing to do is to separate the G iven D a ta into two
<—f ___ i—> , _ ..
0 F
distinct pieces of inform ation. T h a t is, AD bisects BC and. B C bisects AD.
O n the basis of the first piece of inform ation, we can conclude th a t CE S EB,
while the second piece tells us th a t D E ~ EA. T his inform ation is m arked
C in the diagram as was done above. We note th a t there is still one piece of
information lacking before it is possible to conclude th a t th e triangles are
congruent. From the fact th a t two sides in one triangle are congruent respec­
tively to two corresponding sides in the other triangle, the a p p a re n t postulate
12. to try to apply to show th at the triangles are congruent is the S.A.S. postulate.
T hus, the only part lacking is the included angle in each triangle.
The diagram can not be used to conclude th a t certain sides o r angles
m ay be equal because "th ey a p p ea r so in the d ia g ra m " ! I t is helpful, how­
ever, in calling our attention to the fact that
(1) T here are vertical angles'in the figure.
(2) T he reflexive property of equality can be applied.
(3) There are pairs of supplem entary angles in the figure.
In this problem we discover by exam ining the diagram th a t the angles
A E B and DEC are vertical angles. Hence, from the theorem on vertical
angles we can conclude th a t they are congruent.

| Applications of the Postulates on Congruence PfcOOF STATEMENTS REASONS '

to Formal Proofs <-4 __
1 . AD bisects BC. 1. Given
W e are now in a position w here it is possible for us to
1. E is the m idpoint of BC. 2. Def. of the bisector of a line segm ent
prove th a t triangles are congruent by using a form al proof. As before, this
will im p ly th a t each tim e we m ake a statem ent, w e will have to justify its 3. CE = EB (i) jjj,. • 3. Def. of the m idpoint of a line segm ent
use b y v irtu e of th e fact th a t
4. BC bisects AD. 4. Given
(1) It is a piece of inform ation stated in th e G iven D a ta .
5. £ is the m idpoint of AD. 5. Same as 2
(2) It is the p ro p e rty of a word as stated in the definition of th a t w ord.
6. D E = EA (j) 6. Same as 3
(3) It is th e property im plied by the reverse ot th e definition of a w ord.
(4) It follows from a postulate we have w ade. 7. Z A E B ^ ADEC [a) ' 7. If two angles are vertical angles, then
(5 ) It follows from a theorem th a t w e have already proved. they are congruent. (T heorem )
8. A A E B ^ A D E C . 8. S.A.S. (Postulate)
 POSTULATES O H CONGRUENCE T O F O R M A L PR O O FS

128 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES

G iv e n : AD = BC
<4 __ 1. L i v e n : AB S AD Z 1 S / 2
Giveii: AD is the _L bisector of BC Z l S Z2 C o n c l.: A ^D B S A C B D
Cone!.: & AD C £= A A D B C o n c l.: A A B C ^ ^ D C

A n a l y s is : A s in the previous illustration, rewrite the Given D a ta as two

pieces of inform ation. Since th e lines are perpendicular, there will be rig h t
angles a t point D, and from this fact we can conclude th a t the angles will

be congruent. Since AD bisects BC\ a side of one triangle w ill be congruent

to a side of the other. W e have exhausted the Given D a ta b u t do not yet y ' \ G iven: AC bisects Z B A D .
h ave enough inform ation to say th a t the triangles are congruent. A gain we / I ■)
/ 3 . / G iven: B D is the bisector
resort to an exam ination of the diagram . T o prove the triangles congruent AC L BD
by the A.S.A. assum ption w ould req u ire showing th a t Z B — Z C . T h ere is 1 J o{ ZA B C .
C oncl.: A ^ C S A ^ C C
no m eans of doing this. T o prove the triangles congruent by the S.A.S, D B is the bisector
assum ption would require showing th a t A D ~ AD. T his we know by the of ZA D C .
reflexive property of congruency! H ence, the conclusion follows. C oncl.: CxABD S A C B D

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

1. AD X BC 1. Given
2. Z A D B and Z A D C are right 2, Def. of perpendicular lines
angles.
3. Z A D B S Z A D C (a) 3. If two angles are right angles, then
they are congruent. (T heorem )

4. A D bisects BC. 4. Given

G iven: Z l = /Ll
5. D is the m idpoint of JSC. 5. Def. of the bisector of a line segm ent i^ iv e n : I C and BD bisect a b & F e
6. BD S D C (s) 6. Def. of the m idpoint of a line segm ent / each other a t K- BD t= C E
1. ~ A D ~ A D (s) 7. Reflexive property of congruence ^ C oncl/. A A E 3 S A ® Concl.: h A B C & ^ E D
8. & A D C SZ & A D B 8. S.A.S. (Postulate)
I A.
Ju s t a w ord of suggestion before you tackle the proofs of the problem s
in the exercises that follow. E ach piece of Given D ata is usually designed to
lead you to a pair of congruent sides or a pair of congruent angles. In most
cases, therefore, it is best n o t to leave any piece of inform ation until you c 0
have shown a pair of sides congruent or a pair of angles congruent. T o keep
track of w h at you have done and w here you are going, m ark your diagram koalvjU ta the write-up of your proof.
each tim e you prove a pair of sides congruent or a pair of angles congruent. t Do not include an
D o the sam e for the statem ents in th e proof by using a small (s') or a small (a).
130 PROVING LINE SEGMENTS OR ANGLES CONGRUENT 131
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES

7. G iven: A B S D E G iven: C is the m idpoint 8. 13. Given: A B S Z D C G iven: B F S l C E 14.

ZE . of BD. M is the m idpoint Zl S Z l
R F ^C E Z 3 S Z4 of BC. A B _L B E
C o n c l.: A A B C ~ A D E F Zl S Z l AB J. BC D E 1 BE
C o n cl.: A .4B C ~ A E D C <-> «-> C oncl.: A A B C ~ A D E F
DC ± B C
C oncl.: A A B M == DCM

9. G iven: M is the m idpoint G iven: A B S A E 10.

o iB C . BD& EC 15. Given: B E = B C Given: Z l £= Z l 16.
Z\ S Zl Z\ S Zl Z3 Z4
T b ic d
C o n c l.: A A B M S A D CM C oncl.: A A B C — A A E D AC bisects Z B A D .
Zl S Zl
Concl.: A A B C ^ A D B E A B — AD
Concl.: A A B C ~ A A D C

11, G iven: CA bisects ZD CE. G iven: A E = D E 12.

B A bisects Z D B E . E is the m idpoint
■ ’Proving Line Segments or Angles Congruent
C o n c l.: A D B C S A E B C of BC.
ZAEC SZ ZD EB Through Congruent Triangles
C oncl.: A A B E S DCE In view of the definition of congruent triangles, w hat con­
clusions can be drawn if A A B C = A D E F ? Thus, it appears th a t if it were
necessary to prove th at Z C = Z F , one m ethod of atta.ck m ight be to find
 r
133
132 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES PROVING LINE SEGMENTS OR ANGLES CONGRUENT

a pair of triangles that contain these angles and prove them to be congruent. REA SO N S
STATEMENTS
It would follow from the definition of congruent triangles th a t the corre­ PR O O F
1. G iven
sponding angles were congruent, t Sim ilarly, if we had to show th at A B £= C is the m idpoint of AE-
2. Def. of the m idpoint of a line segm ent
DE, it wuuld m erely be a m atter of proving A -.15C — A D EF, and, again, 2. AC S CE W
3. G iven
fiom the second property of congruent polygons we w ould know th a t the 3. Z2 S Z \ 4. If two angles are vertical angles, th en
corresponding sides were congruent, t 4. Z B A C = Z \ they are congruent. (T heorem )
In the above diagram and in m any of the problem s we will encounter,
5. T ransitive property of congruence
it will be quite simple to select the triangles th at are to be proved con­ 5. Z 2 S Z B A C 0 )
gruent. In other situations, however, the selection of triangles will n o t be 6. Sam e as 4
6. Z A C B S ZECD {a)
quite so simple. T o illustrate, exam ine Figure 5-21 and assume th a t it was 7. /i.S ./i. (Postulate)
7. A A B C ^ A E D C
, 8. Def. of congruent polygons
8. A B = D E

EXERCISESt

1. G iven: CD is the 1 bisector

G iven: A B J. BD

o f AB . ED 1 BD
C is the m idpoint
Concl.: 5 4
of BD.
necessary to prove Z B = ZC. Since there are m any pairs of triangles Zl S Z l
containing Z B and ZC, deciding w hich pair to prove congruent m ay be Z A & ZE
quite difficult. N am e three pairs of triangles we m ight try to show congruent
in order to prove th at Z B = ZC.

Illustration:

G iven: C is the m idpoint of AE.

Z l S Z\ G iven: Z \ £= ZSL
4.
C oncl.: A B S £ D E 3 , G iven: Z\ S Zl
Z3 S ZA
Z3 S Z4
C oncl. Z A = Z C
BD = CE
Concl.: I C S F O
A n a ly s is : In order to prove A S = 5 E , we will try first to prove th at
A ABCZ= A E D C . O nce these triangles are congruent, it will follow from
th e definition of congruent polygons th a t A B = DE. C being the m idpoint
of A E will give us AC ~ CE. Angles A C B and ECD are vertical angles,
hen ce they are congruent. Therefore, the problem simply reduces to show­
ing th a t Z 2 is congruent to Z B A C . However, since both Z B A C and Z2
a re congruent to Z l, then by the transitive property of congruence it will
be possible to conclude th at Z B A C =. Z l . T hus, the triangles are congruent
by the A .S.A . postulate,
t See page 118. _ t.D o not include an AaalysU In <** ” rit‘ -uP of ^ p r° ° f'
 134
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES PROVING LINE SEGMENTS OR ANGLES CONGRUENT 135
5 . G iven; A B ^ E F
G iv en : Z l S Z 2 6. 11. Given: Z l S Z2 Given: BD £ CE 12.
A D ^C F
Z 3 S Z4 Z3 is comp, to Z l. Z l £= Z2
Z l £ Z2
C one'.: A B — CD Z4 is comp, to Z2. Z B is com p, to Z 3.
C o n c l.: A B S Z E
Concl.: L A S ZC Z E is com p, to Z4.
C oncl.: A B = E F

7 . G iven: Z l S Z2
> __ G iven: B E ^ B F
i-- 7
8.
bisects AC.
C oncl,: £ £ ? £ ?G
A B is the _L bisector 1 3 . Given: j4C = AD Given: F is the m idpoint 14.
of CD. BD SZC E of BC.
Z l £ Z2 Zl S Z 2 ZB ~ ZC
Concl.: U E ^ m Concl.: Z3 = Z4 Z E F B £Z Z D F C
'r-vwatm'

A C oncl.: D F = E F

10.
9 , G iven: /)C and S i) bisect G iven: Z ! S Z2
each other a,t E.
15. Given: Z B ^ ZC Given: I B £* A D 16.
BC S E F
C oncl.: Z l S Z2 E is the m idpoint TiB S CD
1 AC of AB. Z l £ Z2
A* <-> +->
M l G is the m idpoint Z 3 = Z4
of D C .___ C oncl.: Z 5 = Z6
A B S iD C
Z l £ Z2
Concl.: W ^ H C
A,______________.0
 CONCLUSIONS DRAWN ON CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 137
136 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
STATEMENTS REASONS
SI Further Conclusions That Can Be Drawn on the Basis [ proof-
of Congruent Triangles 1. AD bisects /B A C .
1. Given
2. Def. of the bisector of an angle
Frequently it is neces.'ary to prove lh at a lay is the bi­ 2. / B A D S /C A D (a)
sector of an angle, or th at a certain point is the rpidpoipt of a line segm ent, 3. Given
3. A D 1 BC
or th a t a line is the biscctor of a line segment. T o illustrate, w hat will 4. Def. of perpendicular lines
4. /.A D B and / A D C are right
have to be true in Figure 5-23 before it can be concluded th a t BA bisects angles, 5. If two angles are right angles, then
5. / A D B = /A D C (a)
they are congruent. (T heorem )
6. Reflexive property of congruence
6 A D ^ A D (s)
7. A.S.A. (Postulate)
7. &.ABD ~ A ACD
8. Def. of congruent polygons
8. B D S Z D C
9. Reverse of def. of the m idpoint of a
9. D is th e m idpoint of BC.
line segm ent

Figure 5-23. EXERCISES

1. G iven: A B ^C B
G iven: A B = BC 2.
ZCBjD? W h at is one m ethod of proving th a t /.CBA ~ /.D B A ? H ence, if
/ I S /2 -
A A B C = A A B D , it will follow that /C B A = /.D B A . In view of this BD bisects /A B C .
congruence and the reverse of the definition of the bisector of an angle, we C oncl.: D E bisects /A D C .
Concl.: D B bisects /ADC.,
can say th at BA bisects /.C B D .
A pparently, then, congruence of triangles can lead us to the congruence A.
of certain line segments or angles, and this fact, in turn, will lead us to the
conclusion we were hoping to draw .

Illustration: aft

J G iven: B is the m idpoint

3, G iven: AD bisects BC.
G iven: AD bisects /B A C .
<-> <-» of AC.
AB ± BC
AD 1 BC
. B D J_ E F
Concl.: D is the m idpoint of BC. DC 1 BC
Concl.: / \ £* / ^
Concl.: BC bisects AD.
E A 8 ______ C F
Figure 5-24.

A n a l y sis : In order to prove D to be the m idpoint of BC, it will be necessary

to show th a t BD — DC. T hese line segments, however, will be congruent
if A A B D S A ACD. H ence, the problejn reduces to one of showing th at
these triangles are congruent. '
 138
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES 139
OVERLAPPING TRIANGLES
5 . G iv e n : L B ZC . '”b
G iven: B E ^ I)E 6.
A E ^A D <-> <-► ■ Overlapping Triangles
CD 1 A D
a S ^ ac O ccasionally the difficulty of the proof is increased by the
<-* A B X BC fact that the triangles to be proved congruent overlap one another. As a
F E X AC
C oncl.: Z l S* Z 2 case in point, consider the problem below.
GD X A B
C oncl.: B F 9 iG C
^A G iven: A B X D C
<->
D E X AC
lie s c S
Concl.: D U ^ l C

■7 _ . < - ►< - *
/ . G iven: CD X B F Figure 5-25.
Given: A B X B C and AD 8.
L\ ^ Z2 <-><-► <->
D C X B C and AD T h e very first thing to consider is “ W h at triangles contain th e line segments
S Z£
D C a n d AC as sides?” It is these triangles th at will have to be shown to be
E is the m idpoint
a D ^ ed
congruent. A DCE has the segm ent D C as one of its sides, w hile AC is a
C o n c l.: D is the m idpoint o (W .
side of A A C B . Should it be possible to prove these triangles congruent,
of ~BF. L D E B S L A EC
C oncl.: L E A D = L E D A then DC will be congruent to AC.

I tA <
-' '

Given: A B X DC
*-> <-»
D E X AC
U S = <JE
C oncl.: m ^ A C
_. < ->+->
9. Figure 5-26.
G iven: £ C 1 CD
<-> <->
G iven: B D bisects L A B C . 10.
FZ> 1 CD ... BD X AC
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
A B 1 CD DA &TTB=~DC
m ^ ic C oncl.: Z l £* Z 2 1. A B X D C 1. Given
B is the m idpoint (Hint: Prove A A D B 2. L A B C is a right angle. 2. Def. of p erpendicular lines
o lW . == A B D C \ then note
3. £ £ JL 4C 3. Given
—¥ the correspondence.)
C oncl.: B A bisects L E B F . 4. L D E C is a right angle. 4. Sam e as 2
5. L A B C £ LD E C (a) 5. I f two angles are rig h t angles, then
they are congruent. (T heorem )
6. ~SG S C £ (j) <5. Given
7. L C = L C 7. Reflexive property of congruence
8. A D C E = A A C B 8. A .S.A. (Postulate)
9. ~DC = "Z C 9. Def. of congruent polygons
 140
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
W ith experience you will h ave little difficulty in keeping y o u r atten tio n THE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE 141
on those triangles in w hich you are interested, although they m ay overlap.
A t present, however, it is advisable to use tw o differently colored lead pen­
cils to distinguish one triangle from the other.
7. G iven: A B _L BC G iv e n : Z 3 = ZA
Z l S Z2
DC ± BC
C o n c l.: Z S £= Z6
Z l S Z2
EXERCISES
Concl.: A B — D C

1- G iven: D B ^ D A
Given: AC ^ A E
d c ~ de
C oncl.: Z B ^ Z A A B ^ aS
Z l£ * Z 2

10.
Concl.:
A
9. Given: Z l = Z2 G iven: ZABE=ZAEB
Z3 S Z4 BC 9ZED
Concl.: Z.A £= Z B C oncl.: B D S - E C
A

3 . G iven: A B x BC
G iven: A B ^ AC
A D JL D E
E is the m idpoint
Z l S ZZ
of AC, 11. Given: A E S D E G iven: Z E = ZC
^ zd
a b B E £= CE Zl S Z 2
D is the m idpoint
C oncl.: Z C s Z E V-+ «-+ 5 is the m idpoint
of A E J_ B E
C oncl.: Z \ Z2 <-» *-* of EC.
D E I . EC C o n cl.: A B = D B
Concl.: Z A ^ Z D

5. Given: BE & ad
G iven: Z l ^ Z2
Z l S* Z 2
<r* «-* ■ The Isosceles Triangle
Concl.: S H ^ a E BC ± A B and CD
Concl.: D B ^ AC T hus far we have exam ined triangles in which there existed
_C
Ap no special features about the triangles. T here are, however, certain tri­
angles th a t contain elements th a t m ake them distinguishable from the gen­
eral run of triangles. These peculiarities revolve about the relations th a t
m ight exist between the sides of a triangle o r perhaps the angles of the
triangle. T hus, a triangle with three congruent sides is. called an equilateral /
triangle, while one w ith three congruent angles is an equiangular triangle. A ✓
com plete list of these special triangles is given below.
 142 THE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE 143
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
Distinguishing Features of Special Triangles Now we would like to go further and define the interior of a triangle. Almost
intuitively we get the feeling th a t points P. Q, and R of Figure 5-28 belong
.r I
Sides Xar,\e A ngler Name
j co n g ru en t E q u ilateral 3 C o n g ru e n t E q u ia n g u la r
Sides T rian g le A n g le s T riangle
2 C ongruent Isosc eles T r i a n g i c 1 R ig h t A n g le R ight T riangle
Sides
No C ongruent Scalene Triangle 1 O btuse A ngle O btuse T riangle
Sides
3 Acute Angles A c u teT ria n g lc

T h e definitions for these triangles are very sim ilar. to the interior of h A B C , whiie X , Y, and Z do not. N otice, furtherm ore,
th a t from the definition of the interior of an angle the points P, Q, and R
D e f in it io n 28: An equiangular triangle is a triangle having three co n g ru ­
ent angles. are in the interior of both Z A and Z B . T h e same can not be said for point
X , for although it is in the interior of Z B , it is n o t in th e in te rio r of Z A .
D e f in it io n A right triangle is a triangle having a right angle.
29:
How is point Y related to the interiors of angles A and B? H ow is point Z
D 30: An equilateral triangle is a triangle having three congru­
e f in it io n
related to the interiors of angles A and B? W ith this pro p erty in m ind the
ent sides.
following definition was m ade.
D e f in it io n 31: An isosceles triangle is a triangle having two congruent
sides. D e f in it io n 5 2 $ : T h e interior of a triangle is the set of points th a t arc com ­
mon to the interiors of any two angles of the triangle.
I t is the isosceles triangle to which we will tu rn our attention a t this
In reference to the isosceles triangle, if we are to prove th a t the base
time. T h e two congruent sides of the isosceles triangle a re called th e legs
angles are congruent, we are im m ediately confronted w ith a difficulty.

(A B a n d A C ), while the third sid e 's called th e base (BC). T h e two angles
w hose com m on side is the base (Z B and Z C ) are called the base angles,
w hile the angle formed by the congruent sides is the vertex angle. In term s
o f th e w ords given in this paragraph, w h a t property about an isosceles
triangle is given in its definition? Exam ine the base angles of an isosceles
triangle. W h at do you believe we will be able to prove about these angles?
W h a t p ro p e rty of the equilateral triangle is given to i t by its definition?
A lthough our ultim ate objective is to prove th a t the base angles of a n
isosceles triangle are congruent, we will have to m ake a slight detour to
pick u p certain properties th a t are needed to do this.
D e f in it io n 32-A: T he interior of an angle is a set of points such th at if a
ray whose endpoint is the vertex of the angle is draw n through any one
of th e points in the set, the ray will be between the sides qf the angle.
O u r principal m ethod for proving angles to be congruent is through con­
gruent triangles, yet in Figure 5-29 there is only one triangle! W e are in
need of two triangles, one th a t will contain Z B a n d the o ther Z C . Perhaps
the best way of obtaining two such triangles w ould be by draw ing a ray
through point A. Any ray, however, as seen in Figure 5-30, w ould not give
us triangles that are congruent.
Since A B is already congruent to AC, and A D is congruent to itself
by th e reflexive property of co n g ru en c e then, obviously, it seems advisable
th a t the ray we draw should be the bisector o f 'Z B AC, thus m aking the in­
cluded angles congruent. “ So,” you say, ‘Vlraw the bisector and be on
w ith the proof!” This would be nice, and this is exactly w hat was done for,
m any hundreds of years. M athem aticians were disturbed by this, too, for
 THE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE 145
144 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
and that is, "H ow do we know th at the bisector of an angle even exists?”
i T his we will have to assume.
P ostulate 16: Every angle has a bisector.
Now we have the tools necessary to prove the theorem about the isos­

celes triangle.
T H E O R E M 9: I f tw o sides of a tria n g le a re c o n g ru e n t, th e n th e angles
opposite those sides a re c o n g r u e n t .

equally as long a period. "H o w do we know ,” they w ondered (see Fig­

ure 5-31), “ th a t when we draw the bisector of L A , this ray m ight not get Given: A B £= AC
lost w ithin the interior of the triangle and never emerge? O r, should it Concl.:
intersect a second side of the triangle, why m ust it be BC and n o t either
A B or AC?" Overcom ing the first question was their g reater problem a n d
they did this by postulating th a t
P o s tu la te15: A line th a t intersects one side of a triangle and enters the
interior of the triangle m ust intersect a second side of the triangle.
T his postulate is known as Pasch’s Axiom f after the m an who first
stated it. Now the proof of the second question th a t was raised follows \ . Given
1. A B & A C { s )
ra th e r readily. R estating it, it becomes, “ M ust the bisector of L A intersect
2. Every angle has a bisector.
side BC, or can it intersect A B or AC and therefore bypass BC?” If the bi­ 2. L et AD be the bisector
(Postulate)
sector were to intersect AC as shown in Figure 5-32, it w ould have to do it of LB A C .
~—> . 3. Pasch’s Axiom
3. A D m ust intersect BC
a t some point E.
4. Def, of th e bisector of a n angle
4. L B A E ~ L C A E (a)
5. Reflexive property of congruence
5. A E AE
6. S. A.S. (Postulate)
6. A A B E ^ A A C E
7. Def. of congruent polygons
7. L B ~ L C
C' ■
' Now is a convenient tim e to prove the reverse of T heorem 9, for we
can show the applications of both to th e proofs of problem s.
a t some point E. T his w ould im ply th a t th ere exists tw o lines through
THEOREM 10: If tw o angles o f a trian gle are congruent, then the
points A and E, the side AC and the bisector AD. This, however, is in con­
sides opposite those angles are congruent.
tradiction to Postulate 4 w hich states th a t “ T here exists one and only one
line through two points.” H ence, the bisector AD can not intersect side AC.
By the sam e reasoning, it can n o t intersect side A B . But by Pasch’s Axiom ,
it must intersect some side of th e triangle! T his will have to be side B C since G iv e n : L B — L'.C
it is the only rem aining side.
Concl.: A B = AC
A proof such as the one ju st presented is called an indirect proof. W e will
exam ine this type of proof m uch m o re carefully a t a later point in our w ork.
Now , however, there is still one further question th at has to be clarified
t R ec all th a t o n p ag e 54 it w as s ta te d th a t th e term s “ axiom ” ar.d " p o s tu la te ” a re u sed
in te rc h a n g e a b ly .
 146
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
A n a l y s is : A s before, we will need the assum ption on the bisector of
THE ISOSCELES. TRIANGLE 147
an
angle of a triangle. T his time, however, it will be th e base angles th a t 11. LA D C 9* L A E B (a) 11. If two angles are supplem entary to
are
two congruent angles, then they are
congruent. (T heorem )
12. L A B E 9 Z LACD (a) 12. Same as 4
13. A A B E — A A C D 13. /4.S./4. (Postulate)
14. A B ^ AC 14. Same as 7

It is interesting to note th at although we seem to have com e a long

way from our original definitions and postulates, all but one of the reasons
used in the preceding proof is either a definition or a postulate. W e must
never lose sight of the fact that every one of our proofs can always be traced
bisected ra th e r th an th e vertex angle. T o prove A S ~ AC, it is necessary back to the postulates and definitions upon w hich'w e previously agreed.
to show th a t A A B E =£ A ACD. Exam ination of these tw o triangles brings In the proof of Theorem 10 we did not use nor did we need the fact that
to light th e fact th a t there are only two pairs of elem ents th a t are congru­ the bisectors B E and CD intersected. Can you apply Pasch’s Axiom to
e n t: L A — L A , and LA C D ~ L A B E (why?). T h e included sides between prove th at these rays intersect?
these angles a re A B and AC. B ut this is ju st th e conclusion we are try in g to Before we proceed further, there are three line segm ents whose defini­
dra w on the basis o f the fact th a t the triangles are c ongruent! H ence, tions we need. These are
a n o th e r m ethod of attack will be needed to prove A 'A B E ~ A A C D .
D efin itio n 33: An altitude of a triangle is a line segm ent d raw n from any
By proving A D B C = A ECB we can obtain enough inform ation to
vertex perpendicular to the opposite side (extended, if necessary) of the
prove A A B E — A A C D . O n the basis of the analysis, try to prove this
triangle.
theorem yourself before reading the proof below.
D efin itio n 34: A m edian of a triangle is a line segm ent draw n from any
vertex to the m idpoint of the opposite side of the triangle.
PROOF ) STATEM ENTS
REASONS D efin it io n 35; An angle bisector of a triangle is a line segm ent th a t bi­
1. L B S = L C ( a ) sects any angle of a triangle and term inates in the opposite side.
1. Given
In Figure 5-36 an altitude was draw n from vertex A to side BC. In
2. Let B X be th e bisector of
2. Every angle has a bisector. Figure 5-37 the m edian was draw n from B to AC, w hile in Figure 5-38 the
L A B C a n d C Y be the bi- (Postulate)
sector of L A C B .
_____
3. B X m ust intersect AC at
3. Pasch’s Axiom
some po in t E, w hile C y
m ust intersect A B a t some
po in t D .
4. L E B C — L D C B (a) F ig u re 5-36. F ig u re 5-37. F ig u re 5-38.
4. Halves of congruent angles are con­
gruent. (Postulate) angle bisector of L A C B was draw n. How m any altitudes will a triangle have?
5. B 5 ^ B C ( s ) How m any medians? How m any angle bisectors? D raw an obtuse triangle
5. Reflexive property o f congruence
6. A D B C S i A E C B and draw in the three altitudes, Do all three of them lie w ithin the interior
6. A.S.A. (Postulate)
7. S E ^ C B (s) of the triangle? D raw a right triangle w ith its three altitudes. W hat did
7. Def. of congruent polygons . two of the altitudes tu rn out to be? W hat is tru e ab o u t all three altitudes
8. L B D C Z L L C E B
8 . Same as 7 of the right triangle? If in the obtuse triangle th a t you drew you extend the
9. L A D C is supp. to LB D C .
9. Reverse of def. of supp. angles altitudes far enough, will the altitudes also m eet a t a com m on point?
10, L A E B is supp. to LC E B . 10. Same as 9 Draw two of the m edians of a triangle. C an you prove on the basis of
Pasch’s Axiom th a t they m ust m eet in the interior of the triangle? C an you
prove th at two angle bisectors of a triangle m ust also intersect in the in-

j
 148
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
THE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE 149
terior of a triangle? M ust two altitudes of a triangle m eet in the interior
of the triangle? Give an illustration to justify your answer. A n a l y s i s : A A B C will be isosceles if we can show two sides to be congruent.
T w o sides will be congruent if two angles are congruent. Since Z l ~ Z2,
Illustration 1 of the Theorems on the Isosceles Triangle: it is possible to prove th at / B A C — /.B C A . H ence,, two angles of th e tri­
angle are congruent and the proof can be com pleted.
G iven: A A B C is isoscelcs with REASONS
STATEMENTS
A b £=• AC. PROOF
1. Given
CD is the m edian to A B . 1. Z l £ Z2
2. Reverse of def. of supp. angles
B E is the m edian to AC. 2. /.B A C is supp. to Z l.
3. Z BCA is supp. to Z2. 3. Sam e as 2
C oncl.: CD S B E
4. If two angles are supplem entary to
' 4. Z BCA £ Z BAC
two congruent angles, then they are
congruent. (T heorem )

0
A n a ly s .s : By p ro v in g A D B C a A £ C i ? ) C7 ) can be shown to be congruent
If two angles of a triangle are con­
5. BA £ BC
gruent, then the sides opposite those
angles are congruent. (Theorem )
PROOF I STATEMENTS
REASONS 6. Rev. of def. of an isosceles triangle
6. A A B C is isosceles.
1. A A B C is isosceles w ith 1. Given
EXERCISES
1. G iven :
2. Z A B C £ = Z A C B (a) G iv en : A A B C is isosceles
2. I f two sides o f a triangle a re congru­ A A B C is isosceles
ent, the angles opposite those sides w ith A B £= AC.
with A B £ AC.
are congruent. (T heorem ) Concl.: Z l == Z2
A D is the m edian
3. CD is the m edian to A B . 3. Given
4. D is the m idpoint of A B . to BC.
4. Def. of a m edian
5. B E is m edian to AC. C onch: AD bisects I B AC.
5. Given
6. E is the m idpoint of AC.
6. Sam e as 4
7. B D £ CE (s)
7. Halves of congruent line segm ents
are congruent. (Postulate)
8. BC = BC (s)
8. Reflexive p roperty o f congruence
9. A D B C ~ A E C B
9. S.A.S. (Postulate)
10. M S * CD
10. Def. of congruent polygons
G iven: E B = EC
3 . G iven: A B = AC
Illustration 2: /A E C S i /D E B
B E = CD
C oncl.: A B = CD
Concl.: AD = A E

G iven: Z l S Z2
C oncl.: A A BC is an isosceles triangle.
 150
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES THE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE 151
5. G iven: AC S AD
G iven: E B & E C 6.
EC = BD / 11. Given: AD is the m edian G iven: BA S BC 12.
Z D E B S ZAEC
Cone].: L E A D & Z B A C to BC. D , E, and F are the
Concl.: A E A D is isosceles.
AD is the altitu d e m idpoints of BA, AC,
to BC. and CB respectively.
Concl.: A ^ B C is isosceles. Concl,: D E = FE
A

\j' 7. G iven: A B = - A E
*—
■4 —* G iven: A C ^ A D 8.
/4C and AD trisect C and D are trisection
ZBAE. points of BE.
C oncl.: A A C D is isosceles. Concl:: A A B E is isosceles.
1 3 i G iven: D E and F C ± BC G iven: A D and FC trisect 14.
Z \^ Z 2 BE.
D E = FG Z B £* Z E
Concl.: A A B C is isosceles. A B = FE
Concl.: A G C D is isosceles.
A F

A M , 2> f

•-J 9. G iven: D is the m idpoint

G iven: A B ^ A C 10.
of BC.
I B S* F 5 ~ A D bisects ZB A C .
ZED CZPD B Concl.: I D is th e m edian
C oncl.: A A B C is isosceles. to SG. / 15. Given: A B & .D C Given: A B and D C _L BC 16.
ZBAD £ ZC D A A B S DC
C oncl.: A E A D is isosceles. C oncl.: A E B C is isosceles.

■
152
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
THE S.S.S. THEOREM 153
17 . Given: AB 9^ A C
G iven: A B ' ^ A C •Jg
CD bisects L A C B . I The S.S.S. Theorem
CD bisects L A C B .
B E bisects LA B C . T h ere are four general m ethods for proving triangles to
BD bisects L A B C .
C oncl.: D C ^ E B be congruent. Prior to now we have exam ined and assumed two of these
Concl.: A D S C is isosceles. m ethods. T h e third we shall prove in this section, while the proof of the
fourth will have to be delayed until m ore inform ation has been established
th a t will m ake th a t proof possible.
In order to develop this third statem ent of congruence, we shall need
yet a nother theorem and another postulate.

TH EO R EM 11: If two triangles are congruent to the same triangle,

th en they are congruent to each other.

19. G iv en : L B ~ L C
Given: A B = AC = : BC
L I S L2
Concl.: Z A = L B i i L C
20.t
BE G iven: AABC ~ ADEF
Concl. ■. A D AG A X Y Z S ADEF
Concl.: A A B C S A X Y Z

F ig u re 5-41.

T riangles A B C and X Y Z can readily be shown to be congruent

A n a l y s is :
by the S.A.S. postulate. From the congruency correspondence ABC ^ D E F
we can conclude th a t A B — DE. Sim ilarly, X Y = D E and, therefore,
A B = X Y . In the same way, BC can be shown congruent to Y Z , and L B
congruent to L Y .
G iven: Isosceles triangles
22 .
A B C and D B C on PROOF STATEM ENTS R EA SO N S
the sam e base B C
\. A A B C ^ A D E F 1. Given
C oncl.: Z A B D S L A C D
A 2. A B ~ D E , L B != L E , 2. Def. of congruent polygons
~BC ~ E F
3. A X Y Z A DEF 3. Given
4. X Y ^ M , L Y g * L E , 4. Sam e as 2
Tz & ef

5. A B £ X Y (.r) 5. T ransitive property of congruence

" oftcn consid" cd - a
L B ^ L Y {a) (Postulate)
B C ^ Y Z (s)
6. A A R C S A X Y Z 6. S.A.S. (Postulate)
what would the 5!atemcnt of th;s
T h e postulate we need deals w ith angles a n d is com parable to one •
already established for line segments. T h e very first postulate m ade was
 154 155
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES THE S.S.S. THEOREM
th a t a line can be extended as far as desired in either direction. O n e in ­ ^ IP
terpretation of this statem ent is

I f we sta rt w ith a given line and a point P of th a t line, it is possible to

find a second point Q of this line such th a t PQ will be congruent to a n y
lin e segm ent th a t is given to us. t t-

p o
----------- . ... ... ,,g»
a______ a
F ig u re 5-42.

T h u s, by startin g w ith the point P it was possible to find Q such th a t

I Q s z a E.
Now, w e w a n t to establish a com parable postulate for angles:
P o stulate 1 7 : At a g iven p o in t of a given lin e th e re exists a n an g le w hose
/ 1. A t point B .of line B C there
1. Postulate 17
v e rte x is th e given p o in t a n d o n e of w hose sides is a r a y o f th e g iv e n lin e
exists a n angle congruent
su c h th a t th is a n g le is c o n g ru e n t to a n y g iv e n an g le.
to /D E F . L et this angle be
T o illustrate, this postulate implies th a t by starting w ith som e p o in t P
/S B C . (a)
of th e line PQ it is possible to find an angle such as /.R P Q th a t w ill be <-»
c o n g ru en t to th e given ZA B C . I. A line can be extended as far as
/ 2. E xtend B S so th a t
desired. (Postulate)
A T iB & 'D E (s )
3. T here exists one and only one line
3. L et R C be the line through
through two points. (Postulate)
points R a n d C.
H 4. Sam e as 3
4. L et R A be the line th ro u g h
points R a n d A.
F ig u re 5-43. 5. Given
■ 5. W s * E F { s )
6 . S.A.S. (Assumption)
W e now have the weapons necessary to prove th e following theorem . ' 6. A D E F S i A R B C
Now , it is necessary to show that A A B C S * A R B C .
7 . Def. of congruent polygons
7.
T H E O R E M 12: T w o tria n g le s a r e c o n g ru e n t i f th e r e exists a c o rre ­ 8. Given
8. A C ^ E F
sp o n d e n c e b e tw ee n th e v e rtic e s >n w h ic h th re e sides 9. Transitive property of congruence
✓ 9, , : . A C ^ W ( s )
o f o n e a r e c o n g ru e n t to those c o rre sp o n d in g sides <>f 10. If two sides of a triangle (A C A R )
10. Z CAR £ Z C R A
th e o th e r. (The symbols for this statem ent | r e S.S.S.) J are congruent, the angles opposite
those sides are congruent.
A. D. G iven: i B & ' M ------
(Theorem)
U SszW I I . Given
11. J B & W
7D s*W 12. Statem ent 2 vecopied
~rf-------- E-------------------H C oncl.: A A B C = A D E F 12. W ^ . ’D E
Figure 5-44, 13. Same as 9
13. .■■ I S s M ( i )
14. / B A R ~ /-B R A 14. Same as 10
A n a l y s is : O u r m ethod of attack will be to set u p a th ird triangle. A A B C
15. A ddition postulate of congruence .
15. / B A C & /.B R C [a)
a n d A D E F w ill b o th b e proved congruent to this th ird triangle. H ence, 16. A A B C S . A R B C 16. S.A.S. (Postulate)
b y th e th eo rem ju st established, it will follow th a t A A B C S A DEF, 17. Theorem 1)
17. A A B C & A D E F
 15.6
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES 157
THE S.S.S. THEOREM
j F requent application of T heorem 12 is m ade to figures th a t involve
1 circles. H ence, it would be well to establish some of the properties of a circle. Illustration:
■! D e f i n i t io n 36: A circle is a set of points such th a t line segm ents draw n
from cach of these points to a fixed point are congrucnt..
G iven: QO and Q M intersect a t A
T h e fixed point is called th e center. Although in Figure 5-46 there are and B,
a great m any line segments th a t are congruent, such as A B , AC, a n d AD ,
C oncl.: O M bisects ZA O B .

Figure 5-48.
In order to prove th a t OM bisects Z A O B , it will be necessary
A n a l y s is :
to prove th a t Z A O M S Z B O M . These angles can be shown to be congruent
by proving them to be corresponding angles of congruent triangles. T h ere
are, however, no triangles in the draw ing. W h at lines would you suggest
draw ing to obtain the triangles needed?
F ig u re 5-46,

a ll a re not congruent, for A E is n o t congruent to the others. H ence, this

c u rv e w ould n o t be a circle. . ..

D EFiN m oN 37: A ^ adiuj o f a circle is a. line segm ent draw n from any point
of th e circle to the center.

As an im m ediate consequence of the definitions of a circle a n d of the

ra d iu s of the circle,'w e have the following theorem :
Figure 5-49.
T H E O R E M 13: A ll ra d ii o f a c irc le a r e c o n g r u e n ^ ' REASONS
PROOF I s ta te m e n ts '
i
T h e sym bol for the word circle is a sm all cirqle, O , and to cam e a 1. G O and O M intersect at A 1. Given
c irc le , we use the letter at its center. T hus, to nam e the circle in< Figure 5-47,
a n d B.
w e would call it O O ; in addition, from th e theorem lh a t all rad ii cf a 4—>
2. T here exists one and only one line 1
c ir c le a re congruent, it w ould follow th a t OA £= OB. 2. L et M A be th e line through
through two points. (Postulate)
points M a n d A.

3. L et M B be the line through 3. Sam e as 2

points M a n d B.
4. All radii of a circle are congruent.
(Theorem )

5. ~OA S WB U) 5. Sam e as 4

d. O M ^ O M (s)
6. Reflexive property of congruence
7. A A O M & A B O M 7. S.S.S. (Theorem )
8. Z A 0 M 2 Z Z B 0 M 8. Def. of congruent polygons
Figure 5-47. --> 9. Reverse of def. of bisector of a n angle
9. O M bisects Z A O B .

\
 159
THE S.S.S. THEOREM
158 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
Given(^ ©A a h d B intersect 8.
^ 7 . G iven: Q O . A B ^ C D
EXERCISES •at.O and D.
C oncl.: Z l == Z2
C oncl.: / C B A S / D B A
1. G iven: AB — 5U G iven: A B AC
A D = BC D B=~D C
C oucl.: /.A ~ ZC
C one!.: D A bisects / B D C .

t- 9. G iven: © 4 a n d B intersect
G iven: A B £ A C 10. ^
J 3. G iven: A B ~ AC G iven: D B 9 Z E C at C and D D B ^D C .
A D is the median DC = E B C oncl.: /CACB S /.A D B C oncl.: / B S Z Z C
to BC. C oncl.: / B D C — / C E B

C oncl.: AD bisects /CBAC.

5. G iven: W S^X T G iv e n : Point 0 is center V 6 . ^ 1 1 . G iven: G O , A B ‘— CB

G iven: A B AC 12.
\ Z l S Z2
W T ^X S - of 0 0 .
C oncl.: BO bisects /A B C .
C oncl.: A R S T is isosceles. OC is m edian to A B . C oncl.: A D bisects /B A C .
B
Concl.: OC bisects / A O B .
 161
THE HYPOTENUSE-LEG METHOD OF CONGRUENCE
160 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES

The Hypotenuse-Leg Method of Congruence

G iven: Z B a n d Z E are right angles.
You m ay have wondered why the (‘‘side, side, angle” )
m ethod of congruence was not introduced. A glance a t tlVe S iagra'm T ^e^ Ic s K f
low m ight help clarify this. Notice that whereas Figure 5-51 is congruent to Z b sS I
F igure 5-50, Figure 5-52 was so draw n th a t it is not congruent to Figure 5-50. C oncl.: A A B C 9= A D E F

Figure 5-54.

A n a ly s is : T h e proof of this theorem follows identically th e sam e p attern

as th a t u sed , for the proof of the S.S.S. theorem,;
F ig u re 5-50. F ig u re 5-51.

A nd yet, the sam e corresponding parts in the three triangles are congruent.
T h u s, although triangles are sometimes congruent w hen tw o sides and an
angle opposite one of them in one triangle are congruent to j
ing p a rts in the other, they are not always congruent. T h e “ side, side, angle’^.
sta te m en t can not be a theorem . T here is, however, a special situation under
w hich they are congruent w ith these conditions. T h a t case is when the tri­
angles are rig h t triangles.

Before developing the theorem on the congruence of right triangles,

nam es will be given to the sides of a right triangle.

PROOF (T he reason for each

1 statem ent will be left
. ii_nfor you ...
r............ to supply.)

7. Z A P C & Z E
1. A t point A of line AC there I 8. Z B an d Z E are right angles.
exists a n angle congruent to |
/ 9. Z B ^ Z E
Z F D E . L e t this angle be
10. .\ Z A P C & . Z B (a)
/.C A R . (a)
11. A B S + D E
2. E x ten d A R so th a t 12. ~AP D E (See step 2.)
~AP ~ D E . (s) 13. ABSZAT ^
leg 3. L e t PC b e the line through 14. Z A B P ££ Z A P B
F ig u re 5-53. 15. Z C B P < ~ Z C P B
P a n d C.
j l h e sides th a t form the right angle are called the legs-J-or occasionally, 16 . W ^ C P { s )
4. L et P B be the line through
t h / a w u ^ - w h i l e the side opposite the right angle is called7th^ hypotenuse.) 17. A A B C £5 A A P C
P and B .
1.8. /. A A B C ~ A D E F
T H E O R E M 14: T w o r ig h t tria n g le s a re c o n g ru e n t i f tK ere exists a 5. lC-^DF(s)
c o rre sp o n d e n c e b e tw ee n th e vertices in w hich th e h y ­ 6. A D E F S A APC
p o ten u se a n d leg of o n e a re c o n g ru e n t to those co rre- H ence, now it is necessary to
s p o n d ip g 'p a rts in the o th e r. (T he symbols for this state­ show that A A B C — A A P C .
m en t a(re H.L.}.
162 CONGRUENCE O F TR IAN G LES TH E HVPOTENUSE-LEG M E T H O D O F CONGRUENCE 163

Illustration: 3. G iven: 00 G iven: G O w ith OD X A B 4.

t~* *71 C oncl.: D is the m idpoint
OA X A P __
( - ►«- » °f AB.
OB X BP
C oncl.: P A S P B
G iven: GO w ith OC X A B

Concl.: OC bisects Z.AOB.

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

Given: GO 6*
1. 0 0 1. Given 5 . Given: A E and CF 1 BD
b F sS E BC = FD
2. O A ^ O B 2. All radii of a circle are congruent.
(Theorem ) a S& C d A B a n d E F X CD
C oncl.: Z l S Z2 C oncl.: T B = E F
3. OC J_ A B 3. G iven
4. Z.QCA a n d L.OCB are rig h t 4. Def. of p erpendicular lines
angles.
5. OC ~ OC 5. Reflexive property of congruence
6. A O C A ^ A O C B 6. H .L. (Theorem )
7. Z A O C ^ L B O C 7. Def. of congruent polygons

8. OC bisects Z.AOB, 8. Reverse of def. of th e bisector of a n

angle

EXERCISES
G iven: A A BC is isosceles 8.
7 . G iven: E is the m idpoint
1. G iven: A B J. AD G iven: B D ~ BC of S D .
w ith A B = AC.
AD is altitude to BC.
A E = CE
CD X A D BD X A D 4—
* ^ Concl. : AD is m edian to BC.
EF A B a n d CD _L BD
BC X AC A
a e& Ef -4
Concl.: A B bisects Z D AC.
Concl.: Z A B F S * L D C E
 CONGRUENCE O F M O R E T H A N O N E PA IR OF TRIANGLES 165
164
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
(3) In trying to prove this pair of triangles congruent you will eventually
9. G iven: D is the m idpoint
of BC.
G iven: DB S FC 10. discover th a t a pair of sides or a pair of angles is lacking.
(4) Find a second pair of triangles containing the parts th a t are lacking.
BC ^ CE
*-* <-> (5) Prove this second pair of triangles congruent.
D E == OF
D E x BC (6) T h e rest of the proof will follow in the usual m anner.
D E X AC
FG X BC
DF 1 AB Concl. A A B C is isosceles. 1
Concl. A B ^TC
Given: A B = AD
C B= *C D
Concl.: EC bisects /.B E D .

Figure 5-57.

11. G iven: CD is the altitude G iven: DG X AC 12. E C will be the bisector of / B E D if / B E C == /D E C . Hence,
A n a ly s is :
for step 1, the parts th a t we are trying to prove congruent are A BEC and
to A B .
EF X AB DEC, w hile the triangles th at contain them are ix B E C and A DEC. In
M is the altitu d e
EF = UG attem pting to prove them congruent, following step 2, we find th a t CB = CD
to AC.
SB ^E C a n d C E — C E but th a t inform ation is lacking concerning th e included A
UB ^ BE BCE and DCE. Following the suggestion in step 4, we note th at these angles
C oncl.: A A B C is isosceles.
C o n c l,: A A B C is isosceles. m ay be corresponding angles of A A BC and ADC. These last two triangles
A. c an readily be shown congruent by S.S.S. From this it follows th a t A
B C E and D C E are congruent. This, in turn, will m ake the A B EC and
D E C congruent, from which the conclusion th a t EC bisects / B E D is a p ­
parent.

PROOF I STATEMENTS REASONS |

0 B 1. Given
4 G e t ^ £ j> 6 c o -jU i 1. C B S = W ( i )
2. Reflexive property of congruence
2. CE = ~CE (r)
■ Problems Involving
Problems^ In the Congruence of More Than One Pair At this point we discover th a t there are p arts lacking and proceed to
of Triangles
prove an o th er pair of triangles congruent.
In the proofs of three theorem s— 10, 12, and 14— it was 3. A B S A D (s) 3. Given
necessary to prove two sets of triangles congruent in order to reach the con­ 4. Sam e as 2
4. AC S AC {s)
clusion w e sought. In this section you will be given an opportunity to apply 5. S.S.S, (Theorem )
5. A A B C ^A A D C
m ethods sim ilar to those employed to prove these three theorems. 6. Def. of congruent polygons
6. / B C E S / D C E (a)
T h e m ethod of approach for all the problems in this set of exercises is 7. S .A S . (Postulate)
outlin ed below. 7. A B E C = A D EC
8. /B E C /D E C 8. Sam e as 6.
(1) D eterm ine the p a ir of triangles th a t contain the sides or angles th a t 9. EC bisects / B E D . 9. Reverse of def. of the bisector of ani
you are. trying to prove congruent. angle
(2) A ttem pt to prove this p a ir of triangles congruent.
166 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES CONGRUENCE OF MORE THAN ONE PAIR OF TRIANGLES 167

EXERCISES 7 . Given: A B — DC G iven: A B ~ AC 8.

AD = BC BD=CE

1. G iven: A B S CB G iven: A B = D C 2. A E bisects Z B A D .

DF S EF
AD ^ CD Concl.: Z l S Z2
Z B ^ bU
C oncl.; Z A E D ^ Z C E D CF bisects Z B C D .
C is the m idpoint A
Concl.: B E ^ F D
of AC.
C o n c l.: G is the m idpoint A ----------------------------_ o
of EF.

9 . Given: d)/4 and B intersect Given: A B = AC 10.

a t C and D. E B ^E C
3. G iven: A B != CD G iven: A B ^ D C 4.
*-*
Concl.: A B bisects CD.
__ 4—
+ ____
Concl.: AD bisects BC.
A D = BC A D ^B C
Z l S Z2 C o n cl.: A E ££ EC
C oncl.: A F = CE
A * --------------------------------- , D

11. Given: 0 0 with A B — AC Given: A B JL BC 12.

C oncl.: OA bisects BC. D C 1 BC
5. G iven: A B S AC G iven: AC and B D bisect 6.
Z l S Z2
D B = DC each other a t E. A
E is the m idpoint
C oncl.: E is the m idpoint
C oncl.: A D bisects BC. of BC.
of US.
B F S iC G
A
Concl.: Z A = Z D
 168
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES TEST AND REVIEW 169
1 3 . * G iven: A ^ f iC is isosceles between the vertices of the polygon ABCD and the polygon R S T W .
T h e diagram below has been
with AB ^ AC. used to prove the theorem
14.* W hat does this statem ent imply?
A A D E is isosceles 3. (a) W rite a correspondence between the vertices of the two polygons
th at if two angles of a tri­
with A D ^ AE. below so th a t the corresponding parts will be congruent.
angle are congruent, the
C cncl.: A F B C is isosceles. sides opposite them are con- s
I gruent. See if you can prove
A the theorem . by using this
diagram .

Given: Z \ SS Z 2
B D ^C E
Concl.: A B ^ A U
A^
(b) W hat further information would be needed before it can be said
th a t these two polygons are congruent?
4. W hat conditions would have to exist before it would be possible to have
two triangles congruent under two different congruence correspondences?
5. T h e theorem on the base angles of an isosceles triangle is sometimes
proved by the following method. Justify each of the steps in this proof.
1 5 . * G iven: AB ^ AC
Given: A B « A C *
A D ^A E
A B ^ .A E
C o n c l.: WF S CF
Concl.: A F bisects L B AC. Given: A A B C is isosceles with
A A A B 2 i AC.
Concl.: L B = Z C

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

A B S iA C ■ 1.
2. AC £ * A B 2.
■ Test and Review 3. Z A & Z A 3.
4. A W C S A CAB 4.
5. Z B £ Z C 5.

A 6. If there exists a correspondence betw een the vertices of two rig h t tri­
1, ( a ) Express the following m atchings as a single correspondence:
angles such th a t a leg and an acute angle whose vertex is an endpoint
M ary *-* 1 Bill <-» 2 F red «-> 3 of this leg in one right triangle are congruent to those corresponding
( b ) L ist th e m atchings th a t exist in the correspondence parts in the sccond right triangle, will the triangles be congruent? Justify
your answer.
1 2 3 4 « -v l 10 11 100
7. If the definition of congruent polygons was applied to prove two tri­
2. T h e correspondence A B C D <-> R S 1 W is a congruence correspondence
angles to be congruent, w hat would have to be shown to be true?
 170 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES
8. W hat conclusion can be draw n if the m edian and the altitude to a side 171
TRY THIS FOR FUN
of a triangle were shown to be the same line segment?
9. If A ABC== A E F G , then Z A = Z E . Does this imply that if AABC
is not congruent to A E F C , Z A is n e t congruent to Z E i
5. Given: A B ^ A C Given: A B = ED
A D S IS BC = E C
10, Using a m ethod sim ilar to the one given in Problem 5, prove ihe theorem
C oncl.: A FBC is isosceles. AC 9 i E C
th a t if two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite
these angles are congruent. Concl.: AD = E B

Prove each of the following:

1, G iven: AC ^ BD G iv e n : A A B C ^ A EFG

A D bisects Z B A C .
CE _L B E E H bisects ZF E G .
<-> <-+
DF ± AF C oncl.: E D S z F H H Try This (or Fun
C o n c l.: Z A = Z B
D uring th e M iddle Ages th e theorem on th e base angles
of a n isosceles triangle was referred to a s ‘‘Pons A sinorum ,’’ or th e “ Bridge
of Asses.” H e who passed over could proceed safely and enjoy th e vistas
th a t lay exposed before him. H e w ho could not was lost forever in a m ire
o f G reek and Euclid, a castoff on th e road to “ success.”
It seems likely th a t some M edieval wit fell upon the nam e for this
theorem after exam ining the diagram that was used a t th a t tim e in th e proof
o f this theorem . N otice below th a t it appears to resem ble the cross section
of the structure of a bridge.
3 . G iven: Z \ & Z 3 Can you prove that in A A B C with A B = AC th a t Z A B C = Z A C B ?
G iv en : M is the m idpoint
Z 2 & Z4
of A B in Q O .
C o n cl.: CD bisects Z A C B . D is the m idpoint
G iven: Isosceles A A B C with
of OB.
A BSZAC
C is the m idpoint
3D & C E
of OA. C oncl.: Z A B C S i Z A C B
Concl.: M C & M B
I

I
 173
PERPENDICULARITY
rem ove a and put 3 in its place.” I 11 fact, you may have expressed yourself
m ore precisely by saying that since a and 3 are equal, a su bstitution of one
for the other is permissible. Although you may not have considered th is as a
postulate in your study of algebra, we m ust do so now,
P o s t u l a t e 18:' If two numbers are equal, a substitution of one for the
other is permissible. (Substitution, or R eplacem ent, Property)
T h e definition we need is based on one developed earlier in o u r work
concerning the concept of a ray being between two rays. This, as you recall,
was given as,
38: T h e ray PB being between two rays PA and PC m ean s that,
D e fin itio n

m /.A P B + m ZB P C = m Z A P C (See Definition 19)1 T.so '

Perpendicularity Figure 6-1.

TV'-' L - will enable us to define a p a ir of angles known as adjacent
angles. A nd th at definition, in turn, will lead us to a relatively sim ple way
for proving lines to be perpendicular.
39: Adjacent angles, Z A B C and ZD B C , are two angles such
D e fin itio n

th a t they have a common vertex, 8 , and a com m on side, BC, betw een
AN IM P O R T A N T SE G M E N T O F T H E S T U D Y O F
geom etry concerns itself with the properties of lines th a t a re perpendicular B A and BD.
to each other. Such questions as “ U nder w hat conditions are lines p e rp e n ­ In Figures 6-2 and 6-3 the angles A B C and D B C have a com m on vertex
d icular?” and “ W h at conclusions can be draw n if lines are perpendicular?”
will be the subject of our w ork in this chapter. !>v'v '■
T h e definition of perpendicular lines informs us th a t should lines be
perpendicular, then right angles will be formed at their point of intersection.
U sing the reverse of the definition, however, to prove th a t lines are p e r­
p endicular is quite a cumbersom e process, for it is not a sim ple task to show
angles to be right angles. Proving angles to be congruent is a nother m atter. W e .
have m any ways of doing this, the most im portant of w hich is through the
— r ----r
congruence of triangles. Hence, we are led inevitably to the need for proving
B and a com m on side B C th at is between B A and B D . Notice th a t in Figure
th a t lines can be shown to be perpendicular through the congruence of
6-2 the angles A B C and DBC are both acute while in Figure 6-3, one angle
angles. T h e proof, though, depends upon a postulate and a definition th a t
is acu te while the other is obtuse. C ould tw o angles be ad jacent if they
have not been established as yet.
b oth were rig h t angles? I f both h a d been obtuse angles, could they h ave
T h e postulate was used m any times by you in your study of algebra. been adjaccnt? Before answering, refer to Figure 3-10 oh page 60. W h a t
If you w ere asked to determ ine the value of a2 + 2a w hen a = 3, you w ould condition m ust necessarily exist concerning th e sum of the m easures of
rep lace th e a by 1, square 3, and add it to the double of 3, giving you a sum the tw o angles in order, th a t they be adjacent? Sim ilarly, in Figure 6-4,
of 1 S. Should you be pressed to give cause as to why it is possible to replace Z A B C a n d Z D B C are not adjacent for although they have a com m on
a w iili 3, you w ould very iikely say, “ a and 3 a rt equal, therefore 1 can

172
 175
174 PERPENDICULARITY PERPENDICULARITY

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

1. CD is a line. 1. Given
2. Z C B D is a straight angle. 2. F.ev. of def. of a straight a n g le
3. Z l is supp. to Z2. 3. Rev. of def. of supp. angles
4. J7i Z l w Z2 = 180 4. Def. of supp. angles
5. Z 2 = Z \ 5. Given
6. m Z l + m Z \ = 180 or 6. Substitution postulate
2m Z l = 180
vertex B, th eir com m on side, BC, is n o t betw een th e o th er two rays, B A 7. m Z l = 90 7. Halves of equals are equal. (Postu­
late)
and 3 D . T h e two angles in Figure 6-5 a re n o t ad jacent for they neith er 8. Rev. of def. of a rig h t angle
8. H ence, Z l is a right angle.
have a com m on vertex— in one it is B, in the o ther it is D — nor do they have
9. A B ± CD 9. Rev. of def. of p e rp en d icu la r lines
a com m on side— the side of one is B C w hile in the other it is DC.
R e tu rn in g to the problem of proving lines perpendicular, we know th a t
Illustration:

G iven: O O w ith OC the bisector of

ZAOB

C oncl.: OC _L A B
F ig u re 6-6.

if A B _L CD, then Z l and Z 2 m ust be right angles and, in turn, we can

conclude that they are congruent. W hat we are searching for is the reverse
4—* 4—> F igure 6-8.
of this; th a t is, if Z l = Z 2, we w ould like to say th a t A B _L C,D. N otice i—►
th a t the angles 1 and 2 are adjacent angles. H ence, w hat we would like to Applying T heorem 15 to show th a t OC ± A 3 sim ply involves
A n a l y s is :

prove is the need to show th a t ZO CA S ZO C B. T his can be done by proving

A A O C ^& B O C .
T H E O R E M 15: I f tw o lin e s in te rse c t to form c o n g ru e n t a d ja c e n t a n g le s,
th e n th e lin e s a re p e rp e n d ic u la r.
PROOF 1 STATEMENTS REASONS
|A
1. OC bisects ZA O B . 1. Why?
G iven: A B a n d CD intersect so th a t 2. Z A O C S i ZB O C (a) 2. Why?
Z 2 = Z l. 3. Why?
3. O is the center of the O-
C oncl.: A B ± CD 4. OA ~ OB (j) 4. Why?
B
5. O C ^ U C (s ) 5. Why?
Figure 6-7. 6. Why?
6. A A O C & .L B O C
7. ZO CA S ZOCB 7. Why?
Since w e h ave only one w ay of proving lines to be perpendicular,
A n a l y s is :
<-> <->
th ro u g h th e reverse of the definition of perpendicular lines, w e have no 8. OC 1 A B 8. If two lines intersect to form congru­
recourse b u t to show th a t Z l (or Z 2 ) is a right angle. T his w e can do b y ent adjacent angles, then th e lines are
proving th a t m Z \ = 90 (or n / 2 = 90). perpendicular.
 PERPENDICULARITY 177
176 PERPENDICULARITY

T hus, through the use of Theorem 15 it is possible to show th a t lines 5. G iven: A B ^ A C G iven: AC] bisects Z s B A D
D B ^D C a n d BCD.
are perpendicular by proving th a t they intersect to form con g ru en t ad jacent
angles. As it was noted earlier, justifying th at angles arc con g ru en t is far C oncl.: A E 1 B C Concl.: AC 1 BD
easier to do th an justifying th a t they are right angles. T h e illustration ju st
presented points up the fact that, to a large extent, the proof leading to p e r­
p endicular lines is b u t a repetition of the earlier proofs or. congruence of
triangles with the added step inferring the perpendicularity of lines based
on T heorem 15.

EXERCISES

7. G iven: B E \ bisects Z s A EC G iven: P A ^ P B 8.

1, G iven: A B z = A C
D is the m idpoint of
W.
C oncl.: A D J_ BC
G iven: O 0 w ith C th e m id­ 2. and ADC. 0 is the center of
point of A B the O .
C oncl.: B E J. AC
C oncl.: OC _L A B C oncl.: OP _L A B

9. G iven: © 0 with .<4C = £C G iven: Q O w ith A B = AC 10.

3. G iven: C A ^ C B Given: CA = <52? 4.
CD is m edian to AB. D ASZD B C onci.: OC 1. AB Concl.: AD 1 BC

C oncl.: CD _L A B Concl.: CD ± A B

f T h e w ay this picce o f G iven D a ta is w ritten is n o t m a th e m a tic a lly sound. H o w should

it b e w ritten ?
 178 PERPENDICULARITY
DISTANCE AND RELATIONSHIP TO PERPENDICULAR LINES 179
11. G iven: © A and B G iven: D B _L BA 12.
B Meaning of Distance and Its Relation to Perpendicular Lines
Cone!.: A B CD D C 1C A
If you were asked to find the distance from p o in t A to
D B £* D C
point B, you would very likely place the edge of your ruler along th e two
C oncl.: A D X BC
A.
A •B *

points and read off the num ber ul incites between them . But, w hy d idn’t
you m easure this distance along either of the paths shown in F ig u re 6-9?

F ig u r e 6-9.

Before answering this, let us examine another question th a t m ig h t help

clarify m atters. How would you measure the distance from N ew Y ork to
Los Angeles? T h a t is, would you follow a route th a t passed th ro u g h D allas,
T exas; or the South Pole; or perhaps one that w ent th ro u g h London,
E ngland? “ N o,” you say, “ not any of these! I ’d try to find the shortest route
In each of the following problem s you a re to draw y our
betw een New York and Los Angeles.” And this is precisely w hat we m ean
own diagram , then write the Given D ata and th e Conclusion in term s of by distance-, it is the measure oj the shortest path between the objects involved.
th e letters of your diagram . Com plete the proof.
D e f in it io n 4 0 : T h e d istan c e betw een tw o g eo m etric figures is th e m easu re
1. G iven: A n isosccles triangle w ith th e angle bisector of th e vertex augle.
o f th e sh o rtest p a th betw een ’. h e m .
C o n c l.: T h e angle bisector of th e vertex angle is perpendicular to th e
base. T h e shortest path between New York and Los Angeles, assum ing we
stay ou the e a rth ’s surface, would be a section of a curve. A t this point we
2. Given: A triangle with two congruent angles and a median to the side
are not prepared to say which curve it will be.
th a t these two angles have in com m on. M athem aticians frequently use the lerm geodesic when referring to the
C o n c l,: T his m edian will be p erpendicular to the side. shortest path. T h e question of determ ining the distance from point P to
3. G iven: A four-sided polygon in which a ll the sides are congruent. circle 0 resolves itself to knowing what the geodesic, or shortest p ath , is from
C o n cl.: T h e lines joining opposite vertices a re p erpendicular to each
other,
4. G iven: An isosceles triangle w ith the bisectors of each of the base angles.
C o n c l.: T h e line draw n from the vertex of th e vertex angle to th e p o in t
of intersection of the two bisectors will be perpendicular to the
base.
5,* G iven: A n isosceles triangle w ith th e tw o m edians to th e legs.
C o n c l.: T h e line draw n from the vertex of the vertex angle to the point
of intersection of the two m edians will be perpendicular to the
base.
a p o in t to a circle. F o r it is the m easure of the geodesic th a t vviil be the dis­
tance from P to circle 0 .
L et us re tu rn to the original question: “ W hat is the distance from point
180 PERPENDICULARITY DISTANCE AND RELATIONSHIP TO PERPENDICULAR LINES 181
A to point B ?” T he answer, apparently, is “ T he m easure of the shortest ap p ear to be related to AB? In statem ent form, w hat theorem seem s to be
p a th .” W e 'will assum»' th a t the p a th taken along th e edge of yo u r ruler im plied by the conclusions you have ju st noted?
happens to be the shortest path. W hat is the nam e for the p a th along the
T H E O R E M IS: I f two poin ts a re each e q u id ista n t from t h e e n d p o in ts
edge of your ruier? W hat is the nam e for th at p a rt of the p a th between o f a lin e segm ent, th e n th e lin e jo in in g th em w ill b e
points A and 5?
th e p e rp e n d ic u la r b ise cto r o f th e lin e seg m en t.
T h e shortest p a th betw een tw o points
? o s tu i.a te , 1 9 : is th e line segm ent
joining the two points. _ A
G iv en : PA = PB
T hus, since distance m eans the m easure of th e shortest p ath , this postu­
Q A9= Q B
late implies th a t the distance betw een two points is th e m easure of the line 4—►
segm ent joining the tw o points. Therefore, m A B , in addition to being the C oncl.: PQ bisects .■iB .
m easure of the line segm ent between A and B, can now be considered as the PQ X A B

Figure 6-14,

A n a ly s is : Notice th a t rather than deal with the expression th a t P is equi­

d istan t from A a n d B, we have interpreted this as PA ~ ,F B . S im ilarly, Q
being equidistant from A and B was restated as QA = QB. T h e congruencies
are m uch preferred, for these are the forms w ith w hich we have d e a lt in the
past. T h e problem thus becomes one ol showing that A R = B R and
Z Q R B = Z Q R A , both of which can be done by proving A Q R B ££ A Q R A
T ry to do this before reading the proof below.
distance between A and B. T o say th at A B £= AC implies not only th a t the
line segments A B and AC are congruent but also th a t the distance from A
to B is equal to the distance from A to C. Sim ilarly, the statem ent th a t A is P R O O F ! (T he reason for each statem ent will be left for you to supply.)
th e sam e distance from B as it is from C will be in te rp rete d as A B ~ AC. 1. 7. A Q R B AQRA
T h e sentence th a t A is the same distance from B as it is from C is lar too 8. A R = B R
2. Q R £=; QR (s)
long. It is usually rew orded as, A is equidistant from B and C, or, A is equally
3. P A 9 Z P B 9. R is the m idpoint of A B .
distant from B and C. E ither of these is interpreted as before, A B = AC.
4. P Q & P Q 10. PQ bisects AB.
5. .’. A Q PA S A QPB W .Z Q R A ^ Z Q R B
e .P
6. Z P Q B Z P Q A (a) 12. PQ X A B
--------- --------'
Illustration:

« Q G iv en : CA — CB
figu re 6-12. figu re 6-13. 0 is the center of the O .
i—► ____
In both Figure 6-12 and Figure 6-13 how do you in te rp ret the statem ent C oncl.: OC is the 1 bisector of A B ,
th a t P is equidistant from A and £ ? T h a t Q is equidistant from A a n d B ?
D raw figures sim ilar to those above. D raw the line through the points P C
a n d Q and extend it, if necessary, to intersect AB. In w h a t m anner does PQ Figure 6-15.
182
Applying T heorem 16 to this problem m akes it necessary to find
A n a ly s is :
two points som ewhere o n f the line OC such th a t each of .these points is
equidistant from points A and B. A pparently, the points to select are those
about w hich we m ight know som ething. T o illustrate, one of the points to
PERPENDICULARITY DISTANCE AN D RELATIONSHIP TO PERPENDICULAR LINES 183
T heorem 16 enables us to prove a line to be the perp en d icu lar bisector
of a line segment. Now we w ould like to investigate those conclusions that
can be drawn if a line is known to be the perpendicular bisector o f a line
i—V —

investigate would be 0 , since it is the center of the circle. Sim ilarly, a n o th e r segm ent. T o illustrate, let us say th at PQ is the perpendicular b isecto r of AB,
point th a t bears investigation is C, for the G iven Data: contains inform ation
about C .^ n d , lastly, it often pays to exam ine the point of intersection of the
two lines. “ ''
In this problem , 0 is equidistant from A a n d B by the theorem on the
rad ii of a circle, while C is equidistant from A a n d B from the inform ation
in the Given D ata th a t CA ~ CB. Therefore, th e conclusion follows.

F ig u re 6-17.
4—>
w hile R is any point of PQ selected at random . W hat represents the distance
from R to A? From R to B? W hat appears to be true about these line seg­
m ents RA and RB> By expressing yourself in statem ent form, w h a t theorem
do you believe will be tru e in term s of the conclusion you have ju s t drawn?
T H E O R E M 17: If a p o in t is on th e p e rp e n d ic u la r b ise cto r o f a lin e
segm ent, t h t n it is e q u id ista n t (rom th e e n d p o in ts of
F ig u re 6-16. th e lin e segm ent.

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

1. W = CB (This statem ent 1. Given

implies th at C is equidistant
from points A and B.)
2. L et OA and O B be the lines
through points 0 and A and
points 0 and B. .
3. OA £= OB (This statem ent
im plies th a t 0 is equidistant
from points A and B.)
4. OC is th e _L bisector of AB.
t W h e n e v e r w e speak of a p o in t as being “ o n a line,” it w ill im p ly th a t th a t p o in t is a n
ele m e n t of th e set of po in ts of w hich th a t lin e consists.
2 . O ne and only one line exists th ro u g h
two points.
3. All radii of a circle are congruent.
4. If two points ( 0 and C) are each
equidistant from the endpoints (A
and B) of a line segment (A B ), th en
the line joining thpse two points (0
and C) is the perpendicular bisector
of the line segment.
G iven: QP J. A B
_
QP bisects A B .
C oncl.: RA = R B
F ig u re 6-18.
You will notice that, again, we have chosen to w rite HA = R B
A n a ly s is :
ra th e r than R is equidistant from A and B. By doing this, it is im m ediately
evident th a t to prove these line segments congruent, we need m erely show
th a t the two triangles are congruent. T he proof will be left for you to com ­
plete.
T here are a few interesting features about this proof that should be
called to your attention. W h at did R represent on line PQ? H ence, consider­
ing w hat has been proved for R, what can be said about all o th er points
on PQ? M ight R be the point S ? If so, what would happen to triangles R A S
 184 PERPENDICULARITY DISTANCE AN D RELATIONSHIP TO PERPENDICULAR LINES 185

and RBS7 Since there are no triangles if R coincides w ith S, does this im ply PRO O F STATEMENTS REASONS
th a t S can not be shown to be equidistant from A and B?
T h e reverse of T heorem 17 is also a tru e statem ent. Its proof, how ever, 1. PA ^ PB \ . G iven
involves a difficulty sim ilar to the one encountered w hen proving th at two 2. Let M be the m idpoint of 2. Every line segm ent has a m idpoint.
angles of a triangle will be congruent if two sides are congruent. T h ere was AB.
a need a t that tim e for the assum ption that every angle has a biscctor. Now, 3. Definition of the m idpoint of a line
3. M A ^ M B
we are faced w ith the need for a com parable assum ption w ith reference to segm ent
a line segment.
*—¥ —-a—
4. PM is the 1 bisector of AB. 4. If two points (P and M ) a re each
P o s t u l a t e 2 0 : E v e ry lin e s e g m e n t h a s a m id p o in t.
equidistant from the endpoint3 of a
' W ith this postulate, we can prove that line segm ent (A B ), then the lin e join-

TH EO R EM 18: If a point is equidistant from the endpoints o f a lin e ing them (P M ) is the p erp en d icu la r
segm ent, th en it lies on the p erp en d icu lar bisector of bisector of th e line segm ent.
the lin e segm ent.

Illustration:

G iven: PA ~ P B
C oncl.: P lies on the _L bisector of A B . G iven: © 0 w ith CA ■= CB
D is the m idpoint of A B .

Concl.: CD passes through 0 .

F igure 6-19.

A n a l y s is : Perhaps the fastest way to show th at a iine is the perpendicular

biscctor of 2 line segm ent is to apply T heorem 1 6 .'F rom th e Given D a ta,
P is already equidistant from A and B. H ence we need but find another po in t
th a t is also equidistant from points A and B. Several suggestions w ere m a d e
in the analysis of the proof of T heorem 16 th at will help us find this second
poin t. By selecting M , the m idpoint of A B , as the second point, th e line
th ro u g h P and M will be the perpendicular bisector of A B . This condition,
in tu rn , implies th a t P lies on the perpendicular bisector of A B ; a n d this,
f of course, is w hat we had set out to prove.
F ig u re 6-21.
A n a l y s is : W e have only one m ethod. T heorem 18, for proving th a t a
point falls on a line, and th at method is dependent, upon two fe atu res:
(.1) If the point is equidistant from the endpoints of a line segm ent.
(2) If the line it is to fall on happens to be the perpendicular bisector of
th a t line segm ent.
H ence, our present problem becomes, a m a tte r of showing th a t 0 is equi-

distant from points A and B and, secondly, th a t CD is the perpendicular

-I
bisector of A B . I f OA and OB are draw n in the diagram , then from the the­
orem th at the ra d ii of a circle are congruent it w ould follow th at OA ~ UB.
T his fulfills the first requirem ent th at 0 m ust be equidistant from A a n d B.
D being the m idpoint of ~AB implies th a t IDA S 255. In addition, know ing
th a t Ua — U S will give us two points, D a n d C, th a t are equidistant from
H -
the points A a n d B . Hence, CD m ust be the perpendicular bisector of A B .
T his inform ation fulfills the second requirem ent.
 DISTANCE AND RELATIONSHIP TO PERPENDICULAR LINES 187
186 PERPENDICULARITY
In Figure 6-23 a gap was left in the line CD, while in F igure 6-24 CD
was deliberately m ade to appear as if it bypassed point 0 .

EXERCISES
Figure 6-22.

A num ber of these problems are identically the sam e as

PROOF | s ta t e m e n t s REASONS those on pages 176-178. These problems, however, are to be proved by
using Theorem s 16, 17, and 18 only, not T heorem 15.
i . S J s c I 1. Given
2, D is th e m idpoint of A B . 2. Given *|, Given: 0 0 with M the Given: Isosceles A A B C and 2.
3. R A S D B 3. Def. of the m idpoint of a line segm ent m idpoint of A B D B C on the sam e
_ _
4. If two points are equidistant from the base BU
4. CD is the X bisector of AB. C oncl.: O M JL A B
endpoints of a line segm ent, th en the C oncl.: AD is the 1 bisector
line joining them is the perpendicular of BC. (H in t: Re-
bisector of the line segm ent.
i—►
5. Let OA be the line that 5. T here exists one and only one line
passes through 0 and A. through two points.

Sim ilarly for OB.

6. O A ^ T T B 6. All the radii of a circle are congruent.

7. CD passes through 0 . 7. If a point is equidistant from th e.en d ­

points of a iine segment, then it lies
on the perpendicular bisector of the
line segm ent.
In th e d iag ra m of the preceding problem an arrow head was p laced on Given: O O w ith A B = AC s 4 .
4—^ 3 ', G iven: Zl = LI
CD to indicate th a t we are not certain th a t the line will pass through 0 but Z3SZ4
C oncl.: A D is the X
will try to prove this. H ad 0 been placed on CD, it w ould im ply th a t the C oncl.: D B is the X bisector of BC.
po in t fell on th e line w ithout need for proof. B ut this was exactly w h a t we bisector of AC. A
w ere try in g to sh o w ! T w o other ways of signifying th a t the position of 0
is in d o u b t are

Figure 6-23. Figure 6-24.

188 DISTANCE AND RELATIONSHIP TO PERPENDICULAR LINES 189
PERPENDICULARITY
5.
11.
G iven: © A and B G iven: 0 0 with
G iv e n : A A B C is isosceles G iven: © C and D 12 .
C oncl.: A B is the 1 /.ABC, ~ / A C B
on base BC. CE bisects /A C B .
bisector of CD. Concl, OA is the J_ E is the m idpoint
C o n cl.: CE passes through D.
bisector of BC. rJB C .
A Z3 S Z4

C oncl.: D E passes through

A.

7. G iven: G O with CD J_ G iven: O 0 with A B S AC

bisector of A B A D is the m edian
C o n cl.: CD passes to BC.
through 0 . Goncl.: 0 Jies on AD,
A

13. G iven: © C and D G iven: A B = AC 14.

CE X .A B B D bisects /A B C .

Concl.: D lies on CE. CD bisects /A C B .

G iven: D E is the _L <—^
bisector of BC,
G iven: A A B C and FBC 10. C oncl.: A E is the X bisector
are isosceles on
A A B C is isosceles of BC.
base BC.
on base BC, A E is the m edian
H
Concl, A lies on DE. to BC.
(H int: Rew rite
C oncl.: F lies on AE.
second piece of
Given D ata.)
 190 PERPENDICULARITY
CONDITIONAL AND CATEGORICAL STATEMENTS 191
15. G iven: A B =~AC G iven: A A B C is isosceles 16.* 1 . G iv e n : An isosceles triangle with a median to the base.
B E is the m edian w ith A B = AC.
C o n cl.: T he median to the base is the perpendicular bisector of the base.
to AC.
BD bisects LA B C . 2. G iv e n : Two isosceles triangles with the vertices of their vertex angles
UE is the m edian
lying on the same side of their comm on base,
to AB. CD bisects Z A C B
C o n c l.: T he line joining the two vertices of their vertex angles is the
A E is m edian to BC.
C o n c l.: A C is the _L perpendicular bisector of their common base.
Concl.: A E passes through D. ^ 3 . G iv e n : Two isosceles triangles on the same base and the bisector of the
bisector of "BC.
vei lex angle of one of them.
C o n c l.: T he line of this bisector passes through the vertex of the vertex
angle of the other.
4. G iv e n : Two intersecting circles, a line segment joining their points of
intersection, and a line draw n from the center of one to the
m idpoint of this line segment.
C oncl.: T his line passes through the center of the o ther circle.
5.* Given: T he altitudes to two sides of an equilateral triangle.
Concl.: T h e line joining the third vertex to the point of intersection of
17.* G iven: D A = D B = DC G iv e n : FD is the X bisector 1 0 . the two altitudes is the perpendicular bisector of the th ird side.
4—>
i 'F i s the _L bisector of75.
of A B .
F E is the X bisector | Conditional and Categorical Statements
GH is the _L bisector of IC . M athem atical statem ents, or propositions, fall into one of
V
of AC. two forms. T hey are either
PQ is the X bisector
(1) Conditional Statem ents, or, as they are frequently
C oncl.: E F and G H of AB.
<—i called, H ypothetical Statements
intersect a t D.
C o n cl.: PQ passes through F. or
(H in t: Prove (2) Categorical Statem ents
FA = FC and T he first of these, the conditional statem ent, we investigated a t great length
Fb SS FC.) earlier in this course, f Now, however, we would like not only to review th a t
discussion but also to take a fresh look at this statem ent from, another point
of view.
(1) T h e conditional brobosilion is a statem ent containing two clauses, one
beginninti with the word “ if.” while the other begins w ith the word “ th e n .”
W e are asked to accept the tru th of the antecedent, which, we leairned, is
the inform ation contained in the clause beginning w ith the w ord “ if.” T h en
w ith the aid of our prior knowledge— that is, our definitions, our postulates,
and o u r theorems—we are required to show in some m anner why the con­
sequent m ust follow. And, as you recall, the consequent is th at p a rt'o f the
B conditional statem ent th at follows the word “ th en .”
In each of the following problem s you are to draw your own W e can express this concept som ewhat differently: the Given D a ta is
diag ram , th e n w rite the G iven D a ta and the Conclusion in term s of the contained in the antecedent, or “ if-clause,” while the Conclusion we are
letters of your diagram . C om plete th e proof. asked to justify is contained in the consequent, or “ then-ciause.” H ence,
t See pages 85 to 88.
 192
p e r p e n d ic u l a r it y
w hen we are presented w ith a conditional statem ent whose consequent we
are asked to. verify, our m ethod of attack will be as follows:
(a ) Draw the diagram containing ali the necessary parts.
(b ) Express the Given D ata and the Conclusion in terms of the letters ,
th a t appear in the diagram .
(c) And, finally, prove th a t the Conclusion follows from the Given B a t a.
T o illustrate, consider the proposition
“ If a ray is the bisector of the vertex angle of an
isosceles triangle, then it will bisect the base.”
W e know that the diagram should contain an isosceles triangle a n d
bisector of the vertex angle. This we now draw.
G iven: A A B C is isosceles w ith
A B & .A C .
AD bisects /B A C .
c . C o n cl.: AD bisects BC-
F igure 6-25.
H a v in g labeled the diagram , w c proceed not only to indicate th a t the tri­
angle is isosceles but also to point out w hich sides are th e congruent legs.
In addition, the “ if-clause” contained information th at a ray was the bisector
o f th e vertex angle; this relationship w e have shown by stating th a t A D
bisects /B A C . I t is not necessary to include in the Given D a ta th a t / B A C
is th e vertex angle, for the fact th a t A B is given as congruent to /1C will
im ply this. Referring now to the “ then-clause,” we note th a t the ray th a t
is th e bisector of the vertex angle will have to be proved to be th e bisector
o f the base. Since A D was given as the bisector of the vertex angle, A D will
h a v e to be shown to be the bisector of the base.
T h ere are times w hen-the position of the “ if-clause” a n d the “ then-
c lau se” are interchanged in a proposition. T h a t is, the “ if-clause” m ay
a p p e a r as th e second clause, while the ‘‘then-clause” appears as th e first
clause. T h e proposition analyzed in the preceding paragraph could have
b e e n ■written as:
“ A ray will bisect the base if it bisects the
vertex angle of an isosceles triangle.”
T h is statem ent was m ade to ap p ear even m ore obscure by the omission of
t h e w ord “ then.” I t would still, however, be recognized as a conditional
proposition by th e fact th a t it contains two clauses, one ofw hich begins with
t h e w ord “ if.” Should you prefer, it is always possible to interchange the
tw o clauses to have them a p p ea r in type form : “ if-clause” first .followed, by
t h e “ then-clause.” O r as it is frequently called, an “ if-then” proposition.
CONDITIONAL AND CATEGORICAL STATEMENTS 193
(2) A categorical proposition is a statem ent whose verb is some form of
the verb “ to be.” T h at is, the verb m ay be any of the words is, u-as, are,
were, will be, etc. T o illustrate, the conditional proposition ju st analyzed
m ight have been written in the categorical form :
“T he bisector of the vertex angle of an isosceles
triangle is the bisector of the base.”
W hat form of the verb “ to be” was used in this statem ent? In the con­
ditional form w hat represented the “ Given D a ta ” ? Relative to the position
of the verb, where does the “ Given D a ta ” ap p ear in the categorical form?
In the conditional form w hat represented the “ Conclusion” ? R elative to the
th e position of the verb, w here does this sam e “ Conclusion” ap p ear in the
categorical form? Thus, it can be said th a t in a categorical statem ent
(a ) T h a t p art of the sentence that is prior to the verb is the “ Given D ata. I
( b ) T h a t p a rt of the sentence that follows the verb is the “ C onclusion.”l ‘
T here are occasions when categorical statem ents are. disguised through
the use of verbs other than the verb “ to be.” T hus, the statem ent th a t
“ T he bisector of the vertex angle of an isosceles
triangle bisects the base”
is the same as the one given earlier. Now, however, the verb is bisects ra th e r •
th an is. Be this as it may, the. m ethod for determ ining the. “ Given D a ta ”
and the “ Conclusion” rem ain the same. W ith a little effort every statem ent
of this form can be rew ritten to contain the verb “ to be.”
EXERCISES
A
For each of the following propositions draw the diagram ,
w rite the “ Given D a ta ” and the “ Conclusion,” but do not w rite the “ Proof.”
You are not prepared to prove most of these propositions.
1. If a line segm ent joins the m idpoints of two sides of a triangle, then its
m easure is equal to one-half the m easure o f the third side.
2. T w o isosceles triangles are congruent if a leg and a base angle of one
are congruent to those corresponding parts of the other.-
3. If the bisectors of two angles of a triangle are congruent, the triangle is
isosceles.
4. If the m edians to two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the. triangle
is isosceles.
5. T he line segments joining the m idpoints ol the sides of an equilateral
triangle form another equilateral triangle.
194 PERPENDICULARITY
6. T h e opposite sides of a four-sided polygon are congruent if the opposite
angles are congruent.
7. If perpendiculars arc draw n from any point of the bisector of an angie
to the sides of the angle, then these perpendiculars are congruent.
8. If perpendiculars are draw n from the m idpoints of the legs of an isosceles
triangle to the base, then these perpendiculars are congruent.
9. T he line, segm ents draw n from the m idpoint of the base of an isosceles
triangle p erpendicular to th e legs are congruent.
10, T h e acute angles of a right triangle are com plem entary.
11. A triangle is equilateral if its altitudes are congruent.
[Bj
]>>■ ' 1----- 1
For each of the following propositions, draw the diagram
and w rite the “ Given D a ta ,” the ' “Conclusion,” a n d the “ Proof.”
1. If a line bisects the vertex angle of a n isosceles triangle, then it w ill be
perpendicular to the base.
2. T h e m edian to th e base of a n isosceles trian g le bisects the vertex angle.
3. T h e line segm ents joining the vertex of the vertex angle of an isosceles
triangle to the trisection points of the base a re congruent.
4. If the opposite sides of a four-sided polygon are congruent, then the
line join in g a p air of opposite vertices divides the polygon into two
congruent triangles.
5. Line segm ents draw n from the m idpoint of the base of an isosceles
• triangle to the m idpoints of the legs are congruent.
6. If p erpendicular segments drawn from the-m idpoint of one side of a
triangle to the other two are congruent, then the triangle is isosceles.
7. If two altitudes of a triangle are congruent, then the triangle is isosceles.
8 . If two triangles are congruent^ the angle bisectors of a pair of cor­
responding angles are congruent.
9. If two triangles are congruent, the m edians to a pair of corresponding
sides are congruent.
10. If the line join in g a pair of opposite vertices of a four-sided polygon
bisects these angles, then the rem aining two angles are congruent.
11. T h e m edian to the base of an isosceles triangle is perpendicular to the
base. '
12. If there exists a correspondence between the vertices of two isosceles
triangles in w hich a leg and a vertex angle of one are congruent to those
corresponding parts in the second, then the two triangles are congruent.
13. T h e angle bisectors of the base angles of an isosceles triangle form
an o th er isosceles triangle w ith the baise.
CONDITIONAL AND CATEGORICAL STATEMENTS
14. T he medians to the legs of an isosceles triangle are congruent,
15. A line perpendicular to the bisector of an angle forms w ith the sides
of the angle an isosceles triangle.
16. If the perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle passes through the
opposite vertex, then the triangle is isosceles.
17. If the opposite sides of a four-sided polygon are congruent, then the
opposite angles are congruent.
18. If the line segments joining the two pairs of opposite vertices of a four­
sided polygon bisect each other, then the opposite sides of the polygon
are congruent.
19. If the line segment joining a pair of opposite vertices of a four-sided
polygon bisects these angles, then this line is the perpendicular bisector
of the line segment joining the other two vertices.
20. If two line segments are draw n as the perpendicular bisectors of the
legs of an isosceles triangle and they term inate in the base, then thfese
line segments are congruent.
21. If a radius is draw n bisecting the line segm ent th a t joins two points of
a circle, then the radius is perpendicular to the line segm ent.
22. T he perpendicular bisector of a line segment whose endpoints lie on a
circle passes through the center of the circlc.
23. If two circles intersect, then the line joining their centers is the p e r­
pendicular bisector of the line segment joining their points of inter­
section.
24. If the m edian to the side of a triangle is also th e .a ltitu d e to the side,,
then the triangle is isosceles.
25. If two isosceles triangles have the same base, then the line joining the
vertices of their vertex angles is the perpendicular bisector of the base.
26. T h e perpendicular bisector of the base of an isosceles triangle passes
through the point of intersection of the bisectors of the base angles.
27. If a point on the base of an isosceles triangle is equidistant from the
m idpoints of the legs, then th at point is the m idpoint of th e base.
28. T h e perpendicular bisector of the base of a n isosceles triangle passes
through the point of intersection of the m edians to the legs of the tri­
angle. ,
29. If all four sides of a four-sided polygon are congruent, then the two
line segments joining pairs of opposite vertices are, the p erpendicular
bisectors of each other.
30.* If a point is equidistant from the vertices of the base angles nf an
isosceles triangle, then it will lie on the bisectoi of the vertex angle of
the triangle. (H int: Show th.it this line is the perpendicular bisector
of the base.)
 196
PERPENDICULARITY TEST A N D REVIEW 197
31.* T h e bisector of th e vertex angle of an isosceles triangle passes through
the point of intersection of th e bisectors of the base angles. 5. G iven: AD bisects Z.BAC. G iven: C ircle 0 w ith
32.* T h e bisector of the vertex angle of an isosccles triangle passes through A B = AC ZC A D S ZC B D
the point of intersection of the m ed ia n s to the legs. Z l S Z2
Z \ S Z2

O Test and Review C o n c l.: E lies on AD. Concl.: CD passes through 0 ,

Prove each of the following:

1. G iven: Circle 0 with OC the G iv en : Circle 0 with

bisector of Z A O B
Z C A B £= ZC B A
C oncl.: OC J. A B
Concl.: OC 1 A B

B
Prove each of the following statem ents:
T he altitu d e to the base of an isosceles triangle is the m edian to the base.
T h e angle bisectors of the base angles of an isosceles triangle are con­
3. G iven: A B = = £ C S C Z ) S G iven: Z C S i Z B
gruent. ■
If two triangles are congruent, then the line segm ent joining the m idpoints
S e ^ ae
C E S IB B of two sides of one triangle is congruent to the line segm ent jo in in g the
m idpoints of the pair of corresponding sides in the other triangle.
ZD & . ZE M E ± AC
4. If the bisector of an angle whose vertex lies on a circle passes th ro u g h the
F h the m idpoint M D X AB center of the circle, then it will be the p erpendicular bisector of the line
of KE. segm ent joining the points of intersection of the sides of the angle and
C o n cl.: A M _L BC
C oncl.: C F is the 1 bisector of the circle.

'4 (H int: Prove F

equidistant from B
t and D.)
I
i
 PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY 199
sets differs from other sets of points. H ence, space a n d surface m ust be con­
sidered the first of our undefined term s in space geom etry.
T h e w ord plane, though, presents a different picture; this we can define.
Surfaces such as the blackboard at school, the desk on w hich you w rite, .
floor on w hich you stand, the ceiling overhead'—these a re all callfedplanes.
All of the surfaces selected have certain com m on properties. Select any two
points on the blackboard and draw the line th a t exists through them . Are
all the points of the line also points of the pland? Select any other two points
and draw the line through them. Are there any points of this line th a t are
n o t points of the plane? Can you find any two points on the blackboard
through w hich a line can be draw n so th a t there are some points of the line
th a t do n o t lie on the blackboard?
Now let us ta k i a look a t this same situation w hen the surface is either
a ball or a tin can having no top or bottom . I f the line is draw n th a t exists
through the points A and B, how m any points of this line w ould also be

Perpendicularity in
Space Geometry
Figure 7-1. . •

J U N T IL N O W W E H A V E O N LY C O N S ID E R E D
' those figures th a t can be draw n on a "fiat surface” but have m ade no
a tte m p t to either nam e or define Jhis^surface. W e have reached the point
w here w e w ould like to e x le n S w m e of M r ( concepts to the geom etry of
“ space” ra th e r th a n keeping them c’o n^neQ to a “ flat surfM ^’’ TWs par-*"
ticuiar tim e has been selected since there is a g re at deal of s¥ra|j^n|£petw een
the ideas ab o u t perpendicularity that we have just estaBflshea and those
th a t we can now establish in “space” geometry.
Space and Surface
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ B u t how can v/e define these term s, space and surface? As
w ith several of th e term s w e encountered earlier, it is not possible to <^e$ne
these words. A lthough they can be classified, we are'im ab le to. d istin g u ish ^
them from the o ther m em bers of their class.
Both space and surface can be classified as a set of points’,
In fact, surface is a subset of those points th a t are m em bers of the set of points
called space. C an you illustrate this by pointing to objects in your classroom?
U nfortunately, it is not possible to show how the points in each of these
points of the ball? Are there any points of the line th at are not points of the
ball? W here are these points? If 3 line were draw n through points C a n d D
on the tin can, how m any of the points of this line w ould also be points of
the tin surface? Are there any points of the line th a t are not points of the tin
surface? W here are these points? C an you find tw o points on the ball such
th at all the points of the line through them are also points of the ball? C an
you find two points of the tin can such th a t all points of the line through
them are also points of the tin surface? ' r, >^ . '
T hese illustrations should have helped to m ake clear th e properties of a
plane as given by its definition.
■ x u W «\ft
D ef in it io n 41 •/ A plane is a surface such th a t if a line is d raw n through
any two points of this surface, then the points of the line Will also be
points of the surface.
In the case of the ball the only points of the line th a t were also points
of the ball were A and B. If, in the case of ths tin can, the point C was
“ directly above” the point D on the tin surface, then all points of the line
CD w ould also be points of the tin surface. T his, however, was tru e only if
one point was “ above the other” on this surface. T h e definition of th e plane

I
200 PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY THE MEANING OF DETERMINE 201

insists th a t the points of the line be points of the plane no m a tte r where the
two points be located on the surface.
Naming a Plane
■■■■H H T o give the appearance of a table top, a plane is often d raw n
as shown in Figure 7-2. You arc to picture this plane as lying horizontally
D e f i n i t io n 42; Coplanar points are points th at lie in the sam e plane.
D e f in itio n 43'. Collinear points are points that lie in the sam e line.
T he surveyor uses the principle stated above w hen he places his transit
on a tripod, for he knows th a t the three legs of the tripod m ust rest firmly
on the ground. T h e photographer uses a tripod, also, each tim e he takes a
“ tim e” exposure. T his principle is stated as:
P ostulate 21: T hree noncollinear points determ ine a plane.
W hy was it necessary to say th a t the three points had to be noncollinear?
I f the three points were on the sam e line, then there w ould be m an y planes
th a t would contain them, as pictured in Figure 7-3. T h ese planes w ould

before you, not vertically. Although there are num erous ways of nam ing a
plane, the two. most com m on are using either^orce small letter ox two capital
letters placed at opposite vertices. T his plane can be called either plane A B or
plane m. ' ~

I The Meaning of Determine

Before exam ining any of the other properties of a plane, we
will have to backtrack to take a close look at the m athem atical in terpretation
of the w ord determine. Early in the study of geom etry we assumed th a t

“T h ere exists one and only one line through two points.” Figure 7-3.

R a th e r th an use the words "one and only one,” it is felt th a t equally as resem ble the pages of a book w here the line of which the points A , B , and
expressive as this phrase is the use of the w ord determine. T hus, w henever C are m em bers is the binding of th e book.
the term determine is used in the m athem atical sense, it implies th at “ one
and_gply..Qne’’ of these creatures exists under the conditions described. Based
on this, the assumption ju st stated m ight have been worded as EXERCISES
“T w o points determ ine a line.”
How would you interpret the statem ent “ A fixed point as center and
a given line segm ent as a radius determ ine a circle” ?
W e w ould like, now, to exam ine those conditions under which a plane
is determ ined. Boys will recall from their shop work th a t they constantly
ha d trouble m atching the four legs of a table to keep it from wobbling. Yet,
.tables w ith three legs seemed always to be firmly planted on the ground no
m atter how careless we were in cutting the lengths of the legs. T h e principle
behind this is the fact that three points will always lie in the same plane, Should
we have four points, however, any com bination of three of them w ill. lie 1 ,-T h e diagram) above resembles a n E gyptian pyram id a n d in fact is called
in one plane, b u t it’s only through chance th at the fourth will lie in the sam e
a Pyramid. T tie questions below are to b e answered in term s of this figure,
plane w ith the rem aining three. Points th a t do lie in the same plane are
called coplanar points; similarly, points th at lie in the same line are collincar. (a ) How. m any planes are there in this figure?
202 PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY
(b ) How m any planes contain the line AB? Using three letters, tw o on
<—>
A B and the third a t some other point in the plane, nam e the planes
th at contain AB.
(c) N am e two sets of three coilinear points.
(d ) N am e two seb c f five coplanar points.
(e) N am e three noncollinear points.
(f) N am e four noncoplanar points.
(g) How m any planes contain all three points, A, C, D ? Is this plane in
the diagram ? How m any planes contain the points E, F, G? Is this
plane in the diagram ?
2. T h e diagram below is to be .used for the questions th a t follow it.
(a) W hy were some of the lines draw n as dotted lines in this diagram ?
( b ) How m any planes are there in this diagram ? U sing either two or
three letters, w here necessary, nam e these planes. ,
(c) How m any of the planes contain four coplanar points th at are nam ed
in the diagram ?
(d ) N am e a plane th at contains the points G and D. Will all the points
of the line GD lie in this plane? <x
(e) N am e a second plane th a t contains the points G and D. W ill all the
points of the line GD lie in this second plane? W hat conclusion can
you draw concerning the points of line GD with reference to these
two planes? D a you think there are any points other, th an those of
w "-' tfo ;
line GD th a t are com m on to these two planes? GD is called the in te r­
section of planes H D and BD.
(f) • N am e the intersection of planes H B and CA. O f planes H A F and FEH .
(g ) N am e the intersection of planes AG, GC, and AC. Pj>
3. (a ) How m any lines exist through one-fixed point?
(b) How m any planes exist through a fixed point?
(c) H ow m any lines exist through two fixed points?
(d ) How m any planes exist through two fixed points?
C O N D ITIO N S UNDER W H IC H A P L A N E IS DETERMINED 203
(e) How m any lines exist through three fixed points?
(f) How m any planes exist through three fixed points?
4. (a) Given three noncollinear points, how m any lines can be draw n such
th at each line will contain a t least two of the points? C an any of these
lines contain m ore than two of the points?
(b ) Given three noncollinear points, how m any planes can be draw n such
th at each plane will contain all three points?
5. Given four noncoplanar points, how m any planes can be draw n such
th a t each plane will contain a t least three points?
6. Given points A, B, and C. U nder w hat conditions will these points d eter­
m ine a plane?
7. In terms of your answer to Problem 6, are the sides and the vertices of a
triangle always coplanar?
8. In term s of your answer to Problem 6, will it always be possible to balance
a book that has been placed on the points of three th u m b tacks? Assume
th a t the thum b tacks are lying on a table pointing upw ard.
H Further Conditions Under Which a Plane Is Determined
Consider a bicycle positioned so th a t it is resting on its
handlebar and seat. C an you explain why it should be balanced in this
position? Now spin the front wheel about its axle a n d fix your a tten tio n on a
single spoke as it revolves. Should we w ant to stop the wheel in any position,
we would place a small stick betw een the spokes to force the wheel to come
to rest a t th a t spot. In some ways this can be considered an application of
th e assum ption th a t there exists one and only one line through tw o points.
In this situation, the spoke passed through the point A (the axle), a n d as it
revolved it took on m any, m any, different positions. However,’as soon as we
insisted, .that the spoke pass also through point F, then it was stopped dead
in its\trac'A T here could be b u t one such iine, or spoke, passing th ro u g h A
and
T h e revolving door of a d ep artm ent store can be exam ined in very
204 PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY METHODS OF DETERMINING A PLANE 205
m uch the sam e way. T h e door can take on m any, m any different positions
T H E O R E M 20: T w o in tersectin g lines d e te rm in e a p la n e .
as it revolves about its inner edge. But let someone place his foot in the path

___ I... Given: Lines / and m intersect at P.

C oncl.: Lines / and m determ ine a plane.
1
1
p. 1 F i g u r e 7-7.
1
1
A n a l y s i s : T h e analysis is m uch the same as in the preceding theorem .
1
1 Now, however, we m ust be careful about the selection of one of the three
J points th at determ ine the plane. L et one of these points be P, the point of
intersection of / and m. T h e other two points, A and B, m ust lie on each of
r\ ] the respective lines. W hy should all points of line I be on the plane d eter­
m ined by B, P, and A? W hy should all points of line m lie on this plane?
Figure 7-5,

of the door and its m ovem ent will be stopped im m ediately. So, too, there are Jgj Methods of Determining a Plane
infinitely m any positions th a t a plane can take as it revolves a bout line A B .
Insist, however, th a t this plane also contain the point P, a n d th ere is only
one position for w hich this will be true. T his is w h at we shall now prove.
TH EO R EM 19: \ ijne an(j a point not on that lin e determ ine a p lan e.

T h ree noncollinear A line and a point T w o intersecting

points not on the line lines
Given: Point P and line / Figure 7-8.
C on cl: Point P and line I determine a
plane.
EXERCISES
1. If three lines pass through a comm on point; will the three lines lie in
the sam e plane? V c i ulw #t\S'
Figure 7-6.
2. If three lines th at are not coplanar intersect at a com m on point, how
T h u s far there is only one m ethod available to us for proving
A n a l y s is : m any planes are determ ined th a t contain at least two of these lines? ^ ^
th a t a plane is determ ined: three noncollinear points determ ine a plane.
3. If A B and AC are two lines, w hat can be said a bout the points of line
H ence, there is no alternative but to attack this proof by using this postulate.
SC?
Select points A and B as any two points on line I .f Since P, A, a n d B
a re three noncollinear points, they determ ine a plane. Since from the defini­ 4. If P is a point th a t is not on line / and Q is a point th a t is on line /, then
tion of a plane two points of /, A and B, lie on this plane, then all points of I w hat can be said about line PQ?
lie on this plane. Hence, the conclusion follows. 5. Points R, S, and T are in plane m. Points R, S , and T are also in plane p.
In the sam e way, it is possible for us to prove a second theorem for U nder w hat conditions will plane m be different from piane p?
determ ining a plane,
6. Lines / and m intersect. P is a point on neither I nor m.
t A single le tte r is o ften used to n am e a line.
(a) How m any plants will contain at least two of these elements?
 206 PERPENDICULARITY BETWEEN A LINE AND A PLANE
PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY 207

( b ) If P fell on I, how m any planes would contain a t least two of the <—> «—►
elements? coplanar points. In any m anner whatsoever, justify th at AC and BD

(c) I f P was the intersection of I and m, how m any pianes w ould contain do not intersect.
a t least two of the elements?

7. If points A, B, C, D ail lie in the same plane, prove th a t the lines A B ,

AC, and AD are coplanar.

■ Perpendicularity Between a Line and a Plane '

8 . Points A, B , and C are th e points of intersection of the three lines.
Prove th at the three lines lie in the same plane.
You m ay at some tim e have observed a m an trying to drive
a stake “ vertically” into the ground, perhaps in the process of setting up a
post for his mailbox. After having driven the post several feet into the ground,
he will stand off a few yards to observe if it appears “ stra ig h t.” Having
satisfied himself that all is well from th a t position, he then moves to the right
a n d again examines the position.of the post relative to the ground. A lthough
he m ay again be pleased w ith w h at he observes, he m ay 'still have doutas
as to whether the post is actually “ vertical.” Hence, he repeats the process
several times more by m oving to the right aijDund the post. By doing this,
he is applying the definition of a line perpendicular to a plane.
D efin it io n 44: A lin e p e r p e n d ic u la r 'to a p la n e is a lin e th a t is p e rp e n d ic ­
u la r to .ev ery line in th e p la n e th p t passes th ro u g h its foot.

And, of course, it should be pointed out th at the point of intersectio n .

of a line and a plane is called the foot of the line,
9. A B and CD intersect at E. Prove that all p o in t!o f A CBD lie in the sam e Ju s t as the definition of perpendicular lines was a cum bersom e tool to
plane. use to prove two lines to be perpendicular, so, too, is the above definition
a bit unwieldy. Proving a line perpendicular to every line passing through
its foot m ay become som ewhat wearisome. Hence, effort is m ade to cut the
num ber down. From our analysis of the m an and his post, we know th at a
line will not be perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to only one
line in the plane. If we can show, however, th a t it is perpendicular to at
r—f ^—,
least two lines in the plane, then it will be perpendicular to the plane.
10. If D lies on A B and E lies on AC, prove th a t the five lines of this d iag ram THEOREM 21: A lin e is perpen d icu lar to.a plan e i f it is p erp en d icu lar
are coplanar.
to at least two lin es in the p lan e that pass through its
A
foot.

G iven: BC and B D in plan e m

T b 1 BC

A B 1 BD

Concl.: A B X m
11. T h e draw ing below is a “ space” polygon. A, B , C, and D are non- . Figure 7-9.
 PERPENDICULARITY BETWEEN A LINE A N D A PLANE 209
208 PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY
5. If a point is on the perpendicular
I n order to prove th a t A B is p erpendicular to plane m, it will be
A n a l y s is : 5. /. T R = T V (s)
bisector o f a line segm ent, then it is
necessary to prove that it is perpendicular to every line in m passing through
equidistant from the endpoints of the
B. T h is w ould not be possible. W e get around this difficulty by selecting
i—► ,
any .line at randofn th at lies in m ar>d passes through B. W hat we can prove line segm ent. ( T B is the X bisector
to be true for this line m ust then be true for all lines in m passing through B.
of /?]/.) See S tatem ent 1.
T h e additional lines are draw:'; in the figure so as to enable us to appiy
the theorem concerning two points each e quidistant from the endpoints of 6 . A B X BD 6. Given

a line segm ent. By extending A B so that R B ~ V B , we im m ediately obtain 7. 7. Sam e as 5. (SB is X bisector of RV.)
4'—> 8 . Reflexive property of congruence
one point of B Y equidistant from R and V. Point P will be the other point 8. S T ^ S T i s )
i—'f 9. A f i s r s i w r 9. Why?
of B Y th a t will be proved equidistant from R a n d V.
10. Z R T P — Z V T P (a) 10. Why?
11. 7 7 £= 7 7 11. Why?
12. A R T P = A V T P 12. Why?
13. M s F F 13. Why?

14. PB X R V 14. If two points are each equidistant

from the endpoints of a line seg­
m ent, th en the line joining them is
the perpendicular bisector of the
line segm ent. (W hat are the two
points and w hat is the line seg­
m ent?)

15. A B X m 15. Reverse of the definition of a line

perpendicular to a plane.

Illustration:
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
If a line is perpendicular to a plane of a circle at its center, then any.
1. Let R he any point of A B A line can be extended as far as d e ­ point on the line is equidistant .from all points of the circle.
and extend A B so that sired in either direction. A| £<.Ukr>fJ is f ' 0 n (lh>-|
BR=* W . ^HaJE U n i j l u c?J
G iven: A B X m
2. L et S be any point on B D 2. T h ere exists one and only one Jine B is center of circle lying in m.
and T b e a n y point on BC; through two points.
Concl.: 7 6 9 * 7 5
then draw line S T .
3. W ithin th e interior of 3. Pasch’s A xiom
Figure 7-11.
Z S B T d r a w B Y . It wilJ in­
tersect S T in som e point P. ■{ A n a l y s is : Let P be any point on A B . If it can be shown th a t P is equidistant
from two points selected a t random on circle B , then it will be equidistant
4-. A B X - B C 4. Given from all points on circle B. The-two points selected on circle B are C and £>.
 >ERPENDICULAR1TY BETWEEN A LINE AND A PLANE 211
210 PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY
two sides at this vertex, is it perpendicular to the plane of the triangle?
H ence, the problem simplifies to one where it is m erely necessary to prove
th a t P C ^ P D . Justify your answer.

PROOF | STATEMENTS REASONS

B
1. A B jL m 1. Given
<-» <-> <->
"I, Given: BC, BD , and BE Given: A B L m
2. A B _L BC, A B _L BD 2. Def. of a iine perp en d icu lar to a
plane. in plane m CB and D B in plane m
<-> «-> Z C A B ■= Z D A B
3. Z P B C and Z P B D are right 3. Def. of p erpendicular lines AB 1 BC
angles. Concl.: Z A C B S Z A D B
4. Z P B C -1— Z P B D (a) 4. If two angles are rig h t angles, then A B 1 BD
they are congruent. Concl.: A B ± B E
5. B is the center of the circle. 5. Given
6 . ~BC ~ B D (s) 6. Why?
7. P B S * P B ( s ) 7. Why?
8. & P B C 9 * A P B D 8. Why?
9. P U ^ P D 9. Why?

Som e of the problem s in the exercises th a t follow depend u p o n an

u nderstanding of th e m eaning of an oblique line to a plane.
D e f in it io n 45: An oblique line to a plane is any line th a t is not perpendic­
u la r to the plane but has one and only one point in com m on w ith the
plane.
<■) <—>
In the illustration above, PC and PD are oblique lines to p lan e m.

EXERCISES
i—>
3, Given: A C L m G iven: A B _L m 4.
m bisects AC a t B. AB 1 n
Concl.: PB bisects ZAPC. I d ^ b S
1. If a line is perpendicular to a line in a plane, will it be perp en d icu lar to
Concl.: AC — ~BD
th e plane also? E xplain.
2. H ow m any lines can be draw n perpendicular to a given line a t a given
point of the line? W h at do you believe will be tru e ab o u t all th e lines
th a t are perpendicular to a given line at a given point of th a t line?
3. Lines a, b, and c are such th a t a ± b, a ± c, and b j . c. E xplain w hy each
line is perpendicular to the plane determined by the o ther two lines.
4. In the diagram for the proof of Theorem 21, page 208, can you show th a t
th e points R, S, P, a n d T m ust be coplaner?
5. I f a line passes through a vertex of a triangle and is p erpendicular to
212 PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY P E R P E N D I C U L A R IT Y B E T W E E N A L I N E A N D A PL A N E 213

G iv e n : A B and CD are two G iven: Q O lies in plane m. 6 . 11. G iven : A R X m G iven: A B L m 12.
<—*
line segments in m A U and BD intersect AR X n B E is the X bisector
th at bisect each o th ­ at 0 .
BD ~ B E of DC..
er at E. P is equidistant from
C oncl.: C F ^ C G C o n cl.: A D ~ AC
P A ^P B A, B, C, and D
PC = PD
4—►
C oncl.: P E X m C oncl.: PO X m

G iven: AD X m
G iv en : EA ^ EC 14.
BC S BD EASZED B E is the X bisector BA S BC
C oncl.: Z A C D ^ Z A D C C oncl.: A A B C ^ Z A D B C o f5 C . Z A E D £ ZCED

A C oncl.: A E X DC (H int: Concl.: D B X AC

Use inform ation
from Problem 12.)

G iven: A B X m

CD X m BD L m
E is the m idpoint I C S * BD
15 .* G iven: A A B C is in plane m.
of ID . P is the m idpoint P is not in plane m.
ABSZD C of CD. A P B C — A A BC
C oncl.: £ is equidistant Concl.: P is equidistant Concl.: Z A P D = Z P A D
from B a n d C. from A and B. (H int: Prove A D P A
to be isosceles.)
214 PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY
0 (b) How m any planes are there in this figure?
1. If from a given point not on a plane two oblique line segm ents and a
perpendicular are draw n to a plane such that the loot of the perpendicular
is equidistant from the feet of the oblique line segments, then the oblique
line segments are congruent,
2. If a plane is the perpendicular bisector of a line segm ent, then any point
on the plane is equidistant from the endpoints of the line segm ent.
3. If from a point on a line perpendicular to'a plane congruent oblique line
segm ents are draw n to the plane, then the foot of th e perpendicular will
be equidistant from the feet of the oblique line segments.
4. If from any point on a line perpendicular to a p lan e oblique lines are
draw n to the plane so that they form congruent angles w ith the p erpen­
dicular, th en the foot of th e perpendicular is e quidistant from the feet
of the oblique lines.
5. If a line is perpendicular to the plane of a circle a t its center, then all
oblique lines draw n from any point on the perpendicular to points of
the circle m ake congruent angles with the perpendicular.
6. T w o planes are perpendicular to the same line segm ent at its endpoints.
O blique line segments a rt draw n through the m idpoint of this segm ent
term inating in the two planes. Prove that this point is also the m idpoint
of the oblique line segments.
7. If the foot of a perpendicular to a plane of a triangle is equidistant from
the vertices of the triangle, then every point on the perpendicular is
equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.
■ Test and Review
[A|
1. T h e diagram below is to be used in answering the questions th a t follow it.
TEST AND REVIEW 215
(a) Name three sets of four coplanar points.
(c) Nam e two points th a t are com m on to planes H F and BG.
(d) Nam e the planes th a t have as two of its elements the points A and E.
(e) Nam e all the planes th a t have the point H in com m on.
If CG is perpendicular to plane HF, w hat conclusion can be drawn?
W hat plane is determ ined by the point E and the line AB?
W hat plane is determ ined by the points £ , G,. and H?
/(i)j W hat plane is determ ined by D A and HD?
2. If the four vertices of a four-sided polygon are coplanar, will the lines
joining the pairs of opposite vertices also lie in th at plane? Justify your
answer.
3. Will the m edian of a triangle lie in the plane of th a t triangle? Justify
your answer.
4. If a line is not perpendicular to a plane, w hat is the m axim um num ber
of lines in the plane to w hich it can be perpendicular?
5. If a line is perpendicular to each of two intersecting lines at their point
of intersection, w hat can be said of the plane determ ined by these two.
intei'secting lines?
6 . O f four points, three are collinear. Are the four coplanar? Justify your
answer.
7 . -If the lines A B and CD have the point P in common, then w hat can be
said of the five points A, B, C, D , and P?
8. In the diagram at the right, point D
is not in the plane ABC. C an you
justify in any way why point A is the
only point th at DA has in com m on
w ith plane ABC?
g
*QA n AbC ’ U \
 216 PERPENDICULARITY IN SPACE GEOMETRY
TEST A N D REVIEW 217

B
Prove ench of the following:
Prove each of the following statem en ts: ~J Or F
1. G iven: Plane m and G O I G iven: Plane m bisects AB.
1. If a line is perpendicular to the plane of a circle a t its center, then all
PO _L m AB X m oblique lines drawn from any point on the perpendicular to points of the
C oncl.: ZA P O S ZB P O L-oncl.: A PA B is isosceles. circle will make' congruent angles with the radii draw n to these points.
2. A line is perpendicular to the plane of an isosceles triangle at the point
of intersection of the angle bisectors of the base angles. If from any point
on this perpendicular line segments are draw n to the vertices of the base
angles, an isosceles triangle will be formed.
3. If from any point on the perpendicular bisector of a line segment a line
is draw n perpendicular to the plane determ ined by the line segment and
the perpendicular bisector, then any point of the perpendicular will be
equidistant from the endpoints of the line segment.
4. Two planes are perpendicular to a line segm ent at its endpoints. Two
3. G iven: PA A. m
oblique line segments are drawn, one from each foot and term inating in
Z A B C ~ ZA C B A D S AC the other plane. If the oblique segments m ake congruent angles with the
C o n cl.: Z P B C SS ZP C B E is the m idpoint perpendicular segm ent, then the oblique segments are congruent.
of .DC.
Concl.: B E X CD

5. G iven: Plane m w ith <2 the G iven: Circles A and B in

m idpoint of A B and plane m
CD
PQXm
P is equidistant from
Concl.: A P R S is isosceles.
A, B, C, and D.

C oncl.: PO X m

\
 THE INDIRECT PROOF AN D PARALLELISM 219
In the event th at you m ay have forgotten some of your work in algebra,
the symbol > is used to replace the words “ is greater th a n ,” while the sym ­
bol < replaces the words “ is less th a n .” Thus, the expression
“ 5 > 2”
is read as
“ 5 is greater than 2”
while the expression
“ 4 < 7”
is read as
“ 4 is less than 7”
Each of these relations, or inequalities, can be read in either direction;
th at is, either from left to right, as
“ 5 is greater than 2”
or from right to left, as
“ 2 is less than 5”
Students who are ju st learning these symbols frequently confuse one
The Indirect Proof w ith the other. A sim ple device for keeping them clear in your m ind is to
rem em ber th at the arrowhead always points to the smaller number.
W ith these symbols a t our disposal, we are prepared to create a postu­
and Parallelism late establishing w hen one n u m b er will be larger than another.
P ostulate 22: If a, b, and c are positive num bers
w here a = b+ c
then ' a > b and a > c
A P R IN C IP L E T H A T HAS G R E A T IM P O R T A N C E
Actually, this postulate points out no m ore than to say th at
in geom etry concerns itself w ith the relationships th at exist between various
angles of a triangle. No m atter w hat the triangle m ay be—w hether it be t if 5 is equal to 2 plus 3
acu te as in Figure 8-1, obtuse as in Figure 8-2, or even right— Z \ will always ; then 5 m ust be greater than 2
bear the same relation to each of the other angles of the triangle. and 5 m ust be greater than 3
| From our point of view, also, there was no need to state th a t a, b, and c
were positive num bers, for we deal w ith no others in our work.
W hen, though, have w e encountered a situation in geom etry w herein
a single num ber represented the sum of two other numbers? Actually, this
has occurred but twice in our work. T h e first tim e was when we defined the
sum of two line segments and the second wfyen we defined the sum of two
angles. T hus, in Figure 8-3 the m AC was defined as the sum of the m A B

T h e app aren t relation, and one with which we are familiar, is the fact
th a t is both supplem entary and adjacent to Z 2. In addition, moreover,
w e will prove th at its m easure is greater than the measures of either Z i or
Z 4. T h e m ere reference to the words greatsr than implies th a t w e will have
to create new assumptions, for nowhere, thus far, have we established the
tools for showing when the m easure of one angle will be larger than another
. or w hen the m easure of one line segm ent will be larger than another. Figure 8-3.

218

V)
 THE INDIRECT PROOF AND PARALLELISM 221
220 THE INDIRECT PROOF AN D PARALLELISM
G iven: A A B C with exterior ZA C D
and the m BC, w hile in Figure 8-4 m Z A B C was defined as the sum of the
Concl.: m ZA C D > m Z A
m easures of Z A B D and ZD B C . By using symbols these relations can be
m ZACD > m Z B
expressed as
(1) T't AC ~ m A B 4 ■m BC
(2) m Z A B C = m Z A B D + m Z D B C
T hus, by using Postulate 22, it im m ediately follows th a t
(t) m A C > m A B and m AC > m BC By creatin g 'an angle th a t is p a rt o f Z A C D , its m easure will be
A n a l y s is :

(2) m Z A B C > m Z A B D and m Z A B C > m ZDBC less than the m easure of ZACD. F urtherm ore, we will show th a t this angle
is congruent to Z A . From this it will follow th a t the m easure of Z A C D is
Q u ite often A B and BC are referred to as the parts of AC, while Z A B D greater th an the m easure of ZA . W hich angle in Figure 8-7 is p a rt of ZACD1
and Z D B C are the parts of ZA B C . In view of this and the relations shown W hat else will have to be shown to be. tru e a bout this angle?
above, it is a p p a re n t w hy Postulate 22 is frequently quoted as T h e proof th a t m ZACD > m Z B will be given as an exercise for you
P o s t u l a t e 2 2 a : T h e whole is greater than any of its parts. to do. ->> V .
L et us re tu rn to the figures on page 218. An angle such as Z \ is called
an exterior angle of a polygon. In this case, of course, it would be an exterior
angle of a triangle.
D e f in it io n 46: An exterior angle of a polygon is an angle th at is adjacent
to and*supplem entary to an angle of the polygon.

REASONS 1
PRO O F STATEMENTS
1. Every line segm ent has a m idpoint.
1. L et M be the m idpoint of
AC.

2. L et B M be the line through 2. Why?

H ow m an y exterior angles does th e triangle have a t vertex C? From points B a n d M .

th e definition of an exterior angle, w hy is Z b not an exterior angle? How is 3 . E xtend B M to point P 3. A line can be extended as far as d e ­
Z 6 related to / 2? H ow .m any exterior angles will a triangle have? How are sired in either direction.
such th a t M F ■= B M . (s)
the two exterior angles at any vertex related?
O ccasionally, for emphasis, the angles of a triangle— A 2, 3, and 4 in the 4 . L et PC be the line through 4. Why?
d iag ra m above— are called interior angles of the triangle. W ith reference to P and C.
either exterior Z \ or Z i , the A 3 and 4 are spoken of as the remote interior 5, f f i s C f f ( s ) ' 5. Def. of a m idpoint
angles. T h ey a re the interior angles th a t do not have a vertex in comm on 6. W hy?
6. Z A M B ^ Z C M P (a) ‘
w ith the exterior angle being considered. W h at are the remote interior 7. Why?
7. & .A M B — A C M P
angles w ith reference to exterior Z \ \ ? W ith reference to exterior Z&? T o
8. Z A & Z \ 8. Why?
w hich exterior angles are Z 2 and /£4 the rem ote interior .angles? 9. Def. of congruent angles
9. m Z A — m Z \
T H E O R E M 22; T h e m easu re of a n e x te rio r a n g le of a t r ia n gle is 10. But, fn Z A C D > m Z \ 10, T h e w hole is greater than any of it
gr e a te r t h a n the m ea su re ol e ith e r oftKe~rem cte in te rio r parts.
angles. 11. ,\ m Z A C D > m Z A 11. Substitution postulate
 222 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
EXERCISES
1. By using the diagram at the right,
justify the draw ing of each oi the
red lines and prove th a t m ZA C D >
m Z b by following the p a tte rn of
proof for T heorem 22.
2. (a ) In the draw ing a t the right, angles
D and C are the rem ote interior
angles w ith reference to which ex­
terior angles?
(b ) H ow is Z A B D related to ZD?
(c) How is Z E B C related to Z D ?
« ( d ) H ow is Z A B E related to ZD BC ?'
■3 .) ( a) How does the m easure of Z \ com-
pare with th at of Z2? m O >
(b ) If the m Z 2 = 80, w hat can be
said of Z t? „ go
(c) If P R is m ade to ro tate a bout P
in a counterclockwise direction,
w hat will happen to the m easure
of Z \? T o the m easure of Z2?
Hence, eventually, how should
the m easure of Z \ com pare with
the measure of Z 2 ?
4. (a) W hat is the m easure of
ZABD?
(b ) W hat can be said of the m easure
of z a
(c) W hat can be said of the measure
of ZD?
5. (a) W hat is the m easure of
ZACm
(b ) W hat is the m easure of ZACD?
(c) C an you give any justification for
the fact th at m Z A B C coult not be
110 as noted in the Given Data?
223
THE INDIRECT PROOF AND PARALLELISM
6. C an you justify the statem ent that one of the base angles of an isosceles
triangle can not be ah obtuse angle?
7. Can you justify the statem ent that one of the base angles of an isosceles
triangle can not be a- right angle?
8. (a) Can you justify why Given: m ZA C D — 40
m ZACD can not be 40 as A B ^A C
stated in the Given Data?
(b) Is it possible for the m ZACD to
be 90? W hy or why not?
(c) W hat is the least value that the
measure of ZA C D m ay have?
Why?
9. (a) W hat is the value of m Z \ + m Z2?
(b ) How is m Z C related to « Z l?
(c) By using the information from (a)
and (b), w hat can be said of
m Z C -I- tn Z 2 i
(d) W hat can be said of the value of
m Z D + m Z l?
10. (a) W hat is the m Z B D C ? Given: A A B C and A CBD are congru­
(b ) W hat is the m ZBCD? ent isosceles triangles as m arked
(c) W hat is the m ZB C A ? in the diagram .
(d ) W hat is the m ZACD?' m ZBD E = 100
(e) How does m Z B D E compare with
m ZA C D ?
(£) ABD C is a four-sided polygon.
Will the measure of a n exterior
Given: m Z D B C = 110
angle of any polygon be greater
than the m easure of any of the
rem ote interior angles? Justify
your answer in terms of polygon
ABDC.
Given: m Z A B C = 1 1 0 11. In isosceles A ABC, A B = AC. Base BC is extended to point D. T h e
bisectors of A A B C a n d ACD intersect a t E. C an you justify in any
Z S sza U
m anner whatsoever th at Z E C D can not be a n angle of 30°?
224 THE INDIRECT PROOF AND PARALLELISM
NONINTERSECTING LINES A N D THE INDIRECT PROO F 225
M Nonintersectins Lines and the Indirect Proof
W e w ould like to puisue further the analysis begun in
G iven: Z l = Z2
Problem 3 b f the preceding exercises. W hen we exam ine Figure 8-8, we note
Concl.: I does not intersect m.

Figure 8-10.

A n a ly sis: This problem , obviously, involves a difficulty th a t we have not

encountered before. U ntil now we have exam ined situations in w hich angles
or line segments had to be proved congruent, lines had t ^ b e proved p e r­
pendicular, triangles had to be proved congruent, and the like.'' But at no
Figure 8-8,
tim e had it been necessary to justify th at lines do not intersect, as we are con­

th a t m Z l > m Z 2 on the basis of the exterior angle theorem. Now, should

V fronted w ith in this problem . T o show how to overcom e this difficulty, we
will have to take a ra th e r lengthy detour.
we allow I to ro tate counterclockwise a bout point P, although nothing h a p ­ L et us assume th a t you and your family are sitting a t the dinner table
pens to the m easure of Z2, the m easure of Z l grows sm aller a n d sm aller. one evening when the lights suddenly go out. T h e group of you decide to
E ventually, of course, I will coincide w ith line PQ, and when this occurs, seek the cause of this event w ithout having to leave the table. A nd so you
the m easure o f Z l will be zero. However, at some position betw een its
m ake a list of possible causes:
present m easure and th at of zero, the m easure of Z l will approach a n d be
equal to th e m easure of Z2. But, w hat happens to other points in the d ia ­ (1) T he electric power in this section of the city is out.
g ram as I rotates a bout P? Points P and Q will rem ain fixed, but point R (2) The light bulb has become .defective.
will m ove off to th e right. (3) The fuse for this room has blown out,
Notice, in Figure' 8-9, th at although the a m ount of rotation from position (4) T he switch has become defective.
(5) T he wires leading to the light have separated.
R P to R'iP is' approxim ately the sam e as from R^P to RiP, the line segm ent (6) T he electric power on this street is out.
(7) The m ain fuse for the entire house has blown out.
You th en proceed to examine ways of elim inating some of these possible
causes. By looking through the window you discover th a t th e lights in the
house behind you are still on. This would elim inate cause n um ber 1. T h e
fact th a t the lam p in the livingroom is still on does aw ay w ith causes 6 a n d 7.
T h e sound of the refrigerator m otor, w hich operates on the sam e fuse as
the light overhead, makes short work of cause 3.
/ 2 X 4 5 X /

A nd so you move from possibility to possibility, hoping to elim inate all

__ ^
RtRs is far g reater th an R R t. And should I continue to be rotated to a fourth
position so th a t a n o th er angle is formed whose m easure is again the sam e as
m Z R P R i, the p o in t of intersection of I w ith m will be throw n far, far to th e
right. T hus, as the m easure of Z l approaches the m easure of Z 2, the point
of intersection of / w ith m appears to recede so rapidly to the right th a t it
seems to disappear completely. W ere this situation expressed formally as a
problem , it w ould be
but one of these possible causes. If this can be done, then w hat conclusion
can be draw n concerning the possibility th a t remains? We are overlooking
a n im p o rtan t factor though. W ho set up these possibilities? Could there,
perhaps, have been some causes th at you m ay not have considered? If this
was so, then were you to elim inate all but cause #5, would it then follow
th a t this cause le<| to the event? W hat is the m ajor weakness in using the
m ethod of elim ination to’justify a conclusion?
T h e m echanic who examines yo;ir father’s car to determ ine why it is
226 THE INDIRECT PROOF AN D PARALLELISM
n ot functioning properly, your family physician who exam ines you to learn
w hy you are not functioning properly, and even your m other w ho peers
helplessly down the kitchen drain to see why it is not functioning p roperly—
all of them are m aking use of the ‘‘proof by elim ination.” Each knows m any
causes that m ight have led to the event that is troubling him, and each,
in his ov/n way, is trying to elim inate all but one of these. Should he be
successful in discarding all but one possibility, he heaves a sigh of relief and
lays blam e on this rem aining cause. T here remains always, how ever, a
shadow of a doubt: “ H ave I been careful to list all the possibilities? Are there
any, perhaps, that I m ay have overlooked?” This question of dou b t is som e­
thing th a t the m athem atician will not and dare not contend w ith. Should-
he use the proof by elim ination, he m ust be certain th a t he has listed all
the possibilities.
T o understand how this difficulty is overcome, we resort to the V enn
diagram . Consider a universal set of elements where set A is a subset of the
u
•0
*v /^ \
.r V .r J .M
Figure 8-11.
universal set. Q uite apparently, every m em ber of U will be either a m em ber
of A or not a 'm em b er of A. Using symbols, we express the set of elem ents
th a t are members of U but not of A by saying th at they are m em bers of the
set ~ A , this being read as “ not A.” T hus, in the diagram above either an
elem ent is a m em ber of A or it is a m em ber of ~ / l , and no other possibility
exists. Specifically, one of these two statem ents m ust be true:
<2 is a m em ber of A.
or
Q is a m em ber of ~yf.
Furtherm ore, both of these statem ents can not be true a t the sam e tim e.
T h a t is, the elem ent Q can not be both a m em ber of the set A and not a
m em ber of the set A a t the same time.
L et us bring this discussion closer to home. I t would seem th a t no o ther
possibility exists concerning an angle A but
(1) Angle A is a right angle,
and
(2). It is not the case th a t angle A is a right angle.
Furtherm ore, it seems th at one and only one of these two possibilities can be
true a t the same time. T h e tru th of (1) would im m ediately im ply th a t (2)
NONINTERSECTING LINES AN D THE INDIRECT PROOF 221
w as false, while the tru th of (2) assures the falsity of (1). Statem ents such as
(1) and (2) are called contradictory statements, and the symbols usually applied
to the two are
p and
For the statem ents above
p is “ Angle A is a right angle”
while is “ It is not the case that angle A is a right angle.”
W e usually find it more convenient to express
“ It is not the case th a t angle A is a right angle”
in the sim pler form of
“ Angle A is not a right angle.”
In sum m ary, the m athem atician has established the following two postu­
lates so th at he m ight apply the proof by elim ination.
P ostula te 23: E ither p or is true. No other possibilities exist. (Law of
the Excluded M iddle)
P o s t u l a t e 24: Both p a n d can not be true a t the sam e tim e. (L aw of
Contradiction)___ ,
T h e existence of both p and in a proof is called a logical inconsistency,
for by the law of contradiction both can not be tru e a t the sam e time.
H ence, in applying the proof by elim ination, possibilities th a t are listed' can
be elim inated by showing in some m anner th a t they lead to statem ents th a t
are contradictory to either the given data, a postulate or a definition we
have agreed upon, or a theorem we have proved. Since w e accept the tru th
of these latter statements, it will imply that the possibility we selected must
be false, for by the law of contradiction, both p and can not be tru e at
the same time.
Basically, the mechanics of the proof by elim ination are as follows:
(1) Exam ine the conclusion th at you are asked to prove.
(2) Set up the statem ent th a t is contradictory to this conclusion.
(3) Show th at the acceptance of this possibility leads to a logical incon­
sistency: that is, it leads to a statem ent th a t ts contradictory to one of the
follow ing:
(a) T h e given d ata
(b ) An assumption
(c) A definition
(d ) A theorem
(4) T h e conclusion then follows, for having elim inated one of the two
possibilities th at existed, the rem aining one will have to be true.
This m ethod of proof is called the indirect proof, for we do n o t attem p t
to move from the given d a ta directly to the conclusion, but ra th e r we s ta r t
w ith a statem ent th at is contradictory to the conclusion a n d somehow justify
228 THE INDIRECT PROOF AND PARALLELISM
th at this statem ent leads but to a logical inconsistency. Experience has show n
th a t it is far easier to w rite the indirect proof in paragraph form th an resort
to the two-column form th a t has been used until now. Several exam ples will
be given to illustrate this m ethod of proof.
Illustration 1:
G iven: A B S Z D E
B€= £EF
A C 3 iD F \
Concl.: Z E g Z Z B
Figure 8-12.
PROOF
By the law o f the excluded m iddle one of these statem ents
m ust be tru e and no o ther possibilities exist:
or Z E S iZ B
L et us accept the possibility th a t Z E ~ Z B . From the Given D a ta we note
th a t A B ^ D E and BC = £ F ; hence, if Z E ^ Z B , it follows th a t
A C A B £= A F D E . If this is so, then AC ~ DF, according to the definition
of congruent polygons. T h e Given D ata, however, indicates th a t 4 C 3 - DF.
T herefore, accepting the possibility th a t Z E ~ Z B led to the logical in ­
consistency of AC S i D F and A C $£ DF. A ccording to the law of contradic­
tion, b oth can not be true at the same tim e. Since AC
for it is p a rt of the Given D ata, then AC ~ D F m ust be false and, so too,
m ust Z E ~ Z B be false. H ence, Z E 3 = Z B m ust be true, for it is th e only
rem aining possibility.
Illustration 2:
A triangle cannot have m ore than one obtuse angle.
t W h e n e v e r a slash is d ra w n th ro u g h a sym bol, it signifies th a t the w ord “ n o t” sh o u ld
p rc c c d c th e sym bol. I n th is case it im plies “ n o t c o n g ru e n t."
NONINTERSECTING LINES AND THE INDIRECT PROOF 229
Given: A A B C
Concl.: Z \ and Z 2 are not both obtuse
angles.
PROOF
By the law of the excluded m iddle one of these statem ents
m ust be true and no other possibilities exist:
Z l and Z2 are not both obtuse angles.
or
Z \ and Z 2 are both obtuse angles.
L et us accept the possibility th at Z l and Z 2 are both obtuse angles. Z l and
Z 3 are supplem entary angles since their sum is a straight angle. However,
from the fact th at Z l is obtuse, Z3 m ust be acute, for the sum of their
measures is 180— the measure of one being g reater th in 90, the measure of
the other m ust be less than 90. This would m ake the m Z 3 not greater th an
the m Z 2, since Z 3 is acute but Z 2 is obtuse.' But this is contradictory to
the theorem th at the m easure of the exterior angle of a triangle is greater
than the measure of either of the remote interior angles.
T herefore, accepting the possibility th a t Z l and Z 2 are both obtuse
led to the logical inconsistency of the tru th of both m Z 3 m Z 2 and
m Z 3 > m Z 2. By the law of contradiction both can not be true a t the sam e
tim e. Since m Z 3 > m Z 2 m ust be true, for it is the result of a theorem ,
then m Z 3 £ m Z 2 m ust be false. Therefore, the statem ent th a t Z l and Z 2'
are both obtuse angles is also false. Hence, the statem ent th a t Z l a n d Z 2 are
not both obtuse m ust be true, for it is the only rem aining possibility.
D F m ust be true,
EXERCISES
A
1. W rite two contradictory statem ents th a t m ight occur in everyday ex­
perience.
2. W rite two contradictory statem ents th at m ight occur in geometry.
3. W rite up a situation in everyday experience wherein the proof by elim ina­
tion is used.
230 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM NONINTERSECTING LINES AN D THE INDIRECT PROOF 231

G iven: B is the m idpoint 4.

B 3. Given: A B £ AC
of AC.
AD / BC
in each of the following problems you are to do three things: DA&DC
C oncl.: D is not the m idpoint
(a) Decide w hat the extraordinary occurrence is for which a causa! ex­ o iW . Concl.: D B / . AC
planation has been form ulated.
(b ) State the cause th a t has been given th at led to th a t event.
(c) Give at least tone other possible cause that m ight have led to th a t
event.
1. D uring a debate a child psychologist m ade the following sta te m e n t: “ T h e
am azing increase in the sale of comic books with th eir sordid in te rp re ta ­
tion of crim e has been accom panied by the equally am azing increase in
the rate of crim e com m itted by teenagers.”
2. “ Because we did not live up to our opportunity of join in g the L eague of
N ations after W orld W ar I, the League failed to p revent the m ost tragic 5. Given: GO where OD does G iven: AB = AC
w ar in history— the Second W orld W ar." not bisect Z A 0 B . D Bg~D C
3; “ A nother advantage of establishing standards is th at, inevitably, a rise
C oncl.: OD is not the median Concl.: AD does n o t bisect
in teaching standards m ust follow as the night the day. W e are g ra d u atin g
to AB. ZB A C .
only 40,000 scientists annually. Every day we postpone im proving and
upgrading education is a day lost in our scientific advancem ent.”
4, “ Since achieving independence, the gross volume of business in C entralia
has increased by 65 percent, em ploym ent has risen, and exports have
grown from 25 million to 125 million dollars an n u ally .”

Use the indirect proof in the proof of each of the following

problem s; Given: 0 0 w ith A B 3^ AC
G iven: BA = BD
1 , G iven: AC ~ DF.. Given: A B ~ AC 2. cdgC A C oncl.: A 0 does not bisect
~BC ~ EF D is n o t the m idpoint Conci.: BC does not biscct BC.
Z C g ZF of 'BC.
AD.
Concl.: A B 3 Z D E C oncl.: AD does not bisect
ZB A C .
A
232 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
PARALLELISM—SECTION I 233
9. G iven: A A BC I G iven: AC J_ m 10.
C oncl.: Z2 and Z 3 are not AB AD D
both right angles. I C oncl.: BC g DC
(Sec Illustration 2.) j a 1. If two angles of a triangle are not congruent, then the sides opposite
them are not congruent.
A
2. If two sides of a triangle are not congruent, then the angles opposite
them are not congruent.
3. If a triangle has no two sides congruent, then the perpendicular bisector
■of one of the sides does not pass through the opposite vertex.
4. T w o lines perpendicular to the sam e line do not intersect. (H int: See
Problem 9, G roup C.)
5. A base angle of an isosceles triangle can not be an obtuse angle.
11, G iven: A B JL m G iv e n : O B in plane m 12. 6. A base angle of an isosceles triangle can not be a right angle.
ACmAD 7. In a right triangle neither of the two angles th a t are not the right angle
DC X m
ABSZD C C o n cl.: A B £ m can be obtuse.
E is not equidistant 8. A ny point th a t is not equidistant from the endpoints of a line segm ent
from A and D. is not on the perpendicular bisector of the line segment.
C o n cl.: E is not the m id­ 9. A line segm ent can have only one m idpoint. (H int: Use the postulate
th a t the whole is greater th an any of its parts.)
point of BC.
10. An angle can have only one bisector.
11. A t a given point o n a given line there can be only one line perpendicular
to the given line.
^ 12. From a given point not on a given line there can be only one line p e r­
pendicular to the given line.
13. T w o lines perpendicular to the sam e plane can not intersect.
14. If from any point'on a perpendicular to a plane line segments of unequal
m easures are drawn to the plane, they will m ake angles of unequal
m easures w ith the perpendicular.
13 . G iven: m is the _L bisector G iven: A B _L m 14 . 15. From a given point not on a given line there can be only one plane th a t
is perpendicular to the given line.
of AC. -
B E ± CD 16. From a given point in the interior of an angle perpendicular segm ents
DA&DC
A em ZB are draw n to the sides of the angle. If the ra y whose endpoint is the
C o n c l.: D does not lie in m.
C oncl.: C E m B E vertex of this angle and which passes through the given point is n o t
the bisector of the angle, then the perpendicular segments are not
congruent,

E Parallelism— Section I
W e have detoured so far from our original path th a t you
m ay have forgotten why the need for the indirect proof arose. W e wei'e
trying to prove the problem below w hen we realized th at we had no way
to prove th at two lines cannot intersect. A new a n d different approach was
necessary in order to draw our conclusion. Now we are ready to take a fresh
look a t this problem .

;
 235
PAR ALLEUSM—SECTION I

In the diagram above PQ is called a transversal w ith reference to I a n d m.

■<^rs puVCftjj.
D efin it io n 48: A transversal is a line that intersects two other lines in two
distinct points.
In Figure 8-16, n is a transversal with reference to I and m, for it inter­

A n a l y s is : By using th e indirect proof, the solution to this problem is very

m u ch the sam e as th a t used in the preceding exercises.

PROOF

By th e law of the excluded m iddle one of the following

statem ents m ust be tru e and no other possibilities exist:
/ does not intersect m or / does intersect m
sects these lines in the two distinct points P and Q. In Figure 8-17 it is not a
L et us accept the possibility th a t I intersects m. T his im plies th a t I will m eet transversal, for it intersects the two lines in b u t one point, P.
A point A m ay be selected on the transversal, and the three points Q,
P, a n d A can be read in the order in which they appear on th a t transversal,
If this order is either QP/I or AQP (see Figures 8-18 and 8-19), th en point A

m in some point R. T h e lines I, m, and PQ will form the triangle PQ R. H ence,

th e m easure of Z l will be greater than the m easure of Z 2. T h e G iven D ata,
however, states th a t m Z l = m Z2. Therefore, accepting the possibility
is said to be in the exterior region with reference to the lines I and m. In either
th a t / intersects m leads to the logical inconsistency of the tru th of both
event, A is not between P and Q. Should A be between P and Q, then the
m Z l = m Z 2 and m Z l ^ m Z2. By the law of contradiction b o th can not po in t A falls in the interior region w itn reieren ce to Pan'S m. jThil occurs in
be tru e a t the sam e tim e. Since “ m Z l = m /LI" m ust be true, for it is p a rt Figure 8-20. «. • ■■ 1 c f '- 'i 't 't ,,
of th e G iven D ata, th en “ m Z l ^ m Z 2 ” m ust be false and, therefore, the For simplicity the regions are pictured in Figure 8-21. •
statem ent th a t “ i intersects m" is also false. Hence, "I does not intersect m”
m ust be tru e for it is th e only rem aining possibility.
In the sam e m an n er it can be shown th a t I cannot intersect m to the
left o f Q.
T w o coplanar lines, such as I and m, th a t do not intersect are called
parallel lines.

D e f in it io n 4 7 : Parallel lines are two coplanar lines th a t do n o t intersect.

Before it is possible to express the statem ent of the theorem th a t has
ju st been proved, it will be necessary to define a n um ber of o ther term s.
236 THE INDIRECT PROOF AN D PARALLELISM PARALLELISM—SECTION I 237
W hen a transversal intersects two lines, eight angles are formed. Every
D efin it io n 50: Alternate exterior angles are two angles form ed by a trans­
p air of angles is given a special name. Several of these names are fam iliar versal intersecting two lines, both angles being in the exterior region,
to you. T hus, w hat is the nam e for the pair of angles 6 and 8? Angles 1 and 3?
on opposite sides of the transversal, and at different vertices.
Angles 5 and 6? Angles 1 and 4?
D efin itio n 51: Corresponding angles are two angles form ed by a transver­
sal intersecting two lines', the angles are a t different vertices, one being
interior and the other exterior, but they are on the same side of the
transversal.

EXERCISES
1. (a) N am e two pairs of alternate interior angles. ^ $
(b ) N am e two pairs of alternate exterior angles. <V 8 >S ^ 1
(c) N am e four pairs of corresponding angles. < J } i i ^ | , M l i ^
T h e pairs of angles such as 2 and 8 or 1 and 7 th a t are in the interior
(d ) N am e a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal.
region b u t on opposite sides of the transversal are called alternate interior
(e) N am e a pair of exterior angles on the sam e side of the transversal.
angles. T hese angles can be recognized by the fact th a t they form the letter Z,
either

in no rm al form or backw ards or sideways

Figure 8-23.
~ 't o l a- ■
D e f in it io n 4 9: A lternate interior angles are two angles formed by a trans­
versal intersecting two lines, both angles being in the interior region, 2. (a) U sing / as a transversal with reference to m and n, nam e two pairs of
on opposite sides of the transversal, and a t different vertices.
alternate interior angles. Nam e a pair of altern ate exterior angles.
In Figure 8-22 the pairs of angles such as 4 a n d 8, 3 and 7, 5 and 1, or (b ) By using m as a transversal, w hat nam e does the p a ir of angles 3 a n d
2 a n d 6 th a t are on the same side of the transversal so as one is interior a n d 8 have? W hat nam e does the pair of angles 2 a n d 5 have?
the o ther is exterior are called corresponding angles. These angles can be recog­
(c) Using n as a transversal, nam e a p air of interior angles on the sam e
nized by the fact th a t they form th e le tte r F in m any ways.
side of the transversal. Name a p air of corresponding angles.

T h e pairs of angles 3 and 5, or 4 and 6, of Figure 8-22, being on opposite

sides of the transversal, are known also as alternate angles. Now, however,
since they are in the exterior region, they bear the full nam e of alternate T“f TT
3. (a) By using BD as a transversal w ith reference to AD and BC, w h a t is
exterior angles, ....
the nam e of the pair of angles A D B and D E C ?
 238 THE INDIRECT. PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
PARALLELISM—SECTION II 239
<—V
(b ) List a pair of angles form ed by the transversal B D a n d the lines A B
and DC. W h at is the nam e of this pair of angles? ■ Parallelism — S e c tio n II
A,------------- -------------. 0
In terms of the words that we have recently defined, the
problem that was proved on page 234 can now be stated as

T H E O R E M 23: I f two lines a re cut b y a tran sv ersa l such th a t th e

4. (a ) W hat is th e only line in the diagram that, w ithout being extended,
can act as a transversal w ith reference to A B and EF?
(b ) W hat is the nam e of the pair of angles th a t this line forms w ith A B
and EF}
(c) By using B E as a transversal w ith reference to the lines A C and D F ,
w hat is the nam e of the pair of angles A C B and FDE? O f the p a ir
of angles ACD a n d FDC?
a lte rn a te in te rio r angles a re c o n g ru e n t, th e n th e lin e s
a re p a ra lle l, f
As an exercise, w ithout referring to the proof on page 234, see if you
can prove the above theorem.
Theorem 23 is the principal m ethod we have for proving lines parallel.
T h e next two theorems th a t we are about to present are developed on the
basis of Theorem 23. T here is no necessity to apply the indirect proof w hen
we attem pt to justify these theorems, for now we need but show th a t the
alternate interior angles are congruent to prove lines parallel. T h e sym bol ||
represents the word parallel. ^

T H E O R E M 24: I f tw o lines a re c u t b y a tran sv ersa l su c h th a t th e

c o rre sp o n d in g angles a re c o n g ru e n t, th e n th e lin e s a re
p a ra lle l.
Bflwrr-

G iven: Z l = Z2
5. E F is used as a transversal for the questions th a t follow. C oncl.: / || m
(a ) W h at nam e can b e given to the p air of angles E N H a n d E M K ? Angles
C N M and B M N ?
(b ) N am e a p a ir of a lte rn a te exterior angles w ith reference to th e lines Figure 8-25.
J K and CH.
(c) Is there any special nam e for the pair of angles B M K a n d D N H 7 A nalysis : Simply show th at Z t = Z3, then by the theorem on the al­
Justify your answer. ternate interior angles the lines will be parallel.

(d ) N am e a p air of angles in the diagram w here the transversal is n o t a

side of either angle. Does this pair of angles have a special nam e? PR O O F STATEMENTS REASONS
Justify your answer.
1. Z l S Z2 1. Given
2. Z 3 £ Z2 2. Why?
3. Z l £ Z3 3. Why?
4. / 1| m 4. If two lines are cut by a transversal
such that the altern ate interior angles
■r~ are congruent, then the lines are
, parallel.
t IlencefcV th, unless otherw ise sta te d , all po in ts an d 'lin es in th e s ta te m e n t of a n y th e o rem
o r p ro b le r i should b e co n sid ered to b e co p lan ar.
240 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
PARALLELISM—SECTION II 241
T H E O R E M 25: If tw o lines a rc cut b y a tran sv ersal such th a t th e
a lte rn a te e x te rio r angles a re c o n g ru e n t, th e n th e lin e s Illustration:
a re p a ra lle l.
G iv en : AC ^ E F
BE S DF
G iven: Z l 3S Z2 Z l S Z2
Concl.: / || m f C o n cl.: A B || CD
G

F ig u re 8-28.
Figure 8-26.
A n a ly sis : Bv using AC as a transversal w ith reference to A B and CD, we
A n a ly s is : By s h o w in g th a t Z3 = Z4 i t w ill f o llo w t h a t I || m f r o m th e
note that a pair of corresponding angles is form ed. T hese are A A and DCF.
th e o r e m o n th e a l te r n a t e i n t e r io r a n g le s.
By proving A A B E — A C D F these angles will be congruent, a n d hence,
► 4-+
A B will be parallel to CD.
PROOF

T h e proof will be left for you to do. PROOF | (The reasons will he left for you to supply.)

T H E O R E M 26: If tw o lin e s a re p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e sam e lin e , th e n 1. A C ^ E F 7. But, Z l m Z 2

th e y a re p a ra lle l. 8. Z A E B S /-CFD [a)
2. C E SZ U E
9. A A B E S A CDF
A c 3. A E — CF (s)
G iven: A B _L I 10. Z A S Z D C F
4. B E = D F (s) *-> «->
CD 1 I 5. Z A E B is supp. to Z l. 11. .-. A B || CD
6. ZCFD is supp. to Z2.
Concl.: A B II CD
! r . .. _ .r
B D
Figure 8-27.
EXERCISES
A n a l y s is : By showing th a t a pair of corresponding angles are congruent

it will,follow th a t A B || CD.

A lthough there are a num ber of other m ethods for proving lines parallel,
the three given in theorem s 23, 24, and 25 have the widest application.'
Should you be required to prove that lines are parallel, try to prove th a t
1. G iven: Z l = Z2 G iven: A B a n d CD bisect

one of the following relations is true: A BSZD C each other a t E.

(1) T h e altern ate interior angles formed by the lines and a transversal are Concl.: l o l l BC C oncl.: A D l| CB
congruent,
(2) T h e altern ate exterior angles formed by the lines and a transversal are
congruent.
(3) T h e corresponding angles formed by the lines and a transversal are
congruent.
242 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM 243
PARALLELISM—SECTION II

3. Given: Z l — Z2 G iven: A B ^ E F 4. 9. By using the diagram below G iven: Z l is supp. to Z2. 10.
B D ^C E BD S CE prove Theorem 25 again. Do
Concl. ■ T b \\ CD
AC S D F AC ^ D F not label any other angles in
C oncl.: A B II EF Concl.: A C\\ D F the diagram.

12 .
5. G iven: CE = B f G iven: A B ££ FC ■ 6 .
A E ^D F BC SZm
“11. Given: Z l is supp. to Z2. G iven: Z l S Z2
C oncl.: || m Z 2 is supp. to Z 3.
/.A EC S Z D F B *-* <->
AB 1 BE
Concl.: A B II CD <-► «-v
FC JL B E

C oncl.: AD || E F

13 . Given: Z l = Z4 G iven: CD X FD 14 .
Z2 S Z3 E F 1 FD
/.C D A S Z E F B
Concl.: A 5 | | ^ £
C oncl.: A D || F B

7, Given: 0 0 w ith 0 the By using the diagram below 8 >

m idpoint of E F prove T heorem 24 again.
Do not label any other a n ­
Concl.: A B \ \ c b
gles in the diagram .
244 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
PARALLELISM— SECTION III 245
15 . G iven: / A G E SZ Z D EG G iven: / J E B S /E G D 16 .
G H bisects /A G E . E F bisects / J E B .
B
E F bisects /D E C . GH bisects /E G D .
1. If two lines are cut by a transversal such th a t the interior angles on the
C o r.cl.: G H \ \ <
EF
same side of the transversal are supplem entary, then the lines are parallel.
2. If the opposite sides of a four-sided polygon are congruent, then they are
also parallel.
3. If a pair of corresponding sides of two congruent triangles fall on the same
line but do not coincide, then either the other pairs of corresponding sides
will be parallel or they will intersect to form isosceles triangles when
extended.
4. Use the indirect proof to prove the theorem th a t if two lines are cut by a
transversal such th at the corresponding angles are congruent, then the
17 . G iven: A A BC is isosceles G iven: & A B C is isosceles 18. lines are parallel.
w ith A B S AC. w ith A B ^ A C .
/\ ^ /C
CB bisects /A C D . ■ Parallelism— Section III
C oncl.: I d || BC
W hen developing the theorem th a t two lines will be parallel
when the alternate interior angles are congruent, we exam ined the relative
positions of the lines I and m as the line I ro tated a bout the point P. In its
original position we knew that the m easure of / \ had to be greater th an
th at of / 2 . But as I was rotated about the point P, although the m easure of

19 .* G iven: A B ^ A C G iv en : O 0 w ith E F bi- 20 .*

a d ^a S secting A B and CD
A F bisects /D A G . Concl.: AB || CD
C oncl.: S C ||5 G ( H i n t : E
Prove th at A AEC
and AFG are right
angles.) / 2 did not change, m / \ decreased tow ard zero. By using the indirect proof
it was possible for. us to show th a t w hen m / \ reached the m Z 2, the lines I
and m could not intersect. W hat we did not investigate, however, was the
possibility th a t I m ight not intersect m for some value of m / \ w here m / \
was r o t equal to m Z 2 !
We did note in passing (see page 224) th a t as m / \ approached m / 2
in size, a small am ount of rotation threw the point of intersection of I and m
a great distance to the right. Assume th at in rotating I counterclockwise the
position was eventually reached wherein the point of intersection betw een I
and m could not be found. W hat would th a t imply concerning these two.
lines? Let us say also that when this position is reached, the m / \ is still
246 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
larger th an m Z2. Since we already know that / does not intersect m w hen
m Z l equals m Z2, we are faced with the situation th a t there m ust be at
least two lines through P th a t do not intersect m. In fact, had w e rotated
line I about, point P in a clockwise direction, we m ight again com e to a first
position of ! on the left w here / does not intersect m. B y’virtue of this pos-
m
Figure 8-31.
sibility, it would seem th a t we have a first parallel on the right, P R ; a first
parallel on the left, P L \ and a whole mass of lines, such as PA, w ith in th e
angle formed by their intersection that also do not intersect line m. C an you
show by the indirect proof th at if PR does not intersect m, PA can not
intersect m?
For over 2,000 years m athem aticians were disturbed by this analysis.
It was their feeling th at the draw ing above was m erely an optical illusion
and th a t the two parallels through P were in reality but a single line. A nd
so, they, like we, were faced w ith two roads down w hich we m ight travel:
either
(1) T hrough P there exists one and only one line th a t does not intersect m.
or
(2) T hrough P there exist m any lines th at do not intersect m.
W hich of these possibilities do you believe to be the m ore plausible?
T h e collector and organizer of the subject of geom etry, E uclid, lived
approxim ately 330 B.C. In the process of logically arranging the definitions,
postulates, and theorems, lie, too, encountered the difficulty described above.
After trying unsuccessfully ta_£rove that through P there can be only one
line that does not intersect/m .flife finally resorted to listing this as his fifth
t T h e form of Euclid's s ta te m e n t w as not the sam e as this, b u t e q u iv a le n t to th is. T h is
p a rtic u la r statem e n t is a ttrib u te d (o Playfair, a m a th em atic ian w h o lived d u rin g th e
e ig h te e n th century. ~--------
PARALLEUSM-SECTION III 247
postulate. M athem aticians th a t followed him , however, w ere not satisfied
that this statem ent could not be proved in term s of E uclid’s preceding four
postulates. Hcnce, for over 2,000 years, “ proofs” containing subtle errors in
reasoning were presented for the fifth postulate.
Around the year 1815 A.D., two men, living thousands of miles apart,
came out with separate studies showing w hat would h a p p en to the subject
m atter of geometry were the second road followed ra th e r th an the first.
These men were .Johann Bolyai and Nicolai L obachevsky.
This, though, was not the end. About the year 1855 a th ird m athem ati­
cian, Bernhard R iem ann, set forth the possibility th a t: •
(3) T hrough P there exists no line that can be draw n th a t does not inter­
sect m.
Your im m ediate reaction will be to say, “ This is foolish. H ave not we proved
th a t when the alternate interior angles are congruent, the lines can not
intersect!” Yes, but if you exam ine the proof of this statem ent, you will see
th a t it depends on the theorem a bout the exterior angle of a triangle. If the
proof of that theorem was carefully analyzed, it would tu rn up the fact that
th a t proof depends upon the postulate th a t one a n d only one line exists
through two points. H ence, in developing his geom etry, R iem an n had to
discard this postulate also.
Well, where does this lead us? Can we ask the question, “ W hich of the
three is the ‘correct’ postulate?” No, for this w ould indicate th a t we have
forgotten the foundation laid in the earl;? weeks of this course. At that time
it was pointed out th a t it m attered not w hat our definitions and postulates
were just so long as we agreed upon them and th a t they did not contradict
one another. Each m athem atician has the right to start w ith his own postu­
lates and pursue them as he will.
A m ore interesting question m ight have been “ W hich postulate leads
to results that are in keeping w ith the world we observe a bout us?” This,
too, has to be answered by hedging. R iem annian geom etry gives most accu­
ra te results when dealing with astronom ical distances; Lobachevsky’s geom­
etry leads to greatest accuracy w hen dealing With the m ovem ent of atoms
w ithin a molecule; all three geometries give com parable results w hen dealing
w ith m easurements on a small area of the earth’s surface. E uclidean geom­
etry, however, is far easier to apply and far easier to learn. In view of the
latter reason, this is the path we will pursue. A t some la te r date we will
take a short detour to browse a bout the fields we m ight have observed had
we followed the roads taken by Lobachevsky and R iem ann.
P ostulate 25: T hrough a given point not on a given line there exists one
and only one line th a t is parallel to the given line. (T h e Parallel Postu-
late, or Euclid’s Fifth Postulate)
W ith the aid of this postulate we are prepared to prove the converses,
of the earlier theorems on parallel lines. This is the first tim e the term
 248 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM PARALLELISM—SECTION III 249
converse has been used, although there were earlier occasions when, perhaps,
This will lead to a statem ent contradictory to Postulate 25. W h at is this
we should have used i t j If two statem ents are so related wherein the given
postulate?
d a ta of th e first is the conclusion of the second and also the conclusion of the
first is the given data of the second, then the second statem ent is said to be
the converse of the first. PR O O F
First Statem ent:
g iven conclusion By the law of the excluded m iddle one of the following
statem ents must be true and no other possibilities exist:

Z l S Z2 or Zl m Cl

L et us accept the possibility th at Z l C l. T h en by Postulate 17 concern­

ing the existence of an angle at a p articular point on a line, we can say th a t
Second Statem ent,
or Converse: there exists an Z3 at point P that is congruent to Z 2. From this it follows
th a t 1 1| b, for if the alternate interior angles a re congruent, the lines are
You m ay have noticed th at were these related statem ents definitions, parallel. But the Given D ata states th a t a is already parallel to 6. Therefore,
then the second would be the “ Reverse” of the first. All such related state­ there are two lines through P parallel to b. Postulate 25, however, limits io
m ents other th an definitions, however, are called the converses of each other.
only one the num ber of lines that can exist through P parallel to b. T h ere ­
L ater in our work we will exam ine converse statem ents m uch m ore th o r­
oughly. * ' fore, accepting the possibility that Z l Z 2 led to a logical inconsistency
of the truth of both statements. By the law of contradiction both cannot be
TH EO R EM 27: If two parallel lines are cut b y a transversal, th * n th e tru e a t the same time. Since we have accepted Postulate 25 as true, the
alternate interior~an gl es~arecnn griient. statem ent th at both / and a are parallel to b m ust be false, and, therefore,
the statem ent that Z l 3^ Z2 is also false. H ence, Z l == Z2, for it is the only
rem aining possibility.
G iven: a || b T H E O R E M 28: If two p a ra lle l lin e s a r f m t ny a tran sv ersa l, th e n t h e
C oncl.: Z l S Z 2
corresponding angles a re c o n g ru e n t.

Figure 8-32.

A n a l y s is : T here is nothing we know th a t relates parallel lines to con g ru en t

angles. T hus, as with the first theorem on proving lines parallel, we will h ave
to resort again to th e indirect proof. Assum ing th a t Z l Z 2 will enable
us to draw a second line through P to m ake an angle w ith c th a t is congruent
to Z 2. H ence, this second line through P will also be parallel to b. W hy?
A n a ly sis : Since the lines are parallel, T heorem 27 enables us to say th a t
Z 2 — Z 3. But Z l is also congruent to Z 3, hence Z l and Z 2 are congruent.

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

1. a | i i 1. Given
2. Z 2 S Z3 2. If two parallel lines are cut by a
transversal, then the alternate in­
terior ang\r* are congruent.
3. Z l £* Z3 3. Why?
t See theorems 9 and 10, page 145.
'A. Z l £* Z2 4. T ransitive property of congruence.
 251
250 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D P A R A L L E L IS M PARALLELISM—SECTION III
T H E O R E M 29: If tw o p a ra lle l lines are cut b y a tra n s v e rs a l,.th e n th e REASONS
a lte rn a te e x te rio r angles a re c o n g ru e n t.
PROOF I STATEMENTS

i.jB SA C 1. Why?
2. / B ^ / C 2. Why?
----------------------- — -

3. Afe || BC 3. Why?
4. If two' parallel lines are cut by a
4. / A D E = Z B
transversal, then the corresponding
angles are congruent.

Figure 8-35. 5. / A E D & / C 5. Why?

6. / A D E -S /A E D 6. Why?
From the fact th at the lines are parallel Z 3 ~ Z 4. Since Z l and
A n a l y s js : 7. If two angles of a triangle are con­
7. : . A D ^ A E
Z 2 are congruent respectively to these two angles, they will b e congruent gruent, then the sides opposite these
to each other. angles are congruent.
1 8. Reverse ofdef. of a n isosceles triangle
8 . A A D E is isosceles.

PROOF
A
T he proof will be left for you to do.

T he next two theorem s can very easily be proved on the basis of the
previous three theorems on parallel lines. T h eir proofs will be left for you
to do.

\J THEOREM 30: If two lin es are parallel to the same lin e , th en they are
parallel to each other.
THEOREM 31: If a lin e is p erpendicular to one of tw o parallel lin es,
then it is also perpendicular to the other.

Illustration:

■If a line intersects the legs of an isosceles triangle and is parallel to the
base, it cuts off another isosceles triangle.

G iven: A ABC is isosceles w ith

JB ^A C .

D E !| BC
C oncl.: A A D E is isosceles.

Figure J-36.

A n a ly sis: Since Z B S ZC, it w'H be possible to show th a t / '.ADE is

congruent to Z A E D . H ence, it follows th a t AD £= A E and, therefore, th a t
A A D E is isosceles.
 252 THE INDIRECT PROOF AN D PARALLELISM PARALLELISM—SECTION III
5. G iven: Q O w ith A B and CD Given: a || b 6 . 11. Given: 0 0 with A B || CD G iven: A B || CD
intersecting a t 0 c || d
*-* (-* Concl.: &OCD is isosceles. ZD S ZB
C o n ci.: Z l = Z2
A D || CB
Concl.: B C \\D E
C oncl.: O D S iO C

13 . G iven: A B || D E G iven: A B || DC

7. G iven: a || b G iven: Z l ^ Z2 8. B C || E F . A D \\B C

c || d C oncl.: Z 3 — Z4 C oncl.: Z B = Z E (H int: J f ^ de
C oncl.: Z l S Z2 4-4
E xtend D E until it C oncl.: *AE || FC
intersects BC.)

9. G iven: A B \ \ D C G iven: AD and BC inter­ 10.

I «-> <->
A D || BC secting lines 15 . G iven: A B \\ DC G iven: A B || DC
C oncl.: A B SS DC A B || CD ABSH D C J B ^ W
ECZZED ~BF~ED +
-+ __
E F bisects AC.
C oncl.: A E A B is isosceles.
A E 1 BD «-+ __
C o n cl.: AC bisects EF.
C o n cl.: CF X BD
£

M - D‘- $
/ i - z i - ,

... . v - ^
254 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM 255
UNIQUENESS AND EXISTENCE
17 . Given: EC bisects /A E D . Given: AD bisects /.C A E . 18 . to one of the sides of the angle, then an isosceles triangle is formed.
A B || CD A D || BC 8. The bisectors of a pair of corresponding angles of parallel lines are
Cone!.: A D E C is isosceles. Concl.: & A B C is isosceles. parallel.
9. T he bisectors of a pair of alternate extefior angles of parallel lines are
parallel.
10. State and prove the converse of example 4.
11. If the bisector of an exterior angle of a triangle is parallel to one of the
sides of the triangle, then the triangle is isosceles.
12. If a triangle is isosceles, then the line through the vertex of the vertex
angle parallel.to the base bisects the exterior angle at th a t vertex.
19 . Given: 0 0 with AD || BC Using the diagram below and 20. 13. If both pairs of opposite sides o f a four-sided pclygon a re parallel, then
Concl.: DC (H int: the indirect proof, prove th e a line joining opposite vertices that bisects one of the angles will bisect
Draw lines AO and theorem th a t if two parallel the other also.
DO.) lines are cut by a transversal, 14. If two lines are parallel, then perpendicular segm ents draw n from two
then the corresponding a n ­ points of the first to the second are congruent.
gles are congruent. 15. If the sides of one angle are parallel to the sides of a n o th e r angle, then
the angles are either supplem entary or congruent.
16. By using the indirect proof, prove the theorem th a t if two lines are
parallel to the sam e line, th en they are parallel to each other.
17. If a line intersects one of two parallel lines, then it intersects the other
also. (Use the indirect m ethod of proof.)
18. If a line intersects one side of a triangle and is parallel to the second •
side, then it must intersect th e third side of the triangle, (Use the
indirect m ethod of proof.)
19.'' If two lines are parallel respectively to two intersecting lines, then the
B first two lines m ust intersect each other. (Use the indirect m ethod of
proof.)
1. If two sides of a four-sided polygon are congruent and parallel, th en th e 20.* By using the indirect proof and Pasch’s Axiom prove th a t a line th at
other two sides are congruent. is parallel to one side of a triangle and passes through the vertex
2. If two sides of a four-sided polygon are congruent and parallel, th en the formed by the other two, can not pass into the interior of the triangle.
other two sides are parallel.
3. If both pairs of opposite sides of a four-sided polygon are parallel, then ■ Uniqueness and Existence
the opposite angles are congruent.
T h e Parallel Postulate and several of the problem s in the
4. If both pairs of opposite sides of a four-sided polygon a te parallel, th en
set of exercises on page 233 afford us an excellent opportunity to call a tte n ­
the line segments join in g opposite vertices bisect each other.
tion to an im portant concept in m athem atics. T hus, Problem 11 stated,
5. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, the interior angles on the “ A t a given point on a given line there can be only one line perpendicular
sam e side of the transversal are supplem entary. to the given line.” By proving this statem ent you have em phasized the fact
6. If a line is draw n parallel to a leg of an isosceles triangle a n d intersects th a t no more than one line can be draw n perpendicular to a line a t a particu lar
the other two sides, then it cuts off another isosceles triangle, point on th a t line. W h at you h av e confirmed, from a m athem atical stand­
7. If through any point on the bisector of an angle a line is draw n parallel point, is the uniqueness of this perpendicular. You, as an individual, stand
out, for there is only one such as you in the entire w orld; th a t is, you are
 256 THE INDIRECT PROOF AND PARALLELISM
UNIQUENESS A N D EXISTENCE 257
unique. U niqueness, from a m athem atical standpoint, implies, too, th a t there
is only one of these creatures under the conditions stated. T H E O R E M 32: A t a g iv en p o in t o n a g iv e n lin e th ere , exists o n e a n d
T hus, through the proof uf Problem ) 1 you have confirmed the uniq u e­ o n ly one lin e th a t is p e r p e n d ic u la r to th e g iv en lin e ,
ness of a perpendicular at a given point on a giver. line. Yet, is this enough? T h e word “ one” in the above statem ent implies the existence of this
No, for we wouid also like to know if such a line does exist? To show existence perpendicular. Its existence we established by the proof above. T h e words
we m ust verify th at such a creature if possible ir. terms of prior definitions “ only one” imply the uniqueness of this perpendicular. This uniqueness you
and assum ptions th at we have m ade. T o illustrate this procedure we wil! established in the proof of Problem 11 on page 233. From a sim ilar point
show th a t there.m ust exist a perpendicular at a given point on a given line. of view, the Parallel Postulate establishes the uniqueness of a line through a
given point parallel to a given line, while the theorem th a t if the alternate
interior angles are congruent, the lines are parallel establishes the existence
G iv e n : L ine I a n d point P
C o n c l.: At point P there exists a p erp en ­ of such a line.
T h ere are several other statem ents on. existence and uniqueness th a t
dicular to line I.
you have exam ined as problem s in the past th a t will be re-exam ined now.
O ne of these is Problem 12 on page 233. T h ro u g h this problem you proved
the uniqueness of a perpendicular from a given point not on a given line
to th e given line. Now, we shall establish th e existence of this p erpendicular.
PROOF | STATEMENTS REASONS
1. L et A be a point of line / 1. A p ro p e rty given to a line was th a t
G iv e n : L ine I and point P
o th e r th a n po in t P. it was a set o f points. C oncl.: T h ro u g h P there exists a per­
2. E xtend / through point P so 2. A line can be extended as far as de­ p endicular to I.
th a t A P S * BP. sired.
3. A t A let Z.QAB be any acute 3. Postulate on th e existence of an a n ­
angle. gle. (Postulate 17)
4. A t B let / R B A be th e angle 4. Sam e as 3 (The reasons will be left for you to supply.)
PROOF
th a t is congruent to /Q A B .
1. L et point A be any point of line I. 6. CA ~ CA
5. QA and R B m ust intersect 5. See if you can prove by the indirect <—► 7. A PAC ^ A B A C
a t som e point C. 2. L et PA be the line through P and A.
8. /.PCA /B C A
m ethod th at QA and R B can not be 3. L et / R A Q be the angle a t A th a t is congruent
parallel. to /P A Q . 9. P B 1 1
6. Let CP be the line through 6 . Why?
points C and P, 4. E xtend A R so th a t B A = PA.

l.C A & C B 7. If two angles of a triangle are con­
gruent, the sides opposite these angles
are congruent.
■■ CP 1 I 8. If two points (C and P) are each equi­
distant from the endpoints of a line
segm ent (A B ), then the; line (CP)
joining them is the perpendicular
bisector of the line segment.
T h e proof above and your proof to Problem 11 on page 233 establishes
th e theorem th a t
5. L et P B be the line through P and B.
T h e proof above and Problem 12, page 233, establish the theorem th a t
T H E O R E M 33: From a giv en p o in t n o t o n a g iv e n lin e th e re exists
nnff and n n l y n n - l u g th a t is p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e g iv e n
lin e .
By your proof of Problem 9, page 233, you confirm ed the uniqueness
of the m idpoint of a line segment, while Postulate 20 informed us. of the
existence of this point. C an you com bine these two principles into a single
statem ent? Sim ilarly, proving problem 10, page 233, implies the uniqueness
of a biscctor of an angle, while Postulate 16 brings to our attention the exist­
ence of this ray. C an you combine the two principles into a single statem ent?
258 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
THE PARALLELOGRAM -PART I 259
EXERCISES
p oly go n
t . Is Problem 15, page 233, a “ uniqueness” statem ent or an “ existence”
statem ent? How would the statem ent have been worded had it been both? I
q u a d r ila te r a l
2. Prove: At the endpoint of a given ray there is only one angle on one side
of this ray th a t is congruent to a given angle. tr a p e z o id
p a r a lle lo g r a m
(a) Is this a “ uniqueness” statem ent or an “ existence” statem ent?
(b ) W hen have we encountered the other of these two statem ents?
3. Prove: T here exists a point th at is equidistant from two given points. rectangle rhombus iso sc e le s I r a p e i o i d

(H in t: See the diagram for the proof of T heorem 32.)

Is this point unique? If not, how m any such points are there and sq u a re
w here do they lie? F i g u r e 8-39.
4. Prove: T here exists a point on a circle th a t is equidistant from two other
of its spelling, while the property given to this q u a d rila te ra jjiy its definition
points on the circle. is th at the opposite sides are parallel. T he symbol representing .the word
Is this point unique? If not, w here does the other, or others, lie? parallelogram is the draw ing of a small parallelogram , O . W h at property
5. Prove: T here exists an isosceles triangle whose vertex angle is a given about the sides of a parallelogram do you believe yoti will be abl£ to prove?
angle.
Is this triangle unique? If not, w h a t relation do you believe will exist
betw een the bases of these triangles?
6 . Prove: A line segm ent has one and only one perpendicular bisector.
(H in t: First show how to get one perpendicular bisector and th en use the
Figure 8-40.
indirect m ethod of proof to prove th a t this is the only perpendicular
.bisector of this line segment.) W hat.property about the angles? D raw a parallelogram ; then draw the.line
segm ents joining the two pairs of opposite vertices. These line segments are
called the diagonals of a parallelogram . W hat do you believe will be true
■ The Parallelogram— Part I
about the diagonals of a parallelogram ? “£me c
Referring to a four-sided polygon as we have been until D e f in it io n 54: A rectangle is a parallelogram w ith one rig h t angle.
now is both unnecessary and a bit awkward. N ot only are we going to nam e
this polygon but also we will devote this section to a discussion of the prop­
erties of spccial four-sided polygons.
D e f in it io n 52: A quadrilateral is a polygon th a t has four sides.
In order to obtain an over-all picture of the words th a t are about to be
b rought into this language, a family tree of th e quadrilateral and its off­
Figure 8-41.
springs are pictured in Figure 8-39.
From the diagram in Figure 8-39 we note th a t there are two special You m ay have wondered w hy the rectangle is not defined as a parallelo­
types of quadrilaterals: the parallelogram and the trapezoid. In turn, the gram w ith four right angles. T h e reasoning behind this is very m uch the
general variety of parallelogram s has two special varieties: the rectangle and sam e as the reason for not defining an isosceles triangle as a triangle
th e rhom bus. We will work our way down one side of the tree a t a time. ( 1) w ith two congruent sides,
D 53: A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in w hich th e opposite
e f in it io n (2) w ith two congruent angles,
sides are parallel. (3) whose bisector of the vertex angle is perpendicular to the base,
It is quite sim ple to recall the property of a parallelogram given to it (4) whose bisector of the exterior angle at the vertex is parallel to the base.
by its definition: the w ord parallelogram contains the term parallel as part C ertainly w hat we have said of the isosceles triangle is true, for we have
proved all but one of these a t some tim e in our work. In form ulating a
258 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM 259
THE PARALLELOGRAM-PART I
EXERCISES
p o ly g o n
1. Is Problem 15, page 233, a “ uniqueness” statem ent or an “ existence”
statem ent? How w ould the statem ent have been worded liad it been both? I ,
q u a d r ila te r a l
2. Prove: At the endpoint of a given ray there is only one angle on one side
of this ray th a t is congruent to a given angle. p a r a lle lo g ra m tr a p e z o id

(a ) Is this a “ uniqueness” statem ent or an “ existence” statem ent.'1

( b ) W hen have we encountered the other of these two statem ents?
re c ta n g le rh o m b u s iso sce le s tr a p e z o id
3. Prove: T here exists a point th a t is equidistant from two given points.
(H in t: See the diagram for the proof of T heorem 32.)
Is this point unique? If not, how m any such points are there and sq u a re
F i g u r e 8-39.
w here do they lie?
4. Prove: T here exists a point on a circle th at is e quidistant from two o ther of its spelling, while the property given to this quad rilateraJJjy its definition
points on the circle. is th at the opposite sides are parallel. T h e sym bol rppfresenting .the word
Is this point unique? If not, where does the other, or others, lie? parallelogram is the draw ing of a small parallelogr/m , O . W h at property
5. Prove: T here exists an isosceles triangle whose vertex angle is a given about the sides of a parallelogram do you believe yoi» will be a b lt to prove?
angle.
Is this triangle unique? If not, w hat relation do you believe will exist
betw een the bases of these triangles?
6 . Prove: A line segm ent has one and only one perpendicular bisector.
(H in t: First show how to get one perpendicular bisector and then use the Figure 8-40.
indirect m ethod of proof to prove th a t this is the only perpendicular
W h a tp ro p e rty about the angles? D raw a parallelogram ; th en draw the.line
.bisector of this line segm ent.)
segments joining the two pairs of opposite vertices. These line segments are
called the diagonals of a parallelogram . W hat do you believe will be true
■ The Parallelogram— Part I about the diagonals of a parallelogram ? ^ti e tfor w k .
R eferring to a four-sided polygon as we have been until D e f in it io n 54: A rectangle is a parallelogram w ith one rig h t angle.
now is both unnecessary and a bit awkward. N ot only are we going to nam e
this polygon but also we will devote this section to a discussion of the p ro p ­
erties of special four-sided polygons.
D e f in it io n 52: A q u a d rila te ra l is a polygon th a t h as four sides.
In order to obtain an over-all picture of the words th a t are about to be
brought into this language, a family tree of the quadrilateral and its off­ Figure 8-41.
springs are pictured in Figure 8-39.
From the diagram in Figure 8-39 we note th a t there are two special You m ay have w ondered why the rectangle is not defined as a parallelo­
gram w ith four right angles. T h e reasoning behind this is very m uch the
types of quadrilaterals: the parallelogram and the trapezoid. In turn, the
sam e as the reason for not defining an isosceles triangle as a triangle
general variety of parallelogram s has two special varieties: the rectangle and
the rhom bus. W e will w ork our way down one side of the tree a t a tim e. ( 1) w ith two congruent sides,
D 53: A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in w hich the opposite
e f in it io n (2) w ith two congruent angles,
sides are parallel. (3) whose bisector of the vertex angle is perpendicular to th e base,
(4) whose bisector of th e exterior angle a t the vertex is parallel to the base.
I t is quite simple to recall the property of a parallelogram given to it
. by its definition: the w ord parallelogram contains th e term parallel as p a rt Certainly w hat we have said of the isosceles triangle is true, for we have,
proved a ll b u t one of these a t some tim e in. o u r work. I n form ulating a
260 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
THE PARALLELOGRAM -PART I 261
definition, how ever, we try to list as Jew properties as possible th a t will
distinguish th a t term from all other v/ords in its class. All other properties T h e parallel sides of a trapezoid are called th e bases. In w hat way does
of the figure we prove. Thus, if we say that a rectangle is a parallelogram a trapezoid differ from a parallelogram ?
th a t sim ply lias one right angle, this will suffice to distinguish it from all D e f in it io n 58: An isosceles trapezoid is a trapezoid in which the no n p ar­
other parallelogram s. Furtherm ore, on the basis of this definition we can allel sides are congruent.
prove th a t a rectangle has lour right angles.
^ u p p e r base 0
D e f in it ion 55: A square is a rectangle with two adjacent sides congruent.
lo w e r b a s e u p p e r base
/ a n g le s a n g le s
v .^ ^
V-'" lo w e r base

Figure 8-45.
Notice th at there is a sim ilarity between nam ing the parts of an isosceles
F i g u r e 8-42. trapezoid and the parts of an isosceles triangle. W hat property does the
isosceles trapezoid have th at is not given to it by its definition?
In view of the discussion about the rectangle, can you justify w hy the
TH EOREM 34: T h e opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent.
square was not defined as a rectangle with four congruent sides? If we had
defined the square by placing it in the category of polygons rather th an in its ^ '*------------------------------’ 0 G iven: A BC D is a O .
nearest class, th e rectangle, then w hat properties should we have included C oncl.: A D ^ B C
in its definition to distinguish the square from the other polygons?
~
absd€
D e f in it io n 56: A rhom bus is a parallelogram w ith two adjacent sides con­ _^C
gruent. Figure 8-46.
D A nalysis : By draw ing a diagonal we can prove th a t the two triangles th at
a re form ed will be congruent and, hence, our conclusion will follow. .

P R O O F STATEMENTS REASONS

1. A BC D is a parallelogram . 1. Given

2. A D || BC, A B || DC 2. Def. of a parallelogram

W h a t p roperty do you believe, from observation, th at a rhom bys has 3. L et AC be the line through points 3. Why?
th a t is n o t given to it by its definition? W hat property does the square have A a n d C.
th a t th e rhom bus does not have? 4. Z D AC S Z B C A (a ) 4. Why?
Now w e will m ove down the other branch of the quadrilateral tree to 5. Z D C A ^ Z B A C [a ) 5. Why?
exam ine the second set of terms.
6 . AC = 3 C ( j ) 6 . Why?
D 57: A trapezoid is a quadrilateral th a t has one and/o n ly one.
e f in it io n
7. A B A C & A D C A 7. Why?
pair of sides parallel.
8 . AD S 5C , A B S DG 8. Why?

JJEEor b a se
THEOREM 35: T h e opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent.

A , --------------------------------------- , D G iv en , A B C D k a E 3 .

C o n cl.: /.A — Z C
lower base
Z B & ZD
Figure 8-44,
Figure 8-47.
262 THE INDIRECT PROOF AN D PARALLELISM
THE PARALLELOGRAM-PART I 263
in the preceding proof, draw ing a diagonal will give us a pair
A n a l y s is : A s
of congruent triangles, and, hence, / B can be shown congruent to / D . PRO OF | STATEMENTS REASONS
By draw ing the other diagonal the other pair of angles can be show n to be
1. ABCD is a square with 1. Given
congruent.
ABSD A.

PROOF 2. BC S DA 2. T he opposite sides of a parallelogram

are congruent.
T h e proof of T heorem 35 will be left for you to do.
3. CD = AB 3. Sam e as 2
T H E O R E M 36: T h e d iag o n a ls of a p a ra lle lo g ra m bisect each e th e r.
4. 4. T ransitive property of congruence
® G iven: ABCD is a O .
^—> ___
C oncl.: AC bisects BD.
__ T H E O R E M 38: All fo u r sides of a rh o m b u s a re c o n g ru e n t,
BD bisects AC.
Figure 8-48.
T he proof of T heorem 38 is left for you to do.
A n a l y s is : By proving A AE D ~ A C E B , both conclusions will follow.

PROOF | (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.) T H E O R E M 39: T h e lo w e r base angles of a n isosceles tra p e z o id are
c o n g ru e n t.
1. ABCD is a □ . 7. B E S iD E

2. A D || BC 8. E is the m idpoint of BD.

3. / A D B ~ /C B D 9. AC bisects WD. Given: ABCD is a trapezoid with
4. /.C A D — /B C A 10. A E ^ CE
■D C S A B .
5. A D = BC
11. E is the m idpoint of AC. Concl.: / B ~ / C
6. A AED = A C E B <-> __
12. BD bisects AC.
Figure 8-50.
In sum m ary we can say th at should a quadrilateral be a parallelogram ,
there are imm ediately four conclusions th a t can be draw n:
PR O O F STATEMENTS REASONS
(1) T he opposite sides are parallel.
(2) The opposite sides are congruent. 1. ABCD is a trapezoid. 1. Given
i—►
(3) The opposite angles are congruent.
2. Let DE be the line through 2. T h e Parallel Postulate
(4) The diagonals bisect each other.
D that is parallel to AB.
It should be borne in m ind th a t these properties are true not only of the
■*-> <-*
general parallelogram b u t also of each of the quadrilaterals th a t w ere classi­ 3. AD || BC 3. Def. of a trapezoid
fied as parallelogram s. These are the rectangle, the square, and the rhom bus. 4. ABED is a parallelogram . 4, Reverse of def. of a parallelogram .
T H E O R E M 37: All four sides of a square are congruent. 5. D E ^ A B 5. Why?
A —---------------- .0 6. DC SZ IB 6 . Given
7. D E — DC 7. Why?
G iven: ABCD is a square w ith
8. / C £ / D E C 8. Why?
A B S DA.
9. / B £ /D E C 9, If two lines are parallel, then the
C oncl.: J B ~ B C ~ C D ^ D A
corresponding angles are congruent.
10. .-. / B £ / C 10. Why?
Figure 8-49.

\
264 THE INDIRECT PROOF AND PARALLELISM
THE PARALLELOGRAM-PART I 265
EXERCISES
7. G iven: ABCD is a O . G iv e n : ABCD is an isosceles
E is the m idpoint trapezoid with
A of AD. A D II BC.
F is the m idpoint C o n cl.: A E B C is an isos­
of BC.
1. G iven: ABCD is a □ . G iven: ABCD is a O . 2. celes A .
E is the m idpoint C oncl.: AG = HC

of FG. Concl.: Z P s CE
C oncl.: E is the m idpoint
o f AC.
A 'f 0

9. G iven: ABCD is a trapezoid G iven: ABCD is a rectangle. 10.

P, Q, R, and S are the
w ith AD || BC.
m idpoints of their
j , G iven: A B C D is a O . G iven: A BCD is a O . 4. CA bisects /.B C D . respective sides.
B E — D F Concl.: P Q ^ ^ R ^ R S . ^ S P
F is the m idpoint B D bisects /C B A .
4—> __________ I
C o n c l.: E F bisects AC. ] of AB. Concl.: ABCD is an isosceles (H int: Prove th at all
G is th e m idpoint trapezoid (H int: the angles of a
of GD. Prove A, ADC and rectangle are right
C oncl.:. £ is the m idpoint D A B are isosceles.) angles.)
P
of I ? . A ______________ _ D

5. G iven: A BC D is a O . Given: ABCD is a O w ith 6. W , G iven: A BCD is an isos. trap, G iven: ABCD is a n isos. trap. 12 .
BFSZD E
E F passing through G. w ith AD || BC. w ith AD || BC.
C oncl.: Z l S / 2
<-♦ _ RS I b l W R S 1 bi. BU
E F bisects AD.
<-> _ 4—f
C oncl.: E F bisects BC. C o n c l.: R S passes th ru E. C o n cl.: R S passes th ru E.

A D
 266 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
THE PARALLELOGRAM-PART II 267
13 . G iven: ABC D is an isosceles G iven: A A B C is isosceles 14 .* gram is a rectangle. (H int: Extend the base through one of its vertices
trapezoid with w ith A B AC.
* <—
* and prove that the adjacent angles at that vertex are congruent.)
<r->
AD ]| BC. PQ II AC 12.* If the lines joining consecutive midpoints of the sides of a parallelogram
E is the m idpoint form a rhombus, then the parallelogram is a rectangle. (H in t: See the
PR || A B
of AD. suggestion for Problem 11.)
F is the m idpoint Concl.: m A B + m AC —
13.* T he perpendicular bisector of the lower base of an isosceles trapezoid
perim eter of AQ PR
of BC. passes through the m idpoint of the upper base. (H int: Use the inform a­
(H int: How would
tion from Problem 5.)
C oncl.: E F JL A D (H int: you define the
14.* T he perpendicular bisector of the lower base of an isosceles trapezoid
D raw A F and DF, perim eter of ;>
passes through the point of intersection of the bisectors of the lower
then prove them polygon?)
base angles.
congruent.)

A £ o
I The Parallelogram— Part I!
T he theorems on the parallelogram in Part I enabled us to
draw conclusions in the event the quadrilateral was a parallelogram . In
this unit we are going to investigate those properties th a t will m ake a q u a d ­
rilateral a parallelogram. Prim arily, of course, we have at our disposal the
reverse of the definition of a parallelogram . T h a t is, by showing th a t the
opposite sides of a quadrilateral are parallel, the quadrilateral will be a
parallelogram . Hence, the first theorem developed to show th at a q u ad ri­
lateral is a parallelogram will, of necessity, be based on the reverse of the
B definition of a parallelogram.
T H E O R E M 40: If the opposite sides of a q u a d rila te r a l a re c o n g ru en t,
1. T h e diagonals of a n isosceles trapezoid are congruent. th e n th e q u a d rila te ra l is a p a ra lle lo g ra m .
2. T h e diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.
3. T h e JirjeJoining the m idpoints of two opposite sides of a p arallelogram
Given: AD ~ BC
bisects either diagonal of th e parallelogram .
A B ~ DC
4. A p a ir of consecutive angles of a parallelogram are supplem entary.
Concl.: ABC D is a D .
5. T h e upper base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are congruent.
6. I f the nonparallel sides of an isosceles trapezoid a re extended u n til th ey Figure 8-51.
intersect, two isosceles triangles will be formed.
7. T h e diagonals of a rhom bus are perpendicular to each other.
PROOF (The reasons will be left for you to supply.)
8. If a diagonal of a parallelogram bisects one of th e tw o angles w hoss
vertices it connects, then th e parallelogram is a rhom bus. 1. A D S BC (s) 6. Z A B D ZCD B
9. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are perpendicular to each other, 2. A B ^ ' S C (r)
7. A B || CD
then the parallelogram is a rhom bus. <— ■>
3. Let B D be the line through 8. Z A D B ZC B D
10.* If the bisectors of the up p er base angles of an isosceles trapezoid in te r­
points B and D. 9. AD !| BC
sect a t the m idpoint of th e lower base, then two of th e three triangles
form ed will be congruent isosceles triangles. 4. B D BD (j) 10. ABCD is a O . (Rev. of the def. of a
5. A A B D £* A CDB parallelogram .)
11.* If the diagonals of a parallelogram are congruent, th en th e parallelo-
268 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM 269
THE P A R A L L E L O G R A M -P A R T II
T H E O R E M 41: If th e d iag o n a ls of a q u a d rila te ra l bisect eac h o th e r,
th en th e q u a d rila te r a l is a p a ra lle lo g ra m .
PROOF
__ T h e proof of T heorem 42 is left for you to do.
G iven: AC bisects b D .
the inform ation w e know a bout a parallelo-
BD bisects ~AC. Sum m arized below is all
C c n c l.: ABCD is a CJ. gram .
Conclusions T h at Can Be
Figure 8-52. W ays to P rove T hat a
D raw n If a Q uadrilateral
Q uadrilateral Is a
A n a l y s is : By proving iw o pairs of triangles congruent it is possible to show ' Is a P arallelogram
Parallelogram
th a t A D == BC and A B — CD. T hen by Theorem 40, A B C D will have to (1) T h e opposite sides are
be a parallelogram , (1) If the opposite sides are
parallel.
parallel.
(2) T h e opposite sides are
(2) If the opposite sides are
congruent.
PROOF congruent.
(3) T h e diagonals bisect
(3) If the diagonals bisect
each other.
each other. (4) T h e opposite angles are
T he proof of T heorem 41 is left for you to do.
(4) If two sides are congru­
congruent.
You m ay have noticed th at Theorem s 40 and 41 are the converses of e n t and parallel.
theorem s th at we had proved earlier. W hat were those theorems? T h e last
of the basic m ethods for showing a quadrilateral to be a parallelogram is not
the converse of a prior theorem . It does have wide application, though. Illustration:
In each of the m ethods examined thus far, it has been necessary to show
If th e bisectors of a pair of opposite angles of a parallelogram do not
som ething to be true a bout both pairs of opposite sides of the quadrilateral
before being able to conclude th at it was a parallelogram . If, however, our coincide, then they form another parallelogram .
inform ation concerned itself w ith only one pair of sides, w h at properties
w ould have to hold before we m ight conclude th a t th e quadrilateral was a G iven: ABCD is a O .
parallelogram ? W ould it be sufficient to know th a t this pair of sides was ■
A F bisects /.B A D .
congruent? Can you draw a quadrilateral with one p air of sides congruent
and yet with the quadrilateral not being a parallelogram ? W ould it be C E bisects /.B C D .
sufficient to know th a t one pair of sides was parallel before concluding th at Conc.l.: AFCE is a O .
the quadrilateral was a parallelogram ? Can you draw a q u ad rilateral with
one p air of sides parallel and yet the quadrilateral is not a parallelogram ? F ig u re 8-54:.
THEOREM 42: If a quadrilateral has one pair of sides congruent and
A n a ly sis: By proving A A B F to be congruent to A CD E it will follow th a t
p arallel, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram .
TiF ~ ~UE. Since A B C D is a parallelogram , A D = and, therefore,
Z S — F S. But A E and 7 C are also parallel by virtue of th e fact th a t ABC D
G iven: AD || BC is a parallelogram . H ence, AFCE is a parallelogram , for one p a ir of sides
lD = * B C
are congruent and parallel.
Concl.: ABCD is a O .
F igure 8-53. S tating th a t A1i || F C implies the very sam e m eaning as A D || BC, since
a line can be nam ed by the letters of any two points of th a t line. I t is usually
A n a l y s is : By draw ing in the diagonal, BD, it is possible to prove th a t the considered best to nam e the parallel lines in term s of th e letters th a t ap p ea r
a t th e vertices of the quadrilateral that is being shomn to be a parallelogram. In
two triangles formed are congruent. From this it will follow th a t A B S CD,
a n d hence, by T heorem 40, ABCD will be a parallelogram . this problem , this w ould im ply saying th a t A F || FC rather- th a n A D j| BC:

\
i
270 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
THE PARALLELOGRAM -PART II 271
A E

5i G iven: ABCD is a □ . G iven: ABCD is a □ . 6.

*-* irX
A E and D F X B F
F A S fiC
C oncl.: AEFD is a rectangle.
C oncl.: P Q RS is a O .
A P
I PROOF (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.) 1

1. A B C D is a parallelogram .
9. B F ~ D E
2. A B S i CD (s)
10. But, B C ^ J 5
3. / B ^ / D (a)
11. ■■■FC ^ J E
4. Z B A D ^ /B C D
—■) G iven: ABCD is a O .
12. However, A E || FC (Def. of a p a r­ 7. G iv en : ~AC and EF bisect
5. /4F bisects /.B A D .
allelogram) each other at G. A P -9 iC §
6. C E bisects /B C D . 13. /. AFCE is a parallelogram . (T heo­ E is the m idpoint Concl.: PBQD is a CD,
7. / B A F 9 * / D C E (a) rem 42) of AD.
8. A CDE F is the m idpoint
oi~BC.
Concl.: ABCD is a O .
EXERCISES

1. G iven: A BC D is a O . G iven: ABC D is an isosceles 2.

B E = z T )F trapezoid with
C o n c l.: A EC F is a O .
~A B^.7)G .
Z l S Z2
Concl. A B E D is a O .
A____________ D
9. G iven: ABCD is a □ . G iv en : M is the m idpoint 10.
oCBD.
P is the m idpoint
m
C o n cl.: PQRS is a O . o iA D .
Q is the m idpoint
3* G iven: AC || D F Given: O O w ith AC and B D 4, ofB C .
Z l £* Z 2 intersecting at 0 Z l S Z2
C o n c l.: ~BD = UE C oncl.: A BC D is a O . C oncl.: ABCD is a O .
 272 THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM
THE PARALLELOGRAM -PART II 273
11. G iven: B E is the m edian in G iven: ABCD is a O . 12.
A ABC. R, S, T , W a re the 17. Given: ABCD is not a O . Given: D M — M B 18 .
/LDAC ~ ZFCA P is the m idpoint ABCD is not a O .
m idpoints of A M ,
C occi.: ADCF is a O . of AT). Concl.: J M Q I M C
’E M , UM, D M
Q is the m idpoint
respectively.
Concl.: R S T W h a a . of W .
Concl. AQCP is not a O .
(H int: Use indirect
proof.)

13 . G iven: All lines in this figure G iven: ABCD is a O . 14 .

are coplaner. E is the m idpoint
A B D E is a O .
ofZZ).
AEFC is a O .
F is the m idpoint
Concl.: BDFC is a O . I
o(W .
Concl.: A FC E is a O .

15 . G iven: ABCD is a O .
G iven: D is the m idpoint
~EE = & F of A B .
C oncl.: AC bisects ~EF, (H int: E is th e m idpoint
Prove th a t A E C F is | of 1 C .
a O .) j E is the m idpoint
o fS F .
Concl,: D B C F is a O .
LU
1. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the bisectors of all
the interior angles will form a parallelogram .
2. If a pair of opposite exterior angles of a parallelogram are bisected,
then another parallelogram will be formed.
16 . 3. If the m edian to one side of a triangle is draw n and th en extended its
own length, the line segments joining this endpoint w ith the endpoints
of the side will form a parallelogram .
4. If consecutive m idpoints of the sides of a parallelogram are joined in
order, then another parallelogram will^be formed.
5. If consecutive pairs of angles of a quadrilateral are supplem entary,
then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram .
6. If the diagonal AC of parallelogram ABCD is trisected a t points P and
Q w here the order of the points on diagonal AC is A, P, Q, C, then
PBQ D is a parallelogram .
7. If each diagonal of a parallelogram is extended congruent segments in
both directions and these new endpoints are joined in order, then the
qu ad rilateral form ed will be a parallelogram .
8. T h e line segm ent joining the midpoints of a p a ir of opposite sides of a
parallelogram will be congruent to either of the o ther two sides.
274 THE INDIRECT PROOF AN D PARALLELISM TEST AND REVIEW 275

T h e bisectors of all four angles of a parallelogram form another p a r­

G iven: AF bisects exterior G iven: A BC D is an isosceles 6 .
allelogram . (H int: Use information proved in the illustrative problem
angle DAB of A A B C . trapezoid w ith
on page 269.)
<-> ■*->
10 . ’ T h e m edian to ihe hypotenuse of a right triangle is congrucnt to either GB \\ AF A D l| BC.
of the segments of the hypotenuse. (H int: E xtend the m edian its own C oncl.: & ABG is isosceles. R is the m idpoint
length; then draw line segments from this endpoint to the endpoints of PB.
of the hypotenuse.) S is the m idpoint
11 . If a line bisects one side of a triangle and is parallel to the second side, of PC.
then it bisects the third side. (H int: See the diagram of Problem 16, C o n c l.: A P R S is isosceles.
G roup A.) (H in t: P r o v e A P BC
is o s c e le s .)

| Test and Review

Prove each of the following

1. G iven: A B (| CD G iven: A B and CD intersect

a t center of 0 0 .
G H || E F
Concl.: Z l S Z2 C oncl.: A C || D B 7. Given: ABCD is a q u ad ri­ G iven: A B = A C
lateral. "BD S— C®
E is the m idpoint AF 1 DE
of AD.
C oncl.: BC || D E (H int:
F is the m idpoint
of "BC. IProve A F _L BC.)

~AS and E F bisect each

other.
C oncl.: ABCD is a O .
G iven: ABCD is a □ .
A FED is a O ,
A D || BC
C oncl.: 'BC — FE
A F = EC

C oncl.:

\
 276 THE INDIRECT PROOF AN D PARALLELISM
277*1
TRY THIS FOR FUN
9. G iven:. A B 3= AC G iven: A B ~ AC 10.
<-> <->
AD ± BC AD does not bisect
Gone!.: D is not the m idpoint
~BC.
of BC. Using the indirect proof, prove each of the following sta te ­
Cone!.: 'D B '^ .D C
ments.
1. If the lower base angles cf a trapezoid are not congruent, th en the
trapezoid is not isosceles.
2. If two line segments do not bisect each other, then the line segm ents
joining their endpoints do not form a parallelogram .
3. If a line is perpendicular to one side of an angle, then it is not perpendicu­
la r to the other side also.
4. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are not congruent, then the parallelo­
gram is not a rectangle.
5. If a line is not perpendicular to the bisector of an angle, it will not form
congruent angles with the sides of the angle.
6. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are not perpendicular, then the ■
B
parallelogram is not a rhom bus.
Prove each of the following statem ents: 7. If the perpendicular bisector of one side of a triangle does not pass through
the intersection of the other two sides, then theseV two sides are not c.on-
1. A diagonal of a rhom bus bisects two of the angles of the rhom bus.
gruent.
2. If the bisectors of the lower base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are
8. If the bisectors of two angles of a given triangle do not form an isos­
extended until they intersect, they will form an isosceles triangle w ith celes triangle with a side of the given triangle, then this triangle is not
the lower base of the trapezoid.
isosceles.
3. I f a pair of opposite angles of a trapezoid are supplem entary, then the
trapezoid is isosceles.
4. If a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are congruent while a p a ir ■ Try This For Fun
of opposite sides are paraliel, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram . If the three medians of a triangle are draw n, they will
5. T h e line joining the m idpoints of a pair of opposite sides of a parallelo­ intersect a t a point that is one of the trisection points of each of the m edians.
gram is parallel to the rem aining two sides of the parallelogram . W ere we to draw the triangle on a piece of cardboard, then cut the triangle
6. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are perpendicular, then the p arallelo­ aw ay from the rest of the cardboard, it would be possible to balance this
gram is a rhom bus. figure on the point of a pin th a t had been placed at the intersection of the
7. If the lower base angles of a trapezoid a re congruent, then the trapezoid medians. For this reason, this point of intersection is called the ccnter of
is isosceles. gravity of the triangle.
Although we are not prepared to prove all th a t we, h ave ju st stated, we
8 . If a m edian is draw n to a side of a triangle and perpendicular segm ents
can show th at the point of intersection of two of the m edians is a trisection
are draw n from the endpoints of this side to the m edian (extended if
necessary), then the perpendicular segments are congruent. point of both of them.
9. If the perpendicular bisector of the lower base of a trapezoid passes
th ro u g h the m idpoint of the up p er base, then the trapezoid is isosceles.
10. If a line is draw n through the endpoints of th e m edians to the legs of Given: A n y ■A A B C with. A M and B N
a n isosceles triangle, it will be parallel to the base of the triangle. two of the m edians
C oncl.: m GM = \m AG
278
THE INDIRECT PROOF A N D PARALLELISM

_ _ Suf f Sti0n: E x t e n d ^ s o th a t C M ~ M P . A ko extend -B N so that

G N =S NQ. Draw BP, CP, AQ, CQ, and GC.

Parallelism in Space

AS YO U M IG H T SU SP E C T , T H E R E A R E M A NY
principles in space geometry th a t will be sim ilar to those on parallelism
th a t we encountered in the geometry of the plane. In this un it we plan to
call your attention to a few of these. It would be best, of course, to sta rt
w ith the definition of parallel planes.
D 59: Parallel planes are two planes th at do not have a point in
e f in it io n

com m on.
Now th a t we made this definition, another look at an earlier definition
is needed. Parallel lines were defined as “ two lines in the sam e plane th a t
do not intersect.” The point can be raised as to why we insisted th a t the
two lines lie in the .same plane. This was. done so as to elim inate certain
lines in space that do not intersect but th a t we prefer not to think of as
being parallel. Consider the ceiling and floor of your room ; any line draw n
in the ceiling would never intersect a line th a t you had draw n on the floor,
Yet, only some of these w ould you consider to be parallel to the line t h a t .
was draw n on the floor. To illustrate, we w ould probably consider lines
a. b, and t, but not x, to be parallel to W hat is there peculiar a bout the
relation th a t exists between a a n d ^ , or h and y, or c a n d ^ th a t does not exist
betw een x and y? Notice th a t it appears as if a single plan e could be d raw n

279
 280 PARALLELISM IN SPACE
Figure 9-1.
th a t m ight contain both a and y \ the same can be said of b and y and of c
and y. T h e p a ir of lines x and y, however, do not lie in any com m on plane.
T hus, to have the definition of parallel lines agree w ith our idea of w hat we
w ould like parallel lines to be, we insist th a t they m ust lie in the sam e plane.
■ H ence, the existence of parallel lines implies the existence of a plane th at
will contain them . T his is m ade even a bit m ore em phatic by the agreem ent
th a t this be the only plane th a t will contain them . Thus, we have created
a fourth m ethod for determ ining a plane.
■ P o stu la te 26: T w o parallel lines determ ine a plane.
Lines such as x a n d y in the diagram above are called skew lines. Since
. two intersecting lines determ ine a plane and so do two parallel lines, it
would seem alm ost natu ral th a t the definition of skew lines be
D e f in it io n 60: Skew lines are two lines th at are not coplanar.
In term s of the intersection of two lines how m ight you have defined
skew lines? Look around your classroom and find several pairs of skew lines.
•In our earlier contact w ith space geom etry there was no need to con­
sider th e n atu re of the intersection of two planes. Henceforth, however,
m any of the properties we develop will have their origin in knowing the
set of points in which two planes intersect. T h e draw ing below is th a t of a
room very m uch like your classroom.
N otice th a t the front wall and floor of the room have in com m on the
points of the line EH. Sim ilarly, the intersection of the rear wall and the
floor are those points of the line FG for they are points of both the rear wall
PARALLELISM IN SPACE 281
and the floor. Where will the points lie that represent the intersection of the
side wall AF and the rear w a ll? Where will the points lie th at represent the
intersection of the side wall CH and the front w a ll?
P ostulate 27: T he intersection of two planes is a line.
W hat name would you give to the pair of planes that are the ceiling
and floor of your classroom? In Figure 9-2 these are the parallel planes
BD and FH. Notice that the ceiling intersects the front wall in the line AD,
while the floor intersects the front wall in the line EH. It would appear as
if these two lines of intersection, AD and EH } are parallel. Sim ilarly, the
ceiling and floor intersect the side wall AF in the lines A B and EF, which
also appear to be parallel: In what way are the two side walls related to
each other? In w hat lines does the rear wall intersect the two side walls?
W hat appears to be true about these lines? In view of this analysis, w hat
proposition do you think can be proved?
THEOREM 43: If a plane intersects two parallel planes, the lines of
intersection w ill be parallel.
» \/T . z .
G iven: a || b
Z /
Plane c intersects a and b in
/ and m.
Z l Z Concl.: / 1| m
Z . y i
Figure 9-3.
A n a l y s is : M any, m any of the theorems in space geom etry— and p a rtic ­
ularly those on parallelism—are developed on the basis of the indirect proof.
At this stage of the work this method of approach will probably lead to
success more often than not.
PRO O F
By the law of the excluded m iddle one of the following
statem ents m ust be true and no other possibility exists:
/ || m or / X m
Let us accept the possibility that I % m. Since the two lines lie in the same
plane, c, then being “ not parallel” implies th at they intersect a t some point*
P. Since P lies in I, P must lie in a by definition of a plane Sim ilarly, since
P lies in m, it m ust lie in b. This means th a t a and b are not parallel, for
they have the point P in common. T he Given D ata, however, states th a t
a |j b. Therefore, accepting the possibility th at / % m • led to the logical
inconsistency of the truth of both a || b and a X b. By the lav,' of c ontradic­
282 PARALLELISM IN SPACE
PA RA LLELISM IN SPACE 283
tion both cannot be true at the same time. Since a l| b m ust be true, for
it is p a rt of the Given D ata, then a X b m ust be false and, therefore, I X m However, the theorem on the exterior angle of a triangle enables us to say
is also false. Hence, i || m m ust be true for it is the only rem aining pos­ th at m Z l > m Z2. Therefore, accepting the possibility th a t a X b led to
sibility.
the logical inconsistency of the tru th of both m Z l > m Z 2 and m Z l >
THEOREM 44: If two p lan es a re p e r p e n d ic u la r to th e sam e lin e , th e n m Z2. By the law of contradiction both cannot be true a t th e sam e time.
th e y a re p a ra lle l. Since m Z l > m Z2 must be true, for it is a theorem , then m Z l > m Z 2
m ust be false and, therefore, the statem ent a X b is also false. H ence, a || b
must be true, for it is the only rem aining possibility.
Notice the similarity between the statem ent of T heorem 44 and th at
of T heorem 26.
G iven: / _L a
I X b T H E O R E M 45: If two p lan e s a re p a ra lle l to th e sam e p la n e , th e n
C oncl.: a |j b th ey a re p a ra lle l to each oth er.

/ H 7
Given: a || c
b || c
r ~ z u C oncl.: a || b
PROOF

By the law of the excluded m iddle one of the following

statem ents must be true and no other possibility exists: n m Figure 9-6.
u
a || b or a X b
If we accept the possibility th at a X b, it will imply th a t a and b have some
point, P, in common. T h e line / and the point P will determ ine a plane th a t PROOF

By the law of the excluded m iddle one of the following

statem ents m ust be true and no other possibility exists:
a || b or a X b
If we accept the possibility th a t a X b, it will im ply th a t they have some
point, P, in comm on. Let this point and any line, /, in plane c d eterm ine a
plane. This plane will intersect plane a in line PR, w hich will be parallel
R

5
intersects plane a in the line P R and the plane b in the line PS. P R m ust
be perpendicular to line I, for, by definition, if a line is p erpendicular to a
J_________________________________
plane, it is perpendicular to every line in the plane th a t passes through its
Figure 9-7.
foot. T his will m ake Z l a right angle. In the same way, P S is perpendicular
to line I, and therefore Z 2 is also a right angle. T hus, m Z l = m Z 2. to line I, for if a plane intersects two parallel planes, the lines of intersection
are parallel. In the same way, this plane will intersect plane b in line PS,
284 PARALLELISM IN SPACE
PARALLELISM IN SPACE
285
which will also be parallel to line I. This m eans th at there are two lines
through P parallel to I. This, however, contradicts the Parallel Postulate, i—►
3. T h e intersection of tw o planes is a
3. c intersects b in Q T.
which states that through P there can be only one line parallel to I. T h e re ­ line.
fore, accepting the possibilit) that « if led to the logical inconsistency of 4. Given
4. a || b
the truth of both statem ents. By the iaw of contradiction both cannot be ♦ <r-t 5. If a plane intersects two parallel
true at the same time. Since wc have accepted the truth of the Parallel 5. PR || Q r
planes, the lines of intersection are
Postulate, the statem ent that both PR and PS arc parallel to I must be false parallel.
and, therefore, the statem ent that a Jf b is also false. Hence, n || b m ust be 6 . Given
6. I X a
true, for it is the only rem aining possibility.
7. Def. of a line p erpendicular to a plane
Notice the sim ilarity between the statem ent of T heorem 45 and th a t 1. I X PR
of T heorem 30. If, however, the statem ent of T heorem 30 were applied 8. If a line is perpendicular to one of
8. ! X Q T
to space geom etry, its proof would be quite difficult. We will assume, though, two parallel lines, it is also, perpendic­
th a t it is true. ular to the other.
i ^
P o st u l a t e 2 8: I f t wo h n es in sp a c e are p arallel to th e sa m e line, th ey a r e In the same way, by draw ing PS in plane a it is possible to show th a t I
p a ra lle l to ea c h o th e r.
is perpendicular to QfV.
T H E O R E M 46: ^ a ^ ne ** p erpendicular to one of two parallel plan es, 9. A lin e is p e r p e n d ic u la r to a p la n e if
it is p erpendicular to the other also. 9. / X b '
it is p e rp e n d ic u la r to a t least tw o
lines in th e p la n e p assing th ro u g h its
foot.

G iven: a |[ b
I ± a EXERCISES
Concl.: I X b

A |

1. Given: a || b Given: PQ || R S 2.
A B || CD PQ || V T
A n a l y s is : I n o rd e r th a t / be p e rp e n d ic u la r to b, it is necessary to p ro v e
t h a t it is p e r p e n d ic u la r to tw o lines passing th ro u g h its foot; these will be C cncl.: A B ^ C D oi l *
Concl.: A R P V = & S Q T
Q T and Q W .

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

1. In plane a select any point R 1. T h ere exists one and only one line
<-4 through two points.
and let P R be the line pass­
ing through these two points.

2. 1 and P R determ ine plane c. 2. Tw o intersecting lines determ ine a

plane.
 286
p a r a l l e l is m in s p a c e

3 . G iven: a j| b
P R \\S Q
G iven: a || 4
4. PARALLELISM IN SPACE
P$ s Fr p iL .
C oncl.: a nd J r bisect a ll Given: plane BD j| plane FH
Concl.: Q S ^ R T
each other. b X I plane BE |] plane CH
c and d contain I. plane AH || plane BC
Concl. ZPQ R S Z S T W C oncl.: AC = EG
(H int: Make .PQ = S T (The figure in this problem ..
is called a p a ral­
and RQ = TW, then
lelepiped.)
prove A PQR =
A S T W .)

5 . G iven: a X I
G iven: a X /
b ll 6.
b ll
PQ = RS
P $ = zK s
c contains PQ and RS.
c contains PQ and RS.
Concl.:
C oncl.: P S S RQ 9. By using the diagram and Given G iv en : Each of the pairs of 10.
D ata in Problem 8, prove that opposite planes are
O A B C D ^ OEFGH. (H int: parallel.
See the definition of congruent Lines FC, EH, AD,
polygons on page 118.) and BC are perpen­
dicular to planes AF ■
and DG.
Concl.: AG == FD (Assume th a t AG
a n d FD intersect.)
288 PARALLELISM IN SPACE
DIHEDRAL ANGLES 289
11, Given : a j| b G iven: a || b 12. *
8. * If a given line is parallel to a given plane, then the intersection of any
c || b c II h
> __ ' plane containing this line with the given plane m ust be parallel to the
W S bisects P R at Q. JT = TW
given line.t
C oncl.: = QR 9.* If each of two intersecting lines is parallel to a given plane, then the
C one!.: P R bisects IVS.
(H int: Let UV be plane determ ined by these lines is parallel to the given p lane.f
the line through T
th a t is parallel to
.
PR.) B Dihedral Angles
At this tim e we w ant to exam ine the figure in space geom­
etry th at is com parable to the angle in plane geom etry. T h is figure is called
a dihedral angle. T o define it, however, will require a n u m b er of terms th at
we have not encountered as yet. T h e first of these is the half*plane. Consider
in Figure 9-9 the points in plane m with reference to the line A B . If the line

B
Use the indirect proof for each of the problem s in this group.
1. T w o lines can not be perpendicular to the sam e plane at the sam e
p o in t on th e plane, f
2. From a given point not on a given plane there can be no m ore th an
one line p erpendicular to th e given plane, t
3. T w o lines th a t are both perpendicular to the sam e plane can not in te r­
sect.
4. T h ro u g h a given point not on a given plane two planes can not exist
th a t are both parallel to the given plane,
5. A t a given point on a given line two planes can not exist that are both
perp en d icu lar to the given line.
6. T h ro u g h a given point not on a given line two planes can not exist
th a t are both perpendicular to the given line.
7. If a given line is perpendicular to a given plane, then any line th a t is
p erpendicular to the given line a t its foot lies in the given plane.
t T h e s e s ta te m e n ts arc often considered as theorem s.
PS is draw n, it will intersect A B in Q. When this point of intersection, Q,
is not between the two points P and S, then these two points are said to be
on the same side of A B . O n the other hand, the line P N intersects A B at
some point R such th at R is between P and M. In this event, P and N are
<—►
said to be on opposite sides of A B . Those points that are on the sam e side of
A B are said to be in the half-plane with reference to A B w here A B is the
edge of th at half-plane,
D efin it io n 6 1 : Points on the sam e side of a given line in a given plane are
the set of points not containing the line such th a t if a line is draw n
through any two points o f the set, it will intersect th e given line a t a
point th a t is n o t betw een these two points.
D ef in it io n 62: a h a lf-p la n e is th e set of p o in ts on th e sa m e side o f a given
lin e in a g iven p la n e .
' T h e given line m ay act as an edge for m any half-planes. T o illustrate,
the bound edge of your book can be considered as the edge of those half­
planes consisting of th e pages of the book,
t T h ese statem en ts a rc o ften c o n sid e re d as theorem s.
290 PARALLELISM IN SPACE
DIHEDRAL ANGLES 291
O u r next concern is with the m easure of a dihedral angle. This problem
is overcom e rather easily by relating an angle whose m easure we know to
th a t of the dihedral angle. T o do this, we create the angle called the plane
angle.
D 64: A plane angle of a dihedral angle is an angle whose vertex
e f in it io n
A B is the edge of half-planes m, n, and p. lies on the edge of the dihedral angle and whose sides are perpendicular
to the edgs, each side lying in a different face of the dihedral angle.

D e f in it io n 63: A d ih e d ra l a n g le is a set of p o in ts consisting of th e u n io n o f

tw o h alf-p lan es a n d th e edge co m m o n to th em .

F rom this definition it is quite a p p are n t th a t unless two half-planes

have a com m on edge, there will be no dihedral angle. T h e edge of a d i­
F i g u r e 9-12. F i g u r e 9 -1 3 .
hedral angle is com parable to the vertex of an angle, while the half-planes
A F and AG are sim ilar to the sides of an angle. T h e half-planes A F and AG W ith this definition at our disposal, the m easure of a dihedral angle
are called the facts of the dihedral angle.
becomes
D e f in it io n 65: T h e m easure of a dihedral angle is the m easure of its plane
angle.
It m ight appear th at by this definition we m ay have neatly entrapped
ourselves, for a dihedral angle.has m any plane angles as seen in Figure 9-13.
If the m easures of all these plane angles are not the same, then it is evident
th a t Definition 65 is poorly designed. Q uite fortunately this is not so, for
it can be proved th at
TH EO R EM 47: T h e plane angles of a d ih ed ral an gle are congruent.

PROOF
T h e proof of this theorem is identically the same as th a t of
Problem 7, page 287. It will be left for you to do.
It seems alm ost needless to point out the next definition.
D 6 6 : C ongruent dihedral angles are dihedral angles th at have the
e f in it io n

sam e m easure. 1 “ " ’

A dihedral angle is nam ed by using a point in each half-plane and two
points along the edge. If there is no possibility for confusion, a dihedral
angle can also be nam ed by the two points along its edge. In the figure
above, the dihedral angle can be nam ed as either / G -A B -F or IA B .
A num ber of problems we would iike to present at this tim e are d e p en d ­
ent upon a principle th a t seems obvious enough, yet would require several
a dditional theorems hefore it can be proved. R a th e r than become involved
in the proofs of these theorems th a t have little value for us in our work,
w c will postulate the principle we need.
 292 PARALLELISM IN SPACE
P o st u l a te 2 9: i f o n e 0 f tw o p aralic! lines is p e rp e n d ic u la r to a p la n e , th e DIHEDRAL ANGLES 293
o th e r is also.
7. ZR P Q is the plane a n ­ 7. Def. of a plane angle
Illustration: gle of Z E -A B -H .

8. CD 1 QV, CD 1 PQ 8. Same as 6
I f two parallel planes arc cut by a third one, then the alternate interior
dihedral angles are congruent. 9. Z P Q V is a plane angle 9. Same as 7
of Z J -D C -G .
vVe will try to introduce a plane into this figure that will give us
A n a l y s is :
plane angles at both P a n d Q. It will then be m erely a m atter of proving 10. But, PR || VQ 10. Sam e as 2
p la n e an g les to b e c o n g ru e n t to show th a t th e a lte r n a te in terio r d ih e d ra l 11, m ZRPQ = m ZP Q V 11. If two parallel lines are cut by a
a n g le s a r e c o n g ru e n t. transversal, then the alternate in­
terior angles are congruent.
12. m Z E - A B - H = m Z R P Q 12. Def. of the m easure of a dihedral
angle
13. m Z J -D C -G = m Z P Q V 13. Same as 12
14. m Z E - A B - H 14. If two num bers are equal to two
G iv e n : E F || K J Z J -D C -G equal num bers, they are equal to
C oncl.: Z E - A B - H S each other.
Z J -D C -G 15. Def. of congruent dihedral angles
15. Z E - A B - H
Z J -D C -G

H aving defined a dihedral angle, we are now in a position to define

perpendicular planes. By considering the definition of perpendicular lines,
w hat do you believe the definition of perpendicular planes will be?
PROOF STATEMENTS
REASONS
D efin it io n 67: Perpendicular planes are two planes th a t intersect to form
1. E F \ \ K J right dihedral angles.
1. Given
2. A B I CD By virtue of this definition it will be possible to prove planes to be
2. If a plane intersects two parallel
planes, then their lines of intersec­ perpendicular if we can show th at they intersect to form right dihedral
tion are parallel. angles. T o show th a t a dihedral angle is a right dihedral angle will necessi­
3. L et plane a be perpe'ndicu- tate showing th a t the plane angle of th at d ihedral angle is a right angle.
3. See Problem $, page 288.
4—> However, you m ay recall th a t proving an angle to be a right angle was no
la r to A B a t point P. simple task. T o avoid the difficulty of proving lines to be perpendicular by
4. /, a J_ CD resorting to the reverse of the definition of p erpendicular lines, we developed
4. If o n e o f tw o parallel lines is per­
the theorem th a t if two lines m eet to form congruent ad jacent angles, the
p endicular to a plane, the other is lines would be perpendicular. Similarly, in space geom etry we will try to
also, prove planes perpendicular not by referring to the reverse of Definition 67,
5. a intersects planes EF, K J , 5. T h e intersection of two planes is a b u t rather by proving th at the planes intersect to form congruent adjacent
and G H in lines PR, PQ, line. dihedral angles.
a n d VQ respectively.
. «-+ «->«-» <-> . First, though, it will be necessary for us to prove this property.
6 . A B ± P R , A B ± PQ
6. Def. of a line perpendicular to a
plane T H E O R E M 48: If tw o p lan es in te rse ct to form ' c o n g ru e n t a d ja c e n t d i­
h e d ra l angles, th e n th e p la n e s a re p e rp e n d ic u la r.
294 PARALLELISM IN SPACE
DIHEDRAL ANGLES 295

EXERCISES
G iven: Z E -A B -D =
-------- -y Z E -A B -C 1. If two dihedral angles are right d ihedral angles, then they are con­
/ Cone!.: plane E F X plane CD
gruent.
D/ 2. If two dihedral angles are vertical dihedral angles, then they are
Figure 9-15. congruent.
3. Using the problem proved on page 292 and Problem 2 above, prove
A By showing plane angles GHK and G H J to be congruent it will
n a l y s is :
^—* 4—> th a t if two parallel planes are cut by a third plane, the alternate ex­
follow th a t GH X K J . T herefore, /.G H J is a right angle. This, in turn, terior dihedral angles will be congruent.
will m ake Z E - A B -D a right dihedral angle. H ence, plane E F will be
4. If two dihedral angles are congruent, the supplem ents of these two
perpendicular to plane CD by the reverse of the definition of perpendicular
planes. dihedral angles will be congruent.
5. By using the problem proved on page 292 and Problem 4 above,
PROOF | STATEMENTS REASONS prove th a t if two parallel planes a re cut by a th ird plane, the cor­

1. Let plane m be perpendic- responding dihedral angles will be congruent.

1. See Problem 5, page 288.
i—> By using the inform ation from Problem s 3 and. 5 prove Problem s 6
u la r to A B at point H.
2. m intersects E F in line GH 2. T he intersection of two planes is a
and CD in line K J . line.
<-> <-><-> <-*
3. A B X GH, A B X K J 3. Def. of a line perpendicular to a
plane
4. Z G H J is the plane angle of 4. Def. of a plane angle
Z E -A B -D .
5. ZG H K is the plane angle of 5. Same as 4
Z E -A B -C .
6. m Z E -A B - D = 6. Given
m Z E -A B -C
7. m Z G H J = 7. Def. of the m easure of a d ihedral
m Z E - A B -D angle
8. m Z G H K = 6. G iven: J K || L M , R S |[ T W .
8. Sam e as 7
m Z E -A B -C C oncl.: Z T - G H - K ^ Z R - A B - M
7. G iven: J K || L M , R S || T W .
9. m Z G H J = m ZG HK 9. If two num bers are equal to two
C o n cl.: Z S -C D -K = Z L - E F - T
equal num bers, then they are equal
8 . Use Problem 5 to prove th a t if a plane is perpendicular to one of two ■
to each other,
parallel planes, then it is also perpendicular to the other.
10. G H X K J 10. If two lines intersect to form con­ 9. Prove th a t the edge of a dihedral angle is perpendicular' to the plane
gruent adjacent angles, the lines are determ ined by one of its plane angles.
perpendicular. 10. Use Problem 9 to prove th a t the planes determ ined by the plane angles •
11. Z G H J is a right angle. 11. Def. of perpendicular lines of a dihedral angle are parallel,
12. Z E -A B -D is a right di­ 12. Why? 11.* If a line is perpendicular to a given plane, then any plane containing
hedral angle. th a t line is perpendicular to the given plane, f
13. Plane E F X plane CD 13. Why? t T h is s ta te m e n t is o ften co n sid ered as a th e o rem .
296 PARALLELISM IN SPACE
297
TEST A N D REVIEW
B Test and Review

Prove each of the following:

Justify your answer to all questions except 4, 10, and 12.
1. How w ould you account for the fact that the intersections of the side Given: m j| n
wall w ith the ceiling and floor of your classroom are parallel lines? ~BC = ~DE
p intersects m and n in
2. If each of two lines is parallel to a plane, will the plane determ ined by C oncl.: A U ^ J B
A B and CD.
these lines necessarily be parallel to the plane?
~AB S CD
3. F our lines in space are parallel to each other. Will the plane determ ined
by any two of these I'nes necessarily be parallel to the plane determ ined Concl.: A C ^ ~ B D
by the o ther two?
4. If tw o lines are parallel and one of them is perpendicular to a plane,
m ust th e other also be perpendicular to the plane?
5. (a ) Does a half-plane include its edge?
(b ) How does a half-line differ from a ray?
(c) Is there any figure in space geom etry th a t is com parable to the
ray in plane geometry?
6. W h at is the m axim um measure that a dihedral angle can have?
7. If a line is parallel to each of two planes, are the planes necessarily
parallel?
8. If a line is perpendicular to each of two planes, are the planes neces­ Given: m || n G iven: PQ _L a
sarily parallel? p intersects m and n in
PQ 1 4
9. (a) If a line is parallel to a plane, is it parallel to all lines in the plane? M is the m idpoint
A B and CD.
(b) If a line is parallel to a plane, will it intersect any line in the plane?
T b ^ cd of PQ.
10. If tw o lines are perpendicular to the same plane, will the lines neces­
C oncl.: AD and ~BC bisect "RS is any line segm ent
sarily be parallel?
each other. through M w ith end­
11. If two lines are parallel to the same plane, are they necessarily parallel points in a and-A.
to each other? Concl.: M is the m idpoint
12. T h e re are six dihedral angles in the diagram below. N am e them . o fT tf.

Da

A i r --------- \ -------- > C

B
298 PARALLELISM IN SPACE
TRy THIS FOR FUN 299
5 . G iven: A S I G iven: a |j b

p and q contain A B . AD II CF G iven: ABCD is a rectangle.

p and q intersect m -
4—
r <—r P M is the JL bisector of A B .
in CD and EF. —
P N is the 1 bisector of AE.
C o n cl.: CD \\E F
E C S AD
Concl.: Z E C D S .Z A D C (H ence, the
measure of the obtuse angle
ECD is equal to the m easure of
the right angle ADC.)

?'
(1) Can you show this conclusion to be valid? (Suggestion: Prove
A A D P = A £ C P .)
(2) C an you point out wher?. the error was m ade in the draw ing of the
diagram ?

Prove each of the following statem ents:

1. I f two dihedral angles are straight dihedral angles, then they a re con­
gruent.
2. If two dihedral angles are com plem entary to the sam e d ihedral angle,
then they are congruent.
3. A line intersects two parallel planes. Any plane containing this line will
intersect these planes in two lines th a t form congruent angles with the
given line.

■ Try This For Fun

For years m athem aticians have been form ulating problem s
in geom etry wherein the reasoning th at leads to the conclusion is perfectly
valid, yet the conclusion is in contradiction to the postulates th at have been
established. In each, of course, there is some obscure error th a t the person
who designed the problem has tried to hide. This error usually occurs in
the m anner in which the diagram is draw n. O ne of the m ore interesting of
these problem s th at has intrigued m athem atics students for years appears
here,
P roblem : T o prove that the m easure of a right angle is equal to the m easure
of an obtuse angle.
 THE ANGLES OF A POLVGON 301

F i g u r e 10-2.

STATEMENTS REASONS
PROOF
4—V
1. Let D E be the line through B th at is 1. Parallel postulate

parallel to AC.

10 2. m Z D B E - 180
3. m Z D B E = m Z \ + m Z B + m Z 2
4. m Z \ + m Z B + m Z 2 = 180
2. Def. of a straig h t angle
3. Def. of the sum of angles
4. T ran sitiv e pro p erty of
equality
5. But, Z A & Z \ and Z C 9=- Z 2 5. W hy?
The Angles 6. -*• tn Z A -f- jn Z B -f- m Z C = 1 8 0 6. S ubstitution postulate

T his theorem paves the w ay for two very im p o rta n t theorem s, one of
of a Polygon which is another and final m ethod for proving triangles congruent,

T H E O R E M 50: If two angles o f one tria n g le a re c o n g r u e n t to tw o

angles of a second tria n g le , th e n th e t h ir d a n g les a re
c o n g ru en t.
T H E A C C E PT A N C E O F T H E PA R A L LE L P O S T U -
la te has m ad e possible th e proof of one of th e m ost widely used theorem s
in plane geom etry. G iven: ZA ~ ZD
ZB ~ ZE
T H E O R E M 49; T h e sum of th e m easures of th e a n g le s of a tr ia n g le
F Concl.: Z C ~ Z F
is eq u al to 180.

Figure 10-3.

G iven: A A BC REASONS ]
C oncl.: m /LA + m Z B + m Z C = 1 8 0
PROOF STATEMENTS

1. ZA £= Z D and Z B = . Z E 1. Why?
2. m ZA + m Z B = m Z D + m Z E 2. Why?
3. m ZA + m Z B + m ZC = 1 8 0 3. T h e sum of the m easures of the
angl o of a triangle equals 180.
T h ere is only one m ajor condition th a t we are aw are of un d er
A n a l y s is :
w hich we would encounter 180; this occurs in the m easure of a straight 4. m ZC = 180 - (m. ZA + m Z B) 4. Subtraction postulate
angle. H ence, an obvious move is to relate angles A, B, and C to a straight 5. m Z.D + m Z E + m Z F = 1 8 0 5. Why?
angle. In addition, since the proof of this theorem is based on the parallel 6. m Z F — 180 - (m Z D + m ZE) 6. Why?
postulate, the need for parallel lines is apparent. T o bring this condition 7. m Z F = 180 - ( m Z A + m Z B ) 7. S ubstitution postulate
and the previous one into the picture, it would seem best to have one of 8. m Z C = m Z F 8. T ransitive p roperty of equality
th e parallel lines pass through a vertex of the triangle. 9. Z C ^ Z F 9 W hy? '
 302 THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON THE A N G LE S O F A P O L Y G O N 303

T H E O R E M 51: T w o tria n g le s a re c o n g ru e n t if th e re exists a c o rre ­ Given A B S i 'A C ___

sp o n d e n c e b e tw e e n th e vertices i n w h ic h tw o a n g le s D is the m idpoint of A B.
a n d a sid e o pposite o n e o f th em in o n e tr ia n g le a re con­ F is the m idpoint of AC.
g r u e n t to those c o rre sp o n d in g p a rts i n th e secoSfli t r i ­
a n g le . (T he symbols for this statem ent are A .A .S.) } D E and FC X BC
C o n c l.: D E = FG
G iven: Z A =5 Z D
Z B ^Z E
AC 2£D F
e c E Concl.: A A B C z = A D E F PR O O F (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.) |

Figure 10-4. 1. A B ^ A C 7. Z D E B is a right angle.

<-» <->
2. Z B ■= Z C [a) 8. FG X BC
PROOF | (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.) 3. D is the m idpoint of AB. 9. ZFGC is a right angle.
1. Z 4 S Z D (a) 4. F is the m idpoint of AC. 10. Z D E B = ZFGC (a)
4. A C = D F (1)
2. Z B ~ Z E 5 . 5 7 ? f 5 (s ) 11. A D B E ^ A F C G
5. A A B C ^ A D E F
3. Z C = Z F (a) 12. ~DE = ~FG
6. D E X BC

Illustration 1:
T h e following two theorem s are an im m ediate consequence of th e
theorem on the sum of the angles of a triangle. T h e ir proofs will be left
G iven: D E X BC
«-+ <-» for you to do.
BA 1 AC
T H E O R E M 52: T h e m easure o f a n e x te rio r a n g le o f a tria n g le is e q u al
Concl.: Z \ is supp. to Z B .
to th e su m of th e m easures o f th e re m o te in te rio r angles.
T H E O R E M 53: T h e acu te an g le s of a r i g h t tria n g le a re com plem en-
ta r y.

A n a l y s i s '. Z l is already supplem entary to Z2, hence if Z 2 ~ Z B , th e

conclusion will follow. Notice th at it will not be necessary to prove triangles
to be congruent in order to show th a t Z l ~ Z B .
EXERCISES

1 PROOF (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.) |

«-+ ♦->
1. D E X BC 6. Z C S Z C
2. Z D E C is a right angle. 7. Z B £= Z 2 (T heorem 50) 1. In the diagram at the right, find the measure of
3. B A X AC. 8. But, Z l is supp. to Z2. (a) Z 3 , i f m Z l = 80, m Z 2 = 60
4. Z B A C is a right angle. 9. Z l is supp. to Z B . (b ) Z4, if m Z l = 85, m Z3 = 35
5. Z D E C S ZB A C (c) Zl , if m Z2 = x, tn Z 3 = y
(d ) Z l, if m Z5 = 140, m Z2 = 50
Illustration 2; (e ) Z5, if m Z7 = 70, m Z2 = 60
(f) Z 6, if rr. Z5 = 150, m Z 4 = 120
T h e perpendicular line segments from the m idpoints of the legs of an (g) Z3, if m Z l + m Z2 = x
isosceles triangle to the base are congruent. 2. In A X Y Z , J Y ^ J Z .
I

304 THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON 305

(a) If m / X = 80, / Y is an angle of how m any degrees?
(b ) If m / Y = 40, how m any degrees are. there in / X ?
3, How m any degrees are there in each angle of an isosceles right triangle? 1 4 .* In the diagram at the right, BD and
4, How m any degrees ere there in each angle of an equilateral triangle?
CD are the bisectors of the exterior
5, If the m easures cl' two angles of a triangle are 80 and 60 respectively,
angles E BC and FCB. C an you
how m any degrees are there in the angic formed by the bisectors of
show in any way th at m / D =
these angles? ^
90 - /A ?
9. In the diagram at the right,
15.* T h e altitudes to sides A B a n d A C in acute A A B C intersect a t point
m / A — 80 and m / C = 30. How
E. Can you show in any way th at m L B E C = m / B + m /C ?
m any degrees are there in / B D C
1 6 .* Angle B is an obtuse angle in A ABC. T h e altitudes to sides AB and
if B D bisects /A B C ? AC intersect a t point E w hen they are extended. C a n you show in any
way th at m / B E C = 180 — (m / B -j- m / C)?
1 7 .* Base BC of A A BC is extended to point D. T h e bisectors of / B
7. In A ABC, AC £= BC, / A and / B are bisected, and the bisectors and /A C D intersect a t point E. Can you show in any way th at
intersect a t D. If m / C = 40, how m any degrees are there in / D ? m / E = /A ?
8. T h e side BC o f A ABC is extended to D. / A B C and /A C D are bi­
sected a n d th e bisectors m eet a t £ . If m / A B C = 80 and m / A C B —
60, how m any degrees are there in / E ?
9. Sides BA and B C of A B A C are extended through A and C to points
t G iven: A B JL D F Given: / \ == / A
E and D respectively. T he bisectors of the exterior angles EAC and
C oncl.: / B £* /C E D
DCA m eet a t P. If m / B A C = 60 and m / B C A .= 40, how m any AC JL DG
degrees a ie there in ZAPC? E Concl.: Z D c— /-A
10, In the diagram at the right,

A B || CD, m / I = 70, and m / 4 =

120. How m any degrees are there
in each of the other angles?

11. In the diagram at the right, B E and

U S are altitudes, while m / A B C — 3 , G iven: D C X. A B G iven: D E \ \A B
70 and m / A C B — 40. How m any D F || CB
BE L A D
degrees are there in /B F C ? / \ — Z2
C oncl.; ZB
Concl.: / A = / C
12. If, in A ABC, m / A = m / B + m / C , then / A is an angle of how
m any degrees? A
—»
13.’ In the triangle a t the right, BD and

CD are the bisectors of angles A BC

and ACB. Can you show in any way
th a t m / D = 90 + /A ?
306 THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON 307
THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON
5, G iven: A B S AC | Given: A D and CE a re 6.
G iv e n -. ABCD is a O . 12.
ED L A B
| altitudes. 11, G iven: ABCD is a O . <-> *-+
1 C oncl.: Z B C E K / B A D AE X BC
<-> <-» AF L C D
EF 1 AC <-► <->
<-> <-> CF X AD
Concl.: Z C E F g * Z D E B A E L BC
C oncl.: A E — C F
~AF S A E
Concl.: ABCD is a rhom bus.
A,

7 , G iven: Z A C B is a right
angle.
Using the d iag ram below
w ith the suggested line CE,
8.
13 . G iven: BD L DC G iven: BQ is the m edian 14 .
<-> <-+ to AC.
prove the theorem th a t the CA 1 A B <-> <-*
CD X A B
C oncl.: Z A C D ^ Z B
sum of the m easures of the zi s n CJR X B R
angles of a triangle is eq u al C oncl.: A B & Z D AP L BR
to 180. C oncl,: APCR is a O .
li A.

15 . G iven: AC & AB_

G iven: A D AC is isos, w ith 16 .*
Using the diagram below with Given: A B = A C 10 , BE& CH DA S DC.
the suggested lines PQ and Z\ S Z l D B ^D C
E F 1 BG
PR, prove the. theorem th at M is th e m idpoint C oncl.: Z B A C is a right an ­
the sum of the m easures of the G H L BG gle. (H int: Prove
of M
angles of a triangle is equal Concl. : D is the m idpoint m ZBAC = m Z B
Concl. : D M ~ E M
to 180. of SB . + rn Z C a n d see
Problem 12,
group A.)
 308
THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON
17 .* G iven: A A B C is isosceles
w ith A B — AU.
(D iagram a t right.)
<-* <->
FG j| H J
~4
B F bisects Z A B H .
CG bisects ZA G J.
Concl.: B F ^ i W
. 0
1. T h e a ltitu d e to th e base of an isosceles triangle bisects the vertex angle.
2 . T h e perpendicular line segments from any point on the bisector of an
angle to the sides of d\ e angle are congruent.
3. T h e altitudes to the legs of an isosceles triangle are congruent.
4. Corresponding altitudes of congruent triangles are congruent.
5. If p erpendicular line segm ents a re draw n from th e vertices of th e u p p e r
base to th e lower base of a n isosceles trapezoid, then these segments
a re congruent.
6. I f perpendicular line segments are draw n from a pair of opposite
vertices of a parallelogram to the diagonal joining the rem aining ver­
tices, then these segments are congruent.
7. I f perp en d icu lar line segments are draw n from the m idpoint of the
base of a n isosceles triangle to the legs of the triangle, then these p e r­
pendiculars a re congruent.
8. I f lin e segm ents a re draw n from any point on the base of an isosceles
triangle to m ake congruent angles with the base, they will m ake con­
g ruent angles w ith the legs of the triangle.
9. If from the point of intersection of the altitudes to the legs of an isos­
celes triangle a line is draw n to the vertex of th e vertex angle, then this
line bisects th e vertex angle,
10. I f a po in t is n o t on the bisector of an angle, then the perpendicular
line segm ents draw n from this point to the sides of the angle will not
be congruent. (H in t: Use the indirect proof.)
11. From the m idpoint of a side of a triangle perpendicular line segments
are draw n to th e o ther two sides. If the perpendicular segments are n o t
congruent, th en the sides to w hich they are draw n are not congruent.
(H in t: U se th e indirect proof.)
12. In an isosceles rig h t triangle one of the congruent sides can not be the
hypotenuse.
309
THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON
| The Angles of a Polygon
It is ju st a short ju m p from finding the sum of th e measures
of the angles of a triangle to finding the sum of the m easures o f the angles
of any polygon. Perhaps our statem ent should not have been so broad, for
we do not intend to determ ine the sum of the m easures of the angles of the
polygon in Figure 10-7.
Figure 10-7.
Recall th a t early in o u r w ork it was agreed n o t to concern ourselves
w ith angles th a t were greater th an a straight angle. In this polygon, Z E
is greater than a straight angle; hence, polygons w here this occurs will be
excluded fro m _ e u n v o rE ? 4 ^ Nreality, we have lim ited ourselves to an in-
vestigatioiy'of convex polygons onfyj.
D efin itio n ^ ; A epnytSTpoiygon is a polygon in w hich each of the angles
is less th an a straight angle. —
Henceforth, whenever the term polygon is used, it will be- understood
to im ply only the convex polygon a n d no other.
T H E O R E M 54: T h e su m o f th e m easures of th e a n g le s o f a p o ly g o n of
n sides is 180(n — 2).
G iven: Polygon A B C D E . . .co n tain in g
n sides
C oncl.: m Z A 4- m Z B + m Z C + ....•
= 180(n - 2)
W e resort to dividing th e polygon into triangles so as to enable
A n a l y s is :
us to use th e theorem on the sum o f the measures o f the angles of a triangle.
T his is done by selecting a po in t P in the interior o f the polygon a n d draw ­
ing lines from this point to each o f the vertices. T h e re will th en exist a one-
tc-onc correspondence betw een each of the triangles, and each of the sides
of th e polygon.
 310
F igure 10-8,
PROOF statem ents'
1. L et P be a point in the interior of
A B C D E . . , and let PA be the line
through P a n d A.
2. T h e sam e is tru e o f P B , PC, etc.
3. m Z l + m Z w + m Z x = 180
m Z 2 + m Z y + m Z z = 180
etc.
4. m Z l + m Z 2 + . . . + (ot Z x + m Zy)
-f- (m Z z + m Zv) + . . . = 180n
5. B ut Z t + Z_y = Z A
Z z + Z v ■= Z.B
etc.
6 . .'. (m Z x + m Zy) + (m Z z + m Zv) +
. . . = m Z A + m Z.B -f- m Z.C +
7. Also, m Z l + Z2 + m Z3 -f • • •
= 360, or 2 straight angles
8 . 360 + (m Z /l + m Z B + m Z C
= 180n
9. .'. m Z A 4- m Z B + m Z C + . . .
= 180n - 360
or m Z A + m Z B + m Z C + . . .
= 180(n - 2)
T his theorem paves th e w ay for th e proof of a theorem th a t seems to
b e unreasonable a t first glance, N o m atter how m any sides a polygon m ay
have, be it 3 o r 3,Q00( th e sum of th e m easures of th e exterior angles form ed
b y extending these sides in the same order is always 360!
THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON
THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON 311
TH EO R EM 55: T h e sum o f the m easures o f the exterior angles o f a
polygon formed b y ex ten d in g the sides in the same order
is equal to 360.
G iven: Polygon ABCD E . ■ . containing
n sides
C oncl.: Sum of the m easure of the ex­
terior angles shown = 360.
REASONS
1 . There exists one and only
one line through two Notice th a t there exists a one-to-one correspondence between
A n a l y s is :
points. each vertex of the polygon and each pair of angles m arked in the diagram .
T hose m arked in red are the exterior angles; those in black, the interior.
2. Same as 1 T hus, if we subtract the sum of the interior from the sum of all pairs, we
3. Why? will be left w ith simply the sum of th e exterior angles.
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
4. Addition postulate
1. m Z l + m Z 2 = 180, or m Z C D P 1. Def. of the sum . of two
5. Def. of the sum of two m Z 3 + m Z 4 = 180, or m Z D E R etc. angles
angles 2. (m Z l + m Z2) + (m Z3 + m Z 4) + 2. Addition postulate
(m Z 5 + m Z 6) + . . . = 180n
6. Addition postulate or (m Z l + m Z 3 + m Z 5 + . . .) +
. . .
(tn Z 2 -j- m Z 4 -{- tn Z 6 -f- . . = 180n
7. Why? 3. B ut m Z 2 + 'm Z 4 + m Z 6 + . . . = 3. Why?
180(n - 2)
. .) 4. (m Z l + m Z 3 + m Z5 + . . .) + 4. Substitution postulate
8. Substitution postulate
(See step 4.) 180(n - 2) = 180n
9. Subtraction postulate 5. H ence m Z l + m Z 3 + m .Z5 + . . . = 5. Subtraction postulate
180n - 180(n - 2)
or m Z l + m Z 3 + m Z5 + . . . =
180n - 180/t + 360
or m Z l -b m Z 3 + m Z 5 + . . . = 360
For sim plicity, polygons are given nam es in accordance w ith the n um ber
of sides, or angles, they possess. T hus, a three-sided polygon is called a
3-gon; a five-sided polygon is a 5-gon; a tw enty-seven-sided polygon is a
27-gon; etc. Special polygons whose sides are relatively few in num ber a re
m ore often referred to by the nam es listed below.
312 THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON A BRIEF JOURNEY INTO NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 313
N um ber
4. If the sum of the m easures of the angles of a polygon is given by each
of Sides N am e
of the following num bers, how m any sides does the polygon have?
3 triangle or 3-gon
4 (a) 900 (c) 9,360
quadrilateral or 4-gor.
5 (b ) 1,260 (d ) 15 straight angles
prntagon or 5-gon
6 hexogir, or 6-gon 5. If the m easure of each exterior angle of an equiangular polygon is
8 octagon or 8-gon given by each of the following num bers, how m any sides does the polygon
10 dtcagcn or 10-gon have?
12 duodecagon or 12-gon (a) 30 (c) 72
(b) 45 (d) k
Illustration 1:
6. If the m easure of each angle of an equiangular polygon is given by
F ind the sum of the m easures cf the angles of a 15-gon. each of the following num bers, how m any sides does the polygon have?
(a) 165 (c) 172
M ethod : £= (n - 2)180
= (15 - 2)180
(b) 140 (d) k
= 13.180 7. T h e measure of each angle of an equiangular polygon is five times as
= 2,340 large as the m easure of an exterior angle of the polygon. W h at is the
Illustration 2: nam e of the polygon?
8. (a) W h at is the largest m easure an exterior artgle of an equiangular
Find the m easure of each angle of an equiangular 20-gon. polygon m ay have?
M e t h o d : Since the measures of the angles of the polygon are equal, then (b) W hat is the sm allest m easure th at an angle of an equiangular,
the m easures of the exterior angles will also be equal. In view of the fact polygon m ay have?
th a t the sum of the m easures of the exterior angles is equal to 360, then 9. How m any sides does a polygon have if the sum of the m easures of its
dividing 360 by 20 will give the size of each. angles is five times as large as the sum of the m easures of its exterior
E ach exterior angle: 360 -f- 20 = 18 angles?
E ach interior an g le: 180 — 18 = 162 10. T w o angles of a q u ad rilateral are supplem entary. Show th a t th e other
two angles are also supplem entary.
EXERCISES
■ A Brief Journey into Non-Euclidean Geometryf
1. F ind th e sum of the m easures of the angles of each of the following
polygons: E arlier we discussed the possibility of the existence of pos­
(a) 7-gon (d ) pentagon tulates other than the parallel postulate:
(b ) 15-gon (e) octagon “ T h ro u g h a given point there exists only
(c) 100-gon ({) decagon one line th a t is parallel to a given line.”
2. W h a t is the m easure of each exterior angle of each of the following As a consequence of accepting this postulate we were able to prove th at the
eq uiangular polygons? sum of the measures of the angles of any triangle is equal to 180.
(a ) 30-gon (c) hexagon A t this time we w ould like to explore briefly w hat m ight have happened
ha d we not accepted the parallel postulate but instead had assum ed either
(b ) 72-gon (d ) duodecagon
of the following statem ents'.
3. W h a t is the m easure of each interior angle of each of the following
(1) T hro u g h a given point there exist tvvo lines parallel to a given line,
equiangular polygons?
one falling to the right of the given point, the other to the left. (L oba­
(a) 18-gon (c) quadrilateral |
chevsky; see pages 245-247.)
(b ) 40-gon (d ) octagon
t O p t i o n a l to p ic .
 A „ B JOUKMEy HOH-EUCUDEAH GEO^ET.V 3 '»
314 THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON
In R iem annian geometry: T h e sum of th e m easures of the angles of a tr i­
(2) T hrough a given point there exists no lines th a t can be drawn, p a r­
angle is greater than 180.
allel to a given line. T h a t is, two lines will always have a t least one point O u r proof will be separated into two parts. I n P a n A we will show th a t
in comm on. (R iem ann.)
there exists a Saccheri quadrilateral in the figure th at we have draw n. In
Geom etries th a t accept either of the above assum ptions are called Part B we will show that the sum of the m easures of the sum m it angles in
non-E uclidean geometries, for ihey have discarded the Euclidean postu­ this quadrilateral is equal to the sum of the m easures of the angles of the
late on parallelism. All propositions on congruency, other than the A .A .S.
theorem , and all those on perpendicularity apply equally well in the three triangle.
L et A C D E be any triangle.
geometries, as the proof? of these theorem s are not dependent on parallel
lines. W hy was the A.A.S. theorem excluded? All theorem s, however, whose
proofs are based on the concepts of parallelism will differ in the three
geometries.
O u r goal in this short section will be to try to determ ine w hat th e sum
of the measures of the angles of a triangle will be in the two non-E uclidean
geometries. T o simplify our work, we are going to discard the above postu­
lates and replace them w ith equivalent statem ents. T h e new postulates are
based on the quadrilateral in Figure 10-12, whose properties are given a t
the right of the diagram .

PART A (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)

CB 1 A B PROOF
L et G and H be th e m idpoints of D E and C E respectively,
DA 1 A B
DA ~ CB 4—I
L e t G H be the line through points G a n d H.
Figure 10-12. . L e t E F be the line through E th a t is perpendicular to GH.

T his quadrilateral, having two right angles and two congruent sides, . E xtend FG to A so th a t ~Fd = GA.
is called an isosceles birectangular quadrilateral. T h e properties of this
figure were first investigated by a Je su it priest nam ed Saccheri, w ho lived >. E xtend F H to B so th a t P H — H B .
aro u n d the m iddle of the eighteenth century. H e had hoped to show through H A b e the line through points D and A.
5. L et D
his analysis of this- quadrilateral th a t the E uclidean postulate on parallel
7. L et CB be the line through points C a n d B.
lines could be proved. U nfortunately, he m ade several errors in his work.
Now by proving DA — CB and Z A a n d /LB to be right angles, w e can
H ad he not, he w ould probably h ave been the first person to publish m aterial
in the field of non-Euclidean geom etry. show th a t A BC D is a Saccheri quadrilateral.
T h e new postulates to w hich we have referred concern themselves .16. Also, D A ^ F E
w ith th e summit angles, C and D, in the Saccheri quadrilateral. 8 . D G S lG E In a sim ilar m anner, A C B H c& n
9. A G Z * G F be shown to be congruent to
Lobachevsky: T h e sum n.it angles, C and D, are acute angles.
E uclid: T h e sum m it angles, C and D , are right angles. 10. Z l Z2 AEFH.
R iem a n n : T h e sum m it angles, C and D, are obtuse angles. U. A D AG K A EFG 17. H ence, Z C B H is a right angle.

W ith these three postulates as our tools we will now prove that 12. H ence, Z D AG ZEFG
18. A i i d C B ^ F E ,

In Lobachevsky’s geom etry: T h e sum of the measures of th e angles of a 13. V u l E F l G H 19. :.~ C B 5 * T M
T h u s, ZE F G is a right angle. 20. H ence, ABCD is a Saccheri
triangle is less th an 180. 14.
In E uclidean geometry; T h e sum of the measures of the angles of a tri­ ... Z D AG is a rig h t angle. quadrilateral.
15.
angle is equal to 180.
316 THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON A BRIEF JOURNEY INTO NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 317
P ostulate 30: G iven any two num bers a and b, one a n d only one of these
three relationships m ust be tru e: a < b, a — b, a > b. (E xistence a n d
Uniqueness of O rder)
P ostulate 31: Given any three num bers a, b, and c, w here a > b a n d b > c,
then a > c. (T ransitivity of O rder)

PROOF ! PART B (The reasons will be left for you to supply.) I

Illustration:
W e will now show th a t the sum of the m easures of the sum m it angles, A
Z A D C and /.B C D , is equal to the sum of th e m easures of the angles of
Given: m AC > tn A B
A G D £.
Cone) ', tn Z A B C > tn Z C
1. Since A D A G = A BFG, then Z h = Z 4
2. Since A C B H ~ A EFH , then Z 6 S Z5
3. But, m Z l + m Z 8 4- m ZC E D = the sum of the measures of the angles
of t\C D E ■ F ig u re 10-14.
4. m Z J + m Z 8 4- m Z 4 + m Z 5 = the sum of the measures of the REASONS
PPnO F I STATEMENTS
angles of A CDE
1. A line can b e extended as far as
5. H ence, m Z l + m Z 8 + m Z i + m Z 6 — the sum of the measures of 1. Since tn AC > m AB,
the angles of A CDE desired.
let ~AD = ~AB.
6. But, Z 2 + Z l = Z A D C 2. T h ere exists one a n d only one line
1. A nd, Z 6 + Z S = Z B C D 2. L et BD be the line through
through two points.
8, m Z A D C + m Z B C D = the sum of the measures of the angles of points B and D.
3. Why?
A CDE 3 . m Z A B D = tn Z \
4. T h e whole is g re ater th a n any of its
T hus, we have shown th at the sum of the m easures of the angles of any 4. m ZABC > m ZABD
parts.
triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of th e sum m it angles of a Saccheri 5. Substitution postulate
isosceles birectangular quadrilateral. However, 5. m Z A B C > tn ZX 6 . T h e m easure o f a n exterior angle of a
(1 ) In Lobachevsky's geometry we assumed th a t each of the sum m it 6. But, m Z \ > m Z C triangle is greater th an the m easures
angles is acute and, hence, the sum of their m easures is less than 180. of either of th e rem ote in te rio r angles.
(2) In E uclid’s geom etry w e assumed th a t each of the sum m it angles is 7 . Postulate o n transitivity o f o rder
a right angle and, hence, the sum of their m easures is 180. 7. m ZA B C > m ZC
(3) In R iem ann’s geom etry we. assumed th a t ear.h of th e sum m it angles
C a n you justify th a t point D in the above pro o f m ust fall betw een A
is obtuse and, hence, th e sum of their m easures is greater than 180.
a n d C such th a t th e order of points is A, D , C a n d n o t A , C, D?
T herefore, it now follows th a t in each of the three geometries the sum of
the m easures of the angles of a triangle will be respectively either,
( 1) less th an 180 EXERCISES
( 2) equal to 180
( 3 ) ' greater th an 180 1. Prove th a t th e sum m it angles of a
A g reat m any of the theorem s in th e non-E uclidean geometries involve Saccheri quadrilateral a re congru­
relationships betw een num bers th at are unequal. H ence, before consider­
en t. (H in t: D raw E F X A B a t the
ing any problem s, we will have to establish tw o postulates concerning the
relative size of quantities. .O ne of these postulates will indicate the existence m idpoint £ of 5fF.)
a n d uniqueness of th e order of size of two num bers, while the other will 2. Prove th a t the perpendicular bisector of the-/lower base o f a Saccheri
p erm it us to transfer the relation of size of three num bers among themselves. quadrilateral is also the perpendicular bisector of th e u p p er base.
318 THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON 319
TEST AN D REVIEW
3.* G iven: DA X A B
8. G iven: A BC D is a Saccheri quad-
^ n __________ r, __________ r
CB X A 3 rilateral in Euclidean ge- J \
m DA > tn CB
ometry. EF is the X bisec- / \
Concl.: m Z C > m Z D
tor of AB. I________________________ ^
(H int: Find point E such th a t A E — BC. Since A B C E w ill be a Concl.: ~EF ~.~CB A £
Saccheri quadrilateral, we can use inform ation proved in P roblem 1. Problem s 6, 7, and 8 present a ra th e r interesting point of d e p a rtu re
See the m ethod in the illustration on page 317.) for the three geometries:
1. If in Lobachevsky’s geometry two lines have a com m on perpendicular,
4.* G iven: DA J . A B , CB X A B f ------- ---------->C th a t perpendicular segment will be th e shortest o a th betw een the two
m ZC > m ZD lines, for on either side of this comm on perpendicular the two lines will
C o n cl.: m DA > m CB
diverge. (See Problem 6.)
2. If in R iem ann’s geometry two lines have a comm on perpendicular,
(H int: Use the indirect proof by setting up the possibilities in term s th a t perpendicular will be the greatest p a th between the two lines, for
of the assumption on existence and uniqueness of the ord er o f tw o on either side of this comm on perpendicular the two lines a pproach each
num bers. E lim inate two of the possibilities by applying Problem s 1 other. (See Problem 7.)
a n d 3.) 3. If in E uclidean geometry two lines have a com m on perpendicular, they
will h ave m any, many, com m on perpendiculars, all of w hich will be
5. G iven: D A J . A B , C B _L A B
Z C S i ZD congruent. (See Problem 8 .)

Concl.: ~ D A ~ V B
■ Test and Review i-------1

(H in t: Use the indirect proof by setting u p the possibilities in term s

1. U sing the inform ation shown in each diagram , find th e m easures o f
o f th e assumption on existence a n d uniqueness of the ord er of two
quantities. E lim inate two of the possibilities by applying Problem 3.) th e angles m arked x a n d y.

6. Given: ABCD is a Saccheri q u ad ­

rilateral in Lobachevsky’s

geometry. E F is the 1 bi­

sector of AB:
C oncl.: m C B > m E F

(H in t: By Problem 2, Z E F C was shown to be a right angle. H ence,

how do Z E F C and Z C com pare? Now apply Problem 4.)
7. G iven: ABCD is a Saccheri quad­
rilateral in Riem ann’s ge-

ometry. E F is the 1 bisec­

to r of AB.
C oncl.: m E F > m CB.
 341
320 THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON test a n d r e v ie w

—4 .. ___ 15. Justify why the measure of an angle of an eq u ia n g u lar polygon can
2. In A ABC, CR bisects Z A C B and A S is the altitude to BC. A S a n d CR
not be 130?
intersect a t T. If m Z C A S — 40, then w hat is the m easure of Z A T R ? 16. * C an you show in any way th at one of the angles form ed by the al­
3. I f the m easure of one of the acute angles of a rhom bus is 70, then w h a t titudes to two sides of a triangle is congruent to the angle form ed b y
is the m easure of an angle form ed by a diagonal and one of the sides?
(Give two answers.) these sides?
17.* In acute A A B C side BC is extended to po in t D. T h e a ltitu d e B F is
4. If the m easure of one of the acute angles of a right triangle is five times extended to intersect the biscctor of Z A C D a t p o in t E. C a n you show
th a t of the other acute angle, w hat is the m easure of each?
in any way th a t m Z E = \tn ZCT!
5. W h at is the m easure of the acute angle form ed by two of the m edians
of an equilateral triangle?
6. If the m easure of the vertex angle of an isosceles triangle is 66, w h at is B
th e m easure of the obtuse angle form ed by the m edian to the base a n d
th e altitude to a leg? Prove each of th e follow ing.
7. If the sum of the m easures of two of the angles of a triangle is equal to
G iven: A A B C w ith any line 2i
th e m easure of the th ird angle, then w hat can be said of the triangle? t G iven: A A BC is isosceles,
A F intersecting BC
8. If two angles of a triangle are congruent a n d one-half the sum of their w ith I B & 'A C 4-4
m easures is equal to th e m easure of the th ird angle, then w hat can be <-> *-* B E L AF
ED 1 BC <-*
said of th e triangle? <-v *■+ CF ± A F
9. If the m easure of an exterior angle a t the vertex of the vertex angle of E F ± AC
Concl. : Z E B D S IF C D
an isosceles triangle is four times as large as the m easure of its ad jacent C oncl.-. / I —
interior angle, how large is each angle of the triangle?
10. F ind the sum of the measures of the angles of each of the following
polygons: I
(a ) 20-gon (b ) hexagon
11. W hat is the m easure of each interior angle of the following equiangular
polygons?
(a) 24-gon (b ) pentagon
12. T h e sum of the m easures of three angles of a qu ad rilateral is 290. W h at
Given: & A B C is isosceles 4.
is the m easure of the fourth angle? 3. Given: A B C is isosceles
w ith A B ==: AC.
13. (a) If th e m easure of an exterior angle of an equiangular polygon is 12, w ith A B SZAC.
how m any sides does the polygon have? ZC& Zl BA is extended to D.
(b ) If the m easure of an exterior angle of an equiangular polygon is 18, Concl.: A .A D E is isosceles.
D E J .B C
w hat is the sum of the measures of the angles of the polygon?
Concl. A A D F is isosceles.
14. (a) How m an y degrees are there in each exterior angle of an equiangular
6-gon?
(b ) H ow m any degrees are there in each exterior angle of an equiangular
12-gon?
(c) If the n um ber of sides of an equiangular polygon is doubled, how
will this affect the m easure of each exterior angle?
(d ) .If the n um ber of sides of an equiangular polygon is quadrupled,
how will this affect the m easure of each exterior angle?
322 THE ANGLES OF A POLYGON

5. Given: A A B C w ith A B S AC G iven: E F and A B intersect at

B E is the a ltitude to AC. center of G O .
*-r <->
CD is the altiv--.de to AB. AD 1 EF
FG 1 BC BC ± E F
Concl.: FG bisects ZBFC. C oncl.: AD . = BC

c Similar Triangles
Prove each of the following statem ents:
1. Perpendicular line segments are draw n from any point on a given side
of a triangle to the o ther sides of the triangle. If these segm ents m ake
congruent angles with the given side, then the triangle is isosceles.
2. If perpendicular line segments are draw n from the m idpoints of the legs
W E W O U L D L IK E T O T U R N O U R A T T E N T IO N '
to the base of an isosceles triangle, then the segments are congruent.
again to the polygon. Earlier we had devoted tim e to considering those
3. If perpendicular line segments are draw n from two vertices of a triangle
conditions un d er w hich two polygons, particu larly triangles, m ight have th e
to the m edian (extended) from the third vertex, then these line segm ents
sam e “ size” and “ shap e"; th a t is, be congruent. Now, we w ant to investi­
are congruent. gate those properties alone th at give polygons the sam e "sh ap e." Specifically,
4. If two angles of a triangle are com plem entary, then the triangle is a right " --------- u w tKp -nairs of polygons p ictured in Figure 11-1.
triangle.
5. If the sides of one angle are perpendicular respectively to the sides of a
second angle, then the angles are either congruent or supplem entary.
6. I f an altitude of a triangle does not bisect the angle from w hich it is
draw n, then the sides form ing this angle are not congruent.

Figure 11-1.

Basic to th e developm ent of this u n it is a theorem on parallel lines th a t

m ust b e proved,
323
 If
: i
! ^

324
SIMILAR TRIANGLES SIMILAR TRIANGLES 325
T H E O R E M 56; I t th r e e o r m o re p a ra lle l lin e s i n te r c e p t f c o n g ru e n t By allowing line I to be the line through A th a t is parallel to
A n a l y s is :
seg m en ts o n o n e tran sv ersa l, th e y w ill in te r c e p t c o n g ru ­ 4-*^ -
e n t seg m en ts o n e v e ry tran sv ersa l. BC, we will have three parallel lines. Since the transversal A B is c u t into
two congruent segments, we can im m ediately apply T h eo rem 56.
- I

.
I
f
PR O O F
G iven: a II b II c II d I
I T h e proof is left for you to do.
A B S ~BC S CD r
C oncl.: ~ E F £ i F 5 ^ G H i T H E O R E M 58: If a lin e bisects tw o sides of a tr ia n g le , t h e n it is p a r ­
i
i a lle l to th e th ir d side.

Given: D E bisects A B .
<-> —
D E bisects AC.
A n a ly s is : By p ro v in g tria n g le s c o n g ru e n t it is possible to prove t h a t th e
se g m en ts a r e c o n g ru e n t. C oncl.: D E II B C

PROOF (The reasons will be left for you to supply.)

1. L et E P be th e line through E 6. E P ^ A B , 7 :Q ^ ~ B C , G R ^ CD A n a ly sis : Since w e have T h eo rem 57 a t o u r disposal, it w ould seem that an

7. B u t~AB & ~ E U ^ 'U S advisable approach w ould be the indirect proof.

th a t is parallel to A B .
8. /. E F s F i J a * C ? 7 f ( j )
2. Sam e for FQ a n d GR
9. Z P E F £*; ZQ FG ^ Z R G H (a)
3. /. £ ? II FQ II GR 10. Z E F P S ZFGQ S Z G H R (a)
PROOF
4. a It b II c II d 11. ••• A E P F S A FQG S A G R H By the law of the excluded m iddle one of these statem ents '
5. ABPE, BCQF, a n d CDRG a r e HI. 12. F G ^G H m ust be true and no o ther possibility exists:

Establishing this theorem opens the way for the proof of tw o inter­ D E II B C or D E % BC
esting theorems concerning a triangle.
L et us accept th e possibility th a t D E X BC. T h en by th e parallel postulate
T H E O R E M 57: I f a lin e bisects one sid e o f a tria n g le a n d is p a ra lle l
to a second side, th e n it bisects th e th ird sid e o f th e there exists only one line th ro u g h D th a t is parallel to BC. L et this line be
tria n g le .

G iven: D E II BC
<—> _____
D E bisects A S .
<—►
C oncl.: D E bisects AC.

t “ I n t e r c e p t ” w ill m e a n “ c u t o f f.”
DP. Hence, since D P bisects A B , by T heorem 57 it m ust also bisect ~ACl,
T his implies th a t P is the m idpoint of AC and, therefore, m A P — \m AC;
 327
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
326 SIMILAR TRIANGLES
3 . G iven: P is the m idpoint of I B .
G iven: a II b II c 4.
x II y II 2
Q is the m idpoint of I C .
C oncl,: m PQ = \m~ED (H int:
L et R be the m idpoint C oncl. : P $ S i QR
of S C and prove P B R Q
to be a parallelogram .)
S tate as a proposition
w hat you have proved
in this problem.
\ ^—
* _____
j T h e Given D ata, however, informs us th a t D E bisects AC; therefore, tn A E —
’ AC. T hus, m A E = m I f . But this is contradictory to the postulate th a t
th e w hole is greater than any of its parts. Therefore, accepting the possibil-

£ ity th a t D E Jf BC led to the logical inconsistency of the tru th of both

jF m A E = m A F and m I E r- m I P . By the law of contradiction both cannot
| be tru e a t the same tinier Since m A B ^ m I F m ust be tru e as the result
i of a postulate, m A E = m AP m ust be false an d , therefore, the statem ent
v < -» « -+ < -» < ->
D E % BC is also false. Hence, D E II BC is true, for it is the only rem aining
| possibility.
5. G iven: P is th e m idpoint o f IS .
G iven: B M is th e m edian 6.
to A S .
Q is th e m idpoint of A S.
P is th e m idpoint
<-*• ___
EXERCISES C o n c l.: PQ bisects AD. of IB .
R is the m idpoint
of 5C .
A PQ a n d AS II B M
C oncl.; I Q , & ( [ M &
1, By using the diagram below in By using the diagram below in 2.
ttS & S C '
w hich D E is extended so th a t w hich E F iz the line through E
D E £= EF, prove TKeorem 58. parallel to AB , prove T heo­
(H in t: Show th at D B C F is a p a r­
rem 57.
allelogram .)
 328
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
. G iven; B M is th e m edian RATIOS AND PROPORTION 329
G iven: A BC D is a O . ,
to 8:
E is the m idpoint 2. A line that bisects the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid is parallel to the
UP is th e m edian to A B
of AD. bases. (H int: Use the indirect proof; follow the m ethod applied in
R is th e m idpoint of 2RJ. F is the m idpoint Theorem 58.)
PQ and R S II B M of W3. 3. A line that bisects the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid will bisect either
Concl. i T a n d I f are trisection *i—^ <—> diagonal.
C oncl.: B E and D F trisect
points o f PC. 4. If line segments are draw n between the m idpoints of consecutive sides
A AU. (H in t: Prove of a quadrilateral, the quadrilateral formed will be a parallelogram .
_Q B F D E to be a p aral­ 5. If a line is drawn from the m idpoint of the hypotenuse of a rig h t triangle
lelogram ; then let perpendicular to either leg, it will bisect the leg.
-M
S 6. If line segments are draw n from the m idpoints of the legs of a n isosceles
/ II B E a n d m II FD.)
triangle to the m idpoint of the base, then these line segm ents will form
E a rhom bus with the legs of the triangle.
7. If lines are drawn joining the m idpoints of the three sides of a triangle,
then four congruent triangles will be formed.

■ Ratios and Proportion

9. G iven: D , C, a n d E a re the
m idpoints of A B , AF,
G iven: a II 6 Uc
10.
AB S
a n d A U respectively.
Concl.: m S Z E F (H int: Let
C oncl.: Points D , G f and E arc | 4—►
collinear, I A F be the line joining
points A and F.) W hat
is the statem ent of the
space theorem that
you have proved
through this problem?
Before going further, we would like to review briefly a unit
th at you studied in algebra. Necessary to an u n derstanding of the work we
plan to develop is the knowledge of a few simple algebraic principles.
Ratio
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ I A ratio is the quotient of the m easures of two quantities
if the quantities are m easured in the sam e unit.
Thus, if we w anted to com pare the length of a blackboard 24 feet long,
to its w idth of 3 feet, we would merely divide 24 by 3 a n d express the answer
by saying that the length is 8 times as long as the w idth. H ad 3 been divided
by 24, the result would have been designated by saying th a t the w idth is
i the size of the length. Both of these answers can be w ritten in w hat is
known as the ratio form :
8 1
8:1 or - and 1:8 or ~
1 o
In the definition of a ratio we were careful to point out th a t the q u a il'
titles have to be m easured in the same unit before it is possible to com pare
them . Thus, suppose a blackboard is m easured as 24 feet long a n d 36 inches .

¥ wide. Before these m easurem ents can be com pared, they will have to be
expressed in terms of a comm on unit. T h a t is, either the 24 feet willhave
to be changed to inches, or the 36 inches changed to feet. O n the other hand,
the weight of a person, 180 pounds, can never be com pared to his height,
E 6 feet, for it is not possible to express the weight and the height in term s of a
com m on unit of measure.
1. A line th a t bisects one of the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid and is
parallel to th e bases bisects the rem aining side. Proportion
■ ■ ■ ■ A proportion is an equation in w hich the left side and the
right side of the equation are single ratios.
 331
RATIOS AND PROPORTION
330 SIMILAR TRIANGLES
5
Thus, the equation * = $ is a proportion, for it contains a single ratio S o l u t io n :
on each side of the equal sign. T his proportion can also be w ritten in the 5* = 28
form 3:4 = 6 : 8. In either form it can be read in one of two ways: ... by T h e o re m 59 * = 5§ (T h e fourth proportional)
' (1) 3 over 4 equals 6 over S. or
T h e converse of T heorem 59 is also tru e ; th a t is,
(2) 3 is to 4 as 6 is to 8 .
T H E O R E M 60: I f th e p ro d u c t o f tw o n u m b e rs is e q u a l to th e p ro d u c t
T h e genernl proportion is usually written in term s of the elem ents a, b, of two o th e r n u m b e rs , e ith e r p a ir m ay b e m a d e th e
c, and d, and is expressed as m eans o f a p ro p o rtio n , w h ile th e o th e r p a ir is m a d e th e
a- = c or .L
a:b = c'.d , extremes of th e proportion.
b a , * t
In the proportion f = $, w hat 3re the values of o, b, c, and d? E ach of the G iven: xy — w i C oncl.: -
v term s of a proportion is called a proportional. By exam ining the proportion
a: b — c'.d it is easy to realize why the a is called the fa st proportional; the k,
th e second proportional', etc.
Special proportions arise in which the second and th ird term s are 1. Given
1 . xy = u* 2. Reflexive property of equality
identical. Examples of these are
2 . wy = “ V
2 _ _6_ 1= 3 a b 3. If equals a re divided b y equals, the
6 18’ 3 9’ b ~c , 2 1 -H S quotients will b e equal.
wy wy
y Proportions such as these are called mean proportions. In a m ean proportion x
the c is considered as the third proportional to the term s a and b, w hile th e 6 or
w
is referred to as the mean proportional to a and c.
In the general proportion a'.b = c'.d the first and fourth terms of the illustration:
proportion—th a t is, a and d— are called the extremes of the proportion, I f 2x - 3y , then w hat is the ra tio of x toy?
while the second and third proportionals, b and c, arc known as the means.' > S o lu tio n : I n the relation 2x = 3y the p ro d u ct of th e tw o num bers 2 a n d x
A very im portant theorem concerning the relationship between these q u a n ­ is equal to the product of th e num bers 3 a n d y. H ence, T h eo rem 60 c an be
tities is applied. Since x is to be one of the extrem es, th e other m ust be 2, Sim ilarly,
T H E O R E M 59: T h e p ro d u c t o f th e m eans of a p ro p o rtio n is e q u a l to th e since y is the second proportional, 3 will h a v e to be th e th ird .
p ro d u c t of th e extrem es.

Given: = - Concl.: ad - be H ence, ~ y ~ \

b a TH EO R EM 61: If four num bers (a , b, c , d) are in proportion
, . . .... /a + b c + d\
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS th e y a t e in. p r o p o rtio n b y a d d itio n I — - — = —^ — r

i . 2 = - 1. Given a+ b e+ d
b d G iven: r = C oncl.: — ;— = — :—
2. bd = bd b d i d
2. Reflexive property of equality

3. bd • x = b d - C
- 3. If equals are m ultiplied by equals, A n a l y s is : Bv adding 1 to each side of th e equation o~ = a th e conclusion
b a
the products will be equal.
or ad = be
will follow.
T his theorem gives us a handy way of finding any one of th e term s in
a proportion when given th e rem aining three terms.
PROOF
Illustration: T h e proof will be left for you to do.
Find the fourth proportional to 5, 7, and 4.
 332
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
THEOREMS BASIC TO THE PROOFS OF SIMILARITY 333
EXERCISES ________ 6 ft. 8 i;

1. Find the ratio of the following:

(a ) A q u a rte r to a half dollar 17
a+ b
(b ) T w o feet to three inches ( h ) If then 7 = ?
10 ’ o
(c) T e n ounces to two pounds
(d ) T h e len g th of the rcctangle a t the
rig h t to its width. ■ Theorems Basic to the Proofs of Similarity
(e ) T h e m easure of a right angle to T he definition of a ratio insisted th a t the quantities being
th e m easure of a straight angle. com pared be measured in the sam e unit. O u r concern is not w ith the n atu re
2. F ind th e value of x in each of the following proportions: of a unit of measure in general but, rather, w ith the un it th a t pertains
specifically to line segments. In order to clarify this concept, we will have
, . x 5 . . 3 12 to re-examine the m uch earlier discussion we had on the m easure of a line
2 = ?2 (b ); = j
segment.
/ > 5* +1 , 3 2* — 1 As you recall, the m easure of a line segm ent is sim ply the co-ordinate
<c> 7 - —— (d ) 5 - 12 of the right endpoint of the line segm ent w hen the left e n dpoint coincides
with the zero point on the n u m b er line. T hus, in Figure 11-6 the m easure
3. F in d th e fourth proportional if the first three proportionals are
(a ) 2, 3, 8 (b ) 5, 7, 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
(c ) a, b, c (d ) x, 2x, i x ■ 0 ■ ■ 1 1 1 1-------- 1— , b, 1. , 2
i
3
i---------
A « A I
4. F in d th e th ird proportional of a m ean proportion if the first a n d second Figure 11-6. F ig u re 11-7.
proportionals are
(a ) 2, 4 (b ) 4, 12 (c) 3, 5 (d ) a, b of A B would be 6, for the co-ordinate o f 3 is 6 on the n u m b e r line. T h e
nam e given to the segm ent a whose endpoints are “ 0”. a n d “ 1” is the unit
5. F ind the m ean proportional of a m ean proportion if the first and th ird
proportionals are of measure on this num ber line. T hus, the unit of m easure, a, is contained an
exact, or integral, number of times, 6, in A B . H a d we doubled o u r u n it of m eas­
(a ) 1 ,4 <b) 3, 12 (c) \ , 18 (d ) 2a, 8a
ure, as we did in Figure 11-7, then the m easure of A B w ould now be 3 rath er
6 . W rite eight different proportions expressing a relation between 3, 4 , 2,
th an 6. Again, the unit of m easure, b, is contained an integral num ber of
an d 6 if 3 ’4 = 2 ’6.
times in AB . T o avoid confusion as to w hether the m easure of A B is 6 or 3,
7. I f 5a = 74, then w hat is the ratio of a to 6? or any other num ber depending on the selection of the u n it of m easure, we
8. C om plete each of the following proportions under the conditions g iv en : say th a t m A B is 6 in a units or m A B is 3 in A units. In reality, w hen w e
consider the definition of the sum of line segments, it is often far better to
(a ) If 2x = 4y, then - = ?
express these relations as
( b ) I f 3 -4 = 4*, then } = ?
A B = 6a or A B = 3i
(c) If 5 •7 = 2y, th en | = ?
Pursuing this further, we see a common unit of m easure to two line seg­
m ents will be one th a t is contained in both segments a n exact, or integral,
(d ) If x 5 = ab, then - = ?
* num ber of times. Specifically, if the inch was contained in UD 9 J times a n d
in ~EP times, then a com m on u n it of m easure for these two line segments
(e) If * = -± I = ?
then X
is the ^ inch. It wili be contained 38 times in UD an d 29 times in EF.
CO I f f = i t h e n ^ = ?
5 i
C D £
 334 SIMILAR TRIANGLES 335
THEOREMS BASIC TO THE PROOFS OF SIMILARITY
U nfortunately, all line segm ents do n o t have a com m on u n it of m eas­
7. At each point of division on A B 1. Parallel postulate
ure. Line segments th at do are called by the frightening n am e of commsnsu-
v rable segments. Those that do not have a comm on unit of m easure arc called <-+ \ t ' 7
v draw a line parallel to AC. !
incommensurable segments. T here are several pairs of incom m ensurable seg­
m ents with which you have had contact in the past. T he circum ference of a 8. But D E II BC 8 . Given
circle and the diam eter of the sam e circle have no comm on un it of m easure. 9. Hence, each of these lines is 9. If two lines are parallel to the
T h e unit of m easure that fits into the diam eter exactly 1 tim e will fit into parallel to each other and to sam e line, then they are parallel
the.circum ference approximately 3.1416 tim es; it can not fit into the circu m ­ to each other.
ference exactly. Another p air of line segments th at are incom m ensurable DE.
are the leg and hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle. 10. These parallels intersect con- 10. If th ree or m ore parallel lines
T he proof of the next theorem necessitates finding a com m on u n it of congruent segments called 6 on intercept congruent segm ents
m easure to two line segments. As ju st explained, this does not always exist. on one transversal, they in te r­
AC.
Hence, our proof is true only un d er the condition that the line segments are cept congruent segments on ev­
commensurable. We will assume, how ever i-. th a t this theorem is also true w hen ery transversal.
the line segments are not com m ensurable. T his is proved in m ore advanced N ote th a t there exists a one-to-one correspondence betw een each of
fields of m athematics.
the “a” units and each of the “ A” units.
THEOREM 62: If a lin e is parallel to one side of a trian gle, th en the 11. Def. of the sum of line segm ents
ratios o f the measures o f corresponding segm ents o f the
11. Hence, ~AE = kb
other two sides w ill b e equal. 12. m 1 E = k 12. Sam e as 4

13. And ~EC = pb 13. Sam e as 11

A
14. m EC — fi 14. Sam e as 4
G iven: AD and D B are com m ensurable.
m~AE _ k 15. Sam e as 6
D E II BC 15.
m SC J
C o n cl.: ■ m AE m AD m AE 16. T ransitive property of equality
16.
m liC

| PROOF j STATEMENTS REASONS

1. A B and B B are commensurable. 1. Given
2. Let a be the com m on un it of 2 . Def. of com m ensurable line
m easure for A B a n d B B . segments
3. L et a fit into A B k times and 3. Def.. of a un it of m easure
into B B p times.
For the sake of simplifying our symbols, we will use the following
4. m A B = k
4. Def. of the m easure of a line n o ta tio n :
segment m ~AD = a m HE = c m AB — e
5. m D B — p 5. Sam e as 4 mD B = b m EC —u m ~AjC = /
, m AD k
6. — — «= - 6 . Division postulate Now the proportion
m DB P I m AD ^ m AE
Now we will try to . ; , W th a t th e ratio of the measures of XE and EC m DB tn EC
is also k over p.
can be rew ritten in the m uch sim pler form of
 336 SIMILAR TRIANGLES 337
THEOREMS BASIC TO THE PROOFS OF SIMILARITY
a _ c
b ~ d 4—> ►
A n a ly s is : We will use the indirect proof by assum ing th a t D E % BC and
T h e above relation is b u t one of the m any different proportions th a t
<—* 4—5 show that this leads to the logical inconsistency th at A E = IF a n d A E ££ AP.
will hold if D E II BC (see Figure 11-10). From the theorem on addition,
T heorem 61, this proportion will lead to the truth of
a -j- b __ r -j-a' ! _ mA B m PROOF
b d b d m £)£[ m EC By the law of the excluded m iddle one of th e following
F rom th e theorem th a t th e product of the m eans is equai to the pro d u ct of statements is true and no other possibility exists:
th e extrem es, th e m iddle proportion above will becom e
» 4*4 <-4
e X d ^ b X f ( 1) DEWBC or D E X BC
and, on the basis of T heorem 60, this product can be rew ritten as eight 4-4 <-4 H
L et us accept the possibility th a t D E X B C ‘, then, th ro u g h D let D P be
different proportions. Sim ilarly, the original proportion th a t was obtain ed
a x
from T h eo rem 62 can be w ritten as the line that is parallel to BC. By Theorem 62. - = -> w here x is the m eas­
aXd = bXc (2)
ure of I F . Hence, it follows th a t
T h is product, too, w i^ lead to eight different proportions. Finally, by tra n s­
form ing one o f th e proportions found in (2), - — by the use of the a d d i­ e
tion theorem , it follows th at Similarly, from the Given D a ta
b -f a _ d -f- c e_ [ m AB _ m AC a _ c
a c a cm AD m AE *~ f
F rom this proportion we obtain a third p roduct: . therefore
c = a- * l
<X c = a X / (3) e
th a t will also lead to eighl different proportions. T heorem 62 will be q u o ted T hus, we can say th a t x — c by the transitive p roperty of equality. B at we
w hen applying any one of these 24 different proportions. have a postulate stating th a t the whole is greater th a n any of its parts.
At first glance it w ould seem alm ost impossible to try to recall these
24 proportions. You will find, however, th a t you will alm ost autom atically T his implies th a t x > c. T herefore, accepting the possibility th a t .Dis Jf B C
sense proportions th a t are n o t true. T hus, you will never cross the “ parallel” led to the logical inconsistency of the tru th of both x — c a n d x ^ c. By
w hen setting u p a ra tio ; th a t is, the ratio a'.d will equal n o o ther ratio, n o r the law of contradiction both cannot be true a t the sam e tim e. Since x ^ c
will b:c. Sim ilarly, th e proportion starting w ith i\c cannot be com pleted. m ust be true as the result of a postulate, then x — c m ust be false and, there-
W e a re m ore fortunate w ith the converse of T heorem 62; it is n o t
fore, the statem ent D E X B C is also false. H ence, D E || B C is true, for it is
nearly so lengthy n o r so difficult. O n the o th er hand, its im portance is n o t
n early so g re at either. the only rem aining possibility.
T H E O R E M 63; I f a lin e intersects tw o sides o f a trian gle j o that th e In view of the previous few proofs it.should be q u ite a p p are n t th a t
ratios o f the measures o f corresponding segm ents are the symbolism involving the measures of line segm ents can becom e so in- :
equal, then the lin e is p arallel to the third side,’
volved as to be distracting. However, since th e m easures of lin e segments
are im portant to the developm ent of the w ork on sim ilar polygons, it was
imperative that our symbols be simplified. I t was for ju s t this occasion th a t
we had been waiting to introduce the symbol A B w ithout a n y th in g above it.
E ach tim e A B was w ritten earlier in our w ork, it w as eith er
4~4 ^
(1) a line, A B w ritten w ith the double arro w above i t
■4
or ( 2) a ray, A B w ritten w ith the single arrow above it
or (3) a segment, A B w ritten w ith a segm ent above it
 338 SIMILAR TRIANGLES
THEOREMS BASIC TO THE PROOFS OF SIMILARITY 339
i I I H enceforth, should A B ap p ear w ith no m ark above it, it will signify th a t
' 1 it represents the measure of the line segment AB. Thus,

AB — m AB G iv e n : S T I PQ
F or the diagram a t the right com plete
Numerical Illustration: each of the following proportions:

(a ) RP: RS = ? (b) Q T : T R = ?
(d ) P S'.Q T = ? (e) Q R :P R = ?
G iven: D E II A B
CE = 4, CD = 6, B D = 2 3. G iv en : V W || Y Z
T o find: AC
For the diagram at the right com plete
each of the following proportions. If
F ig u re 11-12. any of them can not be completed, in­
dicate this by drawing a line through
A n a l y sis : It is suggested th a t each of the six segments be labeled as was the equality sign.
was done in the triangle above. Always labeling the m easure of the segm ent
YV XW ?
th a t you are asked to find w ith the symbol x will avoid one of th e possibil­ (a) <b) VY
=

ities of error. You are now free to choose any one of the 24 different pro p o r­ WZ
tions th a t follow when a line is parallel to one side of a triangle. T w o are XV
shown here. <d)
xw
VY
(h) W Z
First Solution Second Solution

jc _ 8 4 = 6
4 “ 6 x - 4 2 4. G iven: D E II BC
6 x — 22 8 = 6 * — 24 In term s of the diagram a t the right
x = 5$ 5J = x find the measures requested.

(a ) AD = 2, D B = 4, A E = S, E C = ?
EXERCISES (b ) DB = 6, EC = 8, A E = 5, A D = ?
(c) AE = 5, AD '= 4, EC = 7, A B = ?
(d ) AB = 12, AD = 3, A E = 4, EC = ?
A (e ) A B = 10, AC = 12, EC = 8, D B - ?
(f) D B = 8, A B = 18, A E = 12, A C = ?

1. G iven: D E II BC 5. G iven: R S ] \ X Z
For the diagram a t the right com plete In term s of the diagram a t the right
each of the following proportions: find the measures requested.

(a) X R = 4, R Y = 6, KS = 8 , S Z = ?
(b) YX = 12, YZ = 16, SZ = 4, F/? = ?
(c) - O = 5, W = 10, S Z = 6; X Y = ?
(d ) y fl = YS, R X = 1, S Z ~ 1
(e ) FA" = Y Z , Y S = 9, Y R = ?
 THEOREMS BASIC TO THE PROOFS OF SIMILARITY 341
340 SIMILAR TRIANGLES

5. Given: AD bisects Z B A C .
G iven: A R bisects exterior 6.
6. U n d er w hich of th e following condi- /.Q A B .
BE \\ AD
tions will D E be parallel to A B in the BP II RA
CA _ CD
diagram a t the right? C oncl.
AB DB RC _ 4 £
Concl.
R B '~ A B
(a) AC = 10, CD = 4, EC = 2, BC = 5
(b ) AC = 12, AD = 8, EC = 3, BC = 9
(c) £C = 6 , BC = 14, /ID = 12, DC = 8
(d ) <4D = 6, BC = 14, BC = 18, DC = 21
(e ) = 20, D C = 10, AC = 25, BC = 36

B
1. G iven: /ID II E F II BC G iven:
AD _ D S 7. G iven: ABCD is a trapezoid
£C QR I A B
with A D II BC.
C o n c l, A * DF C oncl.: D R '.R C = D Q :Q B C oncl.: R S II BC
AB AQ
A P :P B = D Q :Q B
C oncl.: Points P, Q, and R
are collinear.

3 . G iven: A B \\ CD G iven: D E II AC

E B II FD
PE PA
D C II AP
B E _ BC 9. G iven: D F W A C
G iven: plane a ll plane 4 I 10.
C o n c l.: Concl. plane c
PF PC EC CP
D E II A B _ , AB AD
^ H in t: Prove both ra- C oncl.:
BC DE
C oncl.: E F II BC
tios equali .to B D \
 342
l£l
1. ff a line is parallel to the bases of a trapezoid, it divides the two diagonals
into tw o eqaal ratios.
2. If a line is draw n intersecting the legs of an isosceles triangle so as to
form a second isosceles triangle, then it is parallel to the base.
3. I f a line intersects two sides of a triangle b u t is not parallel to the th ird .
side, then it does not divide the first tw o sides into tw o equal ratios.
4. I f a line intersects two sides of a triangle but does not divide these tw c
sides into two equal ratios, then it is not parallel to the th ird side.
5. In space geom etry t.Lree parallel planes will divide tw o segm ents in to
two equal ratios.
| Similar Triangles
W e have drifted so far from the goal th a t w e h a d set for
ourselves a t the outset of this chapter th at it w ould seem th a t w e m ay have
lost sight of w here we are going. O riginally our objective was to establish
conditions under w hich polygons w ould have th e “ sam e sh ap e,” a lth o u g h
not necessarily be congruent. O u r detour, though seemingly lengthy, was
indeed im perative for th e proofs th a t are to follow_____
T he m athem atical term for the wor^s “ same shape” is the w 4 id similar]
B ut to show polygons sim ilar by trying to prove th at they have the “ sam e
shape” would be as difficult as trying to prove polygons con g ru en t b y som e­
how establishing the fact th at they “ fit exactly.” T h e term s “ sam e sh ap e”
or “ fit exactly” are far too vague to lend themselves to a precise m eaning.
H ence, similar polygons will be defined in a m anner m uch th e sam e as
used when defining congruent polygons, f
D 69: Sim ilar polygons are two polygons in w hich there exists a
e f in it io n
one-to-one correspondence between the vertices such th at
(1) All th e corresponding angles are congruent.
(2) All the ratios of the measures of the corresponding sides are equal.
H ow do we interp ret this in the case of our m ost im p o rta n t polygon,
the triangle? T here are six correspondences that can be a rranged between
2c ^ > \ 2o
F i g u r e 1 1 -1 3 .
t I t m ig h t b e a d v is a b le to r e v ie w p a g e s 1 1 4 th r o u g h 120.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
SIMILAR TRIANGLES 343
the vertices of two triangles. If any one o f these leads to the corresponding
angles being congruent and the ratios of the m easures of the corresponding
sides being equal, then these triangles will be sim ilar. T o illustrate, exam ine
the two triangles above. T he six correspondences are
1 2 3
A B C ^P Q R A B C <-> PRQ ABC*->Q PR
4 5 6
ABC<->QRP A B C «-> RPQ A B C ^> R Q P
Any other correspondence th a t can be set u p for the sets of elements
{A, B, C} and {P, Q, R} by rearranging the elem ents in {A, B, C} will sim ­
ply be equivalent to one of the sin correspondences above. From the m ark ­
ings in the triangles, since /CA is not congruent to Z P , it follows im m ediately
th a t neither the first nor second correspondence can be a similarity corre­
spondence. In the same way, we can discard the th ird a n d fourth correspond­
ence. In both the fifth and sixth, Z A is congruent to its corresponding angle,
Z R ', however, in th e sixth, Z B is n o t congruent to its corresponding angle,
Z Q . H ence, th e sixth correspondence is o u t also.
A lthough the corresponding angles are congruent in the fifth corre­
spondence, we m ust investigate still fu rth er to see if the ratios of the m eas-'
ures of the corresponding sides are also equal.
A B C «-> RPQ
F rom our understanding of a correspondence between the vertices of two
polygons, the three pa,irs of corresponding sides will be
A B and HP ~BC and TQ AC and RQ
T h e m arkings in the diagram indicate th a t their ratios will be
AB = s, £ £ * = £ , AC _ 5
RP 2 PQ 2 RQ 2
H ence
A B _ B C _ AC
RP PQ RQ
Now, finally, since there exists a correspondence in which both the corre­
sponding angles are congruent a n d the ratios of the m easures of th e cor- .
responding sides are equal, w e can say th a t the triangles are sim ilar. H a d
the fifth correspondence, too, failed to hold u n d e r these tw o conditions, it
w ould follow th a t these triangles w ere not similar.
K
T o have to prove triangles congruent by resorting to the definition
w ould be a long and tiresome process. H ence, a n um ber of' m ethods w ere
developed (S.A.S., A.S.A., etc.) to drastically shorten this process. So, too,
is the case for similar, triangles. W e plan, now, to prove several theorem s
th a t will enable us to show triangles to be sim ilar u n d e r less trying conditions
th an those needed for polygons in general. In fact, our theorems will show
th a t if b u t one of the two requirem ents for sim ilarity can be shown to hold,
triangles will be sim ilar. This is not tru e for a n y other polygons.
 344 SIMILAR TRIANGLES
T H E O R E M 64: T w o tria n g le s a re sim ila r i f th e re exists a c o rre sp o n d ­ SIMILAR TRIANGLES 345
ence b e tw e e n the vertices in w h ic h th e c o rre sp o n d in g
a n g le s a r e co n g ru en t.
In the same way, h a d po in t R been
__ __
found on BC so th a t B R = E F and
G iven: ZA ~ ZD Z B R S was m ade congruent to ZC, it
ZB ~ ZE u , AB BC
ZC S ZF could be shown th a t — = — •
Da EjP
C oncl.: A A B C ~ ADEF\

A B _ AC BC
12. Hence, 12. T ransitive property of equality
' DE DF EF
A n a l y s is : Since the corresponding angles a re already congruent by th e
G iven D a ta , it is m erely necessary to prove th a t 13. A A B C ~ A DEF 13. Reverse oC the def. of sim ilar poly­
gons
A B = A C = BC
DE DF EF As though this m ethod for proving triangles to be sim ilar was not sim­
ple enough to apply, there is yet a shorter m ethod. By a n 'e a rlie r theorem
I f this is true, then by the reverse of the definition of sim ilar polygons w e
can conclude th a t the tri vagles a re similar. we know th a t if two angles of one triangle are congruent respectively to
two angles of a second triangle, then the th ird angles will be congruent.
Hence, ra th e r than prove three pairs of corresponding angles to be con­
PROOF STATEMENTS

1. L et P be a point on A B , ex­
REASONS
□ gruent to show th a t triangles are similar, we need m erely prove two pairs
congruent. H aving proved these to be congruent, the congruence of the
1. A line can be extended as far as third pair will im m ediately follow by the theorem ju st quoted.
ten d e d if necessary, such desired.
T H E O R E M 65: T w o tria n g le s a re sim ilar i f th e r e exists a c o rre sp o n d ­
th a t I P ^ "HE.
ence b e tw e e n th e vertices in w hich-tw o- p a irs of c o rre ­
2. L et Z A P Q S Z B
2. A t a given point on a line there sp o n d in g a n g le s a re c o n g ru en t! (A.A. T heorem on Sim-,
exists an angle th a t is congruent to ilarity)
any given angle.
3. PQ II B C
3. Why?
4. Z E S Z B PR O O F
4. Why?
5. Z A P Q £* Z E
5. W hy?
6. Z A S ZD T h e proof will be left for you to do.
6. Why?
7. /. A D E F ^ A A P Q T here is a likeness betw een the statem ents on congruence and those
7. W hy?
8. Since I F ~~ 25E on sim ilarity. T o prove triangles congruent, we need not only two pairs of
8. See step 1.
. 9. A n d A ^ ^ S F corresponding angles to be congruent b u t also a p air of corresponding sides.
9. Why?
If merely the two pairs of angles are congruent, the triangles will be similar,
in n + dC
10' ~AP ~ AQ 10. If a line is parallel to one side o f a not congruent. T hus, the A .A . theorem on sim ilarity is com parable to the
A.A.S. theorem o r A.S.A. postulate on congruency. In the sam e way there
triangle, then the ratios of th e m eas­
will be two further theorem s on sim ilarity to com pare w ith the S.S.S. and
ures of the corresponding segm ents
6'./4.5. m ethod for proving triangles congruent.
of the o th er sides will be equal.
11.
" DE DF 11, Substitution postulate T H E O R E M 66: T w o tria n g le s a re sim ilar i f th e r e exists a c o rre sp o n d ­
ence b e tw e e n th e vertices i n w h ic h th e ra tio s of th e
t T h e s y m b o l fo r t h e w o r d s im ila r is m easures of tw o p a irs of c o rre sp o n d in g sides a^e e q u a l
a n d th e a n g le s in c lu d e d b e tw e e n each p a ir o f sides a re
c o n g ru e n t. (S.A .S. T heorem on Sim ilarity)
 346
SIMILAR. TRIANGLES SIMILAR TRIANGLES 347
A n a ly sis : We will try to prove the two triangles sim ilar by show ing th a t
G iv e n : Z A two pairs of angles are congruent. T his can be "'one by showing th a t both
Z B and Z E are congruent to Z l , and also th a t both Z C and Z F are. con­
d i = AC
DE DF gruent to Z 2.

Concl.: A A B C ~ A D E F
REASONS
STATEMENTS
PROOF
1. L et P be a point on AB, ex­ 1. Why?
A n a l y sis : Since we already know th a t Z .4 =
Z D , by show ing th a t Z B is tended if necessary, such that
congruent to Z E the two triangles will be sim ilar upon the basis of the A .A .
theorem on similarity.
2. L et Q be a point on AC, ex­ 2. Why?
PROOF 1 STATEMENTS tended if necessary, such that
REASONS
1. L et P be a point o n A B , extended if 1. Why? A B = AC 3. W hy?
necessary, such th a t A P — U E. 3.
DE DF
. AB _ A C 4. Substitution postulate
2 . L et Q be a point on AC, extended if 2 . Why? 4> A P ~ AQ
necessary, such th a t /RJ = 25F.
5. If a line intersects tw o sides o f a
3. -ZA £* Z D (a) 5. PQ II BC
3. Given triangle such th a t the ratios of
4. A A P Q £* A D E F
4. S.A.S. th e m easures of corresponding
5. Z E ~ ^1
5. Why? segments are equal, then th e
AB AC.
6. line is parallel to the third side.
DE. DF v 6. Given
AS AC 6 . Z B S Z Z l and Z C ^ Z 2 6. W hy?
7. 7. Substitution postulate 7. A .A . theorem on sim ilarity
AP AQ 7. A A B C ~ AAPQ
(See steps 1 a n d 2.)
8. PQ || BC A B _ BC 8. D ef. of sim ilar polygons
8 . Why? 8’ AP PQ
9. Z B a - Z \ 9. Why?
9. Why? 9. A B -P Q = BC-AP
10. Z B ~ .Z E (a)
10. W hy? (See ste p s'5 a n d 9.) BC-AP 10. Division postulate
11. A A B C ~ A D E F 10 . PQ = - j j f
11. A.A. theorem on sim ilarity
11. Substitution postulate
™ B C -D E
T H E O R E M 67: T w o tria n g le s a re sim ila r i f th e r e exists a c o rre sp o n d ­ U ' P<2 ~ AB (See step 1.)
ence b e tw e e n th e v e rtice s i n w h ich th e ra tio s o f th e r, AB BC 12. Given
12. But = EF
pp
m easures o f c o rre sp o n d in g sides a r e e q u a l. (S.S.S. T h e ­
orem on Sim ilarity) BC-D E 13. Sam e as 9 and 10
A 13. H encc, E F AB
14. Why?
14. PQ = EF
G iv e n : A B AC BC
15. J.J.S .
EE D F ~ EF 15. Hence, A A P Q = A D E F
16. Z E S Z l and Z F & Z 2 16. Why?
C oncl.: & A B C '~ A D E F 17. W hy? (See steps 16 and 6.)
17. ZjS Z E and Z C £■ Z F
18. A .A . theorem on sim ilarity
18. A A B C ~ A D E F
Figure 11-17,

I
 349
348 SIMILAR TRIANGLES SIMILAR TRIANGLES
4. In A A B C below find the lengths of the rem aining sides.
Illustration:

G iven: IE
and- BD a r t altitudes in
A ABC.
Concl.: A A E C ~ A B D C
F in d th e l e n g th o f s id e BC in t h e d i a g r a m b e l o w .

Figure 11-18.

A n a l y s i s : Y o u w ill f i n d t h a t in m o s t c a s e s t h e b e s t a n d u s u a l l y t h e o n l y
m e t h o d t o a p p l y to p r o v e t r i a n g l e s s i m i l a r is t h e A.A. th e o r e m o n s im ila rity .
T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e w h e n no i n f o r m a t i o n is g i v e n c o n c e r n i n g e q u a l
r a t i o s a s is t h e c a s e i n t h i s p r o b l e m .

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

6. T h e stick 6 feet long casts a shadow 4 feet long. T h e flag pole casts a
1. I E a n d 5 5 are altitudes 1. Given shadow 24 feet long a t the sam e time. H ow h igh is th e flag pole? C an
in A ABC.
you explain w hy th e triangles a re similar?
2. A E X BC 2. Def. of an altitude
3. Z A E C is a right angle. 3. Def. of perpendicular lines

4. B D J_ AC 4. Same as 2
5. A B D C is a right angle. 5. Sam e as 3
6. Z A E C = A B D C (a) 6. Why?
7. Z C 9 * Z C (a ) 7. Why?
8. AAEC~ABD C 8. A.A. theorem on sim ilarity

shadow
EXERCISES
7. In the d iag ra m below; th e m an is 6 feet tall, w hile his shadow is 9 feet
long. If th e lam p post is 30 feet high, how far is th e m a n from the lam p

W post? C an you explain w hy the triangles a re similar?

1. T h e sim ilarity correspondence between A R S T and A X Y Z is of th e

form JUST *-*Y X Z . W h at three ratios will be equal?
2. T h e sim ilarity correspondence between A A B C and A D E F is of the
form A B C * ^ F D E . If A B = 6, BC = 5, AC = 9, a n d F E = 3, then
w hat are the m easures of ~FD and DE?
3. W h at conditions w ould have to exist under which it would be possible
to' have two distinct sim ilarity correspondences between the vertices of
two triangles?
 T f
351
350 SIMILAR TRIANGLES SIMILAR TRIANGLES
8. In the diagram below find the distance across the pond. 5. G iven: ABCD is a parallelo-
G iven: A B II EF 6 .
i—)■
AC II D F
gram in which A D has
Concl.: A A B C ~ A P E D
been extended to E.
C oncl.: A A B E ~ A C F B

9. (a ) By using the theorem th a t if four num bers are in proportion, they

are in proportion by addition (T heorem 61), can you show th a t the
ratio of the perim eters of two sim ilar triangles is equal to th e ra tio
of the measures of any two corresponding sides. (T he perim eter of
a triangle is the sum of the m easures of its sides.)
(b ) T he perim eters of two sim ilar triangles are 24 and 18 respectively.
If the m easure of a side of the first is 8, find the m easure of the side 7. G iven: A A B C is isosceles w ith
G iven: D E I! A B 8 .
corresponding to this one in the second triangle. I B S * A ?. D F II AC
C oncl.: A D E F ~ A A B C
D E L AB

[F DF L A C
C oncl.: A D E B ~ A D F C

1, G iven: D E II A B G iven: A B L B E
Concl.: A A B C ^ A E D C
CD X B E
C oncl.: A A B E —■A C D E

B E _ BC_ 10.
9 . G iven: A B = A C G iv en :
AC BD
*-*
AD X BC
3 . G iven: A B i . B C " G iven; UD and B E are alti­ 4. <-*■
Z l S /2
C o n c l.: A A B D ~ A E B C
tudes of A ABC. E F X AC
ED L A C
Concl.: A D P B ~ A E F C . C oncl.: A A B D - A E C F
C oncl.: A A E D ~ A A B C
A
352
11. G iven: A A B E ^ A A C D
C oncl.: A A D E ~ A A B C
(H in t: Use S.A.S. the­
orem on sim ilarity.)
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
PROVING RATIOS EQUAL A N D PRODUCTS EQUAL 353
Given: ADCC = AEFB 12.
Z l S Z2 B Proving Ratios Equal and Products Equal
C o n c l: A A F G ~ A A B C After we had proved two triangles to be congruent, it was
possible for us to conclude th a t the corresponding sides and corresponding
angles were congruent. In the sam e way, once triangles have been shown to
be similar, the definition of sim ilar polygons leads us to the fact th at th e
ratios of the m easures of the corresponding sides will be equal. As an exam ­
ple, consider the triangles in Figure 11-19. W ere it necessary to prove th a t
A B = 7^
BC;, we w ould show, in some m anner, th a t A A B C ~ A R S T , T h e
rO 01

0
1. T w o rig h t triangles are sim ilar if a n acute angle of one is congruent to
a n acute angle of the other,
2. T w o triangles th a t are sim ilar to the sam e triangle are sim ilar to each definition of sim ilar polygons w ould then enable us to conclude th at the
other. tw o ratios w ere equal.
3. E quilateral triangles are similar triangles. T here are tim es w hen th e proportion m ay be w ritten as

4. I f from each of two points on the bisector of an angle perpendiculars are

draw n, one to each side of the angle, two sim ilar triangles will be formed. H = (See Figure 11-19.) (1).

•5. If two triangles have their sides respectively parallel, th en th e triangles

are similar.
6. An altitude to the hypotenuse of a right triangle will divide the triangle
into two triangles such th at either of these triangles will be sim ilar to the
original triangle.
7. I f from two points, one on each leg of an isosceles triangle, perpendiculars
are dropped to the base, the two triangles form ed will be similar.
8. If tw o parallel lines intersect tw o intersecting lines a n d form two tri­
angles, these two triangles will be similar.
9. T w o isosceles triangles a re sim ilar if a base angle of one is congruent
to a base angle of the other.
10. If two sim ilar triangles have a pair of corresponding sides congruent,
then the triangles are congruent.
11. T w o isosceles rig h t triangles are similar.
12. T h e line segmfents joining the midpoints of the sides of a triangle form a
' triangle th a t is sim ilar to the original triangle.
th a t is, w here th e term s in each ratio come from a single triangle ra th e r
th an being corresponding sides in the two triangles. W e know, however,
th a t the above proportion leads to the product
A B - S T = B C -R S
T his product, in turn, can be rew ritten as any one of eight different propor­
tions. O n e of these is
M =m (2)
RS ST w
w hich is identical to the proportion discussed earlier a n d involves the ratios
of the corresponding sides of the triangles. In proportion (1) the correspond­
ing sides w ere the first and th ird proportionals; also th e second a n d fourth.
F rom our analysis above we see th a t this can v e rew ritten in form (2),
w here the corresponding sides ap p ear as the first a n d second proportionals;
also the third a n d fourth. H ence, we will consider th a t either form (1) or
form (2) follows from the fact th a t triangles are similar.
 355
354 SIMILAR TRIANGLES PROVING RATIOS EQUAL AND PRODUCTS EQUAL

Illustration: EXERCISES

G iven: ABCD is a parallelogram .

0 <-> «-*
A E 1 BC G iven: AD _L CD
1 . G iven: A B X BD
«-+ *->
A F 1 CD CB 1 AB
D E I BD
AD _ BC
A B _ BC Concl.
C o n c l.' D E ~ DC DE BE
f ig u re 1J-20.

PROOF (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)

1. A BCD is a parallelogram . 6. Z A F D is a right angle.

2. Z B = /.D 7. Z A E B =~ Z A F D
8. A A B E ~ A A D F
3. A E L BC
A B _ AD
4. / A E B is a right angle. 9.
AE AF
3 . G iven: Z C is a right angle.
G iven: ABCD is a trap e ­ 4.
5. A F 1 CD (Def. of sim ilar polygons)
zoid w ith A D II BC.
Situations also arise in w hich we m ay be asked to prove th a t two product D E 1 AB
AE AD
relations are equal. T hus, in th e illustration above consider th e conclusion o f: „ . AD AE C o n cl.:
Concl.: EC BC
AB AC
A B - A F = A E -A D
Since these four num bers can be expressed as the proportion
AB AD
AE ■A F

th e proof of this problem becomes identically the same as the one illustrated
w ith one additional s te p :

10. A B -A F = A D -A E 10. T h e product of the m eans of a pro­

5 . G iven: ABCD is a p a ral­
G iven: ~SD and V E are al­ 6.
portion is equal to the product of titudes in A ABC.
lelogram.
the extremes. D F _ CF
AB _ DE C oncl.: l B p
As a w ord of suggestion, should a conclusion call for show ing th a t the Concl.:
AF FE
p roduct of the measures of two segments is equal to the product of the m eas­
ures of two other segments, rew rite these four num bers in the form of a pro­
portion. By exam ining the term s of the proportion, the triangles th a t m ust
be shown to be sim ilar can m ore readily be determ ined th a n from the
p ro d u ct form.
R em em ber that, as before, in most instances the first and second pro­
portionals will be the m easures of line segments in the first triangle, while
the third and fourth proportionals will be the measures of line segments
in the second triangle. If this is not so, then the first and third proportionals
■will be the measures of line segm ents in the first triangle, while the rem aining
proportionals will be the m easures of segments in the second triangle.
356
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
PROVING RATIOS EQUAL A N D PRODUCTS EQUAL 357
G iven: A E and B D are al­
titudes in A ABC.
Given: A A B C ^ ^ R S T 8.
•—►
AD bisects Z B A C . 13 . G iven: D F || A B Given: A A C D is equilateral. 14 .
Concl.: ~ = ~ /‘ Z\ S Z l C and D a re trisection
CD CB
R W bisects Z S R 1 Concl.: BC'.AC = B D : A F points of B E.
Concl.: Conci.: (A B Y = B C -B E
AB RS
A

9 . G iv e n : A A B C ~ A R S T
S B is an altitude
Given: E F || BC

Concl.
EG _ GF
10 . 15 . G iven: A B J. BD

D C L AC
C oncl.: B E -E D = A E -E C
G iven: A BCD is a p arallel­
ogram .
16.

to 2V . B D ~ DC T e l b c

S W is an altitude (H in t: Prove both

AF L C D
to R T . ratios equal to the
C oncl:
B D _ AC sam e ratio.)
Concl. (a) A E -A D = A F -A B
SW ~ R T
(b ) A E -B C = A F -C D

11. G iven: EG II BC
G iven: A B CD is a parallel­
ogram .
12 . 17 . G iven: Z A C B is a right
angle.
G iven: Z A C B is a right
angle.
18 .
CB is an altitude PQRS is a rec-
E F a n d GH inter­
C o n c l.: . tangle.
sect diagonal to A B .
C oncl.: (,4C) 1 = A B -A D Concl.: (PQ)1 = A Q -B R
a t P.
(H in t: R ew rite as
c AC-AC.)
 358 SIMILAR TRIANGLES PROVING RATIOS EQUAL A N D PRODUCTS EQUAL 359

*19. G iven: A B ^ A C 20 . 26.

G iven: All points are
25. G iven: BC II F E G iv e n : M is the m idpoint
A B a n d B F are coplaner.
of A B .
aldtudes. <-> <-> A C II FD
BC || E F <-> «->
C onci.: A B '.B E — A D :D C C o n c l.: CQ II A B
<--» <-»
j| D E (a) A A B C ~ A D E F M , R, Q, P are
C oncl.: A ABC ~ A D E F collinear.
(b ) A B II ED
M R _ PM
C o n c l.:
RQ PQ.

21. G iven: A B ^ A C G iven: A A B C is isosceles 22 .*

Cb ^ U B w ith i4.fi S 2(7.
C oncl.: A B -D B = (C B )2
CD L A B
C oncl.: (BC)1 = 2 A B -B D

(H int: L et A E be
the perpendicular
from A to BC.)
27. G iven: A D II BC G iv e n : plane a II plane b 28.
A A B E ~ ADCE C oncl.: A A B C ~ A P Q R
C o n c l.: A BCD is an isosceles
trapezoid.

o * < -» < -+
Z J . G iven: A B ± B F G iv en : A B X B C 24*
<-4 <-+ <-+
CD 1 B F D C X BC
*-* <-* <-> «-♦
EF 1 BF BD 1AC
C oncl.: B D -E F - D F -A B Concl.: (BC)1 = A B -D C B
1. T h e diagonals of a trapezoid divide each o ther into two equal ratios.
2. T ria n g le A CB is a right triangle with angle C the right angle. If from
any point P on leg BC a perpendicular is draw n to the hypotenuse A B
m eeting it at D, then B P -B C = B D -B A .
3. A m edian to a side of a triangle bisects all line segments parallel to th a t
side and term inated by the other two sides.
4. T h e ratio of the measures of corresponding medians of two sim ilar
 361
360 SIMILAR TRIANGLES THE RIGHT TRIANGLE
triangles is equal to the ratio of the measures of any two corresponding PRO O F j (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)
sides.
5. I f three lines pass through a common point and intersect two parallel 1 . Z A C B is a right angle. 6. Z B S Z B
lines, then the three ratios of the measures of the segments cut off by 7. A BCD ~ A B A C
2. CD is the altitude to AB .
BC BD
the parallel lines are equal. :
3. CD _L AB 8' BA " BC
If, in a right tria rg ie an altitude is draw n to the hypotenuse, then th e
4. Z C D B is a right angle. 9. (BC)1 = BA ■BD (P a rt (a))
m easure of the altitude is the m ean proportional betw een the m easures
5. Z A C B ^ Z C D B |
of the segm ents of the hypotenuse.
7. If two triangles are sim ilar, the ratio of the measures of corresponding T h e proof of P a rt (b) is left for you to do.
altitudes is equal to the ratio of the measures of corresponding m edians T H E O R E M 69: In a r ig h t tria n g le w ith a n a ltitu d e to th e h y p o te n u se
draw n from the sam e vertex. th e s q u a re of th e m easure of th e a ltitu d e is e q u a l to th e
8. If an altitu d e is draw n to the hypotenuse of a right triangle, th en th e p ro d u c t o f th e m easures of th e se g m en ts o f th e h y p o te ­
product of the m ea st^is of the altitude and the hypotenuse is equal to nuse.
the product of the m easures of the legs of the right triangle.
9.* If a line segm ent term in atin g in the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid
Given: Z A C B is a rig h t angle.
is parallel to the bases and passes through the point of intersection of
UD is the a ltitu d e to AB .
the diagonals, then it is bisected by the diagonals.
Concl: (CD)2 - A D -D B

\j ■ The Right Triangle

Figure 11-22.
If an altitude is drawn to the hypotenuse of a right triangle, A n a l y s is : After rew riting th e conclusion in term s o f th e proportion
several theorem s result th a t have num erical application. In addition, these
CD DB
theorem s will enable us to prove the paost widely known property in the field
of geom etry, the T heorem .of Pythagoras. AD ' CD
w e find th at it is necessary to prove A ACD ~ A CBD. T h e two angles a t D
T H E O R E M 68: In a r i g h t tria n g le w ith a n a ltitu d e to th e h y p o te n u s e can readily be shown to be congruent. I t is also evident th a t w e will n o t
th e sq u a re of th e m easu re of e ith e r le g is e q u al to th e show Z B to be congruent to Z A , for if this were so, A A C B w ould be isos­
p ro d u c t of th e m easures of th e e n tire h y p o ten u se a n d celes, w hich it is not. H ence, this implies th a t we will have to prove Z A
th e se g m e n t of th e h y p o ten u se a d ja c e n t to th a t leg. to be congruent to Z \ .

(T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)

PROOF
Given: Z A C B is a right angle. 7. Z A is com plem entary to Z t .
1. CD is an altitude to AB.
S B is the altitude to AB. «-» *-> (Theorem 53)
Concl.: (a) (BC) 5 = B A -B D 2. CD 1 A B 8. Z A ^ Z \
(b ) (AC)2 = A B -A D 3. ZC D A and Z C D B are 9. A A C D ~ A C B D
right angles.
CD _ D B
Figure 11-21. 4. ZC D A S Z C D B 10' AD ~ CD
5. Z A C B is a right angle. 11. (CD)2 = A D -D B
A n a l y s i s : P a rt (a) of th e conclusion can be proved ra th e r easily by showing 6 . Z \ is com plem entary to Z t .
A B C D ~ A B A C . P art (b) of the conclusion is very m uch the same except As a point of interest, in th e proofs of th e last tw o theorem s not only
th a t A C A D m ust be shown to be similar to A B A C . You m ay have noticed
w ere the two sm all triangles proved sim ilar to each o th er b u t they w ere
th a t P a rt (b) is the sam e as Problem 15, page 357,
a ls o both proved sim ilar to th e large triangle.
 362
SIMILAR TRIANGLES THE RIGHT TRIANGLE 363
Q uite frequently the sides of a triangle are labeled with small letters,
while the angles opposite them are labeled w ith the same capital letters. 81 = 6x + 36
W hen the right triangle is so lettered, it becomes 45 = 6x
71 « x
T h ere m ay be situations in w hich it is necessary to find first a segm ent
o th er th an the one for which we are looking. T h is will depend on w hich
of the three equations contains a single placeholder. O nce this placeholder
has been found, substitute its value in the equat.' _.n containing the m easure
you have been asked to find.

F i g u r e 1 1 -2 3 .

EXERCISES
T his iettering enables us to see th a t T heorem s 68 and 69 have given
us inform ation concerning the squares of a, h, and b. T his is
(1) O' A c
In try in g to find the solution to num erical problem s, it is best to label all
six segm ents before deciding w hich of the three equations listed above is
a ppropriate.
1. G iven: A A B C is a right triangle with
Illustration: ^ CD the altitude to the hypotenuse.

G iven: A A B C is a right triangle w ith (a ) A D = 4 ,D B = 16, CD = ? (b).£> 5 = 4, A B = 9, BC = ?

TOD the altitude to the hypote­ (c) A B = 27, D B = 24, AC = ? (d ) AC = 6, AD = 3, A B — ?
nuse AB. (e) CD = 10, AD = 5, D B = ? (f) BC = 8,A B = 16, A D = ?
AC = 9, A D = 6 (g ) A B = 12, AD = 4, CD = ? (h ) A D = 6, D B = 8, BC = ?
T o F in d ; D B = ? (i) BC = 4 ,A B = 8, CD = ? ( j) A B = 10, AC = 6, BC = ?

fig u re 11-24. R
2. G iven: A R S T is a right triangle with
M ethod: As suggested, label all six segm ents a t the outset. For this prob- T W the altitude to the hypotenuse.
(T he last three problems in this group
will involve the solution of quadratic
equations.)
T
(a) R T = 12, R S = 16, R W = ? (b ) SW = 6, R W = 8, S T = ?
(c) T W = 5, R W = 6, RS = ? (d ) S T = 4, R W = 6, W S = ?
(e) T W = 6, R S = 13, R W = ? (f) R T = 9, W S =* 24, R S = ?
Figure 11-25. (Two answers)

lem the three equations listed above become 3. G iven: A A C B is a right triangle w ith
( 1) a 2 = x (x + 6) ( 2) h2 = 6x (3) 9! = 6 (x + 6) CD the altitude to the hypot­
Since We are looking for the n um ber labeled “x,” we will use the equation enuse.
in w hich x is the only placeholder th a t appears. In this case it is equation (3): BC = 6, BD = 4
T o F ind: A B , AD, CD, AC
 364
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS 365
4. G iven: A Q P S is a rig h t triangle w ith
F R th e altitu d e to the hypot­ 5 . Given: Circle 0 with 0 on A B . Given: A D X BC
enuse. AC L C B D E L AC
QR = 2, P S = 8
AB L D C DF L AB
T o F in d : QS, PR, PQ, PS
Concl.: A E -E B = C E -ED Concl.: A E -A C = A F -A B
5. In an isosceles rig h t triangle the m easure of the altitude to the hypotenuse
is 4. W h a t is the m easure of each leg? A

E
G iv e n : A C JL CB
<-+ <-»
G iven: is a rectangle. 2.
D E L CB R W JL QS
*-* «->
CD J . A B
R W intersects Q P a t T-
Concl.: (CD)* - f (D E )1 = C oncl.: (P S)1 = R W - R T 7. Given: In space geometry
A D -D B + C E -E B >
PA .J. plane m
«-> *-»
AD J . PB
<-> <->
A E JL PC
Concl.: P D -P B = P E -P C

■ The Theorem of Pythagoras

T h e relationship between the legs a n d th e hypotenuse of a
3. G iven; A B i . BC
G iven: Z A C B is a right angle. 4.
right triangle was known for certain special rig h t triangles long, before it
was proved for every right triangle. D uring the tim e of the(ajicien_t_£gypti^s^
DC 1 BC CD ± A B this relationship was held in secret trust by their religious leaders. Each
tim e a building was to be erected, these m en, called “ rope stretchers,”
B E ± AC C o n c l.:® - 55
(CA)3 AD h a d to be employed to lay out the corners of the stru ctu re so as to form a
Concl.: B E -B D = CE-CA
right angle. .
10 D uring the sixth century B.C. a secret'm athem atical society w as organ­
i- ized by the Greek m athem atician Pythagoras, jin d for obvious reasons it
t was called the Pythagorean Society;'Story lias it th a t a n y m athem atical
I
discoveries m ade by a m em ber of the group could not be to ld to the world
a t large w ithout permission having been granted by Pythagoras. Supposedly,
a Pythagorean developed a proof for the theorem on the rig h t triangle and
announced it to friends ..before consulting Pythagoras. F or breaking faith
w ith the organization, the m an was “ done away w ith" in tru e m odern
gangland style!
M any, m any proofs have since been given for the T h eo rem of Py­
 366 SIMILAR TRIANGLES THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS 367
thagoras. In fact, recently som eone has collected and published close to 300 (a) AC = 5 ,B C = 12, A B = ? (b ) A B = 20, BC = 16, AC = ?
of these proofs, one of w hich was developed by President Garfield. Those
(c) AC = 10, A B = 26, BC = ? (d ) AC = 5, B C = 6, A B = ?
presented by the Greeks w ere probably based on areas o f squares and are
q u ite a bit m ore difficult th an the one given below. ✓ 2. D eterm ine the length of the diagonal of a rectangle whose sides are
6 inches and 8 inches respectively.
T H E O R E M 70: T h e sq u a re o f th e m easure of th e h y p o te n u s e o f a r ig h t
( / 3. (a) Find the length of the diagonal of a square one of whose sides is
tr ia n g le is e q u a l to th e sum of the sq u a re s o f th e m eas­
u re s o f th e legs. 4 inches.
✓ (b ) Find the length of the diagonal of a square one of whose sides is a
unit? long.
4. Find the altitude to the base of an isosceles triangle if one of its legs is
G iven: A ACB is a rig h t triangle w ith
26 feet long while the base is 48 feet.
ZA C B the right angle.
Concl.: c! = a1 + b2 <■' 5. (a) D eterm ine the length of one of the sides of a square whose diagonal
is 6 inches.
(b ) D eterm ine the length of one of the sides of a square'w hose diagonal
is 2a units long.

A nalysts : T heorem 68 enables us to draw conclusions a bout both a1 a n d b2. •' 6. (a) D eterm ine the length of a side of a rhom bus whose diagonals are
H ence, it is m erely a m a tte r o f adding these two quantities a n d hoping th at 18 inches and 24 inches respectively.
th e ir sum will tu rn o u t to be c3. i/ (b ) D eterm ine the length of one diagonal of a rhom bus if the other
diagonal is 30 inches while a side is 25 inches.
PROOF STATEMENTS / 7. (a) How long is an altitude of an equilateral triangle if one of its sides
REASONS
is 10 inches?
1 ■ L et CD be the perpendicular
1. T here exists one and only one ^ ' (b ) How long is an altitude of an equilateral triangle if one of its sides
from C to A B .
perpendicular from a given is 2a units long?
point to a given line. 1/ 8. (a) O ne of the legs of an isosceles rig h t triangle is 6 inches. How long
2. A ACB is a right angle.
2. Why? is the hypotenuse?
3. b2 = cx
3. Why? >■' (b ) O ne of the legs of an isosceles right triangle is a units long. How
4. a* — c (c — x)
4. Why? long is the hypotenuse?
5. w + c (e _ x)
5. Addition postulate 9. (a) T h e hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle is 8 inches. W hat is
or a ' + b* = c x + c * - c x
or a* + b* = c* the length of each leg?
(b ) T h e hypotenuse of an isosceles rie^ht triangle is a units. W hat is the
length of each leg?
e x e r c is e s 10. (a) Find the side of an equilateral triangle whose altitude is 6 inches,
(b ) Find the side of an equilateral triangle whose altitude is 3a units
long.
A
/ 11. O ne of the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid is p erpendicular to the bases.
1. G iven: A A B C is a right triangle Ai
T h e other of these sides is 10 inches, and the up p er and lower bases
w ith Z C the rig h t angle. | are 9 inches and 17 inches respectively. How long is the side whose
length was not given?
y 12. T h e up p er and lower bases of an isosceles trapezoid are 16 feet a n d
46 feet respectively. If one of the equal sides is 17 feet, how long is the
altitude? (T he altitude is the comm on perp en d icu lar to the bases.) .
 369
368 SIMILAR TRIANGLES THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS
/ •' .
13, A ladder 41 feet long lpans against a building and reaches a point on
the building th at is 40 feet above the ground. How far from the bottom
of the building is the foot of the ladder? s
■yj 14. A rope 35 feet long is attached to the top of a high vertical pole. W hen G iven: D B _L AC
1 , Given: A B J. BC
stretched tight, the rope reaches a point on the ground th a t is 13 feet C oncl.: (A D )2 + (B C )2 ■
from the foot of the pole. How long ii DC 1 BC (A B )2 + (D C )1
Concl.: {A O 1 “ {A BY =
15. T h e box a t the right has dimensions
as shown. How far is it from .4 to C?
(H in t: Find A B first.)

12 f e e t

16, T h e dim ensions of the box a t the

right are all equal. Using the dim en­
sion shown,
(a) Find the distance AB.
(b ) Find the distance AC.

3 , G iven: ABC is a right G iven: A C _L CB 4.

angle. DE 1 CB
Concl.: (AC)* + (DE)* *-+ *-*
DF 1 AC
(A E )' + (DC)2
<-> «-*■
CD ± AB
17. If, in the d iagram a t the right, P is
C oncl.: (CD)1 = C E -E B +
the m idpoint of BC, find AD.
CF-FA

18. In the diagram a t ’the right find the

m easure of CD.

5 . G iven: B D X AD ___
C is the m idpoint of AD.
m/LA=* 45
19. D u rin g a w ind stor.-.i a pole 20 feet long snapped in a w ay such th a t
Concl.: (A B)- = 8(/4C) 5
the topm ost point of the upper section leaned over and reached a point
on the ground th a t was 10 feet from the foot of the pole, while the lowest
point of this section still rem ained attached to the pole, How long was
this u p p e r section?
 370 SIMILAR TRIANGLES 371
TEST AND REVIEW
6. U sing the diagram a t the right,
■ Test and Review
prove th a t c2 = a2 + b2 + 2ax.

A
1. Find the value of x in each of the following proportions:

4 - I ' 6 - — —
1
W 9 " * ( ' * - 2 *+ 3
2. Find the fourth proportional to 3, 7, a n d 5.
3. Find the third proportional of a m ean proportion if the first and second
8. Prove the converse of the theorem of Pythagoras: If c2 = a2 + b2, proportionals are 2a and 34.
then Z C is a right angle. M ethod w L et Q be a right angle, then let 4. Find the m ean proportional of a m ean proportion if the first and th ird
Q R = a, and QP = b\ prove the triangles congruent by S-S.iS1. proportionals are 2a and 18ab2.
5. W rite eight different proportions expressing the relation betw een 2, 3,
a, and b if 2a = 3b.
6. If a = 2b, then w hat is the ratio of a to b?
7. If the measures of the angles of a triangle a re in the ratio of 1 :2 :3 ,
then w hat is the m easure of each angle? a
_ r „A B 4 , , A B + BC
V 9. 1
(a) Referring to Problem 8, show th a t the num bers 2n, n2 — , and 8‘ ~BC = 5* then f in d — g g —
n2 + 1 can represent the measures of the sides of a right triangle. 9. Use the diagram a t the right to find
T hree num bers such th a t the sum of the squares of any two is the m easure of each of the following
equal to the square of the third are called Pythagorean Num bers,
segments given th at D E II BC.
(b ) Show th at the num bers 2b + 2, b2 + 2b, and b2 + 2b + 2 are
(a) 1 U (b ) D E
Pythagorean Num bers.

10. (a) Prove th a t in a right triangle whose acute angles are 30° and 60°
10. Use the diagram a t the right to find
the ratio of the m easure of the hypotenuse to the m easure of the
the m easure of each of the following
side opposite the 30° angle is 2:1.
(b ) Prove th a t in a right triangle whose acute angles are 30° and 60° segments given th at S V II R W.
the ratio of the m easure of the side opposite the 60° angle to the (a ) TW (b ) 7TW
m easure of the side opposite the 30° angle is v^3 : 1. (H int: For w
the proof of both (a ) and (b), start with an equilateral triangle.) 11. T h e sim ilarity correspondence betw een th e vertices of A A B C and
A D E F is A B C <-» EFD. N am e the pairs of angles in. the two triangles
11. Using the theorem of Pythagoras, prove th a t if in space geometry two th a t are congrucnt,
oblique lines and a perpendicular are draw n to a plane from a point 12. If the measures of two corresponding sides cf' two sim ilar triangles are
such th a t the foot of th e perpendicular is equidistant from the feet of 8 and 12 respectively and the m easure of the m edian to the first side
the oblique lines, then the oblique lines are congruent. is 6, w hat is the measure of the m edian to the second side?

12. State and prove the converse of Problem
of Pythagoras.
11 by applying the theorem
13. T h e measures of two of the altitudes of a triangle are 3 and 5 respec­
tively. If the m easure of the side to w hich th e second is draw n is 8, w hat
is the m easure of the side to w hich the first is draw n?
372 SIMILAR TRIANGLES
TEST AND REVIEW 373
W
14. U sing the inform ation given in the
diagram a t the right, find the meas­ 5. Given: Z l ^ Z A C B G iven: AD arid B E are alti- 6.
ure of each of the following segm ents: Concl.: (B C )2 = B D X BA tudes in A A BC .
(a) W S Concl.: C A X C E = CB X CD

15. If the altitude to the hypotenuse of a right triangle divides the h y p o te ­

nuse into segm ents whose measures are 2 and 8 respectively, then w h at
is the perim eter of the triangle?
16. (a ) T h e up p er and lower bases of an isosceles trapezoid are 16 a n d 24
respectively. If one of the legs makes an angle of 45° w ith the low er
base, w hat is the perim eter of the trapezoid?
(b ) If the angle had been 60°, w hat w ould the perim eter have been?
(c) If the angle had been 30°, w hat w ould the perim eter have been? 7 . Given: ABCD is a trapezoid G iven: R ectangle A C B F
w ith the nonparallel
CE JL A B
sides extended to in ­
C oncl.: ( B F ) J = A E X A F
B tersect a t P.
Prove each of the following: ~ , PF AB
C oncl’: P E = DC
AF AG
1, G iven: A A C B w ith Z C the G iven:
F B ‘ GC
right angle,
<-* *-* AD AE
C oncl.: -77 -,
D E ± CB AH ' AJ
BA = BD A
Concl.
BC ~ BE

3 . G iv e n : D is the m idpoint of ~AU.
E is the m idpoint of HU.
C o n c l.: A P A B ~ A P E D
G iven: B E bisects Z A B C . Prove each of the following statem ents:
Z\ S Z l 1. If two triangles are congruent, then they are sim ilar.
. AE AD 2. If the m idpoints of the sides of an isosceles trapezoid are jo in e d in order,
nc ~EC = D E the quadrilateral form ed will be a rhom bus.
3. If line segments are draw n joining the m idpoints of th e opposite sides
of a quadrilateral, they wili bisect each other.
4. T h e ratio of the m easures of corresponding angle bisectors of two sim ilar
triangles is equal to the ratio of the measures of any tw o corresponding
sides.
5. If a line joins the m idpoints of two opposite sides of a parallelogram , i t
will bisect both diagonals.
374 SIMILAR TRIANGLES
6. If the vertex angle of one isosceles triangle is congruent to the vertex
angle of a second isosceles triangle, then the ratio of the m easures of their
bases is equal to the ratio of tiie m easures of their legs.
7. Tv/o m edians of a triangle intersect at a point such that the ratio of the
m easures of-the segments of o n e is equal tc the ratio of th e m easures of
the segments of the other.
8. I f two parallel planes intersect tv/o intersecting lines, then the ratio of
the measures of the segments of one will be equal to the ratio of the
m easures of the segments of the other.

■ Try This For Fun

Principles in m athem atics frequently bear the nam e of the
person who first noted them . T h u s, w e are already fam iliar with E u clid ’s
Fifth Postulate, T h e T heorem of Pythagoras, Aristotle’s Laws of Logic,
Pasch’s Axiom, and others. A m ong the theorems in geom etry th a t bear
their originator’s nam e, perhaps the most intriguing is Ceva’s T heorem :
If from the vertices of a triangle concurrent lines are draw n intersecting
a t a point in the interior of the triangle, then of the six segments form ed
Coordinate Geometry
by th e intersections of these lines w ith the sides of the triangle the pro d u ct
of the measures of three alternating segments is equal to the p ro d u ct of An Introduction
the m easures of the rem aining three segments.

G iven: A M , BQ, a n d C N are concur­ T H E P R IN C IP L E S O F S IM IL A R IT Y O F T R IA N G L E S

re n t a t P. and the theorem of Pythagoras have opened before us a broad new field—
C oncl.: A N X B M X CQ = the field of a nalytic, o r coo rdinate, geom etry. U n til now we h ave concerned
N B X M C X QA ourselves w ith a rather stilted and cum bersom e tool developed some 2,000
years ago by Greek m athem aticians. U nfortunately, t hey h a d neith er the
algebra nor the arithm etic th a t we cu rren tly possess a n d , hence, were forced
Can you prove this theorem? Suggestion: T hrough B and C draw lines
to form ulate their m athem atics in term s of lines, or angles, or solids th a t
parallel to M A . they actually perceived.
T h e developm ent of algebra led a seventeenth century m athem atician
and philosopher, Ren6 D escartes, to take the first giant step in geom etry
since the tim e of the Greeks. By show ing how algebraic m ethods can be
applied to geometric situations, he m ade possible a great deal of the grow th
of m odern m athematics. This tool is not only very powerful b u t also re la ­
tively sim ple to understand. W e shall try to develop some of its elem entary
concepts and show how they can be used to prove a few of the propositions
w e had proved earlier.
T his is not m eant to belittle th e value of synthetic geometry, th e geom etry
of the ancient Greeks, for as we shall see, there a re a n u m b er o f situations
in w hich a “ synthetic” proof will be far easier th an a n “ a nalytic” one.
How ever, other than possibly for a brief course in w hat is called “ college
 376 COORDINATE GEOMETRV: A N INTRODUCTION
geom etry,” synthetic geometry “ goes now here,” nor does it have extensive
practical application. Analytic geom etry, on the other h and, forms the basis
of m any areas of m athem atics and has wide application.
3 Plotting Points
In the study of algebra and also as p a rt of the early work
in geom etry w e become.-'familiar with a line th a t was called eith er the
n u m b er line, o r the num ber scalc, or, possibly, th e n u m b er axis. Basically,
we assumed th a t a one-to-one correspondence existed between th e points
of this line and the real num bers. T he real num bers w ere the whole num bers,
fractions, m ixed num bers, decimals, .'rrational num bers (v^2, y / l , r ) , and,
incidentally, all of these m ight have been either positive or negative. T h ey
d id n o t include, however, num bers such as V —25 th a t w ere called im ag in ary
and expressed as Si. And so, the assum ption th a t was m ade was th a t for
each real n um ber there exists a unique point of the n u m b er line and, con­
versely, for each point there exists a. unique real num ber.
377
PLOTTING POINTS
origin. Thus, the position of the point representing the n u m b er + 3 is d eter­
mined by the fact th at this point will be 3 units to the rig h t of the origin.
Hence, we can say th a t the distance from the point + 3 to the origin is 3
units. Notice that the nam e for the point is given by the n u m b er th a t leads
to the point. T his num ber is called the coordinate of the point. In this case,
the coordinate of the point is + 3 . Thus, the coordinate of a point on the
num ber line represents not only the nam e for th a t point b u t also the distance
from th at point to the origin. Sim ilarly, knowing th e c o ordinate of a point,
we a re really being told a direction through w hich the po in t can be located
on the num ber line.
T o illustrate, the point whose coordinate is —4 (think of this as both
the nam e for the point as well as its distance from th e origin) is found 4 units
to the left of the origin.
-4 -3 -1 0
F i g u r e 12-3.

T h e n u m b er line was frequently draw n horizontally w ith an a rrow head

T h e geometry we are learning, however, is not lim ited to figures th a t
exist on a line, but rather, to figures existing in k plane. T h is confronts us
squarely with the need to represent points of a plane in some m anner sim ilar
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 to th at used to represent points of a line. T o do this, we set u p two num ber
F ig u r e 12-1.

a t the right to indicate the direction in which the num bers increased. T h ere
+1 first q u a d r a n t
is nothing sacred about its being drawn horizontally, for equally well the second q u a d ra n t
n u m b er line m ay have been draw n as shown in F igure 12-2 (again, the

-3 -1 +1 +2 +3

-1

th ird q u a d r a n t fo u rth q u a d r a n t
F i g u r e 12-4.

arrow head shows th e positive direction). T h ro u g h custom , however, th e line
is draw n horizontally and the direction in w hich the num bers increase is
to th e right.
T h e n um ber from w hich we start counting is called zero, w hile the
p oint on the q um ber axis representing this n u m b er is referred to as th e
origin. By asking the question “ How is the position of each of these num bers
determ ined on the num ber line?” , we bring to light a rath er im p o rtan t
feature. T h e position of each num ber is determ ined by its distance from the
lines th a t are perpendicular to each other. E ach of these divides the plane
into- two half-planes, while the two together will divide the plane into four
quarter-planes called quadrants. T h e quadrants are n um bered as shown in
the diagram .
E ach point of the n u m b er line was represented by a real num ber in ­
dicating the distance from th a t p o in t to the origin. In keeping w ith.this idea,
a point of the plane will be represented by a pair of real numbers representing
the distances from th a t p o in t to each of the n u m b er lines. B ut w hat repre­
sents the distance from a point to a line?
In the discussion of distance earlier in the te x tf it was pointed out th a t
t S e e p a g e - 179.
i 378 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: AN INTRODUCTION PLOTTING POINTS a/y
\
th e distance between two ohjects was always m easured along the shortest red line in Figure 12-6 above fulfills the condition th a t it is 3 units to the
£ p ath , or geodesic, betw een the two objects. W hen these two objects are right of the vertical axis. T hus, the need for the second coordinate. T h e + 5
i; points, w e assum e th a t th e shortest p a th will be the line segm ent joining indicates th at the point m ust also be 5 units above th e horizontal axis.- T h e
| these two points. A t this tim e w e will further assume point of intersection of th e tw o red lines represents th e point ( + 3 , + 5 ) .
Since two lines can have but one po in t in com m on, the p a ir of num bers
I, P ostu la te32: T h e s h o r t e s t p a t h b e t w e e n a p o i n t a n d a l i n e is t h e p e r p e n -
l dicular line segm ent from the point to the line, ( + 3, + 5) represents one and only one point.
t < A p a ir of num bers such as ( + 3 , + 5 ) is called an ordered pair, for th e
j In view of this, the distance from a point to a line is the m easure of the order in w hich the num bers a re w ritte n is extrem ely im p o rtan t. T h e first
p erpendicular segm ent betw een the point a n d the line. In each of th e dia- coordinate, by agreem ent, will always represent the direction w ith reference
r gram s of Figure 12-5 the m easure of the red segm ent is the distance from the to the vertical axis; in this case, it states th a t the point is 3 units to the right
point P to the line /. of the vertical axis. T h e second coordinate will always represent th e direction
w ith reference to the horizontal axis; in this case, it states th a t the point is 5
1 units above the horizontal axis. W ere the orde:; of these two num bers re ­
p ^ f versed—th a t is, ( + 5, + 3)—to w hat point w ould these directions lead us?
j T
.r' As in the case of th e direction of th e single n u m b er axis, there is nothing
r but custom th a t insists th a t these lines be d raw n horizontally and vertically.
1 P Frequently the horizontal axis is called the x-axis, while the vertical one is
X. called the y-axis. T h e com bination of the two are known as th e coordinate
Figure 12-5. axes. T h e representation of points in a plane by th e m ethod described is
called the Cartesian Coordinate System.
R e tu rn now to the points in a plane and their representation by a pair
o f real num bers. As in th e case o f the num ber line, th e pair of real num bers
a r e called the coordinates of the point. T h ey represent n o t only th e nam e for
th e point but also the distances from th a t point to each of the n um ber lines,
c alled axes.
P(+3,+5)
T o illustrate, consider th e point whose nam e is ( + 3 , + 5 ) . In reference
t o a num ber line, the + 3 indicated th a t the point was located 3 units to the
r ig h t of the origin on the n um ber line. O n a plane the direction + 3 will
in d ic a te th a t the point is 3 units to the right of the vertical axis. U nfortu­
n a te ly , th a t direction is n o t sufficient to locate the point in the plane, for
t o be 3 units to the right of the vertical axis is to be anyw here along a line
p a r a lle l to th e vertical axis and 3 units to its right. Each of th e points on the

Figure 12-8.

T h e distance from the point to th e vertical axis is called th e abscissa

of the point. In the diagram above the abscissa is the measure of line segm ent
QP, which is given by the first coordinate, + 3 . T h e distance from the point
to the horizontal axis is called the ordinate o f the point. In this d iagram th e
ordinate is the m easure of line segm ent RP, w hich is given by the second
coordinate, + 5 . T hus, since one of the functions of the coordinates of a point
is to indicate the distances from the point to each of the axes, the coordinates
are often called th e abscissa a n d o rd in ate o f a point.
It is extremely important th a t we realize th a t the pair of directions—the
point is 3 units to the right of the vertical axis a n d 5 units above the hori­
zontal axis— can be given in any one o f th ree w ays: '
Figure 12-7.
 380 COORDINATE GEOMETRY! A N INTRODUCTION 381
PLOTTING POINTS
( 1) th e ordered p a ir of num bers: ( + 3, + 5) 2. Draw the triangle having the following vertices:
(2) th e p a ir of equations: ^ (a) (0, 0), (6, 0), (0, 8) (b) (2, 14), (2, 2), (7, 2)
(c) ( - 4 , 7), (8, 7), (8, - 9 ) (d ) (7, 4), (3, 6), (8 , 6)
(3) by its absciss?, and ordinate:
(e) (2, 5), ( - 4 , 7), ( - 2 , - 3 ) (f) ( - 6 , - 4 ) , (0, 0), (2, -7 )
T h e abscissa is + 3 a n d the ordinate is + 5 .
3. T h e triangle in exam ple 2a is a right triangle. How long isth e hypote­
N ote th a t w hen the directions are given as a p a ir of equations, the x elem ent
represents the first coordinate in the ordered p air, or the distance from th e nuse?
vertical axis; th e ^ elem ent represents the second coordinate in the ordered 4. T h e triangles in exam ples 2b and 2c are rig h t triangles.
pair, or the distance from the horizontal axis. (a) Find the length of the legs of each of these triangles.
S hould one and only one direction be given— such as, x = —2— this (b ) Find the length of the hypotenuse o f each o f these triangles.
w ould uniquely establish not a point b u t an entire set of points all located
5. Determ ine the set of points located by each of th e following directions:
on the line th a t is two units to the left of the vertical axis and parallel to it.
R em em ber th a t the direction x = —2 is read as, “ T h e point is tw o units to (a ) x = 6 (b ) y = 8 (c) x = —4 (d ) y = —2 (e ) y = 0
th e left of th e vertical axis.” (See Figure 12-9.) Sim ilarly, the single direction 6. Determ ine the set of points located by each of th e following directions:
(a ) T h e abscissa of the p o in t is always 10.
(b ) T h e ordinate of the point is always —7.
u (c) T h e ordinate of the point is always 0.
K
(d ) T he ordinate o f the point is always eq u al to th e abscissa o f th e point.

7. Represent each of th e following points by a p a ir of eq u atio n s:

(a ) (5, 9) (b ) (4, —7) (c )( -3 ,0 )
(d ) T he abscissa is —5, while the ordinate is —7.

F igure 12-9. F ig u re 12*10. 8 . R epresent each of the following statem ents by an equation:
(a) T h e abscissa of a point is always 4.
“ T h e.o rd in a te of the point is —4” will lead to a set of points all on a line
parallel to th e x-axis a n d 4 units below it. W ere this direction restated, it ( b ) T h e ordinate o f a point is always —12.
w ould sim ply be th at the point is 4 units below the horizontal axis. (See (c) T h e abscissa of a point is always 0 .
F igure 12-10.) (d ) T h e abscissa of the point is always equal to the ordinate of the point.
Before leaving this topic, it would be well to point o u t th a t w e h ave (e) T h e ordinate of the point is always five m ore th an the abscissa of
been assum ing that the point.
P o st u l a t e 33: For a.specific pair of axes th ere exists a o n e -to -o n e corre­ (f) T h e abscissa of th e point is always greater th an 5.
spondence between the set of ordered pairs of real num bers a n d th e (g ) T h e ordinate of the point is always greater th an the abscissa of the
set of points of a plane. point.
9. In each of the following problem s three of the vertices of a parallelogram
EXERClSESt are given. Find the fourth vertex so th at one p a ir of sides is parallel to
1. D raw a p a ir of coordinate axes and locate each of the following points; cither the *-axis or the^-axis. T h ere are two possibilities in each problem ,
(a ) ( + 5 , + 7 ) ( b ) ( + 6, 9 ) (c) (7, + 4) Find the coordinates of both points.
(d ) (2 ,1 0 ) (e) ( - 3 , 6) (f) ( - 7 , 2) (a) (0, 0), (2, 3), (8, 3) (b ) (0, 0), (0, - 1 0 ) , (6, 2) ,
(g ) (4, - 6) (h ) (8, - 3 ) (i) ( - 4, - 9) (c) (4, 5), (2, 3), (8, 3) (d ) (2, 10), (2, 1), (7, 3)
( j ) ( —12, —3) (k ) (0 ,5 ) 0 ) (7 ,0 ) (=) ( “ 5, 4), ( - 7 , - 2 ) , (6, 4) (f) (0.. 0), (a, 0), (c, d)
(m ) ( 0 , - 1 4 ) (n ) ( - 1 5 ,0 ) (o ) (0 ,0 )} 10. (a ) T he length of a side of a square is b. T h e coordinates of one of the
f Use coordinate (or squared) paper for these exercises. vertices is (0 , 0), while the vertex opposite this is in the first q u ad ­
XThis point is called the origin.
rant. Find the coordinates of the three vertices not given.
 382 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.- A N INTRODUCTION
( b ) I f th e vertex opposite the origin is in the second q u a d ran t, find the
coordinates of the three vertices.
(c) I f the vertex opposite th e origin is in the fourth q u a d ran t, find the
coordinates of th e th ree vertices.
11. T w o of the vertices of an equilateral triangle are (0, 0) and (10, 0). If
th e third vertex is in th e first q u a d ran t, And its coordinates.
12. T h e vertices of th e base of a n isosceles triangle are (0, 0) and (2a, 0 ).
T h ro u g h th e m eans of an equation give a description for the abscissa
of th e th ird vertex.
13. T h e low er base o f a n isosceles trapezoid is 12 units, w hile th e u p p e r base
is 10 units in length. T h e distance betw een the bases is 4 units. If the
low er base lies on the x-axis w ith its m idpoint at the origin, w h at a re
the coordinates of the four vertices?
14. (a ) A set of points lie o n a line th a t is parallel to the x-axis. W hich of the
coordinates is the sam e for all points?
(b ) A set of points lie on a line th a t is perpendicular to th e vertical axis.
W hich o f th e coordinates is th e sam e for all points?
I Distance Between Two Points and Dividing a Line Segment
into A n y Given Ratio
I t w ould b e ra th e r confusing if in a problem involving
m a n y points these points w ere n am ed (a, b), (c, d), (« ,/), a n d the like.
L ab e lin g th e points in this way, w e w ould soon become bew ildered as to
■whether the coordinate m represented th e abscissa of a point or the ordinate.
I n addition, there is no w ay of knowing w hether this is the abscissa or ordi­
n a t e of the twelfth point in question, the fifteenth point in question, o r
p e rh a p s even th e first. T o overcom e this difficulty, points a re very often
la b e le d w ith th e symbols x a n d y only; for th e abscissa, of course, we always
u s e th e letter while th e letter for the ordinate is y. In addition, to distin­
g u is h one point from an o th er subscripts are used. Thus, the first point in our
discussion will be w ritten..as (x,, yi), th e second as (* , yi), a n d th e like. I t
t h e n becomes im m ediately evident th a t th e symbol xu ap pearing in any
p r o b le m will represent th e abscissa of th e fifteenth point.
W hich of th e coordinates of two points will be the sam e if these two
p o in ts a p p ea r on a line th a t is p arallel to the^-axis? If the first of these points
i s w ritten as (xi, yi), how will you express the second of th e points? If, in the
r ‘
<*,-y,) (xj, / , )
I
X |7 — 1| = |6| = 0
Figure 12-11.
383
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS
same w ay, two points are on a line th a t is parallel to th e x-axis, the ordinates
of these points will be the same. T h is is so since the ordinate of a point is the
distance from th a t point to the x-axis. B ut the tw o points are equidistant
from the x-axis; hence, th eir ordinates m ust be equal. Therefore, should we
label the first (xi, yi), the ord in ate of th e second will also have to be yi.
T he abscissa of the second point, however, can not be xt, for this would sig­
nify th a t th e two points were the sam e distance from the 7-axis, which they
are not. In view of this we label the abscissa of the second point Xi.
(2 7 ) ( v y 2) ( x ,/^
Q (2,1)
1 1
Figure 12-12. Figure 12-13. Figure 12-14. Figure 12-15.
In F igure 12-12 the points P a n d Q a re on a line parallel to the ^-axis;
hence, th e ir abscissas are th e sam e, T o find th e distance from Q to P, we
m ust first realize th a t th e o rd in ate 1 represents th e distance RQ, while the
ordinate 7 is th e distance RP. T h u s, by su b tractin g 1 from 7 w e Obtain th e
distance QP. I t appears th en th a t
If tw o points are on a line parallel to the ^-axis, the distance
betw een them can b e found by su b tractin g th e ordinate of the
first p o in t from th at of the second point.
L et us suppose, however, th a t we h a d selected P as our first point a n d Q
as th e second, th en it w ould a p p e a r th a t th e distance from P to Q w ould be
1 - 7 or -6
T hus, w e seem to be faced w ith a n inconsistency. W hereas in one case th e
distance betw een the points Was 6, in th e o th er it was —6 ! T o overcom e
this difficulty, it has been agreed th a t,
P o st u l a t e 3 4 : T h e distance betw een two points on a line parallel to th e
ji-axis is th e absolute value of th e difference o f th eir ordinates; th a t is,
b i.- y il-
T h u s, it w ould m ake no difference w h eth er P o r Q was selected as th e
first point, for
and |1 — 7| = | —6|. = 6
In th e event you m ay have forgotten, th e absolute value of a num ber,
' briefly, is th a t n u m b e r devoid of its sign. As in th e Illustration above, b oth
the absolute value of 6 (w ritten as |6 |) a n d th e absolute value of —6 is 6 ,
 384 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: A N INTRODUCTION DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS 385

Is Postulate 34 true, though, for the two points in Figure 12-13 w here x-axis is the absolute value of the difference of their abscissas; th a t is,
P is above the x-axis, w hile Q is below? In this case the distance jHP is 7, |X2 — X l|.
the distance QR is 1, and, hence, the distance QP is 8. Now it appears th at
Postulates 34 and 35 enable us to find the distance betw een two points
one ordinate is being added to the other rather than being su b tra c te d ! This
if the points are on a line th a t is parallel to either axis. But how is the distance
is not sc, however, for the ordinate of the first point is - 1, and should we
between two points found if the points are on a line th a t is not parallel to
express the difl'erence between the ordinate of the second point and th at of
either axis? This, we shall investigate now.
the first point, it w ould be
|7-(-l)| T H E O R E M 71: T h e d istan c e b e tw e e n two p o in ts Q a n d P w ith co o rd i­
n ates (Xi, t/i) a n d (* 2, j/2) is g iv e n b y th e fo rm u la
From our knowledge of algebra, we realize th at we m ust change the sign
of the subtrahend and hence this difference becomes d = V (x 2 - xd1+ (y2 - j/0!
\1 + 11, or 8 f {*2 ^ 2 )
G i v e n P o i n t s Q a n d P w ith coordinates
T hus, Postulate 34 applies w hether P and Q are on the same side of the (*i, a n d (x8,f t ) __________
x-axis or on opposite sides. Concl.: d = V (x 2 — xi) 2 + (y% — y iY
In Figure 12-14 RQ = y u RP = yh and, hence, R(*2,y,)
( y rt>
QP = \p - y>\
F i g u r e 12-18.
In Figure 12-15 QP will still be |y, - ji,|, for as in Figure 12-13 y , is a
negative value. T herefore, when subtracting y\ from y ^ its sign will be A n a l y s i s : By draw ing lines through P and Q th a t are parallel to th e y and
changed to a positive one and then it will be added to y t . This is exactly x axes respectively, it can easily be shown th a t Z R is a right angle; the proof
w h at occured in Figure 12-13. H ad both P and Q been placed below the of this is left for you to do. T h e abscissa of point R will have to be the sam e
x-axis, we w ould find th a t Postulate 34 still held. as th at of point P since both points are equidistant from the ^-axis. Similarly,
T h e discussion concerning Postulate 34 led to the conclusion th a t this the ordinate of point R is the same as th a t of point Q, as both points are
principle will hold equally well no m atter w here the points P and Q h a p ­ equidistant from the x-axis. Hence, the coordinates of R are (X2,>i). Since
pened to fall. In general, the selection of the qu ad ran ts in which to: place it is possible to find R P and QR by Postulates 34 and 35, we can determ ine
the points in any discussion does not in any way affect the proof of any theorem the measure of QP by the theorem of Pythagoras.
in analytic geometry. In view of this, when proving any theorem , we shall
always place the points in the first quadrant. By so doing, we reduce the PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
possibility of m aking errors in the signs of the num bers.
If two points lie on a line th a t is parallel to the x-axis, their ordinates 1. Let P R be the line through P th at is 1 . Parallel postulate
will be the sam e. T h ro u g h an analysis very m uch th e sam e as th a t ju st parallel to th e >-axis.
com pleted, we realize, (see Figure 12-16) th at RQ is the abscissa of point Q-, ► .
th a t is, 3. R P is the abscissa of point P (10). H ence, the distance QP is 2. Let QR be the line through Q th a t is 2 . Sam e as 1
,10 — 3, or 7. In Figure 12-17 this distance is xj — xi. How w ould you find parallel to the x-axis.
th e distance betw een tw o jic in ts on a line th a t is parallel to the x-axis? 3. Coordinates of P are (x2, yi) . 3. Given
, 4. Coordinates of Q are (xi, yi) 4. Given
5. Coordinates of R are (x2, yi) 5. See analysis.
6. Z R is a right angle. 6. Proof left for you to do.
7.

£
Postulate 34

1
II
8. QR = |x8 - xi| . 8. Postulate 35
(3,2) ( 10,2 )
----- >P 9. (Q R )1 -= (QR)* + (RP)* ■ 9. T heorem of Pythagoras
10. d} = |x2 — xil! + \yi — y t f or 10. Substitution postulate
d - V ( x 2 - xi)2 + (>2 - n ) 2 .
fig u r e 12-16. Notice th a t w e did not include the negative sign of the radical w hen
w c took the square root of both sides of the equation. T h e distance betw een
P o s t u l a t e 35: T he distance between two points on a Jine parallel to the tw o points will always be considered to be a positive num ber. Similarly, the
386 COORDINATE GEOMETRY; A N INTRODUCTION DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS 387

absolute bars were dropped from \xz — *i|2 and |y% — ji,|2 for the square of : As in the previous proof, lines are draw n through P parallel to
A n a l y s is
any n u m b er is always positive. the y-axis a n d through R a n d Q parallel to the x-axis. T h e abscissas of S
a n d T a re th e sam e as th a t o f / 3. T h e o rd in ate of S is the sam e as th e o rd in ate
Illustration 1; of R, while the ordinate of T is the sam e as th a t of Q. T h e theorem concern­
Find ihe distance betw een the points (2, 3) and ( —4, 11). ing a line being parallel to one side of a triangle and hence dividing the
M ethod : By the distance form ula other two sides into two equal ratios will enable us to set up an equation
through w hich we can find the coordinate b.
d = V (2 + 4 )! + (3 ^ T T j ~8
d = V '(6)2 + ( —8)* PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS |
d = V 3 6 + 64
</ = VlOO i 2* = ™ 1. G iven
RP n
d =10
4r->
T o save tim e, we im m ediately c h an g e d -th e sign of xh or —4, and 2. R S II Q T 2. See analysis.
avoided w riting the distance in the cum bersom e form of 3. If a line is parallel to one side of a
RP SP
d = V [ 2~ - ( - 4 ) ] » + (3 - l l )1 triangle, th en the ratios of the m eas­
ures of corresponding segm ents of th e
Illustration 2:
other two sides will be equal.
Show that the points (2, 3), (1 7 ,1 0 ), and ( 8 , —5) are the vertices of
an isosceles triangle. . TS m
4. S ubstitution postulate
~SP ~ "n
M ethod : By the distance formula
5. T S '= b 5. P ostulate 34
dl = (17 - 2)! + (10 - 3) 2 dt = (17 - 8)2 4- (10 + 5) 2 SP = yt - *>t
= (15)5 + (7) 2 = (7) 2 + (15)’ m
6. 6 . Sam e as 4
= 274 = 274 yt — b n
S in c e t h e m easures of tw o of th e sides of th e tria n g le a r e equal, th e n by th e 7. .'. nb — nyi = myt — mb 7. T h e p ro d u c t of the m eans of a p ro ­
re v e rse o f th e definition o f a n isosceles tria n g le w e c a n co n clu d e th a t th e t r i ­ mb + nb = myi + nyi portion is equal to the product of th e
a n g le is isosceles. extrem es, a n d th e laws of algebra.
b(m + n) - myi + nyi
O u r next objective will be to determ ine the coordinates of the point my2 + ny i
th a t divides a line segm ent w ith known endpoints into segments whose m + n
m easures have any desired ratio. In the same way, had a line been d raw n through R parallel to the
TH E O R E M 72; T h e coordinates of the point that w ill d iv id e the Jin: y-axis, it.could have been shown th a t
segm ent w hose endpoints are (xj, yi), (*!, Vs) in to the mxj -j- nxi
ratio o f m '.n are g iv en by the formulas m+ n

a —m xt + n x-i b _ my, + n Vi A lthough these form ulas m ay a p p e a r q uite foreboding, they are really
m + n m+ n very sim ple to apply. This will be show n in the following illustration.
G iv en : Points P and Q w ith coordinates
y Illustration:
n/ (*a, y>) and f o y i )
r ( o .b y x S (*2,b) D eterm ine the coordinates of the p o in t th a t will divide the line segm ent
m / 03 = 2
RP n joining th e points ( —3, 7) and (4 ,1 ) into th e ratio of 2 :3 . T h e point ( —3, 7)
r> /
T (x j-X i) will be one of the endpoints of the sm aller segm ent.
(*1 'Y \ ) m xi + nxi
C oncl.: a =
m+ n M s t h c d : T h e very first thing co do is to draw a rough sketch of the figure.

m y t + n yt In addition to w riting down the coordinates of the two points, w rite in th e

Figure 12-19. m+ n f T h e a b so lu te b a rs w ere n o t used for b o th o f these n u m b e rs are positive.
 388 COORDINATE GEOMETRY A N INTRODUCTION
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS 389

Figure 12-20. Figure 12-21.

F ig u r e 12-22.

n um bers 2 and 3 on those segm ents th a t will b ear th e ratio of 2 : 3. T hen,

applying the form ula for finding the abscissa, w e obtain M e t h o d : A s always, a rough sketch is m ade o f the figure; notice th at there

is no need to draw the coordinate axes. Finding the coordinates of M can

= 2(4) + 3 (—3) = 8 - 9 = ^1 be done m entally by adding —7 to —9, then dividing this sum by 2. Sim i­
a ' '2 + 3 5 5
larly, adding 1 to —3 gives us a sum of —2; dividing this by 2, we obtain
N otice how in Figure 12-20 the arrows point to the num bers th a t are used the —1 th at is shown as the ordinate of the m idpoint. T h e length of the
in each product. In Figure 12-21 w e see th a t the value of the ordinate, b, m edian, A M , is simply the distance from A to M . T his is found by using the
is found in the very sam e way.
distance formula.
2(1) + 3(7) 2 + 21
d = V ( —4 + 8)2 + ( 3 + 1)! = V (4)! + (4)2
6 ~ 2+ 3 “ 5 ~ 4*
H ence, th e coordinates of the p o in t are (-%!> 4| ) ' d = V l6 + 16 = V 32
d = 4^2
P robably the most im portant application of T heorem 72 is to enable
us to determ ine the coordinates o f the m idpoint of a line segment, when the Before giving you an opportunity to apply the form ulas ju st developed,
coordinates of the endpoints of the line segm ent are known. we would like to illustrate the power of our new tool. A lthough we have but
scratched the surface of coordinate geometry, it is possible for us to prove
T H EO R EM 73: T h e coordinates o f the m id p o in t o f a lin e segm ent a t this early stage th at the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
whose endpoints are f a , y>) an d (Xs, jfa) are g iv e n b y the
formulas M ethod :

0 = & d KL±JL«
2- 2
A n a l y s i s : Since the point (a , b) is the m idpoint of the line segment, the
values of m a n d a in th e form ulas given in T heorem 72 are identically the
sam e. H ence, the ratio of — can be w ritten as —> or 7 ' W hen w e replace m
n m l r
a n d n by 1 and 1 in th e form ulas of Theorem 72, they become
Ixt + l xi *2 + Xi
‘ ~ 1 + 1 2 Since we are free to place the parallelogram in any position we desire,
it is best to so place it th a t one vertex will be at the origin, while one side
h = + fyi _ y> + yi
1 + 1 2 will lie along the x-axis. V ertex B is labeled as (xi,‘0). T u rn in g next to point
D, since it has no relation to point A, we express its coordinates as (xj,^2).
Illustration: W ith point C, however, we m ust be m ore careful. Since its distance from
the x-axis is the same as th a t of point D, 'its ordinate m ust also be yi. Being
I f ^ ( —4, 3), B ( — l , 1), and C( —9, —3) a re th e vertices of a triangle, a parallelogram , the length of U S m ust be the sam e as th at of A 3 . B ut
determ in e th e length of the m edian from A to BC. A B - xy. In order th a t DC be equal to xi also, the abscissa of C will have to
be xi + xi. By applying Postulate 35, page 385, the length of DC can be
verified as being xl.
 390 COORDINATE GEOMETRy; A N INTRODUCTION DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS 391
By th e m idpoint form ulas
(e) (5, 8), (14,17) • (f) ( - 3 , 9 ) , ( - 2 , - 1 2 )
coordinates of th e m idpoint of TTB are (g) ( - 7 , - 1 0 ) , ( - 7 , - 1 ) <h) ( - a , - 6), (0, 0)
0 ) (a, 6), ( 2 a , - 2 6 )
coordinates of the m idpoint of AC are 8 . T h e vertices of a triangle are ( - 2 , 6), (0, 10), and (8, - 3 ) . F ind the
H ence, D B and A V biseci each other. m idpoint of each of the sides.

Y our first reaction to this “ proof” is very likely to be a shrug of your
shoulders followed by a long period of bew ildered silence. L et’s backstep to
see ju st w h at has been accomplished. W e have shown th at the m idpoint of
TTB is exactly the sam e point as the m idpoint of AC. Hence, this p o in t is
com m on to the two line segments. T his, in tu rn , implies th a t these segm ents '
m ust intersect a.t each of th eir m idpoints. Therefore, they bisect each other!
9. T h e vertices of a triangle are 4(6 , 4), B ( 2 ,1), a n d C(8,1 ).
(a) Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
(b ) F ind the coordinates of the m idpoint of BC.
(c) Find th e length of the m edian from A to TiC,
10. T h e line segm ent joining th e points (6 ,1 4 ) a n d (2, —2) is divided into
four congruent parts. F ind the coordinates of the points of division,

EXERCISES 11. T h e vertices of the parallelogram ABC D are j4(—1 ,4 ), B (2 ,8 ),

C(7, 3), a n d D{4, —1). Find the point a t w hich the diagonals bisect
X. D eterm ine the distance betw een each of th e following pairs of points. each other.
L eave answers in radical form unless you have a square ro o t table 12. O n e endpoint of a line segm ent is (7, —2), while the coordinates of
available.
the m idpoint are (1, —5). Find the coordinates of the o ther endpoint.
(a ) (6, 8), (6, 12) (b ) ( - S , - 2), ( - 1, - 2)
13. T h e line segm ent w ith endpoints *4(3, —2) and B {— 5, 6)is extended
(c) ( - 2 , - 1 5 ) , (4, -7 ) (d ) ( - 1 4 , 2), ( - 2 , - 3 )
its own length through point B to point C. W hat are the coordinates
(e ) (0 ,7 ), ( - 6 , 4 ) (f) ( - 5a, a), (3a, a)
of point C?
2. (a ) Find the distance from the point ( —12, 5) to the origin.
14. A (3, 5) is the m idpoint of the diagonals of a parallelogram . If B ( — 5, 2)
(b ) Find the lengths of the sides of a triangle whose vertices are
(2 ,4 ), (6 ,1 ), ( U , U ) . and C(7, —4) are two of the vertices of this parallelogram , find the

(c) Find the lengths of the sides of a triangle whose vertices are coordinates of the other two vertices.
( - 3 , 5), (2, 0), ( - 1 , - 2 ) . 15. Find the coordinates of the point th a t will divide each of the following
line segments into the ratio indicated. T h e ratio will be of the m easure
3. Show th a t the points ( —5, 2), (7, 4), and (2, —3) are the vertices of
an isosceles triangie. of the left segm ent to the m easure of the rigjit segment.
(a ) (0 ,0 ), ( 5 ,0 ); 2 :3 (b ) (6, 1 0 ;, (12, - 2 ) ; 1:2
4. Show th a t th e poirits ( —3, 7), (3, —1), and (4, 6) are the vertices of a (c) ( - 2 , 5), (6, - 4 ) ; 3:1 (d ) ( - 1 0 , - 8), (2, - 3 ) ; 5 :2 .
rig h t triangle. (See problem 8, page 370.) (e ) ( - 6 , 0 ) , ( - 5 , 1 0 ) ; 3:5 (f) ( - 5 , 4), (3, 4 ); 2:1
5. Show th a t the diagonals o f a rectangle whose vertices are (0, 0), (0, 6), 16. T h e vertices of a triangle are ^ (5 , 8), 5 (1 , —2), and C(7, 6).
(8, 6), a n d (8, 0) are congruent.
(a) F ind the coordinates of the m idpoints of A B a n d AC.
6. (a ) F ind th e fourth vertex of the rectangle if three of its vertices are (b ) F ind th e length of the line segm ent joining th e m idpoints of A b
(0, 0), (a, 0), a n d (0, b). a n d AC.
( b ) Prove th a t th e diagonals of this rectangle are congruent. (c) F ind th e length of BC.
7. D eterm ine the coordinates o f th e m idpoint o f each of th e following line (d ) W h at conclusion can you draw in term s of your answers to b a n d c?
segments.
17. U sing A(2xi, 2yi), B(D, 0), and C(2*i, 0) as th e vertices of a triangle,
(a ) (0, 0), (8, 6 ) (b ) (5, 4), (11,14).
prove th a t th e m easure of th e line segm ent joining th e m idpoints o f
<c) (- 2 ,7 ), (6,3) (d) ( - 9 , - 4 ), ( - ! , 6)
th e sides A B and i4C'is equal to one-half the m easure of side £C.
392 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: A N INTRODUCTION
18. T h e vertices of an isosceles trapezoid are /i(0, 0), B ( \2 , 0), C(10, 6),
and 1){2, 6).
(a) Show th at the m easure of the iinc segm ent joining the m idpoints
of the nonparaiic! sides is equal ;o one-half the sum of the m easures
of the bases. (This line segment is called the m edian of a trapezoid.)
(b ) Show th a t the diagonals of this trapezoid are congruent.
(c) Show th at the line segment joining A to the m idpoint of B C is
congrucnt to the line segm ent joining B to the m idpoint of A D .
( d ) Show th a t the line segments joining the m idpoints of the sides i n .
o rd er form a parallelogram . (H int: Use T heorem 40.)
19. A (0, 0), 5 (6 , 4), a n d C(8, 2) are th e vertices of a triangle,
(a ) W h at are the coordinates of the point th a t divides the m edian from
A to BC into the ratio of 2:1? (The ratio is taken in the direction
from A to 5 £ \)
(b ) D eterm ine the coordinates of the point th a t divides the m edian
from B to ~AC into the ratio of 2:1.
(c) D eterm ine the coordinates of the point th a t divides the m edian
393
PARALLELISM A N D PERPENDICULARITY
(c) Prove th a t th e line segm ents From the m id p o in t o f th e base to the
midpoints of the legs are congruent.
(d ) Can you give any reason why the coordinates of the vertices in
this problem were chosen as they were?
23. Two of the vertices of an equilateral triangle are (0, 0) and (2a, 0).
W hat will the coordinates of the third vertex have to be if it falls in
the first quadrant?
| Parallelism and Perpendicularity
Two of the im portant topics discussed in synthetic geom etry
concerned themselves w ith parallelism and perpendicularity of two lines.
We would like to take a nother look a t these topics, b u t from an analytic
standpoint. T his can be done, though, only after an understanding of the
term slope has been established.
W e have often h e ard people speak of a hill as having a “ steep” slope
or a “ gradual” slope; yet precisely w hat did they m ean? A re the slopes of
th e hills in Figures 12-24 and 12-25 “steeper” th an th a t o f F igure 12-26?

from C to I B into the ratio of 2 :1.

(d ) In view of the answers th a t you have found for a, b, and c, w hat
conclusion seems to be true concerning the m edians of a triangle?
2 0 .* (a) Following the m ethfldoisedjnJProblem 19, prove th at the m edians
of a triangle are(\concurrent i^/hat is, th a t they m eet a t a point.
(H in t: Use (xt, yt), (xi,yih and (x3, y 3) as the vertices of the
F ig u re 12-24. F ig u re 12-25. F ig u re 12-26.
triangle.)
(b ) After exam ining th e coordinates of th e p o in t of concurrency th a t Is it possible to distinguish betw een the slopes of the hills in Figures 12-24-
you have found in answer to (a), form ulate a statem ent expressing and 12-25; th a t is, in Figure 12-24 we seem to be going uphill, while in
how to determ ine the coordinates of the p o in t of concurrency of the Figure 12-25 o u r direction is downhill? T o answ er these questions, the
m athem atician has defined the slope of a hill in term s of a ra tio :
m edians of any triangle if the coordinates of the vertices are known.
rise
21. (a) j4 (—10, —3) and B (5, 7) are two points. Find the coordinates of slope of a hill “
ru n
a th ird point, P, on the segm ent A B such th a t A P :P B - 2:3 .
(b ) Find the coordinates of a third point, Q, on the line A B b u t not 'L e t usl exam ine o u r th ree hills to see exactly w h at this m ea n s.•T h e ^
on the segm ent A B such th at AQ'.QB = 2 :3 . T h e p oint P found in “ rise” of ajh ill is the change in our vertical position as we m ove-from the
(a) is said to divide the line segment internally into th e ratio of 2 : 3, bottom to' the top of the hill or from the top to the bottom . T h e “ru n ” is
the..di£tance we moved horizontally in traveling from the bottoin to the top--
while the point Q found-now divides the line segm ent externally
^ t ) f the hill or from the top to the bottom . By m easuring the “ rise’^C n tf'"ru n ”
into the ratio of 2:3 .
in Figure 12-27 we discover th at the “ rise,” or vertical change, is only twe
22. T h e vertices of an isosceles triangle are given by the points 4(0, 0),
■ B (4 i, 0), C(2a, 26).

n$e
(a ) W hich of the three points A, B, and C are the endpoints of the base?
:(b ) Prove th a t the m edians to the legs of this isosceles triangle are
congruent. run
F ig u re 12-27. F i g u r e 12-28. F ig u re 12-29.
394 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: A N INTRODUCTION 395
PARALLELISM AN D PERPENDICULARITY
units, while the “ ru n ,” or horizontal change, is four units. H ence, we say
th a t the slope of the hill in F igure 12-27 is

slopei =

In the sam e way, by m easuring ihc "rise” and " ru n ” ir. Figure 12-29 we
note th a t they are 2 units and 6 units respectively, and, hence, th e slope of
ih a t hill is
, rise 2 1
slopes = ---- = 7 = r
ru n 6 3

In term s of these num bers, w e can conclude th a t the slope of the first hill is
g re ater th an th a t of the third, for the fraction % is greater th an J.
T h e hill in F igure 12-28 presents a bit of a problem , for here th e “ rise”
is actually negative. In going from the top of the hill to the bottom , the
vertical position of the person has decreased two units, while his horizontal
position has increased four units. T hus, the slope becomes
- 2 _ -1
slope2 =
4 2
H ence, it appears th a t the “ rise” m ay be either positive or negative depend­
ing on w hether the vertical change has been positive or negative. This, in
tu rn , will determ ine the sign of th e slope.
Now , how does all this tie in w ith our coordinate system? R a th e r th an
Exam ining this diagram , we realize th a t the coordinates of Q will have
to be (xt,yi). From this it follows th a t the “ ru n ” m ust be (x2 — *(}, w hiie
the “ rise” is (y 2 — y i). T his brings us to the point w here we can safely
form ulate th e definition of the slope of a line segm ent.
D e f in it io n 70: T h e slope of a line segm ent whose endpoints a re (xi,y{) a n d
(x2l yi) is defined b y the form ula .
m ~
* “ *»
N otice th a t this definition says no m ore th a n d 6es o u r parlier description
in term s of the “ rise” a n d “ ru n ” of a hill. T h e l.etter “ m” Was used to repre­
sent th e w ord slope; this is com m on practice. Also, in raorp advanced courses
in m athem atics'you will find th e sym bol Ay (rjead d elt^> ) replacing >2 — y i.
Sim ilarly, Ax is/used to replace x2 — x t . T h m r^ ll-'d ire e o f the expressions
below represent th e slope of a line segirient.

m = X U ZJl = ^
Xi — Xi Ax

illu stra tio n :

If A (3, 5), B ( —2 , 7), and C(8, —3) are the vertices of a triangle, then
find the slope of the m edian from A to BC,
M ethod : By applying the m idpoint form ula, we find th a t the coordinates
considering hills and their slopes, we now investigate line segments and their of the m idpoint of BC are
slopes. H ence, we m ust ask ourselves two questions: xm = ( - 2 + 8 )/2 = 3
(1) H ow g reat is the “ rise” betw een P\ and P2; th a t is, w hat is the extent = (7 - 3 )/2 = 2
of the vertical change?
T herefore the slope of the m edian from A to BC is
(2) H ow g reat is the “ run” betw een Pi and P2; th at is, w hat is the extent
of the horizontal change? « = (r» - y i)/{xs - x,)
= (3 - 5 )/(2 -
T o answ er both of these questions it is necessary to find the coordinates = 2
of the point w here the line through P2 parallel to the j>-axis intersects the line
th ro u g h P i th a t is parallel to th e x-axis. N ow we are prepared to prove several theorem s on parallelism a n d
perpendicularity.
 396 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: A N INTRODUCTION
THEOREM 74: T h e slope o f the lin e segm ent jo in in g an y two poin ts PARALLELISM AND' PERPENDICULARITY 397
on a lin e is equal to the slope o f th e lin e segm en t jo in in g
any other tw o points on the lin e. PROOF

By th e law of the excluded m iddle one of th e following

statem ents m ust be tru e and no other possibility exists:
V Given: P R || A C || •>c-axis
A, B, and C are collinear.
QR .11 B C || ji-axis or
BC _ Q R A, B, and C are not collinear.
Concl.:
AC PR
L et us accept the possibility th a t A, B, and C are not collinear. E xtend A B
F ig u r e 1 2 -3 2 . to some point F; in doing so A B will not pass m rough C, since we have

accepted the possibility th a t A, B, and C are not collinear. Since B D is

A n a l y s is : T h e slope of the line segment A B is given by the ratio BC w hile
0R
th a t of PQ is th e ratio t - Ar 1 By proving th e triangles sim ilar we can show
the slopes to be equal.
PROOF
T h e proof is left for you to do.
T heorem 74 enables us to prove th a t if w e sta rt w ith a line, th e slope
of th e line segm ent joining any two points will be equal to the slope of the
line segm ent joining any other two points. E qually as im p o rta n t to us is a
question closely related to this. It is, “ U nder w h a t conditions w ill points be
collinear?” T h is we plan to answer by th e next theorem .
TH EOREM 75: T hree points are collinear i f the slope o f the lin e seg­
m ent jo in in g two of the points is eq u al to th e slope o f th e
lin e segm ent jo in in g eith er o f these points to th e th ird
point.
parallel to AE, Z F B D = Z B A E . However, A B D C ~ A A E B by the S.A.S.
theorem on sim ilarity; hence Z C B D = Z B A E . T herefore, it follows th a t
Z F B D = Z C B D . How ever, from the postulate th a t the w hole is greater
th an any of its parts, m Z F B D > m Z C B D . T hus, accepting the possibility
th at A, B, and C w ere not collinear has led to the logical inconsistency of the
tru th of both Z F B D S Z C B D and Z F B D 3£ Z C B D . By the law of c o n tra­
diction both cannot be true a t the sam e time. Since Z F B D 9= Z C B D m ust
be true as the result of a postulate, Z F B D ~ Z C B D m ust be false, and,
therefore, the statem ent “A, B, and C are not collinear” is also false. H ence,
the statem ent "A , B, and C a rt collinear” is true, for it is the only rem aining
possibility.
Illustration:
Are the points A {2, 1), B(5, 0), and C(26, —7) collinear?
M ethod : By applying T heorem 75 to show that the slope of A B is equal
to the slope of BC, we will be able to conclude that A, B, and C are collinear.

rX 5 0 - 1 - 1
G iven: CD II B E fj slope of A B = mi = g _ ~2 =

B D II A E || *-axis - 7 - 0 -7 -1
slope of m = ir= T = -2i - = ~
BE CD
AE ' BD .\ mi = m2;hence, A, B, and C are collinear.
Concl,: A, B- and C are collinear.
D 71: T h e slope of a line is the slope of the line segm ent joining
e f in it io n
Figure 12-33, any two points on th a t line.

A n a ly sis : T h e proof will be o f the indirect variety, By assum ing th a t

In view of T heorem 74 do you see why it is possible to say th a t the slope
A , B , an d C are n ot collinear, w e w ill b e led to th e inconsistency th a t of a line is the slope of the line segment joining any two points ra th e r th a n
Z F B D S Z C B D an d Z F B D gg ZC B D . two specific points on the line?

THEOREM 76: If two lin es are parallel, their slopes are equal.
 398
COORDINATE GEOMETRY: A N INTRODUCTION
PARALLELISM AND PERPENDICULARITY 399

PROOF (The reasons will be left for you to supply.)

7. A A B C ~ A D E F
1. FEW CB
8. Z 6 -J. Z l
2. Z l Z2>
9. ZA S Z 6 , Z 5 S Z l
3. D E II A B II x-axis 10. .-. Z 4 S Z 5
4. Z A B C = Z l and Z D E F — Z l U. 4
5. Z A B C SZ Z D E F {a)
CB FE
AB DE

Illustration:
A ( —2, —5), 5(4 , —7), C(10, 9), a n d D ( — 8 , 13) are the vertices of a
A As in the proof of T h eo rem 74, th e slopes can b e show n to b e
n a l y s is :
e q u a l by proving A A B C ~ A D E F . quadrilateral. Prove th at the line join in g th e m idpoints of A B and 5 2 is
parallel to the line joining the m idpoints of C l) and B A .
M e t h o d : A sketch is m ade of the figure, a n d the coordinates of the m id ­
PROOF (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)________
points are w ritten on the diagram at sight,
1. D E II A B II x-axis
1. F E II CB
2. Z 3 S Z l a n d ZA S Z 2 8. Z 6 S Z l
3. h II h 9. Z 5 S Z 6 (a)
4. Z\ S Zl
10. .-. A A B C ~ A D E F
5. Z 3 S Z 4 (a)
n C B _ FE
6. Z $ S Z l ' AB DE

T H E O R E M 77: If tw o lin e s h a v e e q u al slopes, th e lin e s a re p a ra lle l.

G iv e n : D E II A B ||
*-axis slope of S R = mi = = -

F E II CB II
i ■ oft PQ = m5 = 1 + 6 =7 g
slope
y-axis
CB _ FE
AB DE /. mi = mi*, hence, by T heorem 77 th e lines a re parallel.

C oncl.: /j || /j I t should be pointed out th a t it does n o t m a tte r w hich of the points is

A n a l y s is : w ill b e shown parallel to lt b y proving ZA ~ Z 5 . T o do this,
th e tw o angles will be shown congruent to A 6 and 7 respectively. Hence.,
th e pro o f revolves around the need to show th a t Z 6 a n d Z l a re congruent
T his can be done by proving A A B C ~ A D EF.
considered the first point-and w hich is th e second. In either event th e slope
of the line segm ent will be the same. T hus, in th e illustration above we. found
the slope of SR by considering S as the first point and R as the second. H a d •
this been reversed, we would have obtained,
400 COORDINATE GEOMETRY, A N INTRODUCTION 401
PARALLELISM AND PERPENDICULARITY

T hus, the slope of S R is the same as th a t of RS. H ence, by substituting both (2) and (3) in (1), we obtain
W hen the slope of one line is J, while a nother is -J, the slope of the 1
888 “ I
second is said to be the reciprocal of the slope of the first, for th e fraction -J mi
is the reciprocal of -f. Similarly, if the slope of one line is § and the other —| ,
then the second slope is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the first. T hus,
THEOREM 79 ;C:i n h e slope o f orieH ne is th e n egative recip rocal o f the
to find the negative reciprocal of a fraction, it is sim ply a m atter of inverting
slope of a second lin e, the lin e s are p erp en d icu lar.
the fraction and changing its sign. T his inform ation is needed for the next
theorem . W h at is th e negative reciprocal of f? O f O f —J?

TH EOREM 78: If two lines are perpendicular, the slope o f on e is the G iv e n : F E II BC II

n egative reciprocal of the slope of the other. y -axis
<-> <->
D E II A B I
x-axis
G iven: F E II B C \\
y-axis
mi *
m2
d e iia b i
x-axis C oncl.: k -L k
h J- li

njj

In a m anner sim ilar to th a t used in the proof of T heorem 77

A n a l y s is :
we can show A FED ~ A ABC. T h e n to prove l\ J . 4 , Z l will be shown
A nalysis and P r o o f : By show ing th a t th e c o rre sp o n d in g an g les a re c o n ­
to be congruent to Z E , w hich is a rig h t angle. W hy is Z E a rig h t angle?
g r u e n t as m a rk e d in th e d ia g ra m , it c a n b e p ro v e d A FE D ~ A ABC, an d ,
W ith Z \ a right angle, the lines will be perpendicular.
h e n c e , i t w o u ld follow th a t
FE__AB
DE CB (1) (The reasonTwill be left for you to suppiy.)
PR O O F
FE Since the triangles are sim ilar, Z F _ ZA
Fortunately, 7 -= is the slope of k, and, therefore, is mi.
JJJh Z 2 £* Z A
But A B II x-axis,
FE Z F == Z 2 {a)
T hus, = m1 (2) Hence,
DE
Z D S Z l (a)
But D E I! x-axis,
Z lS iZ E
T h e slope of W, however, involves m ore difficulty, for this slope is negative Hence,
since the “ rise” is a negative quantity. By placing a negative sign in front Z E is a right angle.
But,
CB Z l is a right angle.
of m2, it will becom e positive and, hence, have the sam e sign as -j-g
Hence, l\ -L k
. CB
-mi
" AB
Illustration:
AB 1
01 CB m3
(3) Show th a t the diagonals of the rhom bus whose vertices are .4(0, 0),
5(10, 0), C(16, 8), and D (6, 3) are p erpendicular to each oth er.
 402 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: A N INTRODUCTION
PARALLELISM AND PERPENDICULARITY 403

0
1

for, as was said, whether x increases 1 unit or 1,000 units betw een two
points on this line, the increase in y between these sam e two points will
always remain 0 .
Similarly, in Figure 12-41

„ _ yg ~ _ yt ~ >>
*1 - *1 0
> i—►
M e t h o d : U sing Figure 12-39, we find the slopes of A C a n d D B to see if As before, this will simply be interpreted to m ean th a t no m a tte r how m any
one is the negative reciprocal of the other.
units the ordinate m ay change between two points on this line, the change
i f Tr 8 - 0 1 in the abscissa will always rem ain 0. As before, the sim plest w ay of expressing
slope of A C - mi = J g T 'o = 2
a slope whose denom inator is zero will be in the form of
, .£ + 0 - 8 -8 -2 1
slope of D B = m2 = = — = —
0
We must impress upon you the fact th a t -J is not to be interpreted as a
mi — ------;
TKj hence, by T heorem 79, A C X D B . division problem, for division by zero is impossible. I t should be interpreted
T here are several ra th e r im portant omissions th a t w e have m ad e w hen only in terms of a “ rise” and “ ru n ,” as was done in the preceding paragraph.
discussing th e slope of a line in the coordinate plane. T hese concern th e
T he negative reciprocal of i will be considered to be Sim ilarly,
slopes of lines th a t are parallel to either th e x- o r j>-axis.

the negative reciprocal of f will be This in te rp reta tio n will simplify

a num ber of problems we will encounter.

EXERCISES
Q U2/y,)
1. Determ ine the slope of the line th at passes th ro u g h each of the following
pairs of points:
(a) (0, 0), (5, 4) (b ) (0 ,0 ), ( - 3 , 6 )
Figure 12-40. (c) (2, 5), (10,14) <d) ( - 3 , 4 ) , (6, - 8)
(e) (0 ,4 ), (8, - 6) ( 0 (5, - 7 ) , (2, - 1 0 )
In Figure 12-40 we see that the slope of the line segm ent jo in in g the (g) ( - 4 , - 3 ) , ( - 1 , - 8) (h ) (3, 7), (9, 7)
points P a n d Q will be y
yi — yi 0 2. Find the slope of the line th a t is p erpendicular to the line th a t passes
m = = ----------
Xi — *i xs — Xi through each of the following pairs of points ;
T his will be interpreted to m ean th at there is na “ rise” or vertical change (a) (2, 3), (5 ,1 4 ) (b ) ( - 4 , 7), (1, - 6) (c) ( - 8, - 5 ) , ( - 2 , - 1 0 )
in the line for any two points th at m ay be selected on the line. T h a t is, no
3. W hich of the following sets of points are collinear?
m atter how m any units the abscissa m ay increase betw een tw o points on-
(a) ( 0 , - 7 ) , ( 3 , - 1 ) , ( - 2 , - 1 1 )
th e line, th e o rdinate will not increase a t all. In view of this, w e will express
a slope such as this in its simplest form of (b) (0 ,3 ), ( 1 5 , - 8 ) , ( - 1 2 ,1 0 )

4. W hat conclusion can be draw n concerning a line whose slope is 0?

 404
COORDINATE GEOMETRY: A N INTRODUCTION
5. *4(8, 6), 5 (0 , 0), a n d C( 12, 2) are the vertices of a triangle.
i —i
(a ) W h at is th e slope of the Sine through C parallel to AB?.
(b ) W hat is th e d o p e of the aititude from B to AC?
(c) V /hat is the slope of the m edian from C to AB?
( d ) W hat is the slope of the perpendicular bisector of AB?
6. /4(1, 5), B (5, 9), and £ (1 1 ,1 ) a re th e vertir.es of a triangle.
(a ) Find the m idpoints of AB, AC, a n d BC”.
(b ) Show th a t the line joining the m idpoints of A B and A C is parallel
to BC.
( c) Show th a t th e line joining th e m idpoints of AC and B C is parallel
to A B .
7. R ( — 2, 5), £ (0, 11), a n d T ( —6, —7) a re th e vertices of a triangle. Show
t h a t th e line passing through the m idpoints of SR and S T is parallel
to R T .
8 . Prove th a t the line passing through the midpoints of two sides o f a
triangle is parallel to the third side. (H in t: Use the coordinates (2a, 2b),
(2c, 2d), a n d (2e, 2j ) as the vertices of the triangle.)
9. Show th a t th e line segments joining the points ( —4, —3), (8, 2), (11, 6),
a n d ( —1, 1) taken in order form a parallelogram . (H int: Use the
reverse of the definition of a parallelogram ,)
10. Show th at the vertices in each of the problem s below are th e vertices
of a right triangle. Do not use the distance formula.
(a ) (5, 2), (8, 9), (10, 4) ( b ) ( - 3 , 1 ) , ( - 1 , 20), (5, 4)
11. A{ —12, 0), B (2, 0), C (l, 5), and D ( — 11, 5) are the vertices of an isos­
celes trapezoid.
(a ) Show th a t the line th a t passes through the m idpoints of the non-
parallel sides is parallel to th e bases.
( b ) Show th a t the line th a t passes through the m idpoints of th e parallel
sides is perpendicular to them .
12. (a ) If .<4(0, 0), £ ( 12, 0), a n d D {2, 5) are three vertices of a n isosceles
• ^ (
trapezoid in w hich A B is the lower base, find the fourth vertex C
so th a t the vertices will read in th e order /!, B, C, and D.
( b ) I f <4(0, 0), B(2a, 0), a n d D(2b, 2c) a re three vertices o f an isosceles
. ^
trapezoid w here A B is the lower base, w rite the coordinates of the
fourth vertex C so th a t th e vertices will read in the order A , B , C,
and D. r"
TEST AND-REVIEW 405
(c) Using the vertices in b, prove th a t the m edian of a trapezoid is
parallel to the bases and equal to one-half their sum . (See P rob­
lem 18, page 392.)
13. /3(0, 0), 5(8, 0), C(12, - 6 ) , and D ( —4, —4) are the vertices of a q u a d ­
rilateral.
(a) Show th at if the m idpoints of th e sides are joined in order, the
quadrilateral will be a parallelogram .
(b) Show th at if line segm ents are draw n between pairs of opposite
midpoints, these line segm ents will bisect each other.
14. Prove th at if the m idpoints of the sides of any q u a d rilate ral are joined
in order, the quadrilateral form ed will be a parallelogram . (H int: Use
(2x i ,2yi), (2x2, 2yi), (2x3, 2y 3), (2x4, 2>4) as the vertices of the q u a d ri­
lateral.)
15. /4(0, 0), B(8, 0), C(10, 4), and D (2, 4) are the vertices of a parallelo­
gram^ If segments are draw n from B to M , the m idpoint of ZJC, and
from D to N, the m idpoint of A B , then B M D N will be a parallelogram .
16. ABC D is a parallelogram w here M a n d N are the m idpoints of 5 C aiid.
A B respectively. Prove th a t B M D N is a parallelogram . (H int: Use
(0, 0), (2a, 0), and (2b, 2c) as the coordinates of A, B, a n d D \ then find
the coordinates for C in the sam e m an n er as you h a d for Probleta 12b.)
17. T h e coordinates of a parallelogram a re *4(3, 6), 5 (6 , 6), C(12, 15), a n d
Z)(9, 15). Prove th at if segm ents a re draw n from D to the trisectiori.
points of AC and from B to these sam e points, th a t the quadrilateral
form ed will be a parallelogram .
18. Prove th a t if segments are draw n from a p a ir of opposite vertices of a
parallelogram to the trisection points of the diagonal jo in in g the rem ain­
ing vertices, the quadrilateral form ed will be a parallelogram . (H in t:
Use (0, 0), (3a, 0), and (34, 3c) for the vertices A, 5 , a n d D; then find
the coordinates of vertex C.)
19 Test and Review
1. R epresent each of the following statem ents by an e q uation:
(a) T h e ordinate of a point is alw ays 5.
(b ) T h e abscissa of a point is always —7.
(c) T h e ordinate of a p o in t is always equal to twice the abscissa.
(il) T h e abscissa of a point is always less th a o 10.
(e) T h e sum of the square of the abscissa and the square of the o rdinate
is always 25.
 406 COORDINATE GEOMETRY,- A N INTRODUCTION
TRY THIS FOR FUN 407
2. (a ) A set of points lie on a line perpendicular to th e >-axis. W hich-of
11. (a ) H ow do you in te rp ret the statem ent th a t th e slope of a line is 4?
the coordinates is the sam e for all points of the set? -3
(b) How could you give a description for the points in this set by using (b ) How do you in te rp ret the statem ent th a t th e slope of a line is — ?
symbols?
(c) How do you in te rp ret the statem ent th a t the slope of a line is
3. D e te rm in e th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n e a c h o f th e f o llo w in g p a ir s o f p o in ts .
L e a v e y o u r a n s w e r s in r a d i c a l fo rm .

(a) (3 ,7 ), (9 ,2 ) (b ) ( - 5 , - 6), (8, - 3 ) ■ Try This For Fun

4. D eterm ine th e coordinates of the m idpoints of the line segm ents whose I t was noted earlier th at the d istance betw een two "objects”
endpoints are was the m easure of the shortest path betw een them . T h is p a th was investi­
(a) ( - 2 , - 9 ) , (8, - 3 ) (b ) (5a, b), (2 a ,U ) gated when the “ objects” were two points of a plane or a point and a line
of a plane. But w hat if the surface is not a plane? Is there anything th at we,
5. Find the coordinates of the point th at will divide each of the following
as students of plane geom etry, can do to find the distance between two o b ­
line segments into the ratio indicated. T h e ratio will be the m easure of jects on a surface such as this? M ore often th a n not, the answer to this
the left segment to the m easure of the right segm ent.
question is “ N o.” T h ere are, however, certain special situations in w hich,
(a ) (0, 3), (7 ,1 2 ); 2 :1 (b ) ( - 5 , 1 ) , ( - 2 , - 3 ) ; 1 :4 it is possible for us to press the surface flat, then tre a t the problem as though
6. T h e three vertices of a triangle are .<4(0, 2), £ ( 4, 10), a n d C(12, —4). it existed on a plane. O n e such case is described below.
(a ) Find th e length of A B .
P
(b ) Find th e coordinates of th e m idpoint of BC.
(c) Find th e length of th e m edian from A to BU.
• (d ) Find th e length of th e line segm ent-joining th e m idpoints of C/4
and US.

7. T h e coordinates of tw o consecutive vertices of a p arallelogram a re (0, 2)

a n d (10, 4). If the p o in t of intersection of the diagonals is (6, 5), w h at
are the other two vertices of the parallelogram ?

8. Determ ine the slope of the line th a t passes through each of th e following
pairs of points. For reasons know n only to himself, a spider built his w eb on the side
(a ) (0, 8), (5, 2) (b ) ( - 3 , 4 ) , ( - 2 , - 1 ) of a cone. O n e ra th e r hot day he em erged from his shelter and, in spite of
his better judgem ent, decided to em bark on a w alk aro u n d the cone. N ot
9. T h e vertices of a qu ad rilateral taken in consecutive order are <4(0, 0),
£ (1 2 ,2 ), C(10, 6), a n d D (4, 8). w anting to overdo this, however, he felt th a t it w ould be best if he restricted
his path to the shortest route th a t w ould enable him to see the back of the
(a ) Show th a t the line segm ent joining the m idpoints of S A and BU is cone and re tu rn him to his hom e. T o do this, he p ictured the cone as being
congruent to the line segm ent joining the m idpoints of D A and DU. cut down the back, then pressed flat on the surface of a table. T he path he
(b ) Show th a t th e above line segments are parallel, decided to take was along the perpendicular frtV»i the nest to the cut ~PB

10. i4(l, 4), £ ( —3, 8), a n d C(5, 6) are the vertices of a triangle.
P
(a) W hat is the slope of the line through A parallel to BC?
(b ) W h at is the slops of the altitude from C to J l ?
(c) W h at is the slope of the m edian from B to AU?
(d ) Show th a t the line join in g the midpoints of A B a n d AU is parallel
408 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: A N INTRODUCTION

an d back along a second p erpendicular to P B '. R em em ber, of course, th a t

A and. A ' are the sam e point a t the back of the cone.
(1) C an you prove th a t this is the shortest route?
( 2) W h at p a th should the spider take if, when the cone was cut and
pressed flat o n the plane, th e Z .B 'P B turned out to be a straig h t angle?
(3) Is there still a third situation th at m ight arise when the cone is laid
o u t flat in the plane?

13
Coordinate Geometry
The Graph

O U R F IR S T E N C O U N T E R W IT H A S E T WAS
during the very first few weeks of the course. A set, as we learned, m ay be
any collection of elements w here the elem ents are found by some rule. T h e
m athem atician prefers to say th a t the elem ents are determ ined by the con­
ditions presented in the problem . T hus, the rule conditions presented in
the problem m ay be th a t the elem ents in the set m ust be the boys in the
Conway family. T h e set w ould then be w ritten as {Joe, Fred, W illiam }.
T h e elem ents listed in this set com ply now w ith two requirem ents:
(1) All the nam es listed— th a t is, the elem ents in the set— are the boys
in the Conway family.
(2) All the boys in the Conway family have their names listed in this set,
th a t is, are elements in the set.
N otice th a t requirem ent 2 is th e converse of requirem ent 1.
T h e elem ents in a set are frequently num bers. Specifically, if the con­
ditions of the problem are th a t the elem ents be even num bers greater th an 0
b u t less th an 10, then the set w ould be
{2, 4, 6, 8}
A nd again we can say that
(1) All the num bers in the set are even num bers greater than 0 and less
th a n 10.

409
 410 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
(2) All the num bers th a t are even num bers greater than 0 a n d less than
10 are num bers in th e set.
Frequently there will be sets of elements w here all the elements, or
members, cannot be listed. T hese are called infinite spts. T hus, had the rule
in th e previous prpblem been to determ ine the set whose m em bers were
even num bers g reater than zero, it would be impossible to list all of them ,
T o overcom e this, we m erely list a few and indicate th a t there are m ore to
follow by using three dots:
{2, 4, 6, 8, . . .}
In order to m ake certain th a t there is no dou b t as to how the< elem ents in
the set were determ ined, we will express the description of the elem ents in
the set as
{x]x is an even num ber greater th an zero}
T h is is read as
“ T h e set of all x such th a t x is an even n um ber g reater than zero.”
W hen expressed in this m anner, we can see th a t the symbol x is designed to
represent any elem ent in the set. I t m ay be the elem ent 2, or 6, or 38, or
2,594; in fact, any even num ber greater than zero.
O u r present concern is w ith sets whose elem ents are ordered pairs of
num bers. Consider the set
{(1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 5), (2, 6)}
T h e conditions leading to this set of elements w ere th a t the first n um ber in
each p a ir had to be either 1 or 2, while the second num ber had to be either
5 o r 6 . T his sam e set could have been w ritten in the form,
{(x,y)\x is either 1 or 2 a n d ^ is either 5 or 6}
W e w ould read this as
“ T h e set of all ordered pairs of num bers (x, y) such th a t x is
either 1 or 2 and y is either 5 or 6.”
T h e im portance to us of sets whose elem ents a re pairs of num bers rests
in the fact th a t every ordered p air of num bers represents a p o in t in th e
A the elem ents listed in the set above are m em bers of the solution set of this
V equation, for they will m ake this equation true.
Figure 13-1.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH 411
coordinate plane and, conversely, every point in the coordinate plane rep­
resents a pair of ordered num bers. H ence, all sets consisting of ordered
pairs of num bers can be represented by points in the coordinate plane. T h e
set of elements {(1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 5), (2, 6)} is pictured as A, B, C, and D
in the plane.of Figure 13-1. T h e points A, B, C, and D are called the graph
of the set of elements {(1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 5), (2, 6)}.
. D 72: T h e g ra p h of a set consisting of o rdered pairs of num bers is
e f in it io n
the set of points whose coordinates are m em bers of the original set.
Now let us exam ine all of this in term s of the following s e t:
{(*.>)!> “ 2x + 1}
As before, this is read as
“ T h e set of all ordered pairs of num bers (x, y) such th a t the second
num ber in each pair is always 1 m ore th an twice the first nu m b er.”
W hen you studied algebra, you learned to determ ine such pairs of num bers
by substituting values for x, then finding th e corresponding value for y.
Thus, when x is 1, the value of y will be 3. Some of these.pairs of values were
tabulated as
Now, we can express these pairs of values as the set of elem ents
{(0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5), ( - 4 , - 7 ) , . . .}
w here each of the elem ents in this set is restricted by th e fact th at it m ust
satisfy the equation y — 2x + 1. T h e set of pairs of values th a t satisfy an
equation— th at is, m ake it tru e— is called the solution set of th a t equation. T he
p air of values (5, 1) w hen used as replacem ents for x a n d y in the equation
y = 2x + 1
will m ake the left side 1 while the right side will be 11. H ence, (5 ,1 ) is not
a m em ber of the solution set of the equation y = 2x + 1. O n the other hand,
T h e graph of the elem ents thus far found in the solution set of the
equation y = 2x + 1 is pictured in Figure 13-2. A lthough this is a set con­
sisting of infinitely m any pairs of num bers, we have found only four of these
pairs. This question then arises, “ W hat w ould the graph of the solution set
have been had we been able to express all the pairs of values in the solution
set?” E xam ination of the four points leads us to suspect th a t the graph will
consist of collinear points. T his is w hat we now intend to prove.
412 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH 413
.. , . r ys - yi (2 x 3 + 1) - (2 x 2 + 1)
Sim ilarly, slope of BC — w? = ------- - --------------------------------
’• xj — x2 xj — x2

_ 2xa + 1 — 2x8 — 1 _ 2xa — 2 x2

xj — x2 xs — Xi

= 2(x3 ~ ■*») = 2
X i — x2

T hus, mi = m2, and hence, A, B, and C are collinear.

T o answer question 2, we change its form to one th a t w e can handle
m ore easily.T h a t is,will all the points on the line th a t passes th ro u g h two
m em bers of the solution set also be members of the solution set? f T o prove
this, let A (xi,yi) and B (x i,y 2) be two points in the solution set of the equa­
tion y = 2x + 1, W e are now called upon to show th a t a point such as
D (xt, yi) that is on the line determ ined by points A and B will satisfy the
equation / = 2x + 1. T his will be true if
F i g u r e 13-2. >4 = 2x, + 1 (1 )

A ctually, our problem is twofold: By T heorem 74 we know th a t the slope of the line segm ent jo in in g a n y
two points on a line is- equal to the slope of the line segm ent jo in in g any
(1) W ill all the pairs of values in the solution set of y = 2x + 1 represent
o th er two points. Hence,
collinear points?
slope of D B = slope of BA
(2 ) W ill all the points on this line be elements in the solution set of
y = 2x + 1? y< - y> = y%.- >1
W e w ill attack each of these questions individually. T o answer the first, w e *4 — Xi X i — Xl

know by T heorem 75 th a t three points will be collinear if the slope of the B ut points A and B are in the solution set; therefore,
line segm ent joining any two is equal to the slope of the line segm ent join in g
eith er of these to the third. H ence, we will let A (xi,y\), B(xt, y2), a n d C (xz,y j)' yi = 2x i + l and yi = 2x2 + 1
be any three pairs of values th a t are elements in the solution set. W e w ould H ence
now like to show th at they represent three collinear points. T o do this by y* - yi _ (2x2 + 1) - (2xi + 1)
applying T heorem 75, we m ust show that x4 — x2 x2 — Xl
ya — >i __ >3 - y% y< ~ yt _ 2x2 + 1 ~ 2xi — 1
Xi — X i Xj — Xj
* 4 T~ X2 ■ Xj — Xi

for these are the slopes of A B and SC,

>4 — y2 2x2 — 2xi
Since the three points are elements in the solution set of y — 2x + 1, X4 — X2 X2 — Xl
then
( 1) = 2x, + 1 X ~ _ o
( 2) yi = 2xs + 1 X4 “ X2

(3) yi = 2xj + 1 Therefore

y* — yt = 2 x4 — 2x2
T herefore, slope of A B = m, = ~ (2*‘ + >>4 —(2x2 + 1) = 2 X4 — 2x2
Xi — X i X2 — XI
yt — 2x2 — i = 2x4 - 2x2
— 2x2 + 1 — 2xi — 1 _ 2x; — 2xi y< = 2 x 4 + 1
Xi — X I X2 - XI
A nd this is w hat we had planned to prove. (See (1) above.)
_ 2 (x2 - X l) _ 2
t Notice that we are using the words “points” and “pairs of values” interchangeably.
This is often done since there is a one-to-one correspondence between them.
414 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
THE STRAIGHT LINE 415
EXERCISES
O ne of the simplest and yet one of the most im p o rtan t graphs is th a t
of the equation of the form
1. Give the rule or description for finding the elem ents in each of the fol­
ax + by = c
lowing sets:
In the previous section we proved th at the graph of a particular form of this
(a) { 1 ,3 ,5 , 7, 9} (b ) {S, 10, 15, 20}
equation, y = Zx + 1, was a straight line. W hat are the values of a, b, a n d c
(c) {7, 8, 9, 10, 11} (d ) {3, 6, 9, 12, . . .}
in this equation? Now we plan to show th at every equation having the form
(e) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1,3), (1, 4)} (f) {(3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4. 2)} ax + by = c will be a straight line. T h e p attern of proof will be identical
2. H ow would you read each of the following expressions? w ith th at used in showing the graph of y = 2r..+ 1 to be a straight line.
(a ) {x | x is a w hole num ber} Since this is so, our first objective will be to w rite the equation ax + by = c
(b ) {x I 2x + 1 = 6} so that it resembles the equation^ = 2x + 1.
(cr) {x j x > 3} ax + by = i
(d ) {x | x < 5 and xis a n a tu ra l number} by = —ax + c
j
(e ) {* 3x > x + 2}
y = —7 x + 7 (Assume b ^ 0.)
< 0 {(*,>) I * + ^ = 5} b o
(g ) { ( * ,y ) \ y = 3* - 2}
As —7 and 7 are constants, we will simplify the ap p earance of this equatio n
3. Find four ordered pairs of num bers in each of the following sets: b b
(a ) {(*>jy) I * + y = 4} (b ) {(x ,y ) | 2x - y = 5} by replacing them by m and k.
(c) {(*. J1) I 2* + 3y = 6} (d ) {(*, ji) | x 1 + y* = 25} y = mx + k
Again, we are confronted w ith proving two properties:
4. Find four ordered pairs of num bers in the solution set of each of the fol­
lowing equations and graph these four p o in ts: (1) All points in the solution set are collinear.
(2) All points lying on the line joining any two points in the solution set
(a ) y = * + 3 (b ) * + 2y = 4
are also in the solution set.
(c) 3* + y = 7 (d ) x 2 + y* = 100
5. For each of the equations below, find three points in its solution set.
Using T heorem 75, determ ine w hether these points are collinear. P R O O F -P A R T 1
(a ) y = 3x - 2 (b ) x = 2j> + 3
(c) 2x — 3y = 6 (d ) x* — y 1 = 16 Let A(xi, y 1), B(x2, yt), and C{x3, ^ 3) be points in the solution
set of the equation y - mx + k. We will now show th a t these points are
collinear.
■ The Straight Line
(1) y 1 = mxi + k (2) y t = mx2 + k (3) y 3 = mx3 + k
T h e analysis in the preceding section leads us to the fol­
lowing definition: slope of A B = = fr1*? + *) - 0"«i + *) =
' Xi - Xl x2 - X: Xi — Xl
D e f in it io n73: T h e graph of an equation is the graph of the solution set
of th a t equation. m{x2 - xi)
— --------------= m
xi - Xi
H aving accepted the property th a t a definition is reversible, we have
a t our disposal, through Definition 73, two im portant principles: slo e of BD = ^ ~ ~ (mxt ~t~ _ w*3— mx2
* ! — *2 ' X 3 — Xi Xi — Xi
(1) T h e coordinates of every point of the graph of an equation is an ele­ m(*3 ~ xi)
m ent of the solution set of th a t equation. = --------------- tn
X i~ X 2
(2) Every elem ent of the solution set of an equation is the coordinates of
a point of the graph of the equation. Hence, slope of A S = slope of SC
T herefore, the three points A, B, and C a re collinear. (S eeT heorem 75.)
 THE STRAIGHT LINE 417
416 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
Illustration 1:
P R O O F — PAR T 2
D eterm ine the equation of the line th at passes through the points
Since this proof is identical to th at presented on page 413 A (2, 3) and B(4, - 1 ) .
(except the symbols m and k replace the symbols 2 and 1), it will be left M e t h o d : Let C (x,y) r e p r e s e n t the coordinates of a third point on th e line

for you to do. jo in in g th e points 4 and B. T h en , since

Now let us exam ine w hat would have happened had 4 been equal to 0 mi = mj
in th e equation ax + by = c. W ere this so, then slope BC = slope A B
ax + Oy — c y+1 = 3+1
ax = c x - 4 2 -4
and therefore y 4- 1 = _4_
x = c/a x - 4 -2
T h e equality x = cl a is simply a direction stating that the point will always L ± 1 = J L
be c /a units from the vertical axis.j For this to be so, the point will have x - 4 -1
to be on a line parallel to the_y-axis. Hence, even were 4 = 0, the equation ~y - t = 2x - 8
ax + by = c w ould still represent a line. 7 = 2* + / or Zx + y = 7
Before leaving th e proof of this theorem , it is im perative to point out
th a t as a by-product of Part 1 of the proof we have shown th at the slope of Illustration 2:
the line segm ent joining any two points in the solution set of the equation D eterm ine the equation of the line th at passes through the point
y = mx -j- k is m. By definition, though, the slope of a line is the slope of A ( — S, 1) and is perpendicular to the line 2x + 3y = 4.
the line segm ent joining any two points on the line. Hence, the slope of the M e th o d : T h e slope of the line 2x + 3_y = 4 is found by solving the equa­
line y — mx + k is m. But how is m found? It is the coefficient of x w hen the tion foT y and exam ining the coefficient of x:
equation is solved for y. T o illustrate, to find the slope of the line iy = —2x -(- 4 (1)
3y + 2x = 6 y = -!* + I
solve the equation fo ry : slope of (1): —2 /3
3y = - Z x + 6 slope of a line perpendicular to (1): 3 /2
>-.-•§* + 2 L et B {x,y) be a second point on the Jine that passes th ro u g h A ( — 5, 1) and
is perpendicular to 2x + 3/ = 4. T hen, since
H ence, m = —2/3 , and therefore theslope of the line 3y + 2x = 6 is —2/3.
mi = m2
In sum m ary, we have proved
slope of A B — slope of line perpendicular to 2x -{- iy = 4
T H EO R EM 80: (1) T h e graph of any equation of the form ax + by = C
w ill be a lin e.
(2) E very lin e can be represented by an equation of the X+ 5 2
form ax + by = c. 3* + 15 = 2_y — 2
Now we com e to the mechanics of finding the equation of a line. N o 3x — 2y «= - 1 7
m a tte r w hat the conditions of the problem, the equation of a line will always
be found by applying T heorem 74; th at is, the slope of the line segm ent, Illustration 3:
join in g any tw o points of a line is equal to the slope of the line segm ent
jo in in g any other two points of the line. T his will be indicated henceforth Prove th a t the points h(1 , 5), B ( —2. 6), a n d C(0. —3) a re n o t collinear.
by w riting mi = mj. M ethod: Let D {x,y) bc any point on the line joining the points A a n d B .

t S e e p a g e 38 0 . T h en ,
418 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH 419
INTERSECTION OF TWO SETS
771] — 77)2
6 . /1(0, 3), B(6 , - 1 ) , and C(4, 7) are the vertices of a triangle.
slope D B = slope A B (a) Find the equation of the line th a t passes through A and is parallel
y - 6 5 -6
to BC.
x -f- 2 1 4- 2
(b ) Find the equation of the line that passes through C and is perpen-
y - 6 = M
x + 2 3 dicular to AB.
(c) Find the equation of the altitude from B to AC.
3y - 18 = -,v - 2
(d ) Find the equation of the m edian from A to BC.
x + Zy = 16
(e) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB.
If point C(0, —3) is on the line passing through A a n d B, it will be an
d e m e n t in the solution set of its equation. H ence, (f) Find the equation of the line th at passes through the m idpoints of

0 + 3 ( - 3 ) J , 16. A B and AC.

-9 ^16 7. W hich of the following sets of points are collinear? Justify your answer,
,\ C, A , and B are not collinear. (a) {(2, 3), (5, 8), ( - 4 , - 7 ) } (b ) {(2, 1), ( - 3 , 5), ( - 6, - 1 ) }
8. D eterm ine the slope of each of the following lines:
EXERCISES (a) y = 3x + 4 (b) y = —2x + 5 (c) x + y = 7
(d ) 2y - 3x = 5 (e) 2x + y = 3 (f) 3x - 4y = 5
1. In each of th e follow ing problem s, determ ine the equation o f the line (g) ax + by = c (h) 3y = 4 f (i) 5x = 2 f
th a t passes th ro u g h the tw o points th a t are given. 9. F ind the equation of each of the following lines:
(a ) (0, 2), (3, 4) (b) (4, 6), (8, 2) (a) Passes through (2 ,1 ) and is parallel to the line 5x + y ' — 6.
(c) (1, 5), (0, 9) (d ) ( - 2 , 8), (3, 10) (b ) Passes through ( —3 , 1) and is perpendicular to the line 3x — 4y — 5.
(e ) ( - 5 , - 2 ) , (0, - 5 ) (f) ( - 1 , 7), (3, - 3 ) (c) Passes through ( - 2 , - 3 ) a n d is parallel to the line 2y = —5.
2. D eterm ine th e equation o f th e line th a t passes th ro u g h each of the (d ) Passes through (4, —1) and is perpendicular, to the line x = —7-
following points and has th e slope indicated. 10. Prove th a t the lines lQx — 4y = 3 a n d 5x = 2y a re parallel.
(a ) (2, 3); slope = 2 /5 (b ) (0, 5); slope = - 1 / 2
11. A re the lines 3x + 2y = 5 and 3x — 2y = 1 perpendicular to each
(c) ( —4, 6) ; slope = —3 /4 (d ) ( —3, —4 ); slope = 4
other? Justify your answer.
(e ) (5, —3); slope = 0 (f) (0, 2 ); slope = — 1
12. Prove th a t the point (5, —4) lies on the line 4x — 3y = 32.
3. D eterm ine the equation of the line under each of the follow ing con­
13. W h at is the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segm ent
ditions: *
(a ) Passes through the origin a n d th e point (a, b). joining th e points (6, —2) and (4, 8)?
(b ) Intersects th e x-axis a t x — 3 and the 7 -axis a t y = —3 . 14. A (2, 4), 5 (6 ,' 10), and C( 10, 3) a re the vertices o f a n isosceles trian g le
(c) Parallel to th e x-axis a n d passes through (2, 8). w here C is th e vertex of the vertex angle.
(d ) Parallel to they-axis a n d passes through ( —5, —2), (a) Show th a t the perpendicular bisector o f the base passes through C.
(e ) Passes through the origin a n d has a slope of 1. (b ) Show th a t the altitude to the base bisects th e base,
(f) Intersects the x-axis a t x = 4 a n d has a slope of —5/ 3. (c) Show th a t the m edian to the base is p erpendicular to th e base.

4. Find the equation of the line th a t passes through the p o in t (4 ,1 ) a n d

is parallel to the line th a t passes through th e points ( —5, 7) a n d (2, 3).
5. F ind th e equation of the line th a t passes through the point ( —2, —2)
a n d is perpendicular to the line th a t passes through th e points (1, 3)
a n d ( —5 ,0 ).
6 Intersection of Two Sels
K now ing how to determ ine th e equation of a line places u s
in the position of being able to prove several im p o rta n t geom etric relations.
t Sec pag es 4 0 2 -4 0 3 .
 420
COORDINATE GEOMETRY-THE- GRAPH
W h a t these relations are can best be illustrated through the use of the
INTERSECTION OF TW O SETS 421
p roblem below.
L\\ 3x — y = —4
Illustration: Lt: x + 2y = . 29
L\\ 6x — 2y = —8
Prove th a t the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the trian g le L i\ x + 2y = 29
A ( — 3, 5), S (3 , 3), and C'(U, 19) are concurrent; th a t is, have a p o in t in Ix = 21
com m on. .-. x = 3
and hence
M ethod : A rough sketch is draw n a t the very outset. The coordinates of
j. .= 13
You may have called this pair of values— (3, 13)— the sim ultaneous solution
to the two equations "ix — y = —4 and * + 2y = 29. At the present tim e
we prefer to refer to this pair of values as the intersection of the solution sets
of these equations. T his simply means that (3, 13) will be a com m on elem ent
to the solution sets of both 3x — y = —4 and x + 2y - 29: G eom etrically,
however, the graph of the solution set of each of these equations is a straight
line. Hence, the p air of values (3, 13) represents the coordinates of the in te r­
section of the two graphs of the equations. T hus, the intersection of the solu­
tion sets of two equations has two interpretations:
(1) Algebraic: I t is a pair of values th at is com m on to both solution sets.
(2) Geom etric: I t is a point of the graphs of b oth equations.
T hus far we have shown th at L\ and 1? intersect at the po in t (3 ,1 3 ).
We are now faced w ith the problem of. dem onstrating th a t Li also passes
through this point. I f (3 ,1 3 ) is a point on Lt, then this p air of values m ust
the m idpoints of the sides are determ ined m entally and placed in th e d ia ­ be an element in the solution set of the equation of L i. H ence, it is sim ply
g ram . T o find the slopes of Li, Lt, and Lz, we m ust first determ ine th e slope necessary to determ ine w hether (3, 13) satisfies the equation x + y = 16.
of A S , SU, a n d UA.
x + y = 16
slope of A S — j ; slope of I i = 3/1 3 + 13 4 16
16 = 16
Since (3, 13) does satisfy the equation of I 3, we can now conclude th a t
slope of BC = | = 2; slope of Lt = - 1 / 2
Li, Lt, and Li are concurrent.
T here are times when the intersection of two sets is sought b u t can not
slope of U I = \ = 1; slope of L% ~ —1 be found. T his will occur w hen the lines are parallel. If the lines are parallel,
1 1 “r J
there will be no point th a t is com m on to the two graphs; and hence, there
will be no element th at is com m on to the two solution sets. It is possible to
I ,: = f; 3jt=>-4; 3* - y = - 4
tell at a glance w hether the solution sets of the equations of two lines have
no intersection. Should the slopes of these two lines be equal, then, except
U-. = {■, 2 > - 2 2 = - x + 7; x + 2> = 29 lor one condition, the lines will be parallel. T herefore, there will be no
comm on elements to the solution sets of these equations. E qual slopes, how ­
ever, m ay imply th a t the lines coincide; and hence, further investigation
A: Lx ~ ~ = - 1 ; y - 12 = - x + 4 ; x + y = 16
m ay be necessary. If the lines coincide, how m any elem ents will there be
U sing th e m ethods of algebra, we find the comm on element to L\ a n d L i\ in the intersection of th e two sets?
Geom etrically, three possibilities exist when trying to find the in te r­
section of the solution sets of. two equations whose graphs are straight lin e s:
422 COORDINATE GEOWETRy: THE GRAPH 423
ANALYTIC PROOFS OF PROBLEMS
(1) T h e lines intersect a t one p oint; these are called consistent-equations.
(2 ) T h e lines are parallel; these are called inconsistent equations. 8. /4(0, 0), 5 ( 8, 0), and C(6, 2) are the vertices of a triangle. Prove th a t
(3) T he lines coincide; these are called dependent equations. the altitudes of this triangle are concurrent.
How m any elements will there be in th e intersection of the solution sets in 9. A (2, 5), 5(12, 3), and C(8, 9) a re the vertices of a right triangle w here
each of these situations? Z C is the right angle. Prove th a t the m idpoint of the hypotenuse lies
on the perpendicular bisectors of the legs.
c o n s is te n t
in c o n s is te n t 10. T h e vertices of an isosceles triangle are .<4(2, 3), 5 (6 , 11),-.and C(8, 5)
e q u a tio n s dependent
e q u a ti o n s
e q u a tio n s
where C is the vertex of the vertex angle. Prove th a t the altitude to
the base, the m edian to the base, and th e p erpendicular bisector of the
base coincide. (H int: Show th a t the equations of all th ree lines are
t v th e same.)
11.* Determ ine the distance from the point (5, 6) to the line x + 2y - 2.
(H int: D eterm ine the equation of the perpendicular from the point
Figure 13-4. to the line.)
12.* /4(5, —1), 5(1,1), and C(5, —11) are the vertices of a triangle. D eter­
EXERCISES m ine the length of the altitude from A to SC.

1. D e te rm in e th e in te rse c tio n o f th e solu tion sets o f e a c h of the follow ing ■ Analytic Proofs o f Problems from Synthetic Geometry
p airs o f e q u a tio n s :
Among the problems th at you were called upon to investi­
(a) x + y <= 1 (b ) x hy ~ 17 (c) 2x — y — 2
gate in this chapter were a num ber th at you had proved earlier by synthetic
2x — y *= 2 x -h 2y = 8 x 2y = —4
m ethods. T h e purpose of this unit is to present to you a great m any problem s
2. D eterm ine th e p o in t of intersection of th e g rap h s of '■ach of the following for w hich you have given synthetic proofs. Now, however, you will be asked
pairs of equations: to give analytic proofs for these same problems. T hough not necessarily tru e
(a) 2x + y = —6 (b) x - —2\y ■ in all cases, you will find that in most of the situations presented here the
2y - x = 8 2.v - 2y = 21 analytic proof is som ew hat simpler than the synthetic proof had been. J

3. S ta te w h e th e r e a c h o f th e follow ing p a irs o f e q u a tio n s are consistent,

in consistent, o r d e p e n d e n t: Illustration:
(a ) 6x — 9y = 5 ( b ) 5* + 2y = 1 (c) x + y = 5 Prove th a t the line drawn from one of the vertices of a parallelogram
4x — 6y = 7 y 3x — 4 y —x —3 to the m idpoint of one of the opposite sides is a trisector of a diagonal of
. (d ) 5x = 9 - lOy (e ) 7* - 21y = 14 (f) 3x - <by = 4 the parallelogram .
by = 13 — i x 2x — 6y = 4 5* = 3j> + 4
D (6b,6c) C ( 6o + 6b,6e)
4. Show th a t th e lines x — y — 4, 2x — 5y = 17, a n d x - f 2y — —5. are
concurrent.

5. D eterm ine the equation of the line th at passes through the point (4, —1)
an d the intersection of the two lines 3x -r y = 4 and * + 2y = 13.
6. A ( 6 ,10), 5 (0 , 0), a n d C(6, 4) are the vertices of a triangle. Prove th a t
th e perpendicular bisectors of the sides of this triangle are concurrent.
7. A(0, 0), 5 ( 8, 6), a n d C(4, 12) are the vertices of a triangle. Prove th a t M e t h o d : Let A (0, 0 ), B{6a, 0), C(6a -f- 65, 6c), a n d D{6b, 6c) be th e fo u r
the medians of this triangle are concurrent. vertices o f the parallelogram . O u r attack will b e to find the coordinates of
p o in t P, one of the trisection points ol D B , a n d to show th a t this po in t satisfies
424 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
<—► __ THE GRAPHS OF INEQUALITIES 425
the equation of CM. T h e coordinates of M , the m idpoint of AB, w ere found
m entally. 7. Prove that if line segments are drawn joining th e m idpoints of con-
sccutive sides of an isosceles trapezoid, these segm ents will be congruent.
„
abscissa o f P t = —-
2(6a) + 1(66) .12a + 6 b . ,
----- ------ • - ------ ;----- = 4a f 2b
I -+* 1 j See Problem 6 for the vertices.
8. Prove that if a line passes through the m idpoint of one side of a triangle
. 2 (0 ) + 1 (6 c ) 6c „
o r d in a te ol l ’\ = ^ = -- = 2c and is parallel to the second side, then it will pass through the m idpoint
of the third side.
c o o rd in a te s of P: (4a 4- 2b, 2c)
9. Prove that if a line bisects one of the nonparaliei sides of a trapezoid
AMt, : y ~ 0 ~ 0 —
6c~,------- and is parallel to the bases, then it bisects the o ther of the nonparallel
equation ofr C ;— r—
x — ia oa + nb — ia sides. See Problem 4 for the vertices and use the m ethod illustrated
y_________ 2c on pages 423-424.
x — 3a a + 2b 10. Prove that if line segments are draw n between the m idpoints of oppo­
S ubstituting th e coordinates of P in this equation, site sides of a quadrilateral, they will bisect each other. L et A (0, 0),

2c , 2c B(2xi, 0), C(2*3, 2y3), and £ 1(2x4, 2><) be the vertices of the q u a d rilate ral.
4a + 2b — 3a = a + 2b 11. Prove that the perpendicular bisector of the low er base of an isosceles
trapezoid is also the perpendicular bisector of the u p p e r base. See
2c _ 2c
Problem 6 for the vertices.
a -f- 2b a ~h 2b
12. Prove th a t if the nonparallel sides of an isosccles trapezoid are extended,
Since P satisfies the equation of CM , C M will pass through a trisection they will be concurrent w ith the perpendicular bisector of th e lower
po in t of IT 5 and, hence, be one of the trisectors of S s , base. See Problem 6 for the vertices.
13. Prove that if the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram . (H int: Use as vertices the values for
EXERCISES
A , B, and M shown below ; then prove th a t the opposite sides are
parallel.)
1. Prove th a t the diagonals of a square are perpendicular to each other.
Let *4(0, 0), B(a, 0), C(a, a), and Z>(0, a) be the vertices of the square.
2. Prove th a t the diagonals of a rhom bus are perpendicular to each other.
L et A(0, 0), B(5a, 0), C(8a, 4a), a n d D(3a, 4a) be the vertices of the
rhom bus. (Can you prove th at these points m ust be the vertices of a
rhom bus?)
3. Prove th a t the m idpoint of the hypotenuse of a right, triangle is equi­
distant from the three vertices. Let A{2a, 0), B(0, 2b), and C(0, 0) be
the vertices of the triangle. 14. Prove th at the sum of the squares of the m easures of the sides o f a
parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares of the m easures of i u
4. Prove th a t the line joining the m idpoints of the diagonals of a trapezoid
diagonals. Let A (0, 0), B(a, 0), C(a + c, d), and D(c, d) be the vertices
is parallel to the bases. Let /!(0, 0), B(2a, 0), C(2b, 2c), and D(2d, 2c)
of the parallelogram .
be th e vertices of th e trapezoid.
15.* Prove th a t the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent. L et A (0, a),
5. Prove th a t the m easure of the line segm ent joining the m idpoints of
B (0, 6), and C(c, 0) be the vertices of the triangle.
th e diagonals of a trapezoid is equal to one-half th e difference of the
m easures of the bases. See Problem 4 for the vertices.
6. Prove th a t the diagonals of an isosceles trapezoid are congruent. L et ■ The Graphs of Inequalities
A ( —2a, 0), B (2 a ,0 ), C(2c, 2d), and D ( — 2c, 2d) be the vertices. T hus far wc have considered only those situations in w hich
t S ee p a g e 386. the elements in the solution set yielded a set of points th a t fell on a line.
T h ere are conditions, however, under which the graph of the solution set
 426 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH 427
THE GRAPHS OF INEQUALITIES
will consist of the points in a half-plane or possibly the points enclosed within To indicate the fact th a t the points on the line x = 3 are not elem ents in
a region of the co o rd in a te plane. the solution set, the red line was draw n as a dotted line. If the points on this
T o illustrate, consider th e open sentence line w ere to be included in the graph, it w ould have been draw n as a solid
x > 3 , line.
As before, we can look upon this as a direction stating th a t the point m ust In the sam e way, the solution set of the open sentence
be m ore than three u nits to th e right of the vertical, or 7 -axis. Since no ''j > < 7
requirem ents w ere placed o n how far the points m ust be from the x-axis, will consist 0/ all ordered pairs of num bers in w hich the second coordinate
the second e le m e n t o r o rd in ate, in each ordered p air can be any value we is equal to or iess th an 7. T h e sentence7 < 7 implies th a t there are tw o types
desire. T hus, a few of the pairs of elements in the solution set of x > 3 will be of replacem ents for y under which this sentence will be true. T hese replace­
{(4, 0), (4, - 1 0 ) , (5, 17), (5,246), (9, - 5 7 8 ) , . , .} m ents are
W hat m ust be true of the first coordinate in each ordered pair? W h at m ust (1) T h a t 7 be 7.
be tru e of the second coordinate? (2) T h a t 7 be less th an 7.
T o answer the question “ W here do these points lie?” , we first graph
the equation x = 3. T h e g raph of the solution set of 7 < 7 is the set of points in the half-plane
below the lin e 7 = 7 and this line itself. E ach of the points on the lin e 7 = 7
y
____.P
n (incomplete graph)
1
><

Figure 13-6.
A ny point on this g rap h , the red line, will be 3 units from the 7-axis. O n the
other hand the distance from point P to the 7-axis is g re ater than 3 units;
hence,' the coordinates of P will be an elem ent in the solution set of the F ig u re 13-8.
inequality
x > 3 conforms w ith the first replacem ents for 7 , while the points in the half-plane
below 7 = 7 fulfills the second requirem ent. N otice th a t in Figure 13-8 the
Furtherm ore, th e point P itself is a point of the graph of the solution
line g ra p h 7 = 7 was draw n as a solid line, for it is to be included in the
set. Similarly, the distance from Q to the 7-axis is g reater th an 3 units, thus
m aking Q a point of th e graph. In addition, the distance from any point graph. .
W e have exam ined graphs consisting of half-planes th a t fell to either
to the right of the line -x = 3 to the 7-axis will be greater than 3 units;
th e right or left of a vertical line and half-planes above or below a horizontal
therefore, all points in this half-plane will be points of the graph of x > 3.
line. W hat would occur, however, if the g ra p h of the equality w ere n o t
T h is grap h is shown as th e shaded area of the coordinate plane in Figure 13-7,
parallel to either axis? Before it is possible to answer this question, it will be
necessary to form ulate several assumptions on inequalities sim ilar to those
developed earlier for equalities.

P o s tu la te 36: If a > b
then a+ c> b + c
T his sym bolic relation is often expressed as
“ If equals are added to unequals, the sums will be unequal
in the sam e order.”
As a n illustration, we know th a t 9 is greater th a n 7. W ere w e to a d d 3 to
 428 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
THE GRAPHS OF INEQUALITIES 429
b oth 9 a n d 7, th e sum of 9 and 3 (12) would be greater th an the sum of 7
a n d 3 (10). T h a t is, As an illustration,
15 > 6
If 9 > 7
ther. 9 + 3 > 7 -r 3
or 12 > 10
a, b, an d c in this illu stra tio n ?
W h a t a r e th e r e p la c e m e n t fo r 5 > 2
T h e words “ same order” as used in the statem ent above implies th a t
W hat replacem ents were used for a, b, and c? W ere c negative in this illus­
if the left side of the inequality is larger than the right side a t the outset,
tration, how would our conclusion been, affected? W h at w ould hap p en were
then after addition takes place, the left side will still be larger than the right
side. c equal to zero? .
T his postulate is used to simplify the form of a n in equality such as
Postulate 36 is helpful in simplifying inequalities of the form x — 7 > 4 .
T hus, i x > 20. Thus,
* - 7 > 4 ■ 4 a: > 20
at — 7 + 7 > 4 + 7 20
x > 11 4 4
By exam ining the inequality x > 11, we are m ade aw are of those num bers
x > 5
th a t are elem ents in the solution set of the original inequality x — 7 > 4 .
T h a t is, any n um ber greater than 11 will m ake the left side of this inequality W ith these assumptions as a foundation, we are p repared to grap h the
greater th an the right side. inequality x + Zy > 10. Let us first •consider the grap h of the equality
P o st u l a te 37: If a > b x + 2y = 10. Each point on the line, such as P, satisfies the condition th a t

then a —c > b —c
T his sym bolic relation is often expressed as

“ If equals are subtracted from unequals, the differences

will be unequal in the sam e o rd er.”
As an illustration,
9> 7 '
9 - 3 > 7 - 3
or 6 > 4
W h a t replacem ents w ere used for a, b,and c?
x be equal to 10 — 2y (1)
Postulate 37 is used to simplify the form of inequalities such as
x + 7 > 4, for T o illustrate by using P, w hen y is replaced by 2, the value of * in equation
x + 7 > 4 (1) is 6, while the value of the abscissa of the point P in the graph is also 6 .
x+ 7 - 7 > 4 - 7 By using Postulate 37 the form of the inequality
x > -3 ' ,r + 2y > 10
P ostu la te 38: If a > b can be changed to
* > 10 - 2y
then - > - w here c > 0 T h is implies th at
c c
* m ust be greater th an 10 — 2y (2) ■
T h is sym bolic relation is often expressed as
W hen y was replaced by 2. we found th a t the value of IQ — Zy was 6 and,
“ I f unequals are divided by positive equals, the quotients hence, the value c f x on the line was 6 . From our inform ation in (2), w e see
will be unequal in the same order.” th a t x m ust now be greater th a n 6 w hen y is equal to 2.W here will these
points fall? T he points for w hich y is 2 and x is g reater th a n 6 will a p p e a r •
 430 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
THE GRAPHS OF INEQUALITIES 431
on th e dotted line in F igure 13-10. T hus, the x-coordinate of Q is greater
than 6, for the point falls to the right of P. x + 2> > 10 Given
2)i > 10 - x Postulate 37

10 - x
Postulate 38
y > 0
T h e analysis, now, is similar to th a t used w hen the inequality was solved
1.0 ■
; for all points on the line. H ence, for points
for x. Thus, 7 is equal to
10 T herefore, the g ra p h of
“ above the line,” y will be greater than

10 - x
y>

In the sam e w ay, all points th a t fall to th e “ rig h t” of th e line will be the set of points in the half-plane “ above jh e line,” .
x -f- 27 = 10 will be such th a t the x-coordinate will be greater th a n the x + 27 = 10
x-coordinate on the line. T h e x-coordinate of a point on this line is equal to Exam ination of the graph below will show th a t th e graph of th e solution
10 — 2y, while the x-coordinate of a point to the “ right” of this line is set are points of the sam e half-plane as those w hen the equality h a d been
greater th an 10 — 2y. W e showed this to be the case for y = 2 . I t is true,
how ever, for any replacem ent of y. T hus, for y ~ 71, the value of x on the
line is
( in c o m p le te g r a p h )
10 - 2y,
For a point to the rig h t of (10 — 271, 71) the value of x will be g reater than
10 — 2y\, for the distance from this point to the 7-axis is g reater than the
distance from the point (10 — 271, 71) on the li.-.e to the 7-axis. T his is illus­
tra te d in Figure 13-11. In view of this, the grap h of the inequality

x + 27 > 10
Figure 13-13.
are th e points in th e half-plane to the “ right” of the line x + 27 = 10.
solved for x. This, of course, is as it should be, for we w ould not w ant two
different graphs representing the sam e inequality.

T o sum m arize, in graphing an inequality, the following steps should

1be taken:
Figure 13-12.
Perhaps you m ay have been troubled by this question: “ H ad the in­
equality been solved for 7 ra th e r th an x, in w hat m anner would the graph
of th e inequality been effected?” L et us solve th e inequality for 7 to see ju st
w h at does occur.
(1) Rem ove the inequality sign and replace it w ith the equality sign.
(2) G raph the equality.
(3) If the inequality is solved for x, d eterm ine w hether the g ra p h o f th e
solution set w ill be the points in th e half-plane “ to th e right” o r “ to th e
left” of the line of equality.
(4) If the inequality is solved for 7 , determ ine w hether the g ra p h of the
solution set will be the points in the half-plane “ above” or “ below” the
line of equality.
In the preceding unit we determ ined th e intersection of th e solution
sets of two equalities. T h e sam e can be done w ere th e sentences inequalities
ra th e r th a n equalities.
 432
COORDINATE GEOMETRY; THE GRAPH
Illustration: THE GRAPHS OF INEQUALITIES 433

T he points in the region m arked A, being in both half-planes, will be

D e te rm in e the intersection o f the solu tion sets o f the open se n te n ce s: points of the graphs of both inequalities. Hence, th e points in the cross-
(1) 2.v + 3;y > 12 hatcked, or doubly shaded region, are elements in the intersection of the
(2) x - Ay > 4 solution sets of the two inequalities. Notice th a t w hereas half of the line
2x + 3y — 12 is included in the intersection, none of the line x — Ay = 4
M ethod : F o llo w in g t h e p attern ou tlin ed , w e w ill first g ra p h th e e q u a litie s
2x 4- Zy = 12 and x — 4y = 4. is included.
In this illustration, the first inequality was sojved for x, while the second
was solved for y. A lthough both can be solved for the sam e variable, the
graph of the intersection is m uch clearer and neater if one inequality is
solved for one of the variables, while the other is solved for the o th er variable.

EXERCISES
1. Using Postulates 36, 37, and 38, determ ine the greatest or least replace­
m ent value for x so as to m ake each of the following open sentences true.
Give two other values in the solution set of each of these inequalities,
F igure 13-14. (a) 2x > 10 ' (b ) 24 < Zx
Solving (1) for x , We obtain (c) 5x — 1 > 29 (d) I x —36 < Ax
2x > 12 - . 3y (e) 9a: - 25 > l l x + 7 (f) 4(x - 3) < 5x + 2

. 12 - 3> . 2. G raph each of the following inequalities:

(a) x < 10 (b ) y > —5
(c) x + y > 4 (d ) 2x — y < 6
T h is implies th a t the points of the graph will fall in the half-plane “ to the
rig h t” of the line 2* + Zy = 12 and, also, on the line itself. (e) y - Zx > 12 (f) Ay - x < 8
(g) 2x - Zy > 6 (h ) 5x + 4;i < 20
Solving (2) for y, we obtain
3. By graphing, determ ine the intersection of the solution sets of the follow­
x — 4 > 4y
ing pairs of inequalities:
x ~ 4
— >>
T h u s, th e g ra p h 9f the second inequality will be the points of the half-plane
“ below ” th e line x — Ay — 4. In solving for y, 4y was added to b oth sides
of th e inequality. This was done to m ake the coefficient of y a positive
q u a n tity so th a t Postulate 38 could be applied.

4. D eterm ine the intersection of each of the following systems of in equalities:

fx > 0 fx < 0
(a) > 0 (b ) < 7 < 0
( in c o m p le te g r a p h ) t* + > < 1 0 [x + 7 > —4
I* > 2 fx + 3 < 0 .
(c)\y< 5 (dH> + 5 > 0
I* - > < 2 [ j - 2> > 0
fx + y < 8 . fx + y > 0
(e) -UO x+ 7 > 10 (f) -{2* — 3/ < 6
(* + 10)i > 1 0 |* + 2 y < 3
 434 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
I Locus of Points
A very im portant topic in m athem atics and one closely
related to w hat we have been discussing is the topic known as the locus of
points, f
D 74: T h e locus of points is the set of those points and only those
e f in it io n
points th a t satisfy certain given conditions.
Should the conditions th at determ ine these points be described by an
equation or an inequality, then the definition implies th at the graph of this
description will be the locus. T hus, let us say th a t the conditions describing
the locus of points is
{(*,;■) | * = 3}
T his, you recall, was read as “ T h e set of all points w ith coordinates (*, y)
such th a t the abscissa of each of these points w ould always be 3.” T he graph
of this set of points is th e line parallel to th e 7 -axis and 3 units to the right
of it. Hence, the locus of points fulfilling the conditions specified in (A) is
m erely the graph of the elem ents in (A).
Sim ilarly, if the locus was described by the conditions
{(*,7) | 2x - iy < 12}
then the locus w ould be the points in the half-plane “ to the left” of the
line 2x — 37 = 12.
Figure 13-16.
Actually, the definition of the locus of points calls for two requirem ents
to be fulfilled:
(1) T h a t every point th at satisfies the given conditions be in the locus.
(2) T h a t every point in the locus should satisfy the given conditions.
Fortunately, this is exactly the relationship th at exists between a graph,
a n d the equality or inequality leading to th a t graph: every element in the
solution set is a point of the g ra p h or locus, and every point of the graph
t L o cu s is a L a tin w o rd m e a n in g place; hence, locus of points m eans place of points.
435
LOCUS OF POINTS
or locus is an element in the solution set. Thu.., in the illustration above
every ordered pair of values in the set
{ (*,7)|2x — 3 7 < 1 2 }
will lie in the half-plane to the “ left” of the line 2x — 3y - 12, a n d every
point in this half-plane can be represented by a p a ir of values in this set.
In m any cases the description of the locus or set is not given by an
equation or an inequality but by some n arrativ e statem ent. Thus,
“ Find the locus or set.of points th a t are equidistant from the
points (1, 0) and (5, 8).”
U nder these circumstances it is necessary for us to rew rite this description
(A) in terms of set symbols and then simplify the equality or inequality through
the use of our postulates.
M e t h o d : O u r first objective is to draw a rough sketch based on the descrip-
------ *s
R (0,1) x
F i g u r e 1 3 -1 7 .
tion and allow the ordered pair (x, 7) to represent any point of the locus.
In term s of this diagram the description of the set can be rew ritten as
(1) {(*, y) \ d i = dt)
Now, it is merely a m atter of simplifying this expression:
(2) {(X,y ) | V ( , - 0)* + (7 - l")2 = V ( x - 5) 2 + (7 - 8)*}
(3) {(x,7) | x2 + (7 - l ) 2 = (x - 5)2 + (7 - 8)*}
(4) {(x,7) | x2 + 72 - 27 + 1 = x2 - lOx + 25 + y 2- I 67 + 64}
(5) {(x,7 ) j 10* - 27 + I 67 = 25 + 64 - 1}
(6) {(x, 7) | 10x + 147 = 88}
0 ) {(*,7 ) I 5x + ly = 44}
T hus, we have transform ed the description for finding the elements of :
the set from the narrative form to th a t of the sim ple equation 5x + ly = 44.
T h e grap h of this equation is a line. T herefore, w h at we have, proved thus
far is th a t all the points that are equidistant from the points (0, 1) and (5, 8)
m ust be points of this line. However, it is possible th a t there m ay be some
points of this line th a t are not equidistant from these two points. H ence, we
m ust now show th at every point of the line 5x + ly = .44 m ust be equi­
d istant from ihe points (0, 1) and (5, 8).
Fortunately, we had proved in T heorem 80 th a t every elem ent in th e .
solution set of 5x + 77 = 44 is on a line and every point on this line is a n

436 COORDINATE GEOMETRY; THE GRAPH
elem ent in the solution set of 5x + ly = 44. But by retracing our steps in
the proof above, we find that the description Sx - f ly = 44 is but an o th er
form, or equivalent form, of the description
(2) V ( " * - 0 ) * + ( 7 - T j * = V (* - _5)r +- ( y - 3Y
Hence, the points on the line are also elem ents in the solution set of equation
(2). However, this equation indicates th a t the distance from each po in t
(x, y) on the line to (0, 1) is always equal to the distance from (x, y) to (5, 8),
T his is w hat we had hoped to show. In sum m ary, then, the locus or set of
points th a t are equidistant from the point (0, 1) and (5, 8) are all the points
on th e line Sx + ly = 44.
Generally speaking, for the problems we will encounter on locus, once
we have found the description leading to the graph, it will not be necessary
for us to prove th a t all points of this graph, fulfill the conditions of the
problem . T his will be so w ithout proof, for each step in our proofs are
retraceable sim ilar to w hat we had done in the illustration ju st com pleted.
T h e only retraceable step th at is questionable is w hen we had m oved from
step 3 back to step 2 (see Proof, page 435). In doing this it was necessary
to take the square root of each side of the equation. T hus, the po in t m ight
be raised as to why the negative square root was not used. I t was sim ply
because we .had agreed th a t distance w ould always be a positive num ber.
T here are several things that are of interest about the line 5x ly — 44
in this illustration. By solving the equation for y and exam ining the coeffi­
cient of x, we see th at the slope of this line is —5/7 . T h e slope of the segm ent
US is 7 /5 . Thus, the locus turned out to be a line th at is perpendicular to
the line segment joining the two points (0, 1) and (5, 8). Furtherm ore, the
coordinates of the m idpoint of JiS— (5/2, 9 /2 )—satisfy the description of
the locus:
5x + ly = 44
5(5/2) + 7 (9/2) JL 44
2 5/2 + 6 3/2 X 44
44 = 44
Therefore, the locus is r ; 't only the line perpendicular to US, but this line
also turns out to be the bisector of RS.
T h e description of a locus is sometimes given in term s of a com pound
sentence. Thus,
“ Find the locus of points th at are m ore th an two units from the
line x = 6 and also equidistant from the points (0, 1) and (5, 8) .”
Loci of this form are called compound loci.\ In reality they involve nothing
m ore th an the intersection of two sets: Symbolic descriptions of each of the
sets are form ulated from the narrative descriptions. This is then followed by
finding the graph of their intersection.
t P l u r a l o{ lo cv » is loci.
437
LOCUS OF POINTS
M eth od : Starting w ith the first description,
A = the set of points th a t are m ore th an two units from th e line x = 6
A = {(*,>) 1 x > 8 or x < 4}
T h e description in set A cam e from the fact th a t the points h a d to be m ore
th an two units from the line x — 6. Since these points c an lie on e ith e r side
of x = 6, th e description m ust include th e fact th a t x m ay be e ith e r greater
th an 8 or less th an 4.
T h e second description was analyzed in the p receding illustration and
led to the set
B = {(x ,y ) \5 x + 7y = 44}
H ence, the problem resolves itself to one of d eterm ining th e intersection t
of set A w ith set B. Symbolically, this is expressed as A (~) B a n d is read as
(1) T h e intersection of A a n d B
or (2) A intersects B.
T h e shaded region in the grap h in F igure 13-18 represents those points
th a t a re m ore th a n two units from the line x = 6. T h e lin e 5x 4- ly — 44
Figure 13-18.
represents those points th a t are equidistant from th e points (0, 1) a n d (5, 8).
H ence, th e points th a t a re b oth two units aw ay from th e line x — 6 and
equidistant from (0, 1) a n d (5, 8) a re in th a t p a rt of th e line 5x + l y = 44
th a t lies to the right of th e line x = 8 a n d to the left of th e line x — 4. T h e
points of these sections of th e line 5x + l y ~ 44 represent A C \ &•
EXERCISES
1. U sing set symbols, rew rite the description o f each o f th e following loci:
(a ) T h e locus of points th a t a re four u n its to th e rig h t of th.e vertical axis.
( b ) T h e locus o f points th a t a re th ree units below th e horizontal axis.
' (c) T h e locus of points th a t a re four units to the rig h t of th e line x = 8 .
(d ) T h e locus of points th a t are five units below th e Hr*e> = 3.
t See page 11.
438 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
LOCUS OF POINTS 439
(e ) T h e locus of points th a t are m ore than two units to the right of the
.y-axis. (b ) ( —4, 6) and ( —4, —2) is always 2 units.
(f) T he locus of points th a t are more than seven units above th e x-axis. (c) (0, 0) and ( —5, - 8) is always 4 units.
(g) T h e locus of points th at are more than three units to the right of (d ) ( —2, 4) and (3, 7) is always —3 units.
the line x = 8. 9. (a) By simplifying each of the descriptions in Problem 8, show th at
(h ) T h e locus of points th at aie more than two units from the line v — 6. each of these loci is a line.
(i) T h e locus of points th at are more than five units from the line x = 3. (b ) G raph each of the loci in Problem 8.
( j ) t T h e locus of points th a t ave less than three units from the line x = 5.
10. (a) Using set symbols, express the following locus as a problem in which
2. D raw each locus in problem 1.
the intersection of two sets is to be fo u n d :
3. U sing set symbols, rew rite th e description of each of the following loci:
“ Find the locus of points that are two units to the right of
(a ) T h e locus of points th a t a re a distance of five units from th e origin.
the vertical axis and four units above the horizontal axis.”
(b ) T h e locus of points th a t are a distance of R units from the origin.
(c) T h e locus of points th a t are a distance of seven units from the (b ) G raph the intersection of the two sets found in p art (a).
point (4, 6).
11. D raw the locus in each of the following problem s:
(d ) T h e locus of points th a t are a distance of R units from the point
(.h, k ) . (a) W hat is the locus of points th a t is m ore th a n two units to the left
of the vertical axis and m ore th an two units above the horizontal
4. (a ) Using set symbols, express the locus of points th at are equidistant
from th e points (0, 2) a n d (10, 4). axis?
(b ) W hat is the locus of points th a t is m ore th an four units to the right
(b ) D raw this locus.
of the vertical axis and on the line x — ly = 4?
(c) Prove th at this locus is the perpendicular bisector of the line segm ent
(c) W hat is the locus of points th at is m ore th an three units from the
• joining the two points.
horizontal axis and on the line x + y = 0?
5. Using set symbols, express the locus of points th a t are equidistant from • (d ) W hat is the locus of points th a t is two units from the x-axis and
the two points in each of the problems below : equidistant from the points (0, 0) and (6, 0 )?
(a ) ( - 5 , 0) and (5, 0) (b) (0, - 7 ) and (0, 7) (e) W hat is the locus of points th a t is m ore th an three units from the
(c) (2, 5) and (12, 5) (d ) ( - 6 , - 3 ) and ( - 6, 9) line y = 7 and equidistant from the points ( —2, 4) and (4, 6)?
(e ) (1, 0) and (5, 2) (f) ( - 3, 4) and (5, 8) (f) W hat is the locus of points th a t is less th an four units from the line
(g ) ( - 2, - 6) and ( 0 , - 1 4 ) (h ) ( - 1 , - 7 ) and (6, - 4 ) x = —8 and equidistant from th e points ( —1, 2) a n d (3, 8)?
(i) (a, b) a n d (2a, —26) (g ) W hat is the locus of points th at is equidistant from the points. (0, 0)
6. D raw each locus in Problem 5. and (6, 0) and also equidistant from the points. (2, 4) and (4. 10)?

7. (a ) Using set symbols, express the locus of points such th at the difference
of the squares of th e distances from the points A(Q, 0) a n d B(4, 5)
is always 4.
(b ) By simplifying the description of the set in p a rt (a), show th a t this
locus is a line.
(c) Prove th a t this locus is a line that is perpendicular to the line
determ ined by tke points A and B.
(d ) G rap h th e locus found in (b).
8. U sing set symbols, express the locus of points such th at the difference
of the squares of th e distances from any point of the locus to
(a ) (3, 5) a n d (7, 5) is always 6 units.
12. Prove th at the locus of points equidistant from two fixed points is th e
perpendicular bisector of the line segm ent join in g th e two points. L et
(0, 0) and (2a, 2b) be the two fixed points.
13. (a ) W hat is the distance from the po in t (6, 4) to the _y-axis?
(b ) W hat is the distance from the point <(x,y) to the ji-axis? .
(c) Using set symbols, express the locus of points such that the distance
from each of these points to th e^ -ax is is equal to its distance to the
point (6, 4).
14. Using set symbols, express the locus of points such th a t the distance
from each of these points to the point (6, 0) is equal to its distance to
the line x ~ 2 .
440 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
15. Using set symbols, express the locus of points such th at the distance
from each of these points to the point (0, 4) is four times its distance
to the jr-axis.
16. (a ) Using set symbols, express the locus of points such that the slope
of the line segment joining any of these points to the po in t (2 , 3)
is 1/ 2.
(b ) By simplifying the description of this set, show that the locus will
be a line.
(c) G raph the locus found in (b).
■ The Circle
T hus far we have considered only the properties of lines
from an analytic standpoint. T h ere was, however, an o th er figure th a t was
exam ined briefly in synthetic geom etry th a t ,we w ould like to analyze a t
this tim e in coordinate geometry. T his figure is the circle. You m ay recall
th a t b y definition a circle is a set of points such th a t line segm ents draw n
from all points of this set to a fixed point are congruent. H ad we preferred,
th e definition of a circle could have been given in th e equivalent form of
A D e f i n i t i o n 36: A circle is the set or locus of points th a t are
l t e r n a t iv e
a fixed distance from a.fixed point.
E xam ination of this definition will reveal th a t it. is identically th e sam e
as th e previous one. T h e new definition, however, enables us to apply set
sym bolism to describe the set of points th a t lie on the circle.
Illustration;
U sing set symbols, describe the circle w herein the fixed point is (2, 3)
a n d the fixed distance is 7 units.
M ethod : In term s of the definition of a circle, this problem can be re ­
w ritten as
THE CIRCLE 441
(1) This circle is the set of points such th a t each of these points is 7 units
from the fixed point (2, 3).
(2) C = { ( ,,,) | V ( , - 2)2 + (J- - 3)! = 7}
(3) C — { ( x , y ) \ ( x - 2 )‘ .+ ( > - 3 ) * = 49}
In step. (2), the expression on the left side of the equality sign sim ply
represents the distance from any point in the set to the p o in t (2, 3). By the
conditions of the problem this distance was always to be 7; hence, the equality
between the radical and the 7. Step (3) was found by squaring both sides
of the equality. T h e equality in step (3) is called the equation of the circle
for this problem . In exactly the sam e w ay w e are now going to develop the
equation of the circle w here the fixed point m ay be any point in the coordi­
nate plane and the fixed distance is any given distance.
T H E O R E M 81: T h e equation o f a circle whose cen ter is (h, k) an d
whose radius is R is
(x - hy + (y - ky = r *
PROOF
O n th e basis of the definition m ad e earlier w e know th a t
the fixed distance is the radius of the circle, while the fixed point is the
center o f the circle. H ence,
(1) T his circle is the set of points such th a t each point is R units from the
fixed point (h, k),
(2) C - {{x,y) | V J T - ky + (y - k y = R}
(3) c = {(*,>) | (* - *)* + (j. - k y = **}
T hus, points th at are R units from (h, k) are elem ents in the solution set of
(* - h)1 + (y - k y = R* (1)
W h at we have shown, thus far, is th a t each point o f the circle m ust
be an elem ent in the solution set of equation (l)..N ow it is necessary to show
t h a t each elem ent in th e solution set of equation (1) is a p o in t on th e circle
442 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
THE CIRCLE 443
w ith center (h, k) and radius R. This can be done ra th e r easily by sim ply
reversing the steps in o u r proof. Thus,
PROOF
(* - k y + ( y ~ k y = j?* (t>
Dividing both sides of equation (1) by A,
V ( x - h )2 + (y - k y = R (2)
x2 + y 2 + j x + j y + j = 0
E quation (2)indicates th a t every elem ent (x,y) in the solution set of (1)
is a point whose distance from (h, k) is always R. But this is exactly w hat we
Since B / A , C /A , and D /A are constants, we will replace each of them w ita
m ean by a circle w ith c en te r (A, k) and radius R !
other constants so as to simplify our work.
Y our attention m ust be called to one point of this proof. In finding the •
sq u a re roots of b oth sides of the equality, the negative sign was not used. Let B /A — 2p, C jA = 2 q, D /A — s
T h is was avoided, for we had agreed th at distance w ould always be con­ T hen, x2 + y 2 + 2fix + 2 qy + s = 0
sidered as a positive num ber. (,* + 2px + :? _ ) + O’2 + 2 qy + _?.)■ = - J
T h e application of this theorem to problems is extrem ely simple. T o determ ine the missing term, we com plete the square of each tri­
nomial, rem em bering, of course, to add the same q uantity to the right side
Illustration:
of the equality.

Find the equation of the circle whose center is a t the point (2, —3) and
whose radius is 5 units.
M e t h o d : This problem entails simply writing the general form of the
e q u atio n of the circle. T h is is the form found in T heorem 81. T h e letters k
and k are then replaced by 2 and —3, and R by 5.
T hus, {x - h y + { y - k y = R 2
(x - 2y + (y + 3)! = 25
J u s t a word of c aution: be careful to change the signs of the coordinates
of the center when substituting them in the general form of the equation
of the circle.
Should the center of the circle be at the origin, the equation of the
circle will become
(x - h y + ( y - * )* .- R 2
(* - 0) 2 + 0- - 0) 2 = R>
* * + > * = R 2 (General equation of a circle with center at origin.)
J u s t as earlier we h a d shown that the graph of the equation of the form
ax + by = c w as a line, so we are prepared now to prove a com parable
theorem relating to circles.
(.*2 + 2px -)- /* ) + (y! + 2 qy + q%
) = p 1+ - s
(* + p y + (y + q y = p 2 + ?2 — s
' / ( x + P ) , + {y + q)2 = + q2 - S (2)
Since the left side of the equation above represents the distance from the
point (x ,y ) to the point ( —p, — q), this equation sim ply expresses the fact
th at each point (x, y) in the solution set is a fixed distance
V p 2 + q2 - s
from the fixed point ( —p, —q). Hence, the graph of the points in the solu­
tion set of equation (1) will be a circle.
E xam ine the right side of equation (2). If p 2 + q2 were equal to s, w hat
would be the value of p 1 + q1 — si H ence, w h at w ould the radius of this
circle be? . U nder these conditions the only elem ent in the solution setwill
be the center ( —p, — q). Thus, the circle will consist of only one point.
A circle such as this is called a point circle. Sim ilarly, if p 2 + q1 were less
th an s, the q uantity under the radical w ould be i. Lgative. t In this event th e
radius of the circle will be an im aginary num ber. Circles such as these a re
called imaginary circles.

T H E O R E M 82: T h e g ra p h of e v ery equ atio n of th e form Illustration 1:

Ax* + ify2 + Bx + Cy + D = 0 (1) . Find the radius and the coordinates of the cen ter of the circle w hose
w ill b e a circle. equation is
x5 + f - 8x + 2y - 3 = 0
A T o prove this, we will show th at every point in the solution set
n a l y s is :
M ethod Since the equation is of the form stated in T heorem 82, its grap h
:
of this equation is a fixed distance from a fixed point. This will imply, on
th e basis of the reverse of th e definition of a circle, th a t th e g ra p h of th e will be a circle. By rew riting it in the general form shown in T heorem 81,
solution set is a circle. we can easily determ ine th.e radius and the coordinates of the center,
t T h is sta te m e n t is tr u e only if t is a positive n u m b e r .
444 COORDINATE GEOMETRY; THE GRAPH
THE CIRCLE 445
(x! - 8x + _? ) + (y* + 2y + _?_) = 3
(x* — 8x -f-16) + (y* + ly + 1) = 3 -f 16 - f ] Illustration 3:
(x - 4)’ + ( y + 1)! = 20
Find the locus of points th a t are more th an 4 units from th e line x = 8
C om paring this with the genera! iorm and less th an 6 units from the point (8, 7).
(x - h Y + (y - k y = R 2 M ethod : Using set symbols,
we can say that
A = {(*, y) | x > 12 or x < 4}
coordinates of center: (4, —1); radius = V 2 0 = 2V 5 B = {(*,>) I V (x - 8)2 + (y - i y < 6}

T here is but one further m atter th at we have to investigate. T his is the O u r problem is to find A f ] S . Rew riting B, we obtain
situation that arises w hen we encounter inequalities with reference to circles. B = {(*>>) I (* ~ 8)2 + (> ~ 7) 2 < 36}

Illustration 2:

D eterm ine the locus of points th a t are less than 7 units from the point
(3, 4).

M ethod : Rewriting the problem , we obtain

(1) C is the set of points such th a t the distance from each of these points
to the point (3, 4) is less th an 7 units.
(2) C = {(x,y) | V (x — 3)« + (y - 4)* < 7}
(3) C = {(*,>) | (x - 3)* + (y - 4)» < 49}

W ere the inequality sign in the third description replaced by a n equality
sign, the graph of this set would be the circle w ith center (3, 4) a n d rad iu s 7.
H ence, each point on the circle would be 7 units from the c en ter (3, 4 ).
F ig u re 13-22.
T h e points to the right of x = 12 and to the left of x = 4 are in set A. T he
points w ithin the circle are in set B. Hence, the intersection of A and B are
points in the region shaded in red. T h e points in '.Us region are m ore th an 4

n units from the line x = 8 a n d less th an 6 units from the point (8, 7).

i h EXERCISES
1. D eterm ine the equation of each of the following circles:

— 1 m (a ) C enter (0 ,2 ), radius 5
(c) C enter (2, 5), radius 1
(b ) C enter (3, 0), radius 4
(d ) C enter ( —3 ,1 ), radius 6
(e) C enter (5, —3), radius V s (f) C enter ( —1, —5), radius 2 v / 3
Figure 13-21.
2. F ind the equation of th e circle
T h e conditions of this problem state th a t th e points in the set m ust be less (a ) Whose cen ter is the origin and passes through the point (6, 0).
th an 7 units from (3, 4). Hence, these points will lie within the circle. T hus, (b ) Whose center is the origin and passes through the point (0, —5).
the region shaded in red will represent the locus of points th a t a re less th a n (c) Whose center is (6, 0) and passes through the origin.
7 units from the point (3, 4). (u ) Whose center is (0, —8) and passes through the origin.
Similarly, were we required to determ ine the locus of points th a t w ere (e ) Whose csn tcr is (4, 6) and passes through the point (4, 10).
m o re than 7 units from the point (3, 4), these points w ould lie outside th e (f) Whose center is (2, 3) and passes through the point (-^4, 3);
circle.
(g ) Whose center is (4, —5) a n d passes through the origin.
(h ) Whose center is (3, 5) and passes through the, point ( —1, 2).
446 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH 447
TEST AND. REVIEW
3. Determ ine the center and radius of each of th e following circles:
(b ) W hat will be the locus of points th a t a re m ore th an 5 units from
(a) x * + y * - 6* - 16 = 0
(b ) x ' 4- y 2 8y 4- 7 = 0 the point (2, 1)?
(c) x 1 ~r y 2 — 4x — 6y — 23 = 0 10. D raw the locus of points th at are less than 10 units from the origin a n d
(d ) x‘ + y * + iOx - 12y + 60 = 0 also on the line x = y.
(e) 2*2 + 2y2 - \6 x + 12y - 48 = 0 11. D raw the locus of points th at are more than 5 units to the right of the
(f) 3x2 + 3 / - 6x + 487 - 105 = 0 _y-axis and less than 10 units from the point (7, 2).
4. Show th a t th e point (2, —5) lies on the circle (x — 3) 2 + (^ + 4)2 = 2. 12. (a) D raw the locus of points th at are 8 units from the origin and equi­
5. Show th at the point ( —3, 1) lies on the circle .*2 + f + Ax — IOji + d istant from the points (0 , —2) and (2 , 0 ).
12 = 0. (b) D raw the locus of points that are less th an 8 units from the origin
6. (a) Using set symbols, express the locus of points such th a t the sum and equidistant from the points (.0, —2) a.id (2, 0).
of th e squares of the distances from each of those points to the points . (c) D raw the locus of points th at a re m ore th a n 8 units from th e origin
(0, 0) and (6, 0) is 36. and equidistant from the points (0 , —2 ) a n d (2 , 0).
(b ) Show th a t this locus is a circle. 13. (a) D raw the locus of points th at are less th an 2 units from the point
(c) Show th a t the center of this circle is th e m idpoint of the line (8, 10) and m ore than 6 units from the line 7 = 10.
segm ent joining the two points. (b ) D raw the locus of points th a t are m ore th a n 2 units from th e point
(d ) E xplain how the locus would have been affected had the sum of (8, 10) and less than 6 units from the line y = 10.
the squares of the distances been 18 ra th e r th a n 36. 14,* D raw the locus of points th a t are either less'than 2 units from the. point
(e ) Explain how th e locus w ould have been affected h a d th e sum of (8, 10) or m ore th an 6 units from the line y ==10.
the squares of the distances been less than 18 ra th e r th an 36.
(f) If the difference of the squares had been 36, ra th e r th an the sum •
■ Test and Review
of the squares, w hat w ould the locus have been?
1. H ow w ould you read each of the following expressions?
7. (a ) Show th a t th e locus of points such th a t th e distance from each of
these points to the point ( —2, 0) is twice its distance to the point < « ).{ * !* + 4 - 7 }
(2, 0) is a circle. (b ) {(*,).) | > > 2 * + 3 }
(b ) F ind the center and radius of this ci: 2. Find two ordered pairs of num bers in {(jc, >) | 3x + y = 10}.
8. Use the d iagram a t the rig h t to 3. F ind two ordered pairs of num bers in the solution set of
prove each of the following prob­ 2x ~ y > 4
lems. T he center of the circle is the
4. D eterm ine the equation of each of the lines u n d e r the conditions given.
origin. -----
(a) Passes through the points (2, 5) a n d ( 0 , - 4 ) .
(b ) Passes through the point ( —1 ,2 ) and has a slope of 2/3.
(c) Passes through the origin a n d th e point ( 4 , - 1 ) .
A (0,-8) (d ) Intersects the x-axis a t x = —3 and has a slope of —t.
(e) Parallel to the^-axis and passes through the point ( 2 , - 1 ) .
(a) Prove th at the radius draw n to the m idpoint of A B is perpendicular 5. A ( — 3, 2), 5 (1 , —4), and C(7, 6) are the vertices of a triangle.
«-♦
to AB, (a ) Find the equation of the m edian from A to BV.
(b ) Prove th a t th e perpendicular bisector of A B passes through the (b) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of ~b C.
center of th e circle. (c) Find the equation of the altitude from B to AU.
9, (a) Express w ith set symbols and then draw the locus of points th at
6. Is the following set of points collinear? Justify your answer.
are less th an 5 units from the point (2 ,1 ).
{ ( - 2 , 5), (0, 2), ( - 6,
448 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: THE GRAPH
TRY THIS FOR FUN 449
7. (a) Find the equation of the line th a t passes through ( —4, 2) a n d is
17. (a) Draw the locus of points th a t are 5 units from th e vertical axis a n d
parallel to the line 3* + y = 4.
equidistant from the points ( —4, 1) and (6, —5).
(b ) Find the equation of the line th a t passes through the origin a n d is
perpendicular to th e line r. —' 2y — 5 .
(b) Draw the locus of points th at are less than 5 units from the origin .
and 2 units from the horizontal axis.
8. T h e vertices of an isosceles triangle are *4(3, —5), B {20, 4), and C (l, 7)
w here Z B is the vertex angle. Prove th a t the altitude to the base is also 18. Determ ine the equation of the circle under each of the follow ing c o n ­
the m edian to the base. ditions.
(a) center (1, —4); radius 2.
9. (a ) Find the intersection of the solution sets of the following two e q u a ­
(b) center (i, —3); passes through the origin.
tions : 5* — y = —11 and 2x + 5y = \.
(b ) In te rp re t the ordered pair of num bers th a t you found as your answ er 19. Determ ine the center and radius of the circle whose equatio n is
to p a rt (a). x 1 + y l — Ax + 6y — 36 = 0
10. Will the graphs of the following two equations be parallel, intersect, or
be coincident? 20. D raw the locus of points th a t are m ore th an 5 units arid less th a n 10

2x - Ay = 7 units from the origin,

I x = 14y — 5

11. Prove th a t the m edians of the triangle whose vertices are A (0, 4),
■ Try This For Fun
B (6, 0), and C(2, 8) arc concurrent. W hen light strikes a shiny surface, such as a m irro r, it is
reflected from th at surface in a w ay so th a t the angle a t w hich it m akes
12. Prove th a t the diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.
contact with the surface is congruent to the angle a t w hich i t leaves the
13. Prove th a t th e line segments joining a vertex of a square to the m idpoints
surface. In the draw ing below, the light ra y B A m ad e con tact w ith th e m irro r
. of the opposite sides trisect the diagonal of the square th at is n o t draw n
from th a t vertex. L e t (0, 0), (2a, 0), (2a, 2a), a n d (0, 2a) b e the four
vertices of the square:

14. D eterm ine the elem ent in the solution set of 3* + 12 < Ax th a t has the
least value.
15. By graphing,- determ ine the intersection of the solution sets of the follow­
ing p air of equations: form ing the ZX. W hen it bounced off the m irror, the light ray B C form ed
' the Z 2 with the surface such th a t Z 2 = Z l.
x > —5 and y + Zx < 1
T his simple piece of inform ation can help us find the h eig h t of an
16. U sing set symbols, rew rite the description of each of the following loci: object whose base is inaccessible to us. C an you prove th a t th e h eight of
(a) T h e locus of points that are 3 units to the left of the vertical axis. the flag pole below is
(b ) T h e locus of points th a t are m ore th a n 5 units above the horizontal h -A B
axis. x A C - DB
(c) T h e locus of points th a t are m ore th an 2 units from the line x = 7 .
(d ) T h e locus of points th a t are a distance of 2 units from the point (2, 6).
(e ) T h e locus of points th a t are less th a n 4 units from th e origin.
(f) T h e locus of points th at are equidistant from the points ( —5, 4)
and (7, 8).
(g) T h e locus of points such th a t th e difference of the squares of its
distances from any point of th e locus to th e points ( —3, —2) a n d
(1, 6) is always 3.

14
The Circle
M ANY O F T H E P R O P E R T IE S O F A C IR C L E CAN
be developed far m ore easily through the processes of synthetic geom etry
ra th e r th a n coordinate geom etry. Hence, to form ulate these principles'w V
a re going to return to th e m ethods of proof used earlier in the course.
As usual, it will be necessary to define our term s before proceeding.
D e f in it io n 7 5: A c h o rd of a circle is a lin e segm ent w hose en d p o in ts are
tw o p oints of th e circle.
In Figure 14-1 the line segm ent CD is a chord of circle 0 , Segm ent
A B is also a chord of circle O', however, it is a special chord since it passes
th ro u g h the center of the circle. W hat is its name?
450
THE CIRCLE 451
D 76: A diam eter of a circle is a chord such th a t one of its points
e f in it io n
is the center of the circle. ......
D ef in it io n 77: A central angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is the
center of the circle.
In Figure 14-2 /.E O F is a central angle of •'■he circle 0 . By having an
understanding of the central angle at' our disposal, it is possible to define
an arc of a circle.
D 78: A m inor arc A B of circle 0 w here A and B are points of
e f in it io n
that circle is the union of the points A and B and the points of the circle
in the interior of central angle AOB.
In Figure 14-3 the points m arked in red are the points of the m inor
arc A B of circle 0 . E ach of these points are in the interior of / A O B and
each is a point of circle 0 . In addition, points A and B are also points of
m inor arc A B.
D e f in it io n 79: A m ajor arc A B of a circle 0 w here A and B are points of
th a t circle is the union of the points A and B and the points of th e circle
in the exterior of central angliA O B .
In Figure 14-3 the points of circle 0 th a t are draw n in black will be
the points of m ajor arc AB. Each of these points is in the exterior of /.A O B
and each is on circle 0 . Points A and B themselves are points of the arc, too.
D 80: A semicircle A B of a circle 0 w here A and B are endpoints
e f in it io n
of a diam eter of this circle is the union of the points A and B and the
i—►
points on the circle in the half plane on one side of AB.
All three of these term s— the m inor arc, the m ajor atc,..and the sem i­
circle— are referred to as arcs of a circle. T h e symbol is usea to represent i
the word arc. Confusion im m ediately arises, for by-E F (read as arc EF). in
Figure 14-2, do we m ean the m inor arc or m ajor arc? H enceforth,‘"should
we refer to t he .EF, w e will be speaking of the m inor arc E F , n ot the ma jor
arc. Should it be necessary to call atten tio n to the m ajor arc EF, this will
be^domTHy either referring to it as major arc E F or by nam ing another point
on the circle and calling the arc, E P F (see Figure 14-2). T here are times
w hen m ore than two letters are em ployed to nam e a m inor arc also. T h u s,
Figure 14-4, Figure 14-5. Figure 14-6.
 452 THE CIRCLE 453
THE CIRCLE
in Figure 14-1 AD m ay be called ACD, or CB m ay be called CDB. T h e
letters th a t appear in the first and last positions are the names of th e e n d ­
points of the arc.
In Figure 14-4 A B is said to be the intercepted arc of / .A O B . In Fig­
ure 14-5 CE is the intercepted arc nf Z C D E ; and in Figure 14-6 G H is the
intercepted arc of /F G H . T hus,
D e f in it io n 81: A n a r c o f a c i r c l e i n t e r c e p t e d b y a n a n g l e is a n a r c s u c h t h a t
F ig u r e 14-8. F i g u r e 14-9.
e a c h s id e o f t h e a n g l e c o n t a i n s a t l e a s t o n e e n d p o i n t o f t h e a r c a n d a l l
p o i n t s o f t h e a r c o t h e r t h a n t h e e n d p o i n t s a r e in t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e Since w e did not adm it to the existence of angles g reater th an a straight
? ^ . a n g le .
angle in our work, it was necessary to define the m easure of a m ajo r airc
In Figure 14-4 endpoint A of A B fell on side OA, w hile endpoint B fell as we did~ for no central angle less than a straight angle could intercep t a
oil side OB. I t is possible for one endpoint to fall on both sides of th e angle,
m ajor arc. Hence, to find in Figure 14-10 the m easure of A C B we w ould
for in Figure 14-6 point G is a point of both GF and GH. first determine the measure of A B and subtract this value from 360, which
A one-to-one correspondence exists betw een th e chords of a circle a n d is the measure of the entire circle. Therefore, if m / A O B . in Figure 14-10
the minor arcs of th a t circle. T hus, in F igure 14-7 th ere is only one m in o r
is 70, then the m A B = 70 and m ACB = 360 — 70, or 290.
Earlier it had been pointed out th at m / A O B = 70 could be expressed
as the statem ent th a t / A O B was an an gle.of 70 degrees where the de­
gree was the unit of m easure for the size of an angle. In the same way, if
/—S /—s
m A B — 70, then A B is said to be an arc of 70 degrees. However, to dis-
tinguish the unit of m easure for the angle from th a t of the arc, w e call the
form er the angular degree, while th e latter is the arc degree.
O ther than the fact th at the angular degree and the arc degree are
units of measure for two different geometric figures, there is a n o th e r very,
very im portant difference between them. W hereas, by definition tw o angles
having equal measures a re congruent, this relationship will generally n o t
F i g u r e 14-7.
be the case for arcs having equal measures! Consider Figure 14-11, I f / A O B
a rc th a t bears the nam e CD and b u t one chord CD. Sim ilarly, there is b u t
one A B and one chord whose endpoints are A and B. H ence, we refer to
T B as corresponding to. y lS ^ a n d , conversely,M B corresponds to ~AB. )
" Tn order to maTce it possible to relate the m easure of an arc to th e jn e a s-
ure of the central angle th a t intercepted th a t arc, the following definition
was devised :
D 82: (1) T h e m easure of a m inor arc or a semicircle is the m eas­
e f in it io n

u re of the cen tral a n g le th a t intercepts th a t arc.

(2) T h e m easure of a m ajor arc is 360 m inus the m easure
of the m inor arc having the sam e endpoints as the m ajor arc.

T hus, if in Figure 14-8 m /.A O B was 50, .the^measure of A B (w ritten

as m AB)t would also be 50. In Figure 14-9, w here c entral angle 1 is a straight
angle, the m A C B is 180. Sim ilarly, m B D A is also 180. Hence, it appears
th a t th e arc consisting of the entire circle 0 will have a m easure of 360.
was an angle of 60 angular degrees, this would im ply th a t both A B and <?B
are arcs of 60 arc degrees. Obviously, to say th a t these arcs a re congruent
would stretch the im agination excessively! T h e statem ent th a t A B is a n
arc of 60 arc degrees implies m erely th a t it is -jYtri or l i of its circle in size.
 454 THE CIRCLE 455
THE CIRCLE
In th e sam e way CD is § of the size of its own circle. And although equal in c
the n u m b er of arc degrees in their measures, the two arcs are far from equal
in inches, or feet, or any linear unit. However, were both the m easure of A B
and the m easure of R S in circle 0 equal to 60. it w ould seem th a t wc should Given: A B — CD in O 0
say th a t A B = RS, for bcth are i the size of the same circle. First, however, Concl.: / A O B = /.C O D
it w ould be well to define congruent arcs before trying to prove this.

v' D e f in it io n 83: C ongruent circles are circles whose radii are congruent.

V D e f i n i t io n 84: C ongruent arcs are arcs in the sam e or congruent circles

th a t have equal m easures.
■V,
(The reasons will be left for yon to supply.)
N ow w e are prepared to prove the relationship stated above. PROOF
1. A B = CD in O 0 4. m ZCO D = m CD
T H E O R E M 83: If tw o c e n tr a l angles of a circle a re c o n g ru e n t, th e n 5. m Z A O B — m ZC O D
2. m A B = m CD
th e i r in te r c e p te d arcs a re c o n g ru en t.
3. m Z A O B = m AB 6. Z A O B ^ ZC O D

T H E O R E M 85: If in a circle tw o ch o rd s a re c o n g ru e n t, th e ir c o rre ­

sp o n d in g arcs a re c o n g ru e n t.
G iven: Z A O B ~ ZC O D in O 0
Concl.: A B ^ C D

G iven: A B SS CD in O 0

Figure 14-12. Concl.: T b ^ Gd

PROOF | STATEMENTS REASONS

1. Z A O B ^ ZC O D in O 0 1. Given
2. m lZ A O B = m ZCO D 2. Def. of congruent angles
3., m A B = m Z A O B 3. Def. of the m easure of an arc PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
4. pi CD =* m ZCO D 4. Sam e as 3
1. L et OA be the line through 1. T h ere exists one a n d only one line
5. m A B = m CD 5. If two num bers are equal to two through tw o points.
points 0 and A. T h e same
equal num bers, then they are equal
to each other. for OB, OC, and OD.
6. A b =~ CD 6. T w o arcs of equal m easures are con­ 2. A S £ f f i (s) 2. Given
gruent arcs. (Reverse of definition of 3., T h e rsd ii of a circle a re congruent.
2. CM. = UC(s)
congruent arcs) 4. Sam e as 3
4. O B s t U l 5 CO'
5. A 0 A B 9 1 & 0 C D 5. S.S.S.
T H E O R E M 84: I f tw o arcs o f a circle a re c o n g ru en t, th e n th e c e n tra l 6. Def. of =. polygons
6. Z A O B = ZCO D
a n g le s in te rc e p tin g these arcs a re c o n g ru e n t.
7. A B = CD 7. T heorem 83
456 THE CIRCLE THE CIRCLE
T H E O R E M 8 6 : I f in a c irc le tw o arcs a re c o n g ru e n t, th e ir c o rre sp o n d ­
in g ch o rd s a r e c o n g ru e n t. EXERCISES

A
PROOF
t G iven: /\A B C is isosceles G iven: B AD = CD A
T h e proof of this theorem is very m uch the same as th a t for
w ith A B = ~A^ C o n cl.: A B ■= CZ)
T heorem 85. I t will be left for you to do.
T heorem s 83 and 84 show the relationship th a t exists between central Concl.: A B C ^ ACB
angles and their intercepted arcs. O n the o ther han d , Theorem s 85 a n d 86
point u p how chords are related to their corresponding arcs. In sum m ary,
A. T o prove arcs of a B. T o prove chords of C. T o prove central
circle congruent: a circle congruent: angles of a circle
co n g ru en t:
(1) Prove chords (1) Prove arcs (1) Prove arcs
congruent congruent congruent
or
(2 ) Prove central
angles congru­ G iven: O O w ith A B ~ CD
3 , G iven: / A = £ D
ent C o n cl.: Z A — Z B
T h e definitions of such term s as “ bisector of an arc” or ‘‘m id p o in t
Concl .- .A B C & D C B
of a n a rc ” aTe sim ilar to these definitions w ith reference to a line segm ent.
In the w ork th a t follows, an understanding of these definitions is assum ed.

Illustration:

G iven: C m idpoint of B D in G O

Concl.: A D II OC
G iv en : O 0 w ith C the m id ­
5 . G iven: A B ==
C oncl.: Z B == Z C p o in t of A B

C oncl.: OC _L A B
PROOF (T h e reasons will be left for you to supply,)'

1. C m idpoint of BD 7. m Z D O B — m Z A + m Z D
8. m Z A + m Z D = m Z \ + m Z 2
2. £ c s * 6 b
9. m Z A + m
II

+ m ZZ
£

3. Z l S / 2
or 2m Z A = 2m Z l
4. m Z D O B = m Z 1 + m Z 2
10. Z A ^ Z l
5. UA S HD
6. ZA = ZD 11. A D j| OC
458 THE CIRCLE
THE CIRCLE 459
7 . Given: 0 0 with diam eter G iven: Circles A and B with 8. 13. Given: AD = BC G iven: O O w ith D the mid- 14.
AB
A B the line draw n Concl.: {\E D C is isosceles. point of A B
ZCBA ^ ZD SA
between the. centers C is the m idpoint of
C oncl.: CA =. DA
Cone!.: E m idpt. of CED AB.
4—>
F m idpt. of CFD C oncl.: OD passes
th ro u g h C.
(H in t: See page 184.)

9. G iven: O O w ith B B a diam. G iven: P m idpt. of APB 10.

A B II CO Q m idpt. of AQ B

16.
Concl.: C is the m idpoint
C oncl.: PQ ± bi. A B
of AD. 15. G iven: Circle 0 G iven: Circles A and B
C is the m idpoint P is the m idpoint

of AB. of CPD.
D is the m idpoint Q is the m idpoint
of I B . of “C QD.
4—►
C o n cl.: D lies on OC. Concl.: QP passes through A.

11. Given: P m idpt, of A B in OO Given: 0 0 w ith A B || CD 12 .

Q m idpt. of CD P m idpt. o fA B
Concl.: A B II CD Concl.: Q m idpt. of CD

E
1. I f the vertices of an equilateral triangle lie on a circle, they will divide
the circle into three congruent arcs.
2. I f the vertices of a parallelogram He on a circle, then the diagonals
will be congruent.
460 THE CIRCLE CHORDS EQUIDISTANT FROM THE CENTER OF A CIRCLE 461
3. A diam eter of a circle bisects the circle, f
4. T h e line join in g the m idpoint of a chord to the m idpoint of its cor­ (1 ) P R Jl a and (2 ) PS 1 b

responding arc is perpendicular to the chord. w h ile th e conclusion w o u ld be.

5. From the outer endpoint of a radius perpendicular segments are ■P R ^ T S
draw n to two other radii. If the perpendicular segments are congruent;
th en the two arcs cut off by the three radii are congruent.
6. A central angle intercepts an arc on the circle. If from the m idpoint
of the arc perpendicular segments are draw n to the sides of the angle,
th en these segments are congruent.
7. A radius perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord and its correspond­
ing arc. f
8 . If the m easures of two central angles of a circle are unequal, the m eas- •
ures of their intercepted arcs will be unequal. (H int: Use the indirect
proof.) F ig u re 14-15.
9. If two chords of a circle are not congruent, their corresponding arcs
T H E O R E M 87: If two chords are equidistant from the center of a circle,
w ill not be congruent.
th ey are congruent.
10. If two arcs of a circle are not congruent, their corresponding chords
will not be congruent.
11. If from a point on a circle two chords are draw n so as to m ake congru­
e n t angles w ith the radius draw n to this point, then the arcs correspond­ G iven: G 0 w ith O E — O F
ing to the chords will be congruent. O E J. A B ...
12. T h e line joining the m idpoint of a chord to the m idpoint of its cor­
responding arc passes through the center of the circle. OF L C D
13. If two congruent chords intersect w ithin a circle, then the segments of C oncl.: T B ^ C D
one will be congruent to the corresponding segments of the other.
14. If two circles intersect, the perpendicular bisector of the chord th a t is
com m on to the two circles passes through the centers of the two circles. F ig u re 14-16.

A n a l y s is ; By proving A O B E ~ A ODFt we can show B E == DF. In the

■ Chords Equ idistant from the Center of a Circle sam e w ay A OAE can be shown congruent to A O ’CF, a n d hence, E A ~ FC.
T hus fa r we have but one m ethod for showing chords of a T h e n by applying the addition postulate it will follow th a t A B = CD.
circle to be congruent. A second m ethod, to be presented in this unit, will
depend upon our ability to show th a t the chords of the circle are equi­ (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)
PROOF
d istant from the center of the circle. As you recall, the distance from a point
to a line is the m easure of the perpendicular line segm ent draw n from th a t 7. AO F D is a right angle.
1. L et O B be the line through
point to the line.J T hus, to say th at point P is equidistant from lines a and b points 0 and B. 8 , 'O B ^ W D ( h )
is to im ply three things: 9. A O B E — A O D F
2. Sam e for OA, OD, and OC
10. ~b E s z E f
(1) P R ± a (2) PS l b (3) T K ^ P S 3. U E S Z U P (.1)
In the sam e w ay, A O A E can. be
Sim ilarly, were we asked to prove th a t P is equidistant from lines a and b, shown congruent to A OCF.
4. O E _L A B
we w ould know th a t
5. Z .0 E B is a right angle. 11. ~EA = FC
t T h e se pro b lem s often a p p e a r as theorem s.
} See p a g e 378.
462 THE CIRCLE
CHORDS EQUIDISTANT FROM THE CENTER OF A CIRCLE 463
T he converse of T heorem 87 is also quite im portant. Its proof, however,
is dependent upon the following statem ent.
EXERCISES
T H E O R E M 88: A ra d iiis p e r p e n d ic u la r to a ch o rd bisects th e ch o rd
a n d its c o rre sp o n d in g arc.

PR O O F
1. G iven: OO with OC _L AE G iven: O 0 w ith OC _L A B
Y ou w ere asked to p ro v e th is re la tio n in P ro b le m 7, AB = DE Concl.: CO bisects /A C B .
p a g e 4 6 0 ; h e n c e , its p r o o f w ill n o t b e g i v e n n o w . Concl.: A O B D is isosceles.
T H E O R E M 89: If two ch o rd s of a circle a re c o n g ru e n t, th e y a re e q u i­
d ista n t from th e c e n te r of th a t circle.

Given: OO with/4.B S C£>

O E±?B
OF ± C D
C oncl.: m ^ O F
3 . G iven: O O w ith AD _L BC G iv e n : O 0 w ith BA BC
C oncl.: A A B C is isosceles.
OD X A B
O E _L CB
A n a l y s is : By using T heorem 88 and the postulate th a t halves of c ongruent
Concl.: B ? bisects /A B C .
segments are congruent, it can be shown that ~BE and E F are congruent.
W ith this piece of inform ation it will follow th a t A O £ E = A O D F , and,
hence, OE = UF.

PR O O F (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)

4—V
1. L ei O B be the line through 7. But, A B ^ U D
points 0 and B. 8. "BE £= U F (I)
2. Sam e for OD 9. / O E B is a rig h t angle,

3. O E 1 A B
10. /O F D is a right angle. 5. G iven: O O w ith AO X BO G iven: ABCD is a n isos. trap. 6.
11. OB = UZ) (h) <-» <-»
*-► __ CO 1 A B w ith A B = D C in O O .
4. O E bisects A B . (T heorem 88) 12. A O B E — A O D F
Concl.: A OCB is isosceles. C o n cl.: AC a n d B D are equi­
13 . U E ^ U F
5. OF 1 CD distant from 0 .
*-* D
6 . OF bisects ?3).

All principles developed in this chapter wi'th reference to a single circle

will hold as well for congruent circles. As an exercise, prove T heorem s 85,
86, 87, and 89 by using two congruent circles rath er th an the sam e circle.
464 THE CIRCLE
CHORDS EQUIDISTANT FROM THE CENTER OF A CIRCLE 465
7. G iv e n : O 0 w ith A B = G iven: Q 0 w ith E F = CD 8.
OD J_ A B OA ± CD
13. G iven: 0 0 w ith U E = D F G iv e n : Point 0 is th e center 14.
'of both circles.
O E _L AC o i i c i
OB ± EF L ine I intersects the
<-> <->
C o n c l.: A A D E is isosceles. Concl.: Z O A B £ * ZO DA OB 1 D F circles in points A,
A B, C, a n d D.
C oncl.: GO bisects ZCGD.
Concl.: A B ^ V D (H int:

L et OP be th e per­
pendicular from 0
t o !.)

9. G iven: O O w ith OA — O B G iven: O O w ith A B — D C 10.

OA ± CD OE ± P A

OB 1 EF OF 1 P D
C o n c l.: 6 e S FD C oncl.: PO bisects ZA P D .

15. G iven: 0 0 w ith/4C II D B G iven: O O v / i th A B S lD C 16.*

AO B is a diam eter. C oncl.: P E ^ F U (H int:
C oncl.: A S — D B (H in t: Let L et O R be the per­
pendicular from 0
12 .
OP be the perpendicu-
11, G iven: 0 0 w ith AC S BD G iven: 0 0 w ith A B || CD
lar from 0 to AC, and to PB, arid OQ be
C o n c l.: A E — B F A B = (I S
the perpendicular
P m idpt. of A S OR be the p erpendicu­
C oncl.: U P £* (TiJ from 0 to PC.)
lar from f? to D B .)

xyz------------ ,----------- _ | b
°
466
B In Figure 14-18 the_ pointy P th at is c o m ra rm -tn .j^ e circle and the
1. T he vertices of a triangle lie on a circle. If the sides of the triangle are
equidistant from the center of the circle, then the triangle is equilateral.
2. If from opposite endpoints cf a diam eter chords are draw n so as to form
congruent angles w ith the diam eter, then the arcs corresponding to
these chords will be congruent.
3. T w o chords intersect w ithin a circle. If the diam eter draw n to the point
of intersection bisects the angle form ed by the chords, then the chords
are congruent. (H in t: Prove that the chords are equidistant from the
center of the circle.)
4. If two congruent chords are extended until they intersect outside the
circle, then the extended segm ents will be congruent. Assume th at the
chords are not segm ents of parallel lines.
5. If two chords of a circle are not congruent, th en they are not equidistant
from the cen ter of the circle. (H in t: Use the indirect proof.)
6. If two chords of a circle are not equidistant from the center of a circle,
then they are not congruent.
7.* I f a diam eter bisects two chords of a circle, then the chords are parallel.
8.* If a diam eter bisects one of two parallel chords of a circle, then it bisects
the other also.
9. * T h e midpoints of congruent chords of a circle will lie on the sam e circle.
■ Tangents and Secants
T here are but two more lines th a t we need to consider in
connection with the properties of a circle.
D e f in it io n 85: A t a n g e n t t o a c i r c l e is a l i n e t h a t h a s b u t o n e p o i n t i n
c o m m o n w ith th e c irc le .
D 8 6 : A secant to a circle is a line th at has two distinct points in
e f in it io n
common with a circle.
Figure 14-18. Figure 14-19.
THE CIRCLE
TANGENTS AND SECANTS 467
tangent is called th^ftomt of tangenq^or the(paint of contact.:Should we think
of this in term s of o u r understanding of sets, we can consider the elem ents
in set 0 as the points on circle 0 . Sim ilarly, the elem ents in set I are the
points on line I. Thus, if 0 f i ^—th a t is, the intersection o f 0 and I—is but
one element, then I is a tangent*to the circle. How ever, should 0 I be
two elements as in Figure 14-19, then the line I will be a secant. W h at if
the intersection of 0 and I be the null set; th at is, contain no elements?
T his would imply th a t the line had no points in com m on with the circle
and, hence, would have no connection to it.
D 87: T ang en t^ ircles are two circles th r t are tangent to the same
e f in it io n
line at the same point on th at line.
T he two circles in both Figures 14-20 and 14-21 a re tangent circles.
Should the line segm ent that joins the centers of the two circles intersect
the com m on jtajigent lLne^ as it does in .F ig u re 14-20, then the circles are
said to bejftangent externally. $.1 it does not, as in Figure 14-21, then the circles
a rt,tangent internally. ;
Tw o circles can be tangent to the sam e line b u t not a t the same point
on th a t line. This is the situation that exists in each of the drawings below.
In Figure 14-22, there are four lines th a t are’s common langenir*o circles A
and B. T he line A B joining the two centers is'called the ( ine of centers?-li
the com m on tangents intersect line segm ent A B , as they do in Figure 14-22,
they are said to be common internal tangents. If they do not intersect segm ent A B ,
such as I and m, they are common external tangents. .
 468 THE CIRCLE
TANGENTS AND SECANTS 469

PROOF
By the law of the excluded m iddle one of the following
statem ents is true and no o th er possibility exists:

P is the only point th a t I has in comm on w ith circle 0

or
P is not the only point th at / has in common w ith circle 0 .

N otice th a t in the sequence of diagram s from Figure 14-22 th ro u g h L et us accept the possibility th a t P is not the only point th a t I has in com-
F igure 14-26, th e center B is m ade to move along the line of centers a n d
mon w ith the circle; then let Q be another of these points. Also, let OQ
a p p ro ac h center A. As this occurs, the n um ber of comm on tangents de­
be the line th a t passes through points 0 and Q. Since the radii of a circle
crease from a m axim um of four to none a t all. In Figure 14-25 is th e single
com m on tangent a com m on internal tangent o r & com m on ex tern al ta n -
> gent?
E xam ination of Figure 14-20, page 467, suggests th a t there m ust be
som e relationship of perpendicularity existing between the tan g e n t to a
circle a n d the radius draw n to the point of contact of th at tangent. T o sim ­
plify the proofs of several theorems in connection w ith this relation, we will
assum e th e following:

\j P o s tu la te 39:. A t a gi’--:n point on a circle there exists one and only one
tangent to the circle.

T h e proof of each of the next three theorem s expressing a relationship

betw een tangents and radii is dependent upon the indirect, approach. are congruent, O Q ~ O F . From the Given D ata we know th a t OP X
hence, Z l a n d Z 2 are right angles and, therefore, are congruent. How ever,
TH EO R EM 90; A lin e perpendicular to a radius at its outer en d p o in t
is a tangent to the circle. since UQ S— <57, then Z l = Z 2. T hus, we have both Z l and Z l congruent
to Z 2 and, therefore, /.X = Z3. However, we have a theorem th a t states
th a t an exterior angle of a triangle m ust be greater th an eith er of the rem ote
interior angles. This would im ply th a t m Z l > m Z l . T herefore, accepting
A G iven: Circle 0 with P the o u ter end-
the possibility th a t P is not the only point th at I has in com m on w ith circle 0
O ) point of radius OP
led to the logical inconsistency of the tru th of Z l — Z l and Z l Z l.
By the law of contradiction both cannot be true a t the sam e tim e. Since
ZX Z l m ust be true, for it is the result of a theorem , then Z l ^ Z l
J O P JLl m ust be false. Therefore the statem ent th a t P is not the only point th a t I
y Cone!.: / is a tangent to the circle. has in com m on w ith circle 0 is also false. H ence, the stateihent th a t P i s
? the only.point th a t I has in comm on w ith 0 is true, for it is the only rem aining
Figure 14-27. possibility.

: To show th a t I is a tangent to th e circle, we m ust show th a t it

A n a l y s is
has but one point in common with the circle. Since it already has po in t P
in com m on w ith the circle, then our problem narrows to showing th a t I
cannot have another point in common with the circle.
470 THE CIRCLE
T H E O R E M 91: A r a d iu s d r a w n to th e p o in t o f con tact of a ta n g e n t is
p e r p e n d ic u la r to th e ta n g e n t.
Given: 0 0 w ith I tangent to the circle
at point P
Concl.: OP ± I
F i g u r e 14-29.
PROOF
By the law of the excluded m iddle one of the following
statem ents is true and no o th er possibility exists:
OP JL I or OP jL I
L et us accept the possibility th a t OP Y_l\ then at point P let m be the line
th a t is perpendicular to OP. By the theorem ju st proved, m m ust be tangent
to the circle a t P, for if a line is perpendicular to a radius at its o uter e n d ­
point, it is a tangent to the circle. However, we know from the Given D ata
th a t I is also tangent to the circle at point P. H ence, there exists two tangents
to circle 0 at point P, the tangents I and m. Postulate 39, however, states
th a t there can exist one and only one tangent to a circle a t a given point
<—
¥ j
on th a t circle. Hence, accepting the possibility th at OP / I led to the log­
ical inconsistency of the tru th of a statem ent and its contradictory, By the
law of contradiction both cannot be true at the same time. Since we have
accepted the postulate as true, then the statem ent th a t I and m are both
tangents' to circle 0 at point P m ust be false, and, therefore, OP
TANGENTS A N D SECANTS 471
also false. H ence, OP 1 I must be true, for it is the only rem aining pos­
sibility.
T H E O R E M 92: A l i n e p e rp e n d ic u la r to a ta n g e n t a t its p o in t of contact
w ith a circle passes th ro u g h th e c e n te r of th e circle.
PROOF
By applying the indirect proof and T heorem 91, this state­
m ent can be proved. T h e proof is left for you to do.
T h e m ost im p o rtan t theorem concerning tangents to a circle is by far
the very easiest to prove. Before doing so, though, there are several terms
th a t will be clarified.
D e f in it io n 88: A ta n g e n t segm ent fro m a n e x te rn a l p o in t to a circle is
th e lin e se g m en t w hose en d p o in ts a re th e e x te rn a l p o in t an d th e p o in t
o f c o n ta c t of th e ta n g e n t to th e circle.
In Figure 14-31 the tangent segm ent from point P to the circle is the
line segm ent PA on the line I where / is tangent to the circle a t point A.
H ow m any tangent segments can be draw n to the circle from the point P?
W h at do you think will be true concerning these two tangent segments?
W h at do you believe can be said of the ray whose endpoint is P a n d th a t
passes through 0? How will this ray be related to the chord th a t joins the
two points of contact of the tangent segments from P?
Figure 14-31. Figure 14-32.
D e f in it io n 89: A ^secant segment from an external point to a circle is the
line segm ent whose endpoints are the external point and the poirit
furtherm ost from the external point th a t the secant has in comm on w ith
the circle.
In Figure 14-32 the secant segment from point R to the circle is the
line segm ent R b on the secant m. W hat can be said concerning the longest
. secant th a t can be d raw n from point R to the circle?
I is ■ T H E O R E M 93: If tw o ta n g e n t segm ents a re d ra w n to a circle fro m a n
e x te rn a l p o in t, th e n these segm ents a re c o n g ru en t.
 473
472 THE CIRCLE TANGENTS A N D SECANTS

3. G iven: O O w ith PA a n d P B j G iven: Circles A a n d B tan-

4.
tangent a t A a n d B gent to *-*
PD at D
O iv PA tangent to G O at A respectively
PE ta n g e n t to A at h.
PB tangent to G O a t B
C oncl.: PO L A B
C oncl.: PA S FB P F tan g e n t to B a t F
A
Concl.: F F S Z F E

PROOF (The reasons will be left for you to supply.)

1. L et OP be th e line through 6. / OAP is a right angle.

0 a n d P.
7. O B 1 B P
2. Sam e for OA and OB 8. AO B P is a right angle.
3. (JA = U B (I) 9. A O A P = A O B P
4. U F ^ Z T F (A ) 10. Fa s i FB

5. OA X A P (T heorem 91) G iven: PC a n d P D are ta n ­

5 . G iven: CD com m on internal
gent to circles A 2nd
tangent to circles A
B a t C, E, F, D re ­
and B a t C a n d D
EXERCISES spectively
C o n c l.: / A =■ / B
Concl.: C E ^ D F

1 , G iv e n : Circles A and B tan- Given: G O with PA and

gent to PD at D P B tangent a t A and

FU and FE are tan­ B respectively
gent segments. C oncl.: OP bisects /.A O B . G iven: PC a n d ~FD a re tan g en t 8 .
7 . G iven: O O = O Q
C oncl.: F V S l F E segments.
I S a n d ' C S a re co m '
m o n e x te rn al ta n g e n t A B ta n g e n t a t E
segments. Concl.: PA + P B + A B =
C oncl.: A g£S 5Z 5 PC + P D
474 THE CIRCLE
TANGENTS AND SECANTS 475
9. Given: T w o circles w ith the G iven: T w o concentric cir­
same center, point 0 . cles with cen ter 0 1 5 . G iven: T A and PC are tan ­ G iven: O 0 w ith AC, AB, 16.*
(They are called ccn- <—V <—►
A B and CD tangent gent segments to and BC tangents a t
centric circles.)
to inner circle a t E GO. E, F , and D re­
<-»
A B tangent to inner <-> <->
and F respectively E B 1 PA spectively.
circle at C C oncl.: A B ~ CD Z C is a right angle.
Concl.: C is the m idpoint E D I PC
C oncl.: A B = AC + BC —
of A B . Concl.: E B — ED 2 OD

17.* G iven: T h e sides of A A B C G iv en : BOC is a diam . 18.*

are tangent to OO in G O .
G iven: T h e sides of q u a d ri- 12. a t P, Q, and R.
PA tangent to 0 0
tangent to G O a t B, lateral A BC D are
A B S iA C
E, and C respec­ tan g e n t to G O . <-> A B || PO
tively. C oncl.: A B + CD = C oncl.: A lies on PO.
C oncl.: PC tangent to 0 0
Concl.: AD — A B + D C A D + BC

S P C

19.* G iven: AD diam of 0 0 G iven: CD tan g e n t to cir- 20 .

cles A and B. a t C
BC tangent to 0 a t P
an d D
A B and DC _L BC C oncl.: A C '.B D — A E '.E B
G iven: © A and B tangent 14. C oncl.: AD = A B + DC (H int: Prove
(H int: See Problem A AC E ~ A BDE.).
to CD a t P to CD a t P
«-» H 12c, page 405.)
P R 1 CD C oncl.: PA passes through B.

C oncl.: P R passes through A

and B.
\C
P
476
THE CIRCLE
THE SPHERE 477
21 . G iv e n : P B tangent to circles G iven: PA and P B are tan- 22 /
C and D a t B a n d A (g) W hat is the equation of the tangent to this circle a t the point
gent segments to cir­
respectively. cle 0 . ( - 1, 2)?
C oncl.: PC'.PD = B C :A D Concl.: (P A )2 = PO ■PC

UJ
1. If two tangent segments are draw n to a circle from an external point,
then the line passing through th at point and the c en ter of the circle
bisects the angle form ed by the tangent segments.
2. If two circles are tangent externally, then the com m on in te rn a l ta n ­
gent bisects-the com m on external tangent segm ent.
23. U sing the diagram a t the
right, find the length of the 3. I f two circles are congruent, the line of centers bisects e ith e r com m on
tangent segment PA. internal segment.
4. T h e comm on internal tangent segments of two circles are congruent.
5. I f two lines are tangent to a circle a t the endpoints of a diam eter,
then they are parallel.
6. T h e point of intersection of the line segm ent join in g the centers of
two noncongruent circles w ith a common internal tan g e n t segm ent
i will divide the two segments into equal ratios.
24. U sing the m ethod illustrated above, find the length of the tangent 7. T h e common internal tangents of two noncongruent circles intersect
segm ent from the point given to each of the following circles: a t a point such th a t the ratio of the segments of one is equal to the
(a) (* - 2Y + (y - 3Y = 25, P (l, 6) ratio of the corresponding segm ents of the other.
(b) (* + 1)* + C - 2)» = 16, P(4, - 4 ) 8. If the comm on internal tangents are draw n to two noncongruent
(c) (* + 3 ) ' + 0 - + n * = 9 , i B( ~ 3 , 4 ) circles, then the secant passing through the points of contact of th e
(d ) x>~+ 1 0 ,P (5 ,7 ) first circle is parallel to the secant passing through the points of con­
" (e ) xJ + f + Zx + Ay - 20 = 0, P(10, 5) tac t of the second circle.
(f ) x* + / - <5* + Zy - 14 = 0, P(6, - 9 ) 9. * If the sides of a triangle are tangent to a circle, then the perpendiculars
(g ) x1 — — 9 = 0, P (5, 4). (W hat can be said of point P to the sides at their points of contact w ith the circle will be co n cu rren t;
in this problem ?) th a t is, m eet a t a point.
10. * T h e line of centers of two noncongruent circles will pass through the
25. (a ) W h a t are the coordinates of the center of the circle, whose point of intersection of their com m on external tangent.
equation is (x — 3)J + (y — 5)! = 25.
»*■
(b ) Show that the point (7, 2) is a point of this circle.
(c) H ow will the tangent to the circle a t this point be related to the
■ The Sphere
radius to this point?
. (d ) W hat is the slope of the radius to the point (7, 2)? T he circle in plane geom etry has its c o u n te rp art in th e
(e) W hat is the slope of the tangent to the circle a t the point (7, 2)? sphere in space geometry. As we move through this unit, notice the sim ilar­
(f) W hat is the equation of the tangent to this circle a t the p o in t ity th a t exists between the principles developed here a n d those developed
(7 ,2 )? earlier in this chapter,
 ip-r

478
t h e C IR C L E

'f D 90: A sphere is a closed surface such th a t each point on this sur­
e f in it io n THE SPHERE 479
face is a fixed distance from a fixed point, (C om pare this w ith the
definition of a circle.) 8. (AP) 1 = (OA)1 - (OP)1 8. Sam e as 7
9. OA = OB 9. Def. of a sphere
As in the case of the circle, the fixed distar.cc is the rstHus oj the sfheie,
w hile the fixed point is the center oj the sphere. 10. .■.(AP)2 = ( OB) 1 - ( O P ) 1 10. Substitution postulate

T H E O R E M 94: I f a p la n e a n d a s p h e re h a v e m o re th a n one p o in t in
com m on, th ese p o in ts w i l l l ie on a circle.
Given: Sphere 0
Plane a intersects 0 such th at
two of th e points they h ave in
comm on are A a n d B.
C oncl.: All points th a t a and 0 have in
comm on lie on a circle.
A n a l y s i s : We will show th a t po in t B a n d point A are each th e sam e fixed
distance from P. Since th ey rep resen t any two points th a t a and 0 have in
com m on, then all points in com m on to the two will b e th a t same fixed dis­
Thus, each point that a and 0 have in common can be shown to be a
distance of V (O B )1 — (OP)1 from P. Hence, by the reverse of the definition
of a circle the points common to the two fall on a circle.
If we analyze the previous proof, we will notice th a t point P is the center
of the circle on which the points of intersection lie. Thus, by this proof we
have shown also that
T H E O R E M 95: If a p la n e intersects a s p h e re , th e p e r p e n d ic u la r d ra w n
from th e center of th e sp h e re to th e p la n e w ill pass
th ro u g h the cen ter of th e circle o n w h ic h th e p o in ts
o f in tersection lie.
Now let us tu rn to tangency as related to a sphere.
D 91: A tangent plane to a sphere is a plane th a t has one and
e f in it io n

tan c e from P. H ence, by th e reverse of the definition of a circle these points only one point in common with the sphere. (C om pare this definition
will lie on a circle. with th a t of a line tangent to a circle.)

PR O O F I STATEMENTS As before, the point that the tangent plane has in common w ith the
REASONS sphere is called the point oj tangency, or the point oj contact. Since a sphere is
1. Sphere 0 with point B, a considered as a set of points, 0 , and a plane as a set of points, p, then the
point that plane a and definition of a tangent plane implies that 0 C) p will have but one element,
sphere 0 have in com m on. the point of tangency. Similarly, if 0 and p have more th an one point in •
common, then according to Theorem 94 0 p will be a set of points th a t
2. Let OP be the p e rpendicu­ lie on a circle.
2. From a given point not on a given
lar from pojpt 0 to a.
plane th ere can be no m ore than P ostu la te 40: At a given point on a sphere there exists one and only one
one line perpendicular to th e given plane th at is tangent to the sphere. (C om pact this w ith Postulate 39.)
plane. (See Problem 2, page 288.) T H E O R E M 96: A p la n e p e rp e n d ic u la r to a ra d iu s o f a sp h e re a t its
3. L et P B be the line through o u te r e n d p o in t is ta n g e n t to th e sp h e re .
3. T here exists one a n d only one line
J3and £ ; let OB be the line through two points.
through 0 and B
G iven: Sphere O w ith P the o u ter e n d ­
4. OP X PB point of radius OP.
4. Def. of a line perpendicular to a
a plane OP ± a
5' /-O P B is a right angle. C oncl.: Plane a is tangent to the sphere.
5. Def. of p erpendicular lines
6 . A O P B is a right triangle.
6. Rev. of def. of a right triangle
7. ( s p y = ( o b ) 1 - ( o p y
7. T h e o re m o f P y th a g o ra s
Figure 14-35.
In the same m anner, h a d any
o th e r p o in t A co m m o n to a a n d 0 been
selected, it could be show n th a t A n a l y s i s : T h e analysis and proof of this theorem arc alm ost identical to

th at used to prove Theorem 90. The difference arises only in the fact th a t,
the word sphere replaces the word circle, and plane replaces line.
480 THE CIRCLE
THE SPHERE 481
PROOF
EXERCISES
Bv the law of the excluded m iddle one of the following
statem ents io true and no o ther possibility exists:
P is the only point th a t a has in common w ith sphere 0 . A
or
1. G iven: 0 is the center of the sphere.
P is not the only point th at a has in comm on w ith sphere 0 .
C is the m idpoint of AB .
L et us accept the possibility th at P is not the only point th at a has in com m on
4—> C o n c l.: OC JL A B
w ith 0 ; then let Q be a nother of these points. Also, let OQ be the line th a t
passes through 0 and Q. T h e two intersecting lines OP and OQ determ ine

a plane. T his plane intersects plane a in the line I. OP _!_ I by definition of

a line p erpendicular to a plane. Hence, Z l and Z 2 are right angles. T h e re ­
fore, Z l == Z 2. B ut UF = OQ by definition of a sphere. H ence, Z 3 = Z 2.
2. Use the same diagram as in Problem 1.
Given:. 0 is the center of the sphere.

OC JL A B
C o n cl.: C is the m idpoint of A B .
3. G iven: 0 is the center of the sphere.
P is the center of the circle.
__ _ «->
C oncl.: A B — A 5 (H int: D raw P B

In view of this, Z l •= Z 3. However, we have a theorem th a t an exterior and PC.)

angle of a triangle m ust be greater than either of the rem ote interior angles.
T his w ould im ply th a t m Z l > m Z3. T herefore, accepting the possibility
th a t P is n o t the only point a has in comm on w ith sphere 0 led to th e log­
ical inconsistency of the tru th of Z l — Z 3 and Z l 3= Z3. By the law of
contradiction both cannot be tru e at the same tim e. Since Z l Z 3 m ust 4. G iv e n : 0 is the center of the sphere.
be true, for it is the' result of a theorem, then Z l = Z3 m ust be false. A and B are the centers of
T herefore, the statem ent th a t P is not the only point th at a has in com m on two circles of the sphere.
w ith sphere 0 is also false. H ence, the statem ent th a t P is the only point UA £* UB
th a t a has in comm on w ith sphere 0 is true, for it is the only rem aining C oncl.: 0 /1 = O B (H in t: See defi­
possibility. nition of congruent circles.)
T h e proofs of the next two theorems are very m uch the same as those
for T heorem s 91 and 92. T hey will be left for you to do.

T H E O R E M 97: A ra d iu s d ra w n to the p o in t o f contact of a p la n e ta n ­ 5. Use the same diagram as in Problem 4.

g e n t to a sp h e re is p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e p lan e .
G iv e n : 0 is the center of the sphere.
T H E O R E M 98: I f a p la n e is ta n g e n t to a s p h e re , th e n a lin e p e rp e n d ic ­
A and B are the centers of two circles of the sphere.
u la r to th e p la n e at th e p o in t o f con tact w ill pass th ro u g h
th e c e n te r of th e sp h e re.
Concl.: 0 A & OB
480 THE CIRCLE
THE SPHERE 481
PROOF
EXERCISES
Bv the law of the excluded m iddle one of the following
statem ents ij true and no other possibility exists:
P is the only point th a t a has in common w ith sphere 0 .
A
or
1. G iven: 0 is the center of the sphere.
P is not the only point th at a has in comm on w ith sphere 0 .
C is the m idpoint of AB .
L et us accept the possibility th a t P is not the only point th a t a has in com m on
i—y C o n cl.: OC 1 A B
w ith 0 ; th en let Q be another of these points. Also, let OQ be the line th a t
passes th ro u g h 0 and Q. T h e two intersecting lines OP and OQ determ ine

a plane. T his plane intersects plane a in the line I. OP _L I by definition of

a line perp en d icu lar to a plane. Hence, Z l and Z 2 are right angles. T h e re ­
fore, Z l == Z 2 . B ut UP — 0 $ by definition of a sphere. H ence, Z 3 = Z 2.
2. Use the same diagram as in Problem 1.
Given:. 0 is the center of the sphere.

OC ± A B
C oncl.: C is the m idpoint of A B .
3. G iv e n : 0 is the center of the sphere.
P is the center of the circle.
__ _,
Concl.: A B S A 5 (H int: D raw P B

In view of this, Z l — Z3. However, we have a theorem th a t an exterior and PC.)

angle of a triangle m ust be greater than either of the rem ote interior angles.
T his w ould im ply th a t m Z l > m Z3. T herefore, accepting the possibility
th a t P is n o t the only point a has in com m on w ith sphere 0 led to the log­
ical inconsistency of the tru th of Z l S= Z 3 and Z l 9= Z 3. By the law of
contradiction both cannot be tru e a t the same tim e. Since Z l 3£ Z 3 m ust 4. G iv en : 0 is the center of the sphere.
be true, for it is the result of a theorem, then Z l = Z 3 m ust be false. A and B are the centers of
T herefore, the statem ent th a t P is not the only point th a t a has in com m on two circles of the sphere.
w ith sphere 0 is also false. H ence, the statem ent th a t P is the only point U A ^U B
th a t a has in com m on w ith sphere 0 is true, for it is the only rem aining C oncl.: 0 A = O B (H int: See defi­
possibility. nition of congruent circles.)
T h e proofs of the next two theorems are very m uch the same as those
for T heorem s 91 and 92. T hey will be left for you to do.

T H E O R E M 97: A r a d iu s d ra w n to th e p o in t o f con tact of a p la n e ta n ­ 5. Use the same diagram as in Problem 4.

g e n t to a sp h e re is p e r p e n d ic u la r to th e p la n e . G iv e n : 0 is the center of the sphere.
T H E O R E M 98: I f a p la n e is ta n g e n t to a sp h e re , th e n a lin e p e rp e n d ic ­ A and B are the centers of two circles of the sphere.
u la r to th e p la n e a t th e p o in t of con tact w ill pass th ro u g h
O A ^O B
th e c e n te r of th e sp h e re.
C oncl.: 0 A ~ U B
 482 THE CIRCLE
THE RELATION BETWEEN ANGLES A N D ARCS 483

the circle, or (4) outside o fth e circle. T h e relation betw een the angle a n d
its intercepted arcs will depend upon which of the four positions the vertex
of the angle takes. Should the vertex fall at the cen ter of the circle, then,
1. If tw o chords are equidistant from the center of a sphere, then the two
being a central angle, its measure will be equal to the m easure of its in te r­
chords are congruent. (H int: See proof of T heorem 87.)
cepted arc. This we know from Definition 82. I t is to the angles whose
2. If two chords of a sphere are congruent, then they are equidistant from
vertices fall in the rem aining three positions th a t we turn o u r attention.
th e center of th e sphere. (H in t: U se Problem A-2 and see the proof of
T heorem 89.)
3. T an g en t segments from an external point to a sphere are congruent.
4. If a line is draw n from th e center of a sphere perpendicular to a tangent
plane, then it passes t 1,ro u g h the point of tangency. (H in t: Use the in ­
direct proof.)

■ The Relation Between Angles and Arcs

E arlier in this chapter w e discussed th e relation th a t ex­
isted betw een the m easure of a central angle and th at of its intercepted arc.
In th e Figure 14-38 Z A B C is said to be a n inscribed, angle, a n d it is said
In reality, the m easure of every angle whose sides intercept arcs on a circle
is in som e way related to th e m easures of these arcs. to be inscribed in ABC. T he endpoints o f the arc, A a n d C, are points o f
Q uite often in this section we will speak of points lying “ w ithin a circle” the sides of the angle, while the vertex of the angle, point B, is a p o in t th a t
o r “ outside a circle.” A lthough all of us have an intuitive understanding of lies somewhere on the arc “ betw een” the endpoints A and C. Form ally, it
these terms, it would be best were they defined formally. is defined as
D 92: T h e interior of a circle is the set of points such th at i f a line
e f in it io n D e f in it io n 94: An inscribed angle in a n arc is a n angle such th a t each end­
w as draw n through any given point of the set it w ould intersect the point of the arc is a point on each side of the angle, while the vertex of
circle in two distinct points w here the given point would be between . the angle is a point on the arc not coincident w ith an endpoint.
th e points of intersection.
T H E O R E M 99: T h e m easure of a n in sc rib e d a n g le is e q u a l to o n e -h a lf
D 93: T h e exterior of a circle is the set of points of the plane th at
e f in it io n

a re neither interior points or points of the circle. th e m easure o f its in te r c e p te d aro.

H enceforth, whenever the phrase “ inside a circle” or “ within a circle”

is used, it will refer to th e set of points of th e interior of a circle. Similarly,
the phrase “ outside a circle” refers to the points of the exterior of the circle.
T h e.v ertex of an angle m ay lie in any one of four different positions G iven: Inscribed Z B
relative to the circle: either (1) a t th e center, (2) w ithin the circle, (3) on C oncl.: m Z B = $ m AC

.<*> F ig u re 14-39.

H aving no more than the m easure of a central angle upon which,

A n a l y s is :
to base our proof, v/e are forced to consider the,proof of this theorem u n d e r
th ree different circumstances. T h e first of these, obviously, m ust be in term s
of a central angle. Each of the others will be in term s of the conclusions
draw n in the first proof.
 THE CIRCLE
THE RELATION BETWEEN ANGLES A N D ARCS 485

PR O O F STATEMENTS REASONS

1. Let BO be the line through 1. Why?

G iven: Inscribed A B w ith side B A pass­ points B and 0.
ing through center 0
2. m A A B D = \ m AD 2. Case 1
C oncl.: m A B = j m AC
3. m A D B C = \m f> C 3. Case 1
4. m A A B C = \ m AC 4. A ddition postulate

Figure 14-40.

| PROOF | STATEMENTS
Case 3
REASONS
4—►
1. L et OC be th e line through 1. Why?
points 0 a n d C.
2. m A A O C = m AC G iven: Inscribed A A B C w ith cen ter 0
2. T h e m easure of a central angle is
in the exterior of A A B C
* equal to the m easure of its in te r­
C oncl.: m A A B C = ^ m AC
cepted arc.
3. m A A O C - m A B + m AC 3. T he m easure of an exterior angle of
a triangle is equal to the sum of the
m easures of the rem ote interior a n ­ F ig u re 14-42.
gles.
4. m A B + m A C = m AC 4. Why? PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
5. U B ^ O U 5. Why?
6. A B S i A C 6. Why? 1. Let BO be the line through 1. Why?

7. m A B + m A B — m AC points B and 0.
7. Why?
2. m A D B C = | m DC 2 . Case 1
or, ■ 2 m A B = m AC
8. m A B = J m A C 3. m A D B A = | m.DA 3. Case 1
8. Halves of equals are equal.
4. m A A B C — | m AC 4. Subtraction postulate

Case 2
TH EOREM 100: An an gle inscribed in a sem icircle i s a rig h t an gle.

A n a l y s i s : T he proof of this theorem follows directly from th e previous

theorem . If an angle is inscribed in a semicircle, th e arc it intercepts will

G iven: Inscribed A A B C w ith center 0
in th e interior of A A B C
C oncl.: m A A B C = \ m AC
be a semicircle. Since the m easure of a scmicircle is 180, th e m easure of th e
inscribed angle intercepting this arc will be 90 and, hence, a rig h t angle.
T h e proof of T heorem 100 makes possible the proof of another theorem
concerning the relation of the m easure of a n angle to. the m easure pf its
intercepted arc. Once again the vertex falls on the circle. Now , how ever,
oniy one of the sides of the angle is a chord of ihe circle. T h e other side is
a ra y th a t is tangent to the circle a t the endpoint of the ray. Before tu rn in g
the page, try to draw this angle.
486 THE CIRCLE
THE RELATION BETWEEN ANGLES A N D ARCS 487
T H E O R E M 101: T h e m ea su re o f an an g le form ed b y a ta n g e n t a n d a
ch o rd is e q u a l to o n e -h a lf th e m easure of its in te rc e p te d W e can turn our attention now to those situations in which the vertex
arc. of a n angle falls either outside the circle or inside the circle, b u t not a t the
0 center.

T H E O R E M 102: If the vertex o fa n a n g le falls w ith in a circ le , th e m eas­

<—>
G iven: 0 0 with BC tangent to 0 at u re of th e angle is equal to o n e -h a lf th e sum of th e m eas­
point B ures of th e two arcs in te rc e p te d b y th e sides o f th e a n g le
Concl.: m /.A B C = \ m AB a n d th a t of its vertical a n g le.

B C

Figure 14-43. G iven: / A B C whose vertex lies w ithin

circle 0
A n a l y s is : T o a r r i v e a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n , i t is n e c e s s a r y t o r e l a t e /A B C to
Concl. m / A B C — ^(m A C + m E D ) ■
a n inscribed angle th at intercepts A B . This is done by draw ing BO and
introducing / D into the problem . O u r objective will be to prove / D —
/A B C .
Figure 14-44.
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
4—
>
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
1. L et BO be the line through 1. Why?

points B and 0 ; let AD be 1. L et CD be the line through 1. Why?

the line through A and D. points C and D.
2. m / A B C = m / D + m / C - 2. T h e m easure of an exterior angle of a
2. D A B is a semicircle. 2. Rev. of def. of a semicircle.
triangle is equal to the sum of th e
3. / D A B is a right angle. 3. An angle inscribed in a semicircle
m easures of the rem ote interior a n ­
is a right angle.
4. / D is com plem entary 4. T he acute angles of a right triangle gles.
to Z l. are com plem entary. (See T heorem 3. m / D = $ m AC 3. Why?
53.) 4. m / C = J m ED 4. Why?
<-♦
5. BC is a tangent to O 0 at 5. Given 5. m / A B C — | m AC + h m &D 5. Substitution postulate
point B. or,
<-+ <-+
6. D B 1 B.C 6. Why? m / A B C = \{m AC + m ED)
7. / D B C is a right angle. 7. Why?
8. / A B C is com plem entary . 8. Why? T H E O R E M 103: I f th e v ertex o f a n a n g le falls o u tsid e a c irc le a n d th e
to Z l , sides o f th e a n g le in te rc e p t arcs o n th e c irc le , th e n th e
9. / A B C = Z D 9. Why? m easure of the a n g le rs e q u a l to o n e -h a lf th e d iffe re n c e
10. m / D = i m A B of th e m easures of the arcs in te rc e p te d b y th e sides of
10. T h e m easure of an inscribed angle
th e a n g le .
is equal to one-half the m easure of
its intercepted arc. A n a l y s is : T here are three different cases u n d e r w hich the vertex can lie .
11. m / A B C = h m T B 11. Why? outside the circle. A lthough the proofs are very m uch the same, each w ill •
be exam ined separately.
 488
THE CIRCLE
THE RELATION BETWEEN ANGLES AN D ARCS 489
Case 1
Case 3

G iver.: PA and T E are secant segments

to circle 0■
G iv e n : PA and T B a re tangent segm ents
C oncl.: m Z P = %(m A B — m DC) to circle 0 .
C oncl.: m Z P = i(m A C B — tn AB)

PROOF | STATEMENTS

1. L et A C be the line through

REASONS
□
1. W hy? PROOF
points A and C.
2. m Z P + m Z A = m Z 1
2 . T heorem on the exterior angle T h e proof is left for you to complete.
of a triangle.
In terms of the angles we have examined, we can sum m arize the relation­
3. m Z P = m Z \ - m Z A 3. If equals arc subtracted from ship betw een the m easure of an angle and the m easures of its intercepted
equals, the differences are equal. arcs as follows:
4. m Z \ = J m A B 4. W hy? (1) If the vertex'of the angle lies a t th e center of the circle'.
5. m Z A = \ m DC 5. Why? T h e m easure of the angle is equal to the m easure of its intercepted arc.
6. m Z P = \ m AB - \ mDC (2) If the vertex of the angle lies within the circle b u t n o t a t th e center:
6. Substitution postulate.
T he m easure of the angle is equal to one-half the sum of the m easures
or, m Z P = J(m A B - m DC)
of its intercepted arc a n d th a t of its vertical angle.
(3) If the vertex of the angle lies on the circle:
T h e m easure of the angle is equal to one-half the m easure of its
Case 2
intercepted arc.
(4) If the vertex of the angle lies outside the circle:
T he m easure of the angle is equal to one-half the difference of the
G iven: ~PA is a tangent segm ent to O O . m easures of its intercepted arcs.
Y B is a secant segment to O O .
C oncl,: m Z P = J(m — m AC)
EXERCISES
Figure 14-46,
1. Given: m DC = 100, m A D = 70,
m A B — 60
PROOF (T he reasons are left for you to supply.)

1. L et A C be the line through 4. m Z l = J m A B

points A a n d C.
5. m Z A = ? m A C
2. m Z P + m Z A = m Z l
-3. m Z P = m Z l — m Z A 6. m Z P = \ m T B - \ r n X d
Find the m easure of each of the following angles:
or, m Z P — \{rn A B — m 4C)
(a) Z D AC (b ) ZB C D .(c) Z B A C
(d ) ZAD C (e ) Z A C B (f ) Z A B C + Z A D C
 490
THE CIRCLE
2. G iven: Circle 0 w ith rr. A C = 80 APPLICATIONS OF THE THEOREMS 491
<—►
D E tangent to 0 0 a t C 5. Given: m ZC = 85, m /ID = 100,
/~N
m CD = 110, PE tangent to
circle at A
Find the value of each of the following:

Find the m easure of each of the following angles

(a ) AAO C (b ) Z A B C (c) Z B A C (b ) m Z A B C + m Z A D C
(d) Z A C B (a) m Z P
(e ) Z E C B (f) Z O C E (g) ZOCD
(h ) Z ^ C # E
G iven: m BC = 85, m CD = 120,
3. G iven: m A B = 120, m D C — 80
m Z l = 70
►•
TO Z.&4C > 50, FG tangent E is the m idpoint of BA.
at C Find the m easure of Z P .

7. Prove: If the vertices of a q u ad rilateral lie on a circle, th en the o p ­

posite angles are supplem entary. (This statem en t often appears as a
F C
theorem .)
F ind the m easure of each of the following angles:
(a ) Z B D C (b ) Z A C D (c) ZP C F 8. T he m easure of the angle formed by two tangents to a cjrcle from an
external point is 40. Find the m easure of each of the arcs of the circle
( d ) ZA C G (e ) Z ^ jS tf (f) Z P
whose endpoints are the points of tangency.
4. Use th e diagram a t th e rig h t to answer each of the following questions:
(a ) m Z P = 30, m D C = 40, 9. T h e two tangents from a n external point to .a .circle are perpendicular
to each other. Show th at the m ajor arc whose endpoints are the points
m <4B = ?
of tangency is three times as large as the m inor arc with these same
(b ) ot Z P — 55, 70,
endpoints.
m AB — ?
10. Using the diagram at the right
(c) m Z P = 50, m .4.B = 140, w here A B is a diam eter, prove that
m DC = ? ZP ZQ.
(d ) m Z P = 20, m A B = 70, m DC = ?
1^) m .Z l = 65, m 4.B = 85, m DC = ?
(f) m Z l = 55, m £ c = 30, m A B = ?
(g ) ct Z l = 60, m ^ 5 = 80, m Z P = ? ■ Applications of the Theorems on A n g le Measurement
( h ) m Z l . = 75, m D& = 65, m Z P = ?
T h e theorems th a t w ere proved in the preceding section
(i) m Z P = 25, w .DC = 3 0 , m Zl = ? have w ide application to m uch of the w ork we developed earlier in the
( j ) m Z P = 35, m A B = 100, m Z l = ? course; in particular, the section on sim ilarity. Before we investigate illus­
(k ) m Z il = 20, m Z l = 7 0 , m Z P = ? trations of this, th ere is one theorem yet to be presented th a t will help
simplify the proofs of m any problems.
(1)* m Z l = 80, m Z P = 50, m A B = ?
T H E O R E M 104: I f in sc rib e d an g le s o f a c irc le in te r c e p t th e sam e a rc ,
th e n th ey a re c o n g ru e n t.
 492
THE CIRCLE APPLICATIONS OF THE THEOREMS 493

6. Z A D B = ZA C E 6 . W hy?
7. I f inscribed angles of a circle in te r­
1. Z B == Z E
G iven: Inscribed A P, Q, a n d R in te r­ cept the sam e arc, th en they are
cept AB. congruent.
C oncl.: Z P = Z Q =. Z R 8. A A B D ~ A A E C
8. A .A . theorem on sim ilarity
9. A B '.A E = AD'.AC 9. Def. of sim ilar polygons
10. T h e product of the m eans of a p ro ­
10. A B -A C = A D -A E
portion is equal to the p ro d u c t nf
the extremes.
1 PROOF ] STATEMENTS REASONS
Illustration 2:
1. Inscribed A P, Q, and R 1. Given
G iven: Circles R a n d S tang en t to B C
intercept A B .
at P
2. m Z P = \ m A B , 2 . Why?
CD tan g en t to S a t D
tn Z Q = i m A B ,
tn Z R = J m A B B A tan g e n t to R a t A
3. Z P ~ Z Q ^ Z R 3. Rev. of def. of congruent angles C oncl.: A B || CD

Illustration 1:
A n a l y s is .: By showing Z D to be congruent to Z A , A B will be parallel

to CD.
G iven: In A ABC, A D is an a ltitu d e REASONS
PR O O F STATEMENTS
\o~SC.
A E is a diam eter. 1. Circles R and S tangent to 1. Given
C oncl.: A B 'A C = A D 'A E
BC a t P

2. CD tangent to S a t D 2. Given
.
B A tangent to R a t A
By proving A A B D ~ A A E C it will follow th at A B '.A E =
A n a l y s is : 3. m ZCPD = \ m P D 3. T h e m easure of an angle form ed by a
A H ’.AC. O u r conclusion will then be an im m ediate consequence of this tangent a n d a chord is eq u al to one-
proportion. m Z D = \m P D
h alf the m easure of its intercep ted
arc.
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
4. Z D S * ZCPD 4. W hy? .
1. A D is altitude to BC. 1. Given
5. tn Z B P A = i m p A 5. Sam e as 3
2. A D ± BC 2. Def. of an altitude m Z A — $ m PA
3. Z A D B is a right angle. 3. Def. of p erpendicular lines 6. Why?
6. Z A £* Z B P A
4. A E is a diam eter. 4. G iven 7. Why?
7. But, ZCPD S Z B P A
5. Z A C E is a right angle. 5. A n angle inscribed in a semicircle is 8 . Why?
8. H ence, Z D Z b Z A
a rig h t angle.
9. A B \\ CD 9. W hy?
 T"

494 THE CIRCLE

APPLICATIONS OF THE THEOREMS 495
EXERCISES mm *
7 . G iven: CA tangent to circle G iven: A A B C is isosceles 8.
to A w ith A B = AC.
M is the m idpoint AC is a d iam eter
1 . Given: Circle 0 G iven: PB and PC are 2. of A B . of G O .
C oncl.: A E '.E D = B E :E C secant segments. Concl. D is the m idpoint of
MS LA C
Concl.: PA'.PD = PC'.PB BC. (H in t: D raw
MR L A B
AD.)
Concl.: M R = M S (H int:
4.—)
D raw A M .)

3 . G iven: E D _L AD
O O w ith A B a d iam ­
eter
Concl,: AC'.ED = A B '.B E
G iven: PA = F E
Concl.: ~AB = U S (H in t:
D raw A C and DB.]
9. G iven: PA is a tangent G iv e n : C is the m idpoint 10.
segment. of A D .
C oncl.: A B :C A = P A:P C Concl.: A B '.E A — B C :AC

5 , G iven: BD bisects Z A B C . Given: A l i £ i B U £ i ( J B

C oncl.: A B -D C =
i Concl.: PB and PC trisect
A E -D B
1 ZA P D .
11. G iven: AD ^ A E G iven: O O w ith AC _L EG 12.
D F = EG Concl.: A E -A D = AG-A.F
C oncl.: A A B C is isos.

c
496 THE CIRCLE APPLICATIONS OF THE THEOREMS 497
13. G iven: PQ tangent to circle G iven: Circles P and Q tan- 14. * *
at C 19. G iven: S T tangent segm ent G iv en : A is the m idpoint 2 0 .
gent to A F a t A
to circle F of D E .
R S i! PQ
Cor.ci.: B C W D E I)A tangent segm ent C oncl.: A B -A G —
C oncl.: CA'.CB = CE:CD
to circle E A C -A F
D C oncl.: (A B )1 = B C -B D

15. G iv e n : Circles P and Q tan- G iven: Circles R and 5 tan- 16. 21.’ G iven: PED com m on exter­
4—^
gent to AC at A nal tangent to © A
gent to E F a t P
Concl.: C D :A B = P D '.PB and B a t E a n d D
A E intersects O P a t
D a n d O Q a t E. P AB is the line of
4—> centers.
B D tangent to P a t i>
C o n cl.: CD II F E (H in t:
CE tangent to Q at E
D raw B D and AE.)
C o n cl.: D B II EC
2 2 / G iv e n : © R and 5 tangent to G iv e n : AC is a diam eter 23.
/ at P of O E , .
4—► is a diam eter
CD tangent to O R at
of O F .
E
A B is the com m on
C oncl.: P E bisects ZCPD. chord to © £ and F.
(H int: Prove
C o n cl.: C, B, and D are col-
/I ^ Z 2.) linear. (H int: D raw
17. G iven: O O w ith tangent G iven: T h ree intersecting 18.* CB and B D ; then
segm ent PA circles
prove th a t Z C B D is
4—►
C oncl.: (A C )' = PC-CB
C oncl.: E P passes through F. a straight angle.)

A P (H in t: Use indirect
 498 THE CIRCLE
CHORDS, TANGENT SEGMENTS, AN D SECANT SEGMENTS 499
i

B 1PROOF (The reasons will be left for you to supply.)

f 1. If the vertices of an isosceles triangle lie on a circle, then the tan g en t at 1. Let A D be the line through 4. / A ED ZCEB
the vertex of the vertex angle bisects the exterior angle a t this point. > points A and D. 5. t \ A E D ~ ACE B '■■■
2. If from any point on a circle a perpendicular line segm ent is dropped ; 4—►
2. Let CB be the line through 6. AE-.CE = E D :E B
to a diam eter, then '! e square of the m easure of the perpendicular is
points C and B. 7. .-. A E -E B = C E -E D
equal to the product of the measures of the segments of the diam eter.
f 3. I f parallel lines intersect a circle, they will cut off congruent arcs on the 3. Z C S Z A
I circle.* T here are th ree cases that exist; you are to prove all three.
(a ) Case 1: T he parallel lines are secants. T H E O R E M 106: If a ta n g e n t segm ent a n d a secan t se g m e n t a r e d ra w n
(b) Case 2: T h e parallel lines are tangents. to a circle from a n e x te rn al p o in t, th e n th e s q u a re o f th e
i- (c) Case 3: O ne of the parallel lines is a tangent, while the o th er is a m easure of th e ta n g e n t seg m en t is e q u a l to th e p r o d u c t
secant. o f th e m easures of th e secan t seg m en t a n d its e x te rn a l
<
■ p o rtio n .
4.. If two chords intersect w ithin a circle such th a t one bisects the other,
then the square of the m easure of one of the segm ents of the bisected
| chord is equal to the product of the m easures of the segm ents of the other
v chord.
I
5. A line segm ent is draw n through the point of tangency of two externally Given: T an g e n t segm ent PA
tangent circles term inating a t points of each of the circles. If tangents Secant S egm ent P B
Concl.: {P AY = P B -P C
are draw n to each of the circles at these points, then the tangents are
parallel.

■ Chords, Tangent Segments, and Secant Segments

A n a l y s i s : N ote th a t the external portion of a secant segm ent is th a t segm ent
Several of the problems in the preceding exercises have
betw een the external point and the first point of intersection w ith the circle.
wide application in num erical situations. In view of this they will be es­
In Figure 14-52 it is the segm ent PC. T he internal portion is the segm ent be­
tablished as theorems, and illustrations of w hen they can be applied will be
tween the points of intersection of the secant w ith the circle. By proving
presented.
A PAC ~ A P BA the conclusion will follow.
T H E O R E M 105: If tw o ch o rd s in tersect w ith in a c ircle, th e p ro d u c t of
th e m easures of the segm ents of one w ill b e e q u a l to th e
p ro d u c t o f th e m easures of th e segm ents o f th e o th er. PROOF (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)

1. L et AC be th e line through 5. m ZPBA = J m A c

points A a n d C. 6. ZP A C ^ Z P B A
7. & PAC~APBA i
Given: Chords A B a n d TJD intersect 2. L et A B be the line through
8. P A \P B = PC:PA
at E. points A and B.
9. A (P/1) 2 = P B -P C
Concl.: A E -E B = C E -ED 3. Z P ^ Z P

&
II
4. m ZP A C

3
Figure 14-51.
 500 THE CIRCLE CHORDS, TANGENT SEGMENTS, A N D SECANT SEGMENTS 501

T H E O R E M 107: If tw o secant segm ents a re d ra w n to a c irc le from an
e x te rn a l p o in t, th e n th e p ro d u c t o f th e m easu res o f o ne
o f these segm ents a n d its e x te rn a l p o rtio n is e q u a l to
the p ro d u c t o f the m easures of th e o ttie r w ith it,« ex­
te rn a l p ortion.
m ent rotates counterclockwise about the point P, its length increases until
it reaches a certain position and then it begins to decrease. W h at is th at
position? How do you account for the fact th a t although the secant segm ent
grows larger, its product with its external segm ent rem ains the same?
Illustration 1:

G iven: P B and PC arc secant segments.

C oncl.: P B -P A = PC-PD
G iv e n : PA = 6, A B = 4, PD = 5
T o Find : CD = ?

PROOF (T ne reasons are left for you to supply.)

Figure 14-56.
1. L et B D be the line through 4.. A B S A C
M e t h o d : It is advisable to label all six segm ents in Figure 14-56 before
points B and D. 5. A P B D ~ A P C A J
applying the theorem needed; in this case it is T heorem 107.
6. PB'.PC = PD'.PA
2. L et CA be the line through
7. P B -P A = PC -PD P B -P A = PC-PD
points C and A. 10-6 = (x + 5) '5
3. A P S H A P 60 = 5* + 25
H ad the tangent segm ent in Figure 14-53 been draw n from point 35 = 5x.
P to th e circle, then (P R )1 = P B -P A ; also, (P R )1 = PC-PD . In fact, 7 = x or CD
R
Illustration 2:
In a circle whose diam eter is 10 inches, how far from the center is a
ch o rd th a t is 8 inches long?
M ethod :

Figure 14-54.
(P R )1 would be equal to the product of any secant segm ent from point P
w ith its external portion. Since each of these products is equal to (P R )1,
we say th at from a fixed point the product of the measure of a secant segment
with the measure of its external portion is constant. Notice th a t as the secant seg-

F ig u re 14-57.

U sing T heorem 105: C E -E D = A E -E B (W hy is J E ^ E B l )

'1
. (5 + x)(5 - x) = 4-4
25 — *! = 16
25 - 16 = x‘‘
9 = x1
Figure 14-55. 3 = x
502 THE CIRCLE CHORDS, TANGENT SEGMENTS, AN D SECANT SEGMENTS 503
2. Use the figure at the right for each of the following problem s:
Illustration 3:
Tw o secant segm ents are drawn to a circle from an external point. If
the secant segm ents are congruent, then their internal portions are con­
gruent. G iven: PA is a tangent segm ent.
PB is a secant segment.

Given-. P B ^ P C
C oncl.: A B — DC (a) PA = 8, PB = 32, PC = ?
(c) PC = 3,C B = 24, P /i = ? (d ) PA = 8, PC = C B ,P C = ?
(e) PA = 6,P C = 4 ,C B = ? ( f) PA = 4,P C = CB, CB = ?
F igure 14-58. ( g ) t P.-4 = 2, BC = 3, P B = ? ( h ) t PA = 8, BC = 30, PC = ?
3. Use the figure at the rig h t for each of the following p roblem s:
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS (a) PA = 5, P B = 8, PD = 4,
PC = ?
1. P B -P A = P C -PD 1. T heorem 107
(b ) P<4 = 6, A B = 4, PD ■= 5,
2. P B = PC 2. Given
CD = ?
3. .’. PA = PD 3. Division postulate
(c) CD = 8, PD = 2, PA = 4,
4. .-. A B = D C . " 4. Subtraction postulate
PB = ?
(Step 3 from step 2.)
(d ) PC = 16, CD = 13. P B =
AB - ?
(e )f P B = 6, PA = 4, CD = 5,
EXERCISES PD = ?
( f ) t PC = 12, PD = DC, A B = 1,
PB = ?
A
4. In the diagram a t the right, PQ is an
arc of a circular race track w here M
1. Use the figure a t th e right for each of th e following problem s:
(a) CE = 9, E D = 4, A E = 12, E B = ? is the m idpoint of PQ a n d R is the
(b ) A E = 12, E B = 4, ED = 3, CE = ? m idpoint of PQ. If PQ = 120 (feet)
(c) CD = 18, ED = 6, E B = 8, A E = ? and M R — 10 (feet), w hat is the di­
(d ) 4B = 10, AE = 6, ED - 2, CD = ? am eter of the track?
(e) CD= 16, £D = 6, £ B = 3, A B = ? 5. A circular play area is being laid
(f). AB = 16, C£ = 32, A E = £B , out in a field. T h e points P, R, and Q
ED = ? have been found such th a t PS = 24
(g )t = 3, £ B = 2, CD = 7, CE = ? (feet), PQ = 66 (feet), and R S = 12
( h ) f CD = 15, CE = 12, = 13, (feet). If T is to be another point on
EB = ? the circle, how far from R will it lie?
o. T w o secant segments arc draw n to a circle from an external point. .
t T h e solution o f a q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n by factorin g is re q u ire d for this p ro b lem . T h e length of one of these secants is 9 inchcs, while its internal portion

t T h e so lu tio n o f a q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n b y facto rin g is re q u ire d for th is p ro b le m .

504 THE CIRCLE CHORDS, TANGENT SEGMENTS, AN D SECANT SEGMENTS 505
is 1 inch in length. If the circle bisects the o ther secant segm ent, how 13.* T he measure of a chord of a circle is 14. A point is selected on the
long is it? chord so that its distance from one end of the chord is 8, while its
7. T o a circle whose diam eter is 20 inches a tan g e n t segm ent is draw n distance from the center of the circle is 4. W hat is the m easure of the
from a point that is 20 inches from the center of the circle. H ow long chord that is perpendicular to the radius th at passes through this
is the tangent segment? point? (This chord is the shortest chord that can be draw n through
this point.)
8. T h e diam eter of the earth is approxi­
m ately 8,000 miles. An astronaut is
a t a point 100 miles above the surface B
of the earth. Assuming th a t he can
see th a t far, w hat is the farthest point
1. G iven: Chords A B and CD G iv e n : Secant segments
on earth he would be able to see from
his position? intersect at E. P B and PC
A E - ED P B = PC
9. A surveyor places his tran sit along C oncl.: A B = CD C oncl.: A B = DC
the line tangent to the circle a t point A _____
A such th a t PA = 200 (feet). H e lo­
cates another point B on the circle
and finds P B = 80 (feet). If a third

point, C, on the circle lies along PB,

how far from point B will it be?

10. If in the figure at the right AG = CG

P
and P F = 4 , FD = 8, P E = 3, 3 . G iven: © O and R tangent G iv e n : PD comm on secant
AC — 12, then w h a .'is the m easure segment to © 0 and R
to PQ a t Q
of EG? 7 1 tangent segment
C oncl.: P B -P A =
PD-PC to 0
F B tangent segm ent
to R
C oncl.: PA = PB

B C
11, A circular archw ay is to be built such th a t the distance betw een the
endpoints of the arch is to be 14 times as long, as the height of the arch-.
If the radius of the circle of this arch is 20 feet, how high is the arch?

1.2. A tangent segment and a secant segment are draw n to a circle from an
external point. T h e m easure of the tangent segm ent is twice th a t of.
the external portion of the secant segment. W h at is the m easure of the
tangent segm ent if the m easure of the internal portion of the secant
segm ent is nine?
 r -

508
THE CIRCLE
TEST AND REVIEW 509
15.* Given: © 0 and R w ith secants
P A B C and P D E F 2. Use the diagram at the right to answer each of the following questions:
(a ) m BC = 100, m AD = 40, rn Z P = ?
Concl.: AD II CF (H in t: Prove
A P A D ~ A FCF.) (b ) m BC = 120, m AD = 30, m Z B E C = ?
(c) m A B + m C D = 160, m Z A E D = ?
(d ) m Z B D C = 75, m Z A B D = 25, m Z P = ?
16. G iven: Sphere 0 w ith secant Given: Sphere 0
(e) m Z P — 30, m AD - 100, m BC = ?
segments P B and PD
17. (f) m Z B E C = 115, m Z P = 75, m AD = ?
PA tangent segm ent
intersecting sphere at
PD secant segm ent
A and C
intersecting sphere
Concl.: P B -P A = j
at C and D 3. G iven: D is the m idpoint of CE.
P D -P C |
Concl.: {P AY = P D -P C
m CD = 60
m Z B F C = 85
m Z D B A = 70
Find the measure of Z P .

4. In a circle a t the right CD — 10,

D E = 4 , B E = 12. Find P<4. :

Test and Review

6. In the circle a t the right PA is a. tan ­

F ind the measure of each of the following:
gent segm ent whose measure is 12.
(a ) Z A D B (b ) Z E A B
(c) BC If the m easure of PB is 8, then w hat
( d ) Z BAD (e ) Z A D C
(f) AC is the m easure of BC?
(g ) Z E A L (h ) Z B A F
(i) m Z A B C + m Z A D C
7. T h e m easures of the radii of two concentric circles are 10 and 8 respec-
510 THE CIRCLE
TEST AND REVIEW
tively. W h a t is the m easure of a chord of the larger circle th a t is tan g e n t
to th e sm aller circle? 3. Given: Secant segments Given: G O w ith T 2 and
T h e m easures of th e radii of two circles th a t are tangent externally and PD T B tangent segm ents
are 8 a n d 3 respectively. W hat is the distance between the points of ~BC is a diam eter.
„ oncl.:
C , PAp c _ PF
pD
tangency of one of th eir com m on external tangents?
Concl.: ACW PO (H in t:
T h e m easures of the diam eters of two circlcs th a t are tangent internally
Prove M to be the
a re 18 a n d 8 respectively. W h at is the length of the tangent segm ent
from the center of the larger circle to the sm aller circle? m idpoint of A B .)
___ p
10. In th e diagram at the right PE is a
tan g en t segm ent. If PA = 4, AB = 6,
w h a t is PE?

11. A point is 4 units from the center of a. circle. A secant, segment is draw n
from th a t point to the circle such th a t the m easure of the external por­
tion is 3 w hile the internal portion is 1. W h at is the radius of the circle? 5, G iven: AD = EB G iven: A B II CD

12. T h e m easure of an angle formed by two tangents to a circle is 90. If C is the m idpoint of BD, EF passes through
the radius of the circlc is 8, how far is the point from the center of the C oncl.: M S ® center of G O .
circle? OF
C oncl.: A B & CD
B
Prove each of the following:
1 . G iv e n : G 0 w ith C the G iven: G O with diam eter
m idpoint of A B A B extended to C

CD J .O A D C 1 AC
C oncl.: AB-AC =
CE 1 OB
AE-AD
Concl.:
C 7 . G iv en : © A and B G iven: GO
C oncl.: A E -E B =
A B bi. CD and EF.
(CO)2 - (OE)1
C oncl.: CD || .EF (H int: CE = CO - f OE
E 5 = CO - OE)
 17
THE CIRCLE
512 TRY THIS FOR FUN 513
3. T h e diagonals of an equilateral pentagon inscribed w ithin a circle are
9. G iven: A B _L BC
Given: Circie 0 w ith 10.
congruent. (The vertices of the pentagon are points of the circle.)
A S^V D
DC 1 BC 4. If from the endpoints of a diam eter perpendiculars are draw n to any
Concl.: A E £= D E (H in t:
Concl.: secant of the circle, then the points of intersection of the perpendiculars
D raw p erpendiculars
w ith the secant will be equidistant from the center of the circle.
from 0 and prove
triangles congruent.) 5. If two chords intersect w ithin a sphere, then the product of the m easures
of the segments of one is equal to the product of the m easures of the
segm ents of the other.

I Try This For Fun

11, G iven: Q 0 w ith EA and ~UB
tangent segm ents
Concl.: (A B ) J = A E -B C
A question th a t often arises in the minds of students is the
possibility th at when a chord of a circle is doubled in measure will its distance
from the cen ter become only half as great? Should a chord be selected at
random , then the answer is a most em phatic “ N o !” However, if we m ake o u r
choice a bit m ore carefully, there do exist chords in every circle for w hich
G iven: A B a n d CD are 12 .* this is true. These are the chords whose m easures are the sam e as their dis­
com m on external
tances from the center of the circle. C an you prove th at this is so for these
tangents. chords?
HG is the com m on
internal tangent.
Concl.: G iven: O E — A B , O E J_ A B
CD = 2AB, O F JL. CD
8
C oncl.: O F = iO E
(H in t: Let OE = 2a.)

c
Prove each of the following statem ents:
1. I f the endpoints of tw o perpendicular diam eters are joined in order, the ,
quadrilateral form ed will be a square.
2. T h e perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the center of the
circle.

/ Illustration:
/
/
/ \ \ /
/ A
15 V
Locus
Synthetic Geometry
O U R F IR S T E N C O U N T E R W IT H T H E T E R M
locus was in connection w ith the study of analytic geometry. We are going
to take another look a t this area of our w ork; now, however, it will be from
a synthetic point of view ra th e r than an analytic.
By definition, the locus of points was the set of points and only those points
that satisfied certain given conditions. T hus, if the locus is a line, the definition
im plies th a t two properties will h o ld :
(1) Every point on the line satisfies the given conditions.
(2) Every point th a t satisfies the given conditions lies on the line.
LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY 515
Before plunging into the formal study of locus, let us exam ine several
problems from an intuitive point of view. T h a t is, let us determ ine w hat
to us seems to be the set of points that fulfill the requirem ents w ithout h andi­
capping ourselves with the necessity of trying to .justify our answer.
W hat is the locus of points th at are five inches from a given line?
nsw er:T h e locus o r set of points th at are five inches from a given line
are two lines, one on each side of the given line, parallel to it and five inches
from it. (See Figure 15-1.)
In answering the question in this illustration, we have, in reality, m ade
two assertions, n either of which we have attem pted to prove'.
(1) All points on a and b are five inches from /.
(2) All points th a t are five inches from / lie on either line a or line b.
EXERCISES
Discuss informally the answer to each of the following prob­
lems:
1. W hat is the locus of points in a plane th at are 10 inches from a given
point? j
2. W hat is the locus of points in space th at are 10 inches from a given
point?
3. W hat is the set of points in a plane that are equidistant from two parallel
lines?
4. In regard only to the points in your classroom,
(a) W hat is the set of points th a t are 7 feet from the front wall?
(b ) W hat is the set of points th a t are 8 feet from the wall containing
the windows?
(c) W hat is the set of points th a t are both 7 feet from the front wall
and 8 feet from the wall containing the windows?
(d ) W hat is the locus of points th at are equidistant from the ceiling
and floor of the room?
5. W hat is the locus of points in space th at are 7 feet from a given plane?
How does this problem differ from Problem 4 (a)?
6. W hat is the locus of pdints in a plane th at are m ore th an 6 inches from
a given point?
7. W hat is the iocus of points in space th at are less th an 10 inches from a
given point?
516 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY THEOREM, CONVERSE, INVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE 517

8. W hat is the set of points outside a

B Theorem, Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive
circle in a plane th a t arc 10 inches
Earlier in our work it was pointed o u t th a t in ord er to
from the circle? (The distance from a
justify a set of points as fulfilling the conditions set up in the problem , it is
p oint to a circle is the external por­
tion of the secant segm ent drawn necessary to prove that
from that point through the center (1) Each point in the set fulfilled the requirem ents of the problem .
of the circle.)
and
(2) Each point that fulfilled the requirements was an elem ent in the set.

9. W hat is the set of points in space inside a sphere of radius 25 inches
th a t are 10 inches from th e sphere?
10. W hen in a plane a coin rolls along one side of a line, w h at is the locus
of th e center of the coin?
11. A dim e is rolled around a half-dollar; w hat is the locus of th e center
of the dime?
12. T w o points A and B are 10 inches apart. Consider your answ er to each
of the following questions in terms of coplaner points only:
(a ) W h at is th e locus of points th a t are 8 inches from A a n d 8 inches
from B?
(b ) W hat is the locus of points th at are 5 inches from .4 a n d 5 inches
from 5?
(c) W hat is the locus of points th at are 2 inches from A a n d 2 inches -
from £?
(d ) W hat is the locus of points th a t are less th an 8 inches from A and
less th an 8 inches from B ?
(e) W hat is the locus of points th at are less than 8 inches from A and
8 inches from B ?
13. T w o parallel lines I and m are 6 inches apart. Point P is a point on /.
Consider your answer to each of the following questions in term s of
coplaner points only:
(a) W hat is the set of points equidistant from I and m a n d 5 inches
from P?
(b ) W hat is the set of points equidistant from I and m and 3 inches
from P?
(c) W h at is the set of points equidistant from / a n d m and 2 inches
from P?
(d ) W hat is the set of points equidistant from I and m and less th an
4 inches from P?
(e) W hat is the set of points equidistant from I and m a n d less than
3 inches from. P?
14. W hat is the locus of points th at are on a given plane and 5 feet from a
second given plane?
In analytic geometry we were extremely fortunate, for there the de­
scription of the set of points was given by an equation. Hence, it immediately
followed that all points on the graph of this equation satisfied this equation,
while all the points that satisfied the equation fell on its graph. This is the
relation between a graph and its equation. N ow , however, we are faced
with the problem of not only having to nam e what w e believe the locus to
be but also justifying this by proving the two properties stated above.
T o illustrate, let us say that w e are required to determine the set of
points that are equidistant from points A and B in Figure 15-2. An intelligent
Am
•6
Figure 15-2.
guess would be that the set of points equidistant from A and B is the per­
pendicular bisector of ~AH. To justify our conviction, we are faced with
having to prov-e two things. The first is that
(1 ) Every point equidistant from A and B is a point on the perpendicular
bisector of ~AB.
This, however, is not enough, for our guess implied more than that which !
is stated in (1). By (1) we have merely shown that those points that are
equidistant from A and B have to be points on the line that is the perpen­
dicular bisector of ~AB. This perpendicular bisector contains many points,
and although w e have shown that some of its points are equidistant from A
and B , it may have many others that are not equidistant from A and B .
Thus, points P, Q, and R that w e know to be equidistant from A and B lie
on the perpendicular bisector of A B . Points W and S that are also on the
perpendicular bisector of A B , however, may not be equidistant from A
and 5 . H ence, the second part of our proof consists in showing that
 518 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
(2) Every point on the perpendicular bisector of A B is equidistant from
points A and B.
F igure 15-3.
s-
E xam ination of statem ents (1) and (2) reveals th a t they are sim ply a
statem en t and its converse. T hus, justifying a set of points as fulfilling the
requirem ents of a given problem necessitates proving a theorem and its
converse.
A lthough the term converse had been used a num ber of times earlier
in th e text, only a ra th e r w eak description h a d been m ade of the w ord. I t
h a d been pointed out th a t the converse of a theorem was a statem ent in
w hich th e “ given d a ta ” a n d the “ conclusion” of the original theorem h a d
been interchanged. But w hat if the given d a ta contained m any pieces of
inform ation, and, in addition, we were asked to draw several conclusions?
Do we interchange all of the given data w ith all the conclusions o r w ith
only part? In reality, should we interchange any piece of given d a ta w ith
any o n e of the conclusions, a converse statem ent will follow. T hus, a n original
statem ent m ay have m any converses depending on the num ber of pieces of
given d a ta a n d the n um ber of conclusions. N one or perhaps even all of these
converses m ay be true. T h e n um ber th a t are tru e will depend on how m any
can be proved to be so.
N orm ally, th e given d a ta is listed in term s of angle bisectors, or p e r­
p endicular lines, or isosceles triangles, while the conclusion is considered in
term s of parallel lines, o r congruent triangles, or sim ilar triangles. T o m ake
o u r discussion as general as possible, we will consider the given data as,
“ Item A ,” “ Item B,” and " Ite m C,” while the conclusion will be called
“ Ite m D ,” T hus, the statem ent of a theorem in term s of these item s w ill b e
“ If ‘Item A ,’ ‘Item B,’ and ‘Item C’ are true,
then ‘Item D ’ is true.”
O r, even m ore concisely, this, can be stated as
“ If A, B, a n d C are true, then D is true.”
In terms of these symbols, a converse of the above statement will be
THEOREM, CONVERSE, INVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE 519
“ If A, B, and D .are true, then C is tru e .”
Can you w rite a t least two other converses to the original statem ent?
M any of the theorems in the past and, even m o re im p o rta n t, those
concerned w ith locus consist of merely one piece of given d a ta and one
conclusion. It is to this type of statem ent th a t we now tu rn o u r attention.
Its form will be th at of the conditional statem ent w ith w hich we are fam iliar:
If p then q.
Thus, in the statem ent
(1) “ If two angles are right angles, then the two angles are congruent”
p is the antecedent (Two angles are right angles) while q is the consequent
(T he two angles a re congruent).
Early in the year w e proved the truth of statem ent (1). Now we are
interested in knowing w hat effect the tru th of this statem en t has on state­
m ents such as
(2) “ If two angles are congruent, then the two angles are rig h t angles.”
(3) “ If two angles are not right angles, then the tw o angles a re n o t con­
gruent.”
(4) “ I f tw o angles are not congruent, then the two angles a re not rig h t
angles.”
Statem ents (2), (3), and (4) are called respectively the converse, inverse, a n d
contrapositive to statem ent (1). Notice th at the antecedent a n d consequent
of the inverse are the contradictory statem ents to the antecedent and con­
sequent of the original statem ent (1).
In general, our present objective is to investigate the relation th a t
exists betw een the following four conditional statem ents:
(1) I f p then g. (original statem ent)
(2) If q then p. (converse of original statem ent)
(3) If then (inverse of original statem ent) ;
(4) If ~ y then ~/>. (contrapositive of original statem ent)
T h e ideas we are trying to develop can be expressed q u ite clearly
through the use of the V enn diagram . In Figure 15-5 we have shaded those
elem ents th a t are m em bers of the set p. In Figure 15-6 the region shaded
t Recall that is the contradictory statement to q and is read, as “not q."
520 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY THEOREM, CONVERSE, INVERSE, A N D CONTRAPOSITIVE 521

E xam ination of Figure 15-7 will give us a clue as to the tru th of the
inverse
(3) “ If then ”
In Figure 15-7 wc see that some of the elem ents th a t a re n o t in ~/>, such as B,
are in q. However, if statem ent 3 is to be true, the.' all the elem ents th a t are
not in p cannot be in q. Thus, the tru th of the original statem ent does not
im ply the tru th of its inverse.
Figure 15-8 points out th a t all the elem ents th a t are not in q are also
F igure 15-5. F ig u re 15-6.
not in p. Thus, apparently, the tru th of
contains those elem ents th a t are in set q\ in Figure 15-7 it was th e elem ents (1) “ I f p then q"
in set ~ /i, while in Figure 15-8 it was those in ~ y . E ach of these figures
implies also the truth of its contrapositive
(4) “ If then.
In the same way, were a V enn diagram to be d raw n such as Figure 15-9

cFl

•vq
Figure 15-7. ■=* Figure 15-8.
Figure 15-9.
expresses diagram atically th e truth of th e original statem ent
“ I f p th en it would be possible to dem onstrate th a t the tru th of the statem ent

Now, based on the tru th of this statem ent, w hat will these diagram s tell us “ If then ~ p "
of the tru th of the rem aining three statem ents? w ould lead to the tru th of the statem ent
W e will first exam ine
“U p then q."
“ If q th en />.”
In Figure 15-9 all elements in p m ust be outside of circle . By being
N otice in Figure 15-6 th a t although som e of th e elem ents of q a re contained
outside of. circle ( ~ p ), they are also outside of circle ( ~ ? ) - H ence, the ele­
in p, such as elem ent A, not all the elem ents of j are in p. In particular,
m ents o f p a re also elements of q. T hus, since Figure 15-9 implies the tru th of
elem ent B is not in p. T hus, it appears th a t we cannot say th a t
“ If then
“ If q th en p "
it also implies the truth of
must be tru e on the basis of the tru th of
“ If p then q.”
“ I f p th en q."
T w o statem ents of the form
T his could also have been seen b y exam ining the two statem ents: “ If p t h e n ? ” and “ If ~ q then
(1) I f two angles are right angles, then the two angles are congruent. a re called equivalent statements. E quivalent statem ents a re statem ents th a t a re
(2 ) If two angles a re congruent, th e n th e two angles are rig h t angles. either both tru e or both false at the same tim e. It is not possible for one to be
Although w e h a d proved th e tru th of th e first, th e second m ay n o t be true, tru e w hile the o th er is false.
for if two angles are congruent, they m ay be straight angles ra th e r th an R e tu rn in g again to the conditional statem ent
right angles or, in fact, they m ay be any two angles having equal measures (1) “ If two angles are right angles, then the two angies are co n g ru en t"
ra th e r th an right angles,
w e see th a t its contrapositive
522 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
THEOREM, CONVERSE, INVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE 523
(4) If two angles are not congruent, then the two angles are not right
angles.”
will be true since the original statem ent was true. EXERCISES
B ut w hat of the converse and the inverse c f a statem ent. A iihough the
tru th c f neither follows from the tru th of the original statem ent, can anything 1. Given the fact th at each of the following statem ents is tru e, w rite its
be said of the relationship th a t oxists betw een them ? O ddly enough, they, converse, inverse, and contrapositive. State which of your statem ents is
too, are equivalent statem ents. T h e truth of
true without need for proof.
“ I f q theii p " (converse) (a ) If it rains tomorrow, then I shall stay at hom e.
gives rise to the V enn diagram in Figure 15-10. An elem ent th a t is not in p (b ) If the test is not difficult, then I shall receive a passing grade.
(c) If I buy the book, then it is not expensive.
FI (d ) If at least 100 people do not purchase tickets, the show w ill n o t go on.
(e) If two triangles are congruent, then an angie of one triangle is con­
gruent to its corresponding angle in the other triangle.
2. Rewrite each of the following statem ents as conditional statem ents; then
w rite the contrapositive of each.
(a) Any citizen is eligible to run for Congress.
F igure 15-10.
(b ) A ll Golden B rand candies are good to eat.
w ould lie outside circle (p) and, hence, could n o t bp an elem ent of q. T hus, (c) All of J o h n ’s shirts are m ade from cotton..
th e tru th of the converse leads to the tru th of the inverse: (d ) A book th a t is w ritten in Sanskrit does not sell in H a rb o r City.
“ If then (e) A person who does not enjoy Shakespearean plays will not enjoy
Hamlet.
Sim ilarly, the tru th of
(f) A person who eats excessively will not lose w eight.
“ If then (g) T w o tangent segments to a circle from an external point are con­
w ill im ply the tru th of
“ I f q then p " gruent.

D raw a V enn diagram to show why this w ould be so. 3. (a ) W rite the converse to the following statem ent: If a polygon is a tri­
Based on this analysis, we will assume th a t angle, then it has three sides.
(b ) W hy is the converse of this statem ent true w ithout need of proof?
P ostu la te 41: T h e statem ents
4. (a ) Using your postulates, prove the statem ent th a t “ I f 2x = 10, then
“ If p then q” and “ If ~ q then ~ p ”
x = 5.”
a re equivalent statem ents.
(b ) In view of the fact th at you have proved this statem ent to be true,
Postulate 41 points out n o t only the equivalence of a statem ent a n d its w hat o th er statem ent will be true w ithout need of proof?
contrapositive but also the equivalence of the converse and the inverse of a (c) W hat is the converse of the statem ent in p a rt (a)? Prove th a t th e
statem ent. In reality, the converse and the inverse of a statem ent can b e
converse is also true.
considered as a statem ent and its contrapositive relative to each other, for
(d ) In view of the fact th a t you have proved the converse o f th e sta te ­
“ If q then p " and “ If ~ p then m en t in (a) to be true, w hat other statem ent will be tru e w ithout
are b u t a statem ent and its contrapositive. need of proof?
K now ing these relations is very valuable, for there are times w hen it
5. (a) W rite the converse, inverse, and contrapositive to the statem ent
m ay be exceedingly difficult to prove a statem ent. However, proving its
“ If Z A a n d Z B are straight angles, then Z A = Z B ."
contrapositive m ay tu rn out to be a simple m atter. Hence, the contrapositive
is proved and the tru th of the original statem ent imm ediately follows from (b ) In view of the theorem s we have proved, w hich of the statem ents th a t
Postulate 41. you w rote in answer to p art (a) are true?
6. W rite the converse a n d inverse of each of the following statem ents:
 525
524 LOCUS-. SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY LOCUS THEOREMS
(a) Any point on the perpendicular bisector of a line segm ent is equi­ Part B—Proof of Converse
distant from the endpoints of th e line segment. If a point is equidistant from two fixed points, th en it lies
-r k.i» joining these two points.
(b ) If a point is on the bisector of an angie, then it is equidistant from the
sides of the angle.
(c) All points on a circle are a fixed distance from the center of the circie.

7• Justify why the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of any definition

are true statem ents w ithout the necessity of having to prove th em to be. Given: PA S P S
P is a n y p o in t equidistant from

HI Locus Theorems A a n d B.
C oncl.: P is on th e X bisector of ~SB.
T here are basically only five theorem s upon w hich the
gTeat bulk of the locus problem s in synthetic geom etry are based. Justifica­
tion of each of these theorems, as you know, involves the proof of both a
statem ent and its converse. F or a few of these theorems it will be far easier to
prove the inverse ra th e r th an the converse. From the inform ation in the -- 15-12
Figure
preceding unit, however, the tru th of one will imply the tru th of the other. PROOF (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)
1 -
5. A P
A OR J ~
BA S* Ak P
PRR BS
T H E O R E M 108: T h e locus o f p o in ts e q u id ista n t from tw o fixed p o in ts
is th e p e r p e n d ic u la r b isecto r o f th e l in e se g m en t jo in in g I. H s H (A)
6.
th e tw o points. (First theorem on locus) 2. L et P R be the perpendicular that 7 . .-.P R is the X bisector of
< ’>
exists from P to A B . JB.
Part A—Proof of Statement 3. / P R A a n d /.P R B are right angles.
If a point is on th e perpendicular bisector of the line seg­
m en t joining two fixed points, then it is equidistant from these two points.
4. P R ^ P j i (0
R a th e r th an prove the converse as we h a d in P a rt B, it w ould have
(See T heorem 17.)
been possible for us to have proved the inverse to justify th e second h alf
of the proof of this locus theorem . As a point of inform ation, this w ill be

done now.

Alternate Proof of Part B—Proof of inverse

If a point is not on the perpendicular bisector of the line
segm ent jo in in g two fixed points, then it is not equidistant from these tw o

points.

Figure 15-11. ♦-» __

G iven: R S _L bisector of A B
Point P does not lie on RS.
PR O O F (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.)
Concl.: T A — T B
1. PQ L A B 5. I R & 1 U } (j)
2. / P R B a n d / P R A are rig h t angles. .(*)
3. / P R B S i Z PRA (a) 7. & P R A & & P R B
4. PQ bisects AB . 8. T Z S i T B
 526 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY 527
LOCUS THEOREMS

1 PROOF 1 (The reasons will be left for you to supply.)

1. ST bisects /Q S R . 5. / P Q S and / PRS are right angles.

2. / Q S P ^ / R S P («) 6. / P Q S = / P R S (a)
i. a p q s ^ aprs
3. P S ^ T S ( s )
8. T Q ^P R
PROOF 4. PQ 1 b, PR l a

By the law o f the excluded m iddle one of the following sta te ­ Part B—Proof of Inverse
m ents m ust b e tru e a n d no o th er possibility exists t
■■■■■■■■ If a point is not on the bisector of one of the angles form ed
Ta ^ T S or by tw o intersecting lines, then it is not equidistant from these lines.
__ _ <-»
L et us accept th e possibility th a t PA = PB . L e t P S be the line th a t exists
through points P a n d S. By th e S.iS.S. congruency theorem it is possible G iven: S T is the bisector of an angle
to show th a t A P S A ~ A PSB. H ence, /P S A S /P S B , and, therefore, form ed by a a n d b.

PS A. A B . T h is w ould imply th a t / P S A is a right angle. T he Given D ata, P is any p oint th a t is not on S T .

how ever, informs us th at R S X A B ; hence, / R S A is a right angle. T h ere ­ PQ l b , P R l a

fore, / P S A S / R S A . However, by our postulate th a t the whole is greater C oncl.: P Q m F R
th a n any of its parts, it follows th a t /P S A ^ / R S A . Therefore, accepting
th e possibility th a t PA £= P B led to the logical inconsistency of the tru th F i g u r e 15-15.
of both / P S A == / R S A and /P S A / R S A . By the law of contradiction
b oth cannot be tru e a t the sam e tim e. Since / P S A 3= / R S A is true, for it
is the result of a postulate, then /P S A ~ / R S A m ust be false, a n d so PROOF
PA ~ P B m ust also be false. H ence, P A Z £ P B is true, for it is the only
rem aining possibility. By the law of the excluded m iddle one of the following

TH EO R EM 109: T h e locus o f points equidistant from two intersecting statem ents m ust be tru e and n o o th er possibility exists:
lin es is the two lin es that are the bisectors o f the angles T Q ^P K or FQ gPTi
formed by these lines. (Second theorem on locus)
L et us accept the possibility th a t TQ == PR. L et P S be the line through
Part A—Proof of Statement points P a n d S. By the hypotenuse-leg congruency theorem it is possible to
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ If a point is on the bisector of one of the angles formed by show A P Q S == A P R S . H ence, / P S Q = / P S R , and, therefore, m /P S Q —
tw o intersecting lines, then it is equidistant from these lines.
i m / R S Q . T h e Given D ata, however, informs us th a t S T is the bisector
of / Q S R ; therefore m / T S Q = J m / R S Q . H ence, m / PSQ — m / T S Q .
G iven: S T is the bisector of an angle H ow ever, by our postulate th a t the w hole is greater th an any of its parts,
form ed by a and b.
m / P S Q 7* m / T S Q . Therefore, accepting the possibility th a t PQ ~ TFR led
P is any point on S T . to th e logical inconsistency of the tru th of both m /P S Q = m / T S Q anc.
PQ l b , P R l a m / P S Q 7^ m /T S Q . By the law of contradiction both cannot be true, a :
C oncl.: th e sam e tim e. Since m /P S Q m / T S Q is true, for i t is the result o f a
postulate, then m /.PSQ = m / T S Q m ust be false, and, hence, PQ ?= PP-
is false. Therefore, TQ =£ 'PR is true, for it is the only rem aining possibility.
528 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY LOCUS THEOREMS 529

T H E O R E M 110: T h e locus of p oints a t a fixed d istan c e fro m a g iv en

lin e is tw o lin e s p a ra lle l to th e g iv e n lin e a t th e fixed
d istan c e from it. (T hird theorem on locus)
Part A—Proof of Statement
■ ■ ■ B B If two lines are parallel to a given line such th a t two points,
one oil each line, are each a distance d from the given line, th en all points
on these lines are a distance d from the given line.
PROOF
T he proof is indirect as in T heorem 109. I t will be left for
you to complete.
T H E O R E M 111: T h e locus of p o in ts e q u id is ta n t from tw o g iv e n p a r ­
allel lines is th e p e r p e n d ic u la r b isector o f th e se g m en t
th a t is th e co m m o n p e r p e n d ic u la r to th e se tw o lin e s.
(Fourth theorem on locus)

Part A—Proof of Statement

b II /, a II / If a point is on the p erpendicular bisector of the line seg­
m ent th at is the common perpendicular to two parallel lines, th en it is
P on line J a t a distance d from I
Q is any other p o in t on b. equidistant from the two lines.

P S 1 I, Q R 1 1
QR = d G iv e n : a II I, b II /

R S 1 a, R S 1 b

Q is any o ther point on I.

C oncl.: Q is equidistant from a a n d b.
PROOF (T he reasons will be left for you to supply.) 1

l. i l l / 5. PQRS is a parallelogram . Figure 15-18.

2. PS 1 1 6. QR = PS
7. But PS ~ d A n a l y sis : T o prove th at <2 is equidistant from a a n d b, it is necessary to
3. QR 1 1 8. .'. QR*= d show th a t the perpendiculars from Q to a a n d b are congruent. I n order to
4—>
4, P S II QR arrive a t this, we allow Q T to be the p erpendicular from Q to a a n d th en
4—► 4-**
extend Q T to intersect b. After proving th a t Q W is p erpendicular to b, we
T h e same proof w ould apply for points on line a.
will show th a t Q T S QW.

Part B—Proof of Inverse PROOF | STATEMENTS REASONS |

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ I I f two lines are parallel to a given line such th a t tw o points,
1 . a II M l/ 1. G iven
one on each line, are each a distance d from the given line, th en all points
4—►
n o t on these lines are not a distance d from the given line. 2. L et Q T be the perpendicu­ 2. T h ere exists one a n d only one p e r­
la r from Q to a. p endicular .from a given point to a
Given: HI /, a II / given line.
P on line b a t a distance d from / 3. A line can be extended as far as d e ­
3. E xtend Q T until it inter­
Q is any po in t n o t on either a
sects b a t W. sired.
or b,
4. Q T l b 4. I f a iine is perpendicular to one of
K 1 U Q R .1 1
Concl.: QR ^ d two parallel lines, it is also perp en ­
d icular to the other.
Figure 15-17.
5. F R ^ T S 5. Given
 530 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
LOCUS THEOREMS 531
6.
If three or m ore parallel lines c u t off (3) W rite the proof in p a rag ra p h form sim ilar to th a t used for th e indirect
congruent segments on one tran s­
proof.
versal, they cut off congruent seg­
Several illustrations will be given to present a clearer picture of this m ethod
m ents on every transversal.
of approach.
Part 8— Proof of Inverse
Illustration 1:
m am R M If a point is not on the perpendicular bisector of th e line
segm ent th a t is the comm on perpendicular to two parallel lines, th en it is W hat is the locus of the m idpoints of congruent chords of a circle?
not equidistant from the two lines.

G iven: "AB S "UD in circle 0

G iven: a II /, b II I
RS l a , RS L b
Q is any point not on /.
Concl.: Q is n o t equ id istan t from
an d 6.
P is th e m id p o in t of A B .
Q is th e m id p o in t of CD.
C oncl.: T o find th e locus of th e m id ­
points of c o n g ru en t chords of
circle 0
a
Figure 15-20.

PROOF
PROOF
> 4—>
By allowing OP and OQ to be the lines th ro u g h points O
T he proof is indirect as in T heorem 109. I t will be left for
you to com plete. a n d P and through 0 and Q, we can show th a t OP 1 . A B a n d OQ L CD.
H ence, OP S OQ since congruent chords of a circle are equidistant from
the center. T hus, the m idpoints of congruent chords of a circle are a fixed
TH EO R EM 112: T h e locus o f points that are a fixed distance from a distance from the cen ter of th e circle. H ence, their locus is a circle, for th e
fixed p oin t is a circle. (Fifth theorem on locus) set of points th a t are a fixed distance from a fixed p o in t is a circle (fifth
theorem on locus). ..
PROOF
Illustration 2:
T his statem ent should not, strictly speaking, be called a In a right triangle w ith a fixed hypotenuse w h a t is the locus of th e
theorem , for it is simply th e alternative definition of a circle th a t h a d been vertex of the right angle?
given o n page 440.
G iven: R ig h t A A P B w ith Z P th e rig h t
W hen you are confronted with a locus problem , it w ould be best to angle
follow th e p a tte rn suggested below: R ight A A Q B w ith Z Q the right
angle
(1 ) D raw a diagram in w hich you have placed any two points of th e set Concl.: T o find the locus of the vertices
or locus.
of the rig h t angle of the right
(2) Prove some relation about these two points th a t falls u n d e r one of
triangle w here A B is the h ypote­
the five locus theorems.
nuse
532 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY COMPOUND LOCI IN SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY 533
10. W h at is the locus of the centers of circles th a t have a given line segm ent
as a comm on chord?
11. W hat is the locus of the centers of circles th a t are tangent to b o th sides
of a given angle?
12. In the diagram a t the right w hat is •
the locus of the m idpoints of all line
segments whose endpoints are P and
some point on /? 1
PROOF
13. W h at is the locus of points th a t a re equ id istan t from two opposite sides
L e t M b e the m idpoint of A B a n d let P M a n d Q M be the
lines through / ’ and M and through Q and M . By Problem 10, page 274, we of a rectangle?
14. W hat is the locus of the m idpoints of line segments whose endpoints
know that in A A P B M P ~ M A since the m edian to the hypotenuse is con­
lie in a pair of given parallel lines?
gruent to the segm ents of the hypotenuse. Sim ilarly, in & A Q B M Q ~ M A . 15.* Prove the theorem in space geom etry th a t th e locus of points th a t are
H ence, M P = M Q . T hus, the vertices of these right triangles are a fixed equidistant from two fixed points is th e plane th a t is the perpendicular
distance from point M . H ence, their locus is a circle, for the set of points bisector of the line segment join in g these two points. Use the diagram
th a t are a fixed distance from a fixed point is a circle (fifth theorem on below a n d the proof of T heorem 108 as a m odel.
locus). Incidentally, since A and B lie on this circle and also on the hypote­
nuse, they will have to be excluded from the locus. Can you explain why?

EXERCISES

1. W h at is the locus of the centers of circles th at are tangent to two

parallel lines?
2. W hat is the locus of the centers of congruent circles th at are tangent
externally to a given circle?
3. W hat is the locus of the centers of congruent circles th at are tangent
to a given line?
4. W hat is the lo cu so f the m idpoints of the rad ii of a circle?
5. W hat is the locus of points th at are equidistant from the sides of an 16. W rite the statem ents of the theorem s in space geom etry th a t are com ­
angle? parable to T heorem s 109, 110, 111, a n d 112. Do n o t prove these
6. W h at is the locus of the vertices of th e vertex angles of isosceles triangles statem ents.
draw n on the sam e base? ■ Compound Loci in Synthetic Geometry
7. Each of the radii of a circle is extended its own length. W h at is the
In our study of the intersection of two sets in analytic
locus of the endpoints of these extended segments?
geom etry, we found th a t this simply im plied th a t we. w ere searching for those
8. W hat is the locus of points th a t are always a fixed distance from a fixed elem ents th a t were common to the tw o sets.f T hese elem ents w ere eith er
circle? (See Problem 8, page 516, for the distance from a point to a points in the coordinate plane or ordered pairs of values th a t represented
circle.) these points. Now. however, the intersection of two sets, or loci, can only
9. .W hat is the locus of the outer endpoint, not the point of tangency, of be points th a t are comm on to the two sets, for in synthetic geom etry we do
congruent tangent segments th a t are draw n to a circle? t See page 4 t9.
534 LOCUS; SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY COMPOUND LOCI IN SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY 535
not consider the correspondence between points and ordered pairs of n u m ­
bers. Finally, if A, B, C, and D were so situated th a t th e perpendicular
W here previously the proof of a problem was shown in term s of the bisector of A B was also the perpendicular bisector of CD, then / P | m would
intersection of the solution sets of equalities or inequalities, now it m ust bc be all the points on I or all the points on m. See Figures 15-24 and 15-25.
given in term s of two of the five locus theorems. Several examples will be
given to illustrate this point. Illustration 2:
Illustration 1: W hat is the locus of points th a t are a fixed distance from a fixed point
and equidistant from the sides of a given angle?
W h at is the locus of points th at are equidistant from the points A and B
an d from the points C and D ?

F ig u re 15-26.

PRO O F
T h e set of points th a t are a fixed distance from the fixed
PROOF
point is a circle w ith the fixed point (/4) as the cen ter a n d the fixed distance
T h e set of points equidistant from points A and B is the
(d) as the radius. T h e set of points equidistant from the sides of the angle
perpendicular bisector of A B , the line I. T h e set of points equidistant from
is the bisector (/) of the angle (/.B C D ). T h e set o f points th a t is a fixed
points C and D is the perpendicular bisector of VD, the line m. T o find the >
points th a t are equidistant from the points A and B and also from the points distance from A and equidistant from Z B C D is I f~) A, or points P and Q.
C and £>, it-is necessary to find I Pi th a t is, the intersection of I and m. T h e placem ent of the fixed point and the given angle m ay be such th a t the
T his is point P. H ence, P is equidistant from the points A and B and also possibilities shown in Figure 15-27 will exist.
equidistant from the points C and D.
U nfortunately the proof is not yet com pleted at this stage, for the points
A, B, C, and D m ay take positions other than shewn in the diagram above.
W ere the line segments A B and CD parallel, th en I would be parallel to m.
H ence, / pi m w ould be the null, or empty, set; th a t is, there would be no
points th a t are comm on to the two loci. See Figure 15-23.

E
-o
c
0
In A = 0 (em pty set)
in a = {p}
F ig u re 15-27.
A C D B
You may have noticed in our study of coordinate geom etry th a t al­
Figure 15-23. Figure 15-14. Figure 15-25. though we proved the concurrency of the m edians o f a n y tria n g le ,! we
t See Problem 20, page 392.
 COMPOUND LOCI IN SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY 537
536 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
T H E O R E M 114: T h e bisectors of th e an g le s o f a tr ia n g le a re c o n c u r­
avoided doing the same for either the perpendicular bisectors of the sides re n t a t a p o i n t th a t is e q u id is ta n t fro m th e sides o f th e
of a triangle or the angle bisectors of a triangle. T his omission was not an
tria n g le.
oversight, but ra th e r it was deliberate, since the proofs of the concurrency
of these lines are far sim pler a n d far m ore elegant in syr.thctic geom etry 4
th an in coordinate geometry. T h e locus theorems provide us with the tools Given: i bisects Z A .
th a t m ake this so. m bisects Z B .
T H E O R E M 113: T h e p e r p e n d ic u la r bisectors of th e sides c f a tr ia n g le
n bisects Z C .
a re c o n c u rre n t a t a p o in t th a t is e q u id ista n t from th e
v e rtice s o f t h e tria n g le . C oncl.: n passes th ro u g h P (th e point of
./7
. —►
intersection of I and m).

G iv en : I is the X bisector of ~KC.

m is the _L bisector of A B .
n is the X bisector of ~BV. PROOF
C oncl.: n passes through P (the point of —► —■*>
intersection of I and m). T h e locus of points th a t a re e quidistant from A C a n d A B
6
is the ray I, the bisector of Z A . Similarly, th e locus of points equ id istan t
—* —► “f, .
from B C and B A is m. H ence, P, the intersection of I a n d m, is th e po in t
4—* > 4—►
th a t is equidistant from A B , CA, and CB. In particular, it is equidistant
PROOF —> —
—* ^ "4
from CA and CB and, therefore, must be a point on n, for th e locus of points
T h e set of points th at are equidistant from A a n d B is the equidistant from the sides of an angle is th e bisector of the angle.
line m, the perpendicular bisector of A B . Similarly, the set of points equi­ As In T heorem 113 the proof of this theorem depends upon our ability
distant from A and C is I. H ence, P, the intersection of I and m, is equidistant
to show th a t ( and m intersect a t some point P. T his can be shown ra th e r
from A, B, and C. In particular, it is equidistant from B and C and, there­
easily by the application of Pasch’s Axiom.
fore, m ust be a point on n, for the locus of points equidistant from tw o fixed
points is the perpendicular bisector of the line segm ent joining these two
points. EXERCISES
T h e proof of this theorem depends upon the fact th a t I a n d m can be ■
shown to intersect a t some p o in t P. By using the indirect m ethod of proof,
it is possible to show th a t if we accept the possibility th a t I does n o t inter-
In each of the following problem s you are to find th e locus
sect m, then AC would be perpendicular to m, for if a line is perpendicular in term s of the conditions given. I n addition, you are to draw diagram s show­
to one (0 of two parallel lines (/ and m), then it is perpendicular to the other ing the other possibilities th at m ay arise. Specifically, follow the p a tte rn
also. Hence, AC would have to be parallel to A B as two lines perpendicular presented in Illustration 2, page 535.
to the same line are parallel. T his, however, is in contradiction to the 1. W hat is the locus of points that are equidistant from tw o parallel lines
Given D ata th at A S and A C have the point A in common. T hus, I m ust and lie on a third line?
intersect m, for the possibility th a t I does not intersect m led to contradictory 2. W h at is the locus of points th a t are a fixed distance.from a fixed point
statements. and lie on a given line?
3. W hat is the locus o f points that are equidistant from the sides of a n
I t m ay be interesting to you to com pare the proof above w ith the one
angle a n d lie on a given line?
you gave for Problem 18, page 190.
 538 LOCUS; SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
STRAIGHTEDGE AND COMPASS CONSTRUCTIONS 539
4. W h at is the locus of points th a t are a fixed distance from a fixed line
a n d lie on a given circle? 2. W hat is the locus of points that are greater th an a given distance from
5. W 'hat is the. locus of points th a t are equidistant from two fixed points a fixed line and that are equidistant from two fixed points? (See similar
a n d lie on a given circle? problem in Coordinate Geometry, pages 436-437.)
6. W hat is the locus of points th at are a fixed distance, <A, from p o in t A S. W hat is the locus of points th at are less th an a given distance from a
and a fixed distance, di, from point B ? given point and lie on a given line?
7. W h at is the locus of points th a t are a fixed distance from the point 4. A'f is the m idpoint of line segment A B . W h at is the locus of points th at
of intersection of two intersecting lines and lie on these two lines? are not equidistant from A and B and are less th an a given distance
8. W h at is the locus of points th at are equidistant from two parallel lines from M?
a n d are a t a fixed distance from a given point th a t lies on one of these 5. W hat is the locus of points that are equidistant from two parallel lines
lines? and less than a given distance from a given line?
9. W h at is the locus of points th a t are e quidistant from two fixed points 6. W hat is the iocus of points that are greater th a n a distance, di, from
and are a t a given distance from a given circle b u t lie outside the circle? point A and also less than a distance of d% from point A? (Assume di to
10. W h at is the locus of points th a t are equidistant from the points A a n d B be less than di.)
a n d also from the points A and C? T h a t is, w h at is the locus of points- 7. In space geometry w hat is the locus of points th a t are a fixed distance
equidistant from three given points, A, B, and C? from a fixed point and lie on a given plane?
11. W h a t is the locus of points th a t are equidistant from two intersecting 8. In space geometry w hat is the locus of points th a t are less th an a fixed
lines and are a t a given distance from th e ir p o in t of intersection? distance from a fixed point and lie on a given plane?
12. W h a t is th e locus of points th a t are a fixed distance from p o in t A a n d 9. In space geometry, w hat is the locus of points th a t are a given distance,
equidistant from points A and B? di, from a fixed point and a t a given distance, di, from a fixed plane?
13. * U sing the diagram a t the right,
10. In space geometry w hat is the locus of points th a t are less th an a dis­
prove th at the bisectors of ZE A C ,
tance, dh from a fixed point and a t a given distance, di, from a fixed
ZD C A , and Z A B C are concurrent.
plane?
11. In space geom etry w hat is the locus of points th a t arc equidistant from
two fixed points (see Problem 15 page 533) a n d e quidistant from two
parallel planes?
12. In space geom etry w hat is the locus of points th a t a re equidistant from
14.* U sing the diagram a t the right,
two fixed points and less than a given distance from a given plane?
prove th at the altitudes of a triangle
«-► .
a re concurrent. (H int! L et Q R be
■ Straightedge and Compass Constructions
the line through A th a t is parallel to
Closely allied to the w ork on loci is the topic of construc­
BC. Sam e for PQ and PR, T hen ft tion, for it enables us actually to draw the locus by using certain instrum ents.
use T heorem 113.) It m ay have occurred to you th at the n um ber of curves considered in this
course has been ra th e r lim ited. In fact, they have been lim ited to but two:
c the lin e f and the circle. No other curve was exam ined, not because of lack
of space but ra th e r because of the definition of plane geom etry as agreed
p upon by G reek m athem aticians:
Discuss each of the following problem s inform ally; no Plane geom etry is th at branch of m athem atics in w hich the only instru­
proof is required.
m ents permissible are the straightedge a n d compass.
1. W h at is the locus of points th a t are less th an a given distance from a As you well know, the compass is the instrvment used for drawing circles or
fixed iine and th a t lie on a second fixed line? arcs of circles. Th< straightedge, on the other hand, is the instrument for drawing lines,
^ We arc assuming that a line can be considered as a special type of curve.
 STRAIGHTEDGE AND COMPASS CONSTRUCTIONS 541
540 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
( i ) W ith P as the center and the sam e radius, draw a n arc of a circle
T h e straightedge is very m uch the sam e as the instrum ent you have come intersecting ( a t Q.
to know as the “ ru ler.” How ever, unlike the ruler the straightedge has no
(3) T hen, P Q ^ l B
m arkings on it. Hence, i: cannot be used to m easure the lengths o i line
segments. I PROOF ! STATEMENTS
REASONS j
A question such as “ C an the bisector of an angle be constructed?” is
1. Reverse of the definition of congruent
largely meaningless until '.ve are told w hat instrum ents we are perm itted 1. O A S I O P
to use. If none are available, then by all means no construction is possible! circles
However, in our work we will accept the Greek definition of geom etry and 2. D efinition of congruent circles
2. P Q = A%
consider that the only instrum ents th a t are both available and perm issible
T H E O R E M 116: At a g iv en p o in t o n a g iv e n lin e a n a n g le c o n g ru e n t
are the straightedge and compass. T hus, the above question should be
interpreted as “ Can the bisector of an angle be constructed by using straig h t­ to a given a n g le can b e c o n stru cted .
edge ?.nd compass only?” T h e answer to this question and others like it will
be the subject of this unit.
In ar, tarlier topic t we discussed the existence of certain lines or angles.
T h e proofs of these “ existence” statem ents were based on th ree postulates: G iven: ZB
L ine I containing point P
(1) A line m ay be extended as far as desired in either direction. T o C onstruct: An angle a t P, one of
(2) T here exists one and only one line through two points. whose sides is I a n d th a t
(3) At a given point on a given line there exists an angle whose vertex is congruent to Z B .
is the given point and one of whose sides is the given line such th a t this
angle is congruent to any given angle.
In this unit we will reprove not only a few of the existence statem ents
exam ined previously but also m any m ore th at we were u nable to prove at
th a t tim e. Now, however, our theorem s will be phrased in the language of
M eth od :
construction.
You m ay have wondered how it will be possible to construct congruent (1) Using B as the center a n d a n y convenient radius, draw an a rc in te r­
line segments w ithout the aid of the m arkings on a ruler. T h e next theorem secting the sides of Z B at A and C.
should answer that question. (2) U sing P as the center a n d the sam e radius as in step 1, draw a n arc
intersecting I a t E.
T H E O R E M 115: At a g iv e n p o in t on a giv en lin e a lin e se g m e n t con­ (3) W ith C as the center and S T as a radius d ra w a n arc.
g ru e n t xo a g iv en lin e segm ent can b e c o n stru cted . (4) W ith E as the center and UA as a radius d ra w an arc intersecting th e
(How would this theorem have been worded as an existence
previous arc a t D.
statem ent?)
(5) U sing the straightedge,' draw PD.
G iven: Line segm ent A B (€) T h en Z D P E ^ ~ Z A B C
Line I containing point P
REASONS |
T o C onstruct: A line segm ent on / a t P PR O O F | STATEMENTS

th a t is con g ru en t to A B
1. D raw AC and DE. 1. W hy possible?
F i g u r e 15-30. 2. Def. of congruent circles .
2. T A ^ T D (s )

3. W ^ . T E { s ) 3. Sam e as 2
M ethod :
4. £ 4 = * 1 5 0 ) 4. Sam e as 2
(1) Using A as the center and a radius congruent to A B , draw an arc of
5. A A B C S A D P E 5. Why?
a circle.
6. Z A B C £ ZD PE 6. Why?
t See page 255.
542 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRV
STRAIGHTEDGE A N D COMPASS CONSTRUCTIONS 543
T H E O R E M 117: T h e p e rp e n d ic u la r bisector of a lin e seg m en t can b e
c o n stru cted . M ethod :

(1) Using A as a center and any convenient radius, draw an arc inter­
secting the sides of Z A at- B and C.-
(2) Using B as a center and a radius whose m easure is g reater th an one-
half of BC, draw an arc.
Given: Line segnjent A B
(3) Using C as a center and the sam e radius as used in step 2, draw an arc
A<- T o C onstruct: T h e perpendicular bisec­
intersecting the one in step 2 a t P.
tor of A B
(4) Use the straight edge to draw AP.
V '
4? (5) Then, AP bisects ZB A C .

Figure 15-32.

M eth od : PROOF
(1) Using A as a center and a radius whose m easure is g reater th an one-
half of A B , draw arcs above and below A B , T h e proof will be left for you to do.
(2) U sing 5 as a center and the same radius as in step 1, draw arcs above T H E O R E M 119: A t a g iv e n p o in t on a g iv e n lin e a lin e p e rp e n d ic u la r
a n d below AH, intersecting the previous arcs in P and Q. to th is lin e can b e co n stru cted .
<—>
(3) Use the straightedge to draw PQ.
_
(4) T hen, PQ is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
G iv e n :' Line / w ith point P on I
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS j T o C onstruct: A line perpendicular to I
at P
1. D raw PA, PB, QA, and QB. 1. W hy possible?
2. TA & P B 2. Def. of congruent circles
3. ($A — ($B 3. Sam e as 2
Figure 15-34.
4. PQ is the perpendicular bi­ 4. If two points are each equidistant
M ethod :
sector of A B . from the endpoints of a line segm ent,
then the line joining them will be the (1) Using P as a center and any convenient radius, draw arcs intersecting
perpendicular bisector of the line seg­ / at A and B.
(2) Using A as a center and a radius whose m easure is greater than AP,
m ent.
draw an arc above /.
(3) Using B as a center and the sam e radius as used in step 2, draw an
T H E O R E M 118: T h e bisector of a n a n g le can b e constructed.
arc intersecting the arc in step 2 at Q.

(4) Use the straightedge to draw QP.

G iven: /.A (5) T hen, QP J_ t

T o C onstruct: T h e bisector of /.A

PRO O F
Figure 15-33.
T h e proof will be left for you to do.
 STRAIGHTEDGE AND COMPASS CONSTRUCTIONS 545
544
LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
from the arcs in Figure 15-36 whether T heorem 117, 119, or 120 was used
TH EO R EM 120: From a g iv e n p oin t not on a given lin e a lin e p e r p e n ­ to construct the right angle?
dicular to th e g iv e n lin e can b e constructed.

Z A B C = 45
G iven: L ine I w ith P not on I
T o C onstruct: A line from P perp en d ic­
u la r to I

EXERCISES
M ethod : 1. (a) In Theorem 117, step 1, why was it necessary to use a radius whose
measure was greater th an one-half of AB?
(1) Using P as a center a n d a radius, whose m easure is greater th an the
distance from P to I, draw arcs intersecting I a t A and B. (b ) In T heorem 119, step 2, why was it necessary to use a radius whose
(2 ) U sing A as a center a n d a radius whose measure is greater th a n one- measure was greater th an AP?
h alf of A B , draw an arc below I. (c) In Theorem 120, step 1, w hat represents the distance from P to I?
(3) U sing B as a center and the sam e radius as used in step 2, draw an W hy m ust the m easure of the radius be g reater th a n this distance?
a rc intersecting the arc in step 2 a t Q. 2. Construct a line segm ent equal to the-sum of two given line segments.
V
(4) Use the straightedge to d raw PQ. 3. Construct an angle equal to the difference of two given angles.
4. Divide a given line segm ent into four congruent segm ents.
(5) T h en , PQ X I
5. Draw an obtuse angle and divide it into four congruent angles.
6. (a) Construct an angle of 135°.
(b) Construct an angle of 22\°.
PROOF
(c) Construct an angle of 67
7. If a and b are the m easures of two given line segm ents w here a > b,
T h e proof will be left for you to do.
construct a line segm ent whose m easure is equal to {(a — b).
8. If Z A and Z B are two given angles, construct an angle whose measure
Illustration; is equal to \(m Z A + m Z B ).
9. D raw a triangle sim ilar to the one a t
C onstruct a n angle of 45°. the right. Construct the m edian from

A By using either T heorem 117, 119, or 120 a rig h t angle c an be

n a l y s is :
C to A B in this triangle.
constructed. T heorem 118 is th e n used to bisect th a t angle, thus obtaining
a n angle of 45°.
T o avoid the necessity of h aving to w rite out the steps in your m ethod 6 C
of attack, simply draw the arcs of your circles large enough so th a t it is
10. D raw a triangle sim ilar to the one in Problem 9. C onstruct the line
possible to determ ine w hat points had been used as the centers of the circles.
*
Should this be done, an exam ination of your draw ing is all th a t is necessary th a t is perpendicular to AC a t point P. ■
to understand the m ethotl you used to draw the diagram . C an you tell
546 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY CONSTRUCTION WITH STRAIGHTEDGE A N D COMPASS 547
11. D raw a triangle sim ilar to the one in Problem 9. C onstruct the altitude M ethod :
from B to A€- (1) T hrough P draw a line intersecting / a t Q.
12. C onstruct the angle bisectors of a triangle and find their point of con­ (2) O n this line at point P construct an angle congruent to ZQ
currency. (3) T hen, m 11 /

13. (a ) C onstruct the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of an acute ■

triangle. Do the same for a right triangle and for an obtuse triangle, PRO O F STATEMENTS REASONS
(b ) W h at conclusion can be draw n concerning the point of concurrency
1. Z2 was constructed congru­ 1. An angle congruent to a given angle
in each case?
ent to Z l . can be constructed.
14. (a) C onstruct the altitudes io the sides of an acute triangle. Do the 2. / II m 2. If two lines are cut by a transversal
sam e for a right triangle and for an obtuse triangle. ■
such th a t the corresponding angles
(b ) W h at conclusion can be drawn concerning the point of concurrency
are congruent, then the lines are. p a r­
in each case? allel.
15. C onstruct th e locus of points th at are equidistant from two intersecting
lines. Before developing the next two construction theorems, several defi­
16. C onstruct the locus of points th a t are equidistant from two fixed points. nitions are necessary.
17. C onstruct the locus of points th a t are equidistant from two fixed points
D ef in it io n 95: An inscribed polygon in a circle is a polygon whose vertices
a n d a t a given distance from a given point.
are points of the circle.
18. C onstruct th e locus of points th at are equidistant from two fixed points
D efin it io n 96: A circumscribed polygon about a circle is a polygon whose
and equidistant from the sides of a given angle. sides are tangent to the circle.

■ M ore A bout Construction with Straightedge and Compass

T h e g reat bulk of the problem s on construction in plane
geom etry are based on the six construction theorem s developed in the p re ­
ceding unit. T h e key to determ ining how a p a rticu la r construction can be
done is to sketch the figure in completed form. An inspection of this draw ing
will lead to those construction theorems th a t m ust be applied. A pplication
of this m ethod will be m ade to the construction theorem s in this unit.
T H E O R E M 121: T h ro u g h a giv en p o in t n o t o n a g iv e n lin e a lin e can
b e co n stru cted p a ra lle l to th e g iv en lin e .

A B C D E is an inscribed polygon, or F G H IJ is a circumscribed polygon, or

G iven: L ine I and point P
not on I
T o Construct: A line
through P
parallel to /
A n a l y sis : By inspecting th e completed sketch we realize th a t w ere Z l £=
Z 2, the'lines w ould be parallel, Hence, the problem simplifies to the point
of m erely constructing an angle congruent to a given angle.
circle 0 is said to be circumscribed circle P is said to be inscribed w ithin
about ABC D E. F G H IJ..,
J u s t as we refer to points th a t fall on the same line as being collinear
points a n d points that are elements of the sam e plane as coplaner points,
so, too, do we have a nam e for points th a t are m em bers of the same circle.
These points are called concyclic points T h ere are a n um ber of interesting
theorem s th a t can be proved to show w hen points are concyclic— the most
im p o rtan t of these being the one in w hich the vertices of a quadrilateral
a re concyclic if its opposite angles are supplem entary. I t is possible to w ord
the following theorem as, the vertices of a triangle a n concyclic.
 548 LOCUS.- SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY CONSTRUCTION WITH STRAIGHTEDGE A N D COMPASS 549
T H E O R E M 122: A circle can be c irc u m scrib e d ab o u t a g iv e n tria n g le .
T h e radius of the circle, as seen in the sketch, is th e length of th e perpendic­
ular segment from the cen ter to any one of the sides.

M ethod :

(1) Construct the bisector of /.A B C .

is circum ­ (2) Construct the bisector of /A C B . This will intersect the line in step 1
scribed
at some point I. i—►
about
AABC (3) Construct the perpendicular from I to BC.
(4) Using I B as a radius, draw the circle.

A n a l y s i s : By inspecting th e com pleted sketch we realize th a t th e center

of the circle is equidistant from the three vertices of the triangle. T his is a
direct application of the theorem th a t the perpendicular bisectors of the
sides of a triangle are concurrent at a point th a t is equidistant from the three
vertices. T h e radius of th e circle is th en m erely th e line segm ent from the
p o in t of concurrency to any one of the. vertices.
M ethod :
(1) Construct the p erpendicular bisector of ~BC.
(2) C onstruct the perpendicular bisector of AC. T his will intersect the
line in step 1 at some point 0 .
(3) Using 0 as a center a n d OB as a radius, draw the circle.
PR O O F
T h e proof rests upon th e need to show th a t b oth A B a n d
A C are tangent to the circle. It will be left for you to do.
T he rem aining construction theorems are concerned w ith the ability
to construct triangles w hen you are given certain parts of these triangles.
In reality, they are but the five congruence statem ents couched in the lan ­
guage of construction theorems.
T he need for a sim ple w ay to refer to the line segm ents a n d angles
connected w ith a triangle gave rise to the following sym bols:
A

’ PROOF

By using the indirect m ethod of proof it is possible to show

t h a t points A and C m ust lie on th e circle.

T H E O R E M 123: A c irc le can b e in s c rib e d w ith in a g iv e n tria n g le .

Given: A A B C
(1) For the angles of a triangle the capital letters A, B, and C are used.
T o Construct:
(2) T he side opposite / A is called side a; sim ilarly, b lies opposite / B ,
A circle th a t is in­
scribed w ithin and c opposite / C .
(3) T h e altitude to side a is while th a t to side b is At, etc.
AABC
(4) T he angle bisector of / A is while th a t of / B is <b, etc.
(5) T h e median to side a is m„, while th a t to side b is m», etc.
Thus, to be given a, b, a n d C would im ply th a t we knew two sides of a
triangle and also the angle included between these sides. Sim ilarly, if the
-A n a l y s is : By inspecting the completed sketch we realize th a t th e cen ter of
given data were In, a n d c, it would imply th a t line segm ents ware, given'
t h e circle is equidistant from th e three sides of the triangle. T his is a direct
for the altitude a n d angle bisector to one side of a triangie; in addition,
a p p lic a tio n of the theorem th a t the bisectors of the angles of a triangle are
one of the sides of the triangle was given; however, it was not the side to
c o n c u rre n t a t a point th a t is equidistant from the sides of the triangle.
w hich the altitude and bisector were draw n.
 550 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY CONSTRUCTION WITH STRAIGHTEDGE AN D COMPASS 551
TH EO R EM 124: A trian gle can be constructed if g iv en two sides and M ethod :
the a n g le included betw een these two sides (a, b, C).
(1) O n line I select point B.
G iven; a i (2) A t B c o n s t r u c t a l i n e s e g m e n t c o n g r u e n t t o a.
(3) A t B c o n s t r u c t a n a n g l e c o n g r u e n t t o ZB.
(4) At Cconstruct an angle congruent to ZC.
(5) T he intersection of m and n will be the third vertex of the triangle.
T his construction is possible only if Z B and Z C are so given
A n a l y s is :
that m Z B + m Z C < 180. W ere the m Z B + m Z C either equal to or
T o Construct: A triangle with the above greater th an 180, there would exist a contradiction w ith the theorem th at
elem ents the sum of the measures of all the angles of a triangle m ust be 180. In this
s k e tc h
situation the sum of the measures of only two of them would be either 180
or greater than 180. This can not be so.
T H E O R E M 126: A triangle can be constructed i f giv en three sides
(a, i>, c).

G iv en : _____ 2____________ I

M ethod : T o C onstruct: A triangle w ith the above

(1) O n line I select point C. elements
(2) W ith C as one endpoint construct a line segm ent congruent to b.
(3) A t C construct an angle congruent to ZC.
(4) Wi.th C as one endpoint construct a line segm ent on m th a t is con­
gruent to a.
(5) D raw the line segm ent joining the endpoints of a and b.
T H E O R E M 125: A triangle can be constructed if given two angles and
the side included between these two angles (B, C, a).
G iven: ____ o
M et h o d :
(1) O n line I select point P.
5v (2) At P construct a line segment congruent to a.
...JL (3) Using P as a center and c as a radius, draw an arc above line I.
To C onstruct: A triangle w ith the above
(4) Using Q as a center and i as a radius, draw an arc to intersect the
elements
arc in step 2 at some point R.
sk e tc h
(5) D raw R P and RQ.
(6) A RPQ is the required triangle.
T his construction is possible only if a, b, and c are so given th a t •
A n a l y s is :
the sum of any two of these segments is g reater th an the third. E xam ination
of the Sketch reveals the fact th a t any side of the triangle m ust be sm aller
th an the sum of the other two sides since the shortest path betw een two
vertices of the triangle is the line segm ent joining them .
 552 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
CONSTRUCTION WITH STRAIGHTEDGE A N D COMPASS 553
T H E O R E M 127: A. tria n g le can b e constructed if g iv e n tw o a n g le s a n d
a side o p p o site one o f th em (/I, B, a). M ethod:

(1) At point P on line m construct a perpendicular to m.

(2) W ith P as one endpoint construct a line segm ent congruent to I on
the perpendicular constructed in step 1.
(3) Using Q as a center and h as a radius, draw an arc intersecting m at R.

T o Construct: A triangle w ith the above (4) Draw QR.

elem ent (5) Then A Q P R is the required triangle.
A n a l y s is : This construction is possible only if A > !. C an you justify why
this should be so?
In applying the five construction theorem s ju st proved to problem
situations, it is best to draw a sketch of the com pleted figure. O ne of the
triangles in this draw ing will be such th at it can be constructed by using
one of these five theorems. M ark this triangle in red a n d u n d e r it write
the letters of the construction theorem you p i ; t o use. O nce you have
completed the construction of this triangle, the rem aining vertices of the
A n a ly sis; By exam ining th e Sketch we realize th a t th e th ird angle of the figure you have been asked to construct can usually be found ra th e r easily.
triangle can be found by subtracting the sum of m Z A and m Z B from a
straig h t angle. T o save tim e this construction is done a t the third vertex of Illustration 1:
th e triangle.
T his construction is possible only if m Z A + m Z B < 180. Construct an isosceles triangle given a leg a n d the a ltitu d e to the base.
M ethod : Given: ______ 1________ j
(1) O n line I select point P.
(2) At point P construct a line segm ent congruent to a.
(3) A t point P construct an angle equal to the sum of angles A a n d B.
(4) A t B construct an angle congruent to Z B . T o C onstruct: An isosceles triangle with
(5) T he intersection of m and n will be the third vertex of the triangle. the above elements
T H E O R E M 128: A r ig h t tria n g le can b e con stru cted i f g iv e n th e h y ­
p o ten u se a n d o n e of th e legs.
G iven: ---------- :----- ------------- 1

F i g u r e 1 5 -4 8 .

: E xam ination of the Sketch revealed th a t the triangle a t the right

A n a l y s is
in this sketch can be constructed under the hypotenuse:leg construction
theorem . After tins triangle was constructed, the th ird vertex was found by
using ^ as the center of a circle and / as the radius. An arc was draw n inter­
secting m a t point R. T h is is th e third vertex of the isosceles triangle.
 554 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY CONSTRUCTION WITH STRAIGHTEDGE AN D COMPASS 555
Illustration 2: 2. Construct a right triangle under the conditions listed.
(a) Given the legs.
Construct a triangle giveu m„, a, and b . _______
(b) Given a leg and the acute angle adjacent to th a t leg.
Given: (c) Given a leg and the acute angle opposite th at leg.
(d) Given the hypotenuse and one of the acute angles.
(e) Given one leg and the m edian to the other leg.
3. Construct an equilateral triangle under the conditions listed.
(a) Given one side.
sketch A triangle w ith the above
elem ents (b ) Given an altitude. (H int: Find a 60° angle by constructing any
equilateral triangle.)
(c) Given a bisector of one of the angles.
4. Construct a triangle under the conditions listed.
S.S.S. (a) a, hc, c (b) c, hi, B (c) a, b, hc
(d) a, b, mb (e) b, U, A (f) U, A, B

X
POK a the required triangle
(g) ha, ma, a (h) Ac, tc, C (i) hb, tb, c
( j) A, B, ha (k) ha, ta, B (1) A, C, hb
(m ) <1,, B, hc (a) ht, ntt, A (o) * m„, mb, c
5. Construct a parallelogram under the conditions listed.
(a) Given two sides and an angle.
F ig u re 15-49.
(b) Given the diagonals and an angle included betw een them .
(c) Given the diagonals and one side.
E xam ination of the Sketch revealed th a t th e triangle a t the rig h t
A n a l y s is :
(d ) Given sides a and b and the altitude to side b.(An altitude of a
in this Sketch can be constructed under the S.S.S. construction theorem ,
parallelogram is the com m on perpendicular to a pair of parallel
w here b, ma, a n d \a are the three sides. W ith this triangle com pleted,
th ere was no need to find the third vertex, P, for it was already th ere as the • sides.)
leftm ost point o f segm ent a. 6. Construct a square
(a) Given a side.
(b ) Given a diagonal.
EXERCISES t 7. Construct a rhom bus
(a) Given a side and an angle.
(b ) Given a side and a diagonal.
A_ (c) Given the diagonals.
(d ) Given an angle and the diagonal to the vertex of th a t angle.
1. C onstruct an isosceles triangle under the conditions listed.
(a ) G iven a leg and the vertex angle. 8. Construct a quadrilateral given sides a, b, c, and d, and also the angle
(b) G iven a leg a n d th e base. between sides a and b.
(c) G iven the base a n d a base angle. 9. D raw a circle similar to' the one at
the right and construct a tangent to
(d ) Given the base and the m edian to the base.
the circle at point P. (H int: See
(e) Given a leg and the bisector of the vertex angle.
Theorem VO.)
(f) Given the altitude to the base and one of the base angles.
(g )* G iven th e base a n d the altitude to one of the legs.

t N o p ro o f is re q u ire d for a n y of th e problem s in this g ro u p o f exercises.

it
 556 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
10. Construct a chord through a point w ithin a circle such th at this point
TEST AND REVIEW 557
will be the m idpoint of the chord. (H int: See Theorem 88.) 3. Construct the locus of points th at are equidistant from two fixed points
11. D raw a diagram sim ilar to the one and also equidistant from two parallel lines.
a t the right and construct a tangent 4. Construct the locus of points th at are a given distance, a,from a fixed
to circle 0 that is parallel to line I. point and also a given distance, b, from a fixed line.
5. Construct the locus of points th at are equidistant from two intersecting
lines and also equidistant from two parallel lines.
u
/ | Test and Review

12. C o n s tru c t a c irc le th a t h as a rad iu s

a an d is tangent to c ir c le 0 at
X
p o in t P. 1. Given the fact th at each of the following statem ents is true, w rite its
converse, inverse, and contrapositive. Indicate w hich of your statem ents
is true w ithout need of proof,
(a) If Jo h n goes to the movie tonight, then I shall go.
(b) If a subject is not difficult, then Bill does not enjoy it.
<-* ___ —*
13. C onstruct a circle through three noncollinear points. (H in t: See (c) If A B bisects CD, A B will not bisect Z A .
T h eo rem 122.)
2. State as a conditional statem ent the contrapositive of
14. (a ) Using the m arkings on the d iagram below as a guide, divide a line
“ A person who does not like m athem atics
segm ent into three congruent line segments.
should not plan to be an engineer.”
3. (a) Give the definition of a right a;ngle as a conditional statem ent.
(b) W rite the inverse of the definition of a right angle.
4. (a) If the converse and the inverse of a statem ent are true, will this imply
th at the original statem ent is also true? Justify your answer.
(b) If the contrapositive of a statem ent is true, does this im ply th a t the
original statem ent is also true? Justify your answer.

( b ) W h at theorem m ust be used to justify the conclusion th at 5. W rite three converse statem ents w ith reference to the statem ent

a p szp q ^T Z b “U P A SZ P B and <£? $B, th e n PQ J_ A B ."

15.* Construct an isosceles triangle given its perim eter and the altitude to
the base. (H int: C onstruct the altitude a t the m idpoint of the perim ­
L U
e te r; then analyze your sketch.)
16.* C onstruct a right triangle given the hypotenuse and the altitude to the Answer each of the following questions w ithout formal
hypotenuse. proof:
1. W hat is the locus of the centers of circles th a t are tangent to a given
T line a t a given point of th a t line5
2. W hat is the iocus of the centers of congruent circles th a t are tangent
1. C o n stru ct th e locus o f p o in ts th a t are a g ive n distance, d, from a fixed lin e. intem aliy to a given circle?
2. C o n stru ct the locus o f p o in ts th a t are e q u id istan t fro m tw o p a ra lle l lines. 3. W hat is the locus of the centers of all congruent circles th a t pass through
a fixed point?
 TRY THESE FOR FUN 559
558 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY
5. Construct a rectangle given a side and one of the angles form ed by the
4. W h at is the locus of the m idpoints of all line segm ents whose endpoints
diagonals.
are one of the vertices of a triangle and any point of the side opposite
6. Divide a line segment into five congruent segments.
th a t vertex?
7. Using a straightedge and compass, j
5. W hat is the locus of the points of intersection of the diagonals of a
find the point on I that is equidistant ___ *8
rhom bus th a t have a fixed segment as a side?
from points A and B.
6. W h at is the locus of the m idpoint M
8. Construct the locus of points th at are equidistant from the sides of an
of A B w here points A and B are al­
angle and at a fixed distance from a fixed lin e .'
ways points of each side of right
9. T hrough a given point construct a line th at intersects a given line in an
angle C and m A B is fixed? angle of a given measure.
10. T hrough a given point construct a line th a t will cut off congruent
segments on the sides of a given angle.

7. W hat is the locus of the centers of circles th a t are tangent to a given

circle at a given point of th at circle? Try These For Fun
8. W hat is the locus of points that are equidistant from the centers of two
congruent intersecting circles?
9. W h at is the locus of points th at are equidistant from the sides of an
angle and lie on a nother given angle? If the point of concurrency of the altitudes of a triangle is
10. W h at is the locus of points that are equidistant from the sides of an found and also the point of concurrency of the perpendicular bisectors of
angle and also equidistant from two parallel lines? the sides, then the distance from the latter to a side is one-half the distance
11. W hat is the locus of points that are a fixed distance from a given point of the opposite vertex to the point of concurrency of the altitudes.
and equidistant from the endpoints of a given line segment? Can you prove this?
12. W h at is the locus of points that are equidistant from the vertices of a
G iven: Any triangle A BC
rectangle?
13. W h at is the locus of points th at are equidistant from the vertices of an O M is the _L bisector of BC.
isosceles trapezoid? O N is the J. bisector of AC.
14. W h at is the locus of points that are equidistant from the sides of a AD and B E are altitudes inter­
rhom bus? secting a t F.
Concl.: A F = 2 O M

Suggestion: Let circle 0 be the circle circum scribed about A ABC.

0 Let CP be th e ‘line through 0 . D raw PA a n d PB.

U sing straightedge and compass only, com plete the con­

struction in each of th e following problems:
1. C onstruct a triangle un d er the conditions given.
(a) a, c, ma (b ) ht, tt, a
2. Construct a rectangle given a base and a diagonal.
3. Construct a rhom bus given one of its angles and the diagonal to the
vertex of its next consecutive angle.
4. C onstruct an isosceles trapezoid given the lower base, a leg, and an
u p p e r base angle.
 560 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY 561
TRY THESE FOR FUN
m a y both be true a t the sam e tim e; they m ay b oth be false a t the same tim e;
B or finally, one may be true w hen the other is false. Again resorting to
tru th tables, the picture w ould be
I t w ould have been possible for us to have proved the rela­
tionships between a theorem., its converse, its inverse, and its contrapositive ?
p
h a d we resorted tc “ tru th tables.” T his is a device that logicians use to show
the equivalence, or nonequivalence, of statem ents. By this schem e of things, T T
F Figure 4
“ tru th values” are assigned to any statem ent; that is, a statem ent is said T
to be either “ T ru e ” or “ False.” T h u s, the statem ent F T
F F
p \ “ I shall pass this test”
is either a true statem ent or a false statem ent. We express this by saying
O n the first line we note th a t w hen p is true, q is also tru e ; on the second
th a t th e tru th values of p a re T or F , a n d -write this as
appears the possibility of p being true white q is false, and so on. These are
the only com binations th a t exist betw een the tru th values of p and q.
P As a final step we would like to determ ine the tru th values th a t should
Figure 1 bc assigned to the conditional statem ent
T
F “ If p then q”
O r as wc had learned earlier, this statem ent can be expressed symbolically as
W ere we now to exam ine a second statem ent, /> -* ?
q: “ I shall receive a passing m ark for this term ” Thus, if both p and q are true, would it be advisable to assert th a t “ If p
then q” is also true? O r, if both p and q are false, w hat tru th value should
the tru th values of this statem ent w ould also be
be assigned to “ If f> then q"? Let us exam ine som e definite statem ent before
we try to com m it ourselves. For instance, Miss M a rtin said to Jo e,
“ If you pass this test, then you will pass for the term ”
T Figure 2
w here the statem ents p a n d q are
F
p: “ You pass this test”
q: “ You will pass for-the term ”
Similarly, as we recall, i f p represents “ I shall pass this test,” then How should Jo e interpret the teach er’s honesty un d er each of the following
(read as not p) was interpreted as “ I shall noi pass this test.” A nd it is pos­
conditions?
sible for us to draw up a set of tru th values for based on the tru th values
of p. T o illustrate, if p is true, then ~ p w ould certainly have to be false; A. (1) Jo e passes the test, [p is true.)
and when p is false, m ust be true. This idea is expressed in a m uch, (2) J o e passes for the term , (q is true.)
m uch m ore com pact form by establishing a “ tru th table," W h at is the truth H e should certainly agree th at Miss M artin told the tru th , for this is exactly
w h at she said w ould happen.

B. ( I) Jo e passes the test, (p is true.)

Figure 3 (2) J o e does not pass for the term , (q is false.)

l t seems th at Jo e would be justified in his reaction th at the teacher had not

table relating q and ~ q ?
Further, we m ight be interested in exam ining all the different combina-'
tions of tru th values th a t exist betw een tw o distinct statements. T hus, they
told the tru th . 7'hus, if p is true ar.d q is false, then “ If p th en q" is a false
statem ent.
C. (1) Jo e does not pass the test, {p is false.)
(2) J o e passes for the term , (q is true.)
562 LOCUS: SYNTHETIC GEOMETRY TRY THESE FOR FUN 563
Jo e w ould joyously accept the passing grade and point out to ail who w ould sim ilarly, w hen p is true a n d q is false, th en p —* q is false a n d so, too, is
care to listen th a t the teacher said nothing about w hat w ould happen in the false; and so on. T hus, p —■>q and its contrapositive
event h r failed the test. Hence, since she is not telling a falsehood, she m ust are equivalent statem ents.
be telling the t r u th ! T hus, ifp is false and q is true, then “ I f p then q" is true.
(1) Can you prove th at a statem ent and its converse are not equivalent
D . (1) Jo e does not pass the test, (p is false.)
statem ents? T h a t is, p >q and q —* p do n o t have the sam e tru th values.
(2) Jo e does not pass for the term . (q is false.)
(2) Can you prove th a t a statem ent and its inverse are not equivalent
J o e is a sad young m an indeed, for by his analysis in C, he has equally well statem ents? T h a t is, p —> q and do not have the sam e tru th
justified th at the teacher is still telling the tru th in D for she had m ade no values.
m ention of the consequences should he fail the test. T hus, if p is false and q (3) C an you prove th a t the converse and the inverse of a statem ent are
is false, then “ If p then q" is true. equivalent statem ents? T h a t is, q —>p and —>~ q are equivalent
T h e tru th table for “ If p then q" is accepted as statem ents.

Figure 5

H ence, the tru th value of p —> q is false only w hen p is tru e and q is false.
T o lend m eaning to the background we have established, we first
define equivalent- statements as statements th a t have the sam e tru th values.
H ence, the question of the relation of a statem ent to its contrapositive m erely
reduces to, “ D o these statem ents have the sam e tru th values?” If so, then
the tru th of one implies the truth of the o ther or the falsity of one implies
th e falsity of th e other. W e have already determ ined the tru th values of
p —> q (see Figure 5), and now let us do the sam e w ith its contrapositive

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Figure 6

Colum ns (3) and (4) were baseu on the analysis given to arrive at
Figure 3. T o determ ine column (5), we exam ined colum ns (3) and (4)
only, rem em bering th a t —» ~i> is a false statem ent a t no other time but
w hen ~ y is tru e and ~ p is false. Now, should we com pare the truth values
of p —* q w ith we note th at they are identically the same. T h a t
is, w hen p a n d q are both true, then p -> q and ~ y —* are also tru e ;
 INEQUALITIES 565
equal. T he theorem will specifically tell us which of the m easures of the
two angles is the larger.
Even in terms of the very little work th at we have developed thus far
in this chapter you m ay have noticed how cum bersom e it was to w ord
some of our statements. In order to greatly simplify the language to be
used throughout this chapter, we will agree upon the follow ing:

(1) W henever we refer to the fact th at one angle is larger th an another,

it will imply th at the measure of the first angle is larger th a n the measure
of the second angle.
(2) W henever we refer to the fact th at one line segm ent is larger than
another, it will im ply th a t the measure of the first line segm ent is larger
than the measure of the second line segment.

16 THEOREM 129: If two sides of a triangle are u n eq u al, the angles op­
posite them are unequal and the a n g le opposite the
greater sid e is the greater an gle.

Inequalities
G iven: A A B C w ith A B > AC
Concl.: m Z \ > m Z l

T H U S F A R O U R STU D Y O F S Y N T H E T IC G E O M -
etry has been concerned prim arily with m ethods for showing conditions PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS
un d er which quantities will be either equal or congruent to one another.
1. A A B C with A B > AC 1. Given
O n those ra re occasions w hen we have discussed the inequality of th e m eas­
ures of line segments or angles, it has been, to a large extent, only w hether 2. Let AC be extended to point 2. A line can be extended as far as
they are unequal, not w hich of the two is the larger or w hich the sm aller. P such th at AP = AB. desired in either direction.
In this u n it we plan to present six theorems th a t will enable us to prove ♦4
w hich of two line segments has the larger m easure or w hich of tw o angles 3. L et B P be the line through 3. T h ere exists one a n d only one line
has the larger measure. T h e postulates necessary for the proofs of these points B and P. through twr> points.
theorem s were presented earlier in our work. T hey arc 4. m ZA > m Z P 4. T h e m easure of an exterior angle of a
triangle is g reater th an the measure
P o st u l a te 3 0 : Given any two num bers a and b, one and only one of these
of either of the rem ote interior angles.
th ree relations m ust be tru e : a > b, a = b, a < b. (Existence and
U niqueness of O rder) 5. m Z A B P = m Z P 5. T heorem on the base angles of an
P o st u l a te 3 1 : Given any three num bers a, b, and c w here a > b a n d b > e, isosceles triangle.
then a > c. (T ransitivity of O rder) 6. m ZX > m Z A B P 6. Substitution postulate
T h e first of the theorem s on inequalities is actually a form of the inverse 7. But m Z A B P > m Z l 7. T he whole is g reater th a n any of its
of th e theorem on the base angles of an isosceles triangle. I t does far m ore parts. .
for us, however, th an m erely justify th at if the measures of two sides of a 8. .'. m Z \ > m Z 2 8. Postulate on transitivity of order
triangle are unequal, the m easures of the angles opposite them will be un- (Postulate 31)

564
566 INEQUALITIES
T h e converse of T heorem 129 is also true. Its proof, as we have often
found to be the case w ith converse theorems, is by the indirect approach,
Nov/, however., we will have to apply the assum ption on the existence and
uniqueness of order betw een two quantities rath er th an the law of the ex­
cluded middle. We are forced to take this position, for we are concerned
w ith m ore than ju st the fact that two quantities are unequal but w ith w hich
of these is the greater.
T H E O R E M 130: I f tw o angles of a tria n g le a re u n e q u a l, th e sides o p ­
posite th em a re u n e q u a l a n d th e sid e o p p o site th e
g r e a te r a n g le is th e g re a te r side.
INEQUALITIES 567
Since mZC > m Z B must be true by virtue of the Given D ata, then
m ZC > mZ B must be fake, and so, therefore, is A B < AC false. .
T hus, we can conclude th at A B > AC, for it is the. only rem aining
possibility.
T h e next two theorems on congruency bear a resem blance to two of the
congruency statements.
T H E O R E M 131: I f two sides of o n e tria n g le a re c o n g ru e n t re sp ec tiv e ly
to two sides o f a second tria n g le b u t th e in c lu d e d a n g le
of th e first tria n g le is g re a te r th a n th e in c lu d e d a n g le
of th e second tria n g le , th e n th e t h ir d side of th e first
tria n g le is g re a te r th a n th e th ir d sid e of th e second
tria n g le .

G iven: A A B C and D E F

F igure 16-2.
A B ^ M
A U ^W
m ZBAC > m ZD
PROOF C oncl.: B C > E F

By the postulate on the existence and uniqueness of order

one of the following statem ents m ust be tru e and no o ther possibility exists:
(X ).A B > AC, (2) A B = AC, or (3) A B < AC PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

O rd e r (1) will be shown to be true by proving th a t both order (2) and 1. m Z B A C > m Z D 1. Given
o rd er (3) lead to contradictory statements.
2. W ithin Z B A C construct AQ so 2. A n a:..^le congruent to a given
Part 1 th a t Z Q A B £* Z D . (a) angle can be constructed.

Let i<s accept the possibility th a t A B = AC. If this is so, 3. E xtend /4Q to point Q so th a t 3. A line can be extended as far a
then m Z C *» m Z B , since if two sides of a triangle are congruent, the A Q = D F (s). (The proof does desired in either direction.
angles opposite them are congruent. T h e Given D ata, however, states th a t n o t depend on w hether Q falls
m Z C > m Z B . H ence, accepting the possibility th at A B .= AC led to the in the interior or exterior of
logical inconsistency of the truth of both m Z C > m Z B and m Z C > m Z B . A A B C .)
By the law of contradiction both cannot be true at the same time. Since
m Z C > m Z B m ust be true by virtue of the Given D ata, then m Z C > 4. L et A P be the bisector of ZQ AC. 4. W hy possible?
m Z B m ust be false, and so, therefore, is A B = AC false. 5. L et QP be the line through 5. W hy possible?
points P a n d Q.
Part 2
6. I b s M ( i ) 6. Given
■■■■■■■ L et us now accept the possibility that A B < AC. If this is
7. A A B Q Z S A D E F 7. S.A.S.
so, then m Z C < m Z B by Theorem 129. B ut the Given D ata states th a t
8. m & D F 8. See statem ent 3.
m Z C > m Z B . H ence, the possibility th a t A B < AC led again to the
logical inconsistency of the tru th of both m Z C > m Z B and m Z C > m Z B . 9. A C .z z D F 9. G iven
10. A § & A C (s) 10; Why?
568 INEQUALITIES INEQUALITIES 569
postulate it follows th a t A A B C £= A D E F . T herefore, BC = EF. However,
Figure 16-3. the Given D a ta states th a t B C > EF, Hence, accepting the possibility th at
m Z A = m Z D led to the logical inconsistency of the tru th of both BC > E F
and BC > EF. By the law of contradiction both cannot be tru e at the same
11. Z Q A P 3? ZC A P (a) U . W hy? time. Since BC > E F is tru e by virtue of the G iven D ata, th en BC > E F
12. A F ^ A ? ( s ) 12. Why? must be false and, therefore, so must m Z A = m Z D be false.
13. A A Q P ^ A A C P 13. S.
14 14. Why? Part 2
15. In A BPQ, B P + PQ > BQ 15. T h e shortest p a th betw een two ■■■■■■■ L et us now accept the possibility th a t m Z A < m Z D . If
points is the line segm ent jo in ­ this is so, and also A B S D E a n d AC = DF, then by T heorem 131 BC < EF.
ing the two points. Again, however, the G iven D a ta states th a t BC > EF. H ence, accepting
16. But BQ = EF 16. W hy? (See step 7.) the possibility th a t m Z A < m Z D led to the logical inconsistency of the
17. A nd PQ = PC 17. Why? (See step 14.) tru th of both BC > E F a n d B C > EF. By the law of contradiction both
18. .'. B P + P C > E F 18. Substitution postulate cannot be tru e at the sam e tim e. Since BC > E F is tru e by virtue of the
19. But, B P + PC=> BC 19. Def. of the sum of tw o segm ents Given D ata, then BC > E F m ust be false and, therefore, so m ust m Z A <
20. H ence, BC > E F 20. Sam e as 18
m Z D be false.
TH EO R EM 132: If two sides o f one trian gle are congruent resp ectively Hence, m Z A > m Z D m ust be true, for it is the only rem aining pos­
to two sides o f a second triangle but the third sid e o f the sibility.
first trian gle is greater than the third side o f the second
T h e last two theorem s to be proved on inequalities provides us w ith a
triangle, th en the an gle opposite the third sid e o f the
tool for com paring the m easures of chords of a circle. T h eir proof, however,
first trian gle is greater than the angle opposite the
is dependent upon a statem ent th a t we have not had.
third sid e of the second triangle.
THEOREM 133: If unequals are subtracted from equals, the differ­
G iven: A A BC and D E F with
A n __ __ ences w ill b e unequal in the reverse order.
A B S^D E
A C ^D F G iven: a = b
BC > EF c > d
C E C o n c l.: m Z A > m Z D C o n c l.: a — c < b — d

F igure 16-4.
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

PROOF 1. d < c 1. Given

2. b = a 2. Given
By the postulate on the existence and uniqueness of order
3. d — b < c — a 3. If equals are subtracted from u n ­
one of the following statem ents m ust be tru e a n d no other possibility exists:
equals, the differences will be u n ­
(1) m Z A > m ZD , (2) m Z A — m Z D , or (3) m Z A < m Z D equal in the same order. (Postulate
O rd e r (1) will be shown to be tru e by proving th at both order (2) and 37)
order (3) lead to contradictory statem ents. 4. a — c < b — d 4. If equals are add ed to unequals, the
sums will be u n e q u al In the same
Part 1 order. (Both a — c and b — d were
■■■■■■■I Let us accept the possibility th a t m Z A = m Z D , F rom the added to both sides of the inequality
G iven D ata A B ~ B E a n d A C S DF. H ence, by the S.A.S. congruence in step 3.)
570 INEQUALITIES INEQUALITIES 571
A simple num erical illustration of this theorem is 7. Z O D B and Z O E B are 7. Def. of perpendicular lines
10 = 10 right angles.
7 > 2 8. m /.O D B = tn Z O E B 8. Why?
H ence 10 — 7 < 10 — 2 9. tn Z O E D < m Z O D E 9. If unequals (m Z 2 and m Z l ) are
or 3 < 8 subtracted from equals (m Z O D B
W hereas 7 was greater than 2 with the greater quantity, 7, appearing on the and m Z O E E ), the differences will
left, after subtracting each of them from 10 and 10, the differences were be unequal in the reverse order.
such th at the sm aller quantity, 3, now appears on the left. Thus, 10. OD < O E 10. Converse of reason 6
' 3 < 8
T H E O R E M 135: If two ch o rd s of a c irc le a re u n e q u a l, th e n th e c h o rd
T H E O R E M 134: If tw o ch o rd s of a circle a re u n e q u a l, th e n th e g re a te r
th a t is th e g re a te r d istan c e from th e c en ter is th e sm aller
c h o rd is th e sm aller distan ce from th e c en ter.
chord.

«-v
G iven: OD L A B in O O
OE L BC G iv e n : O E L A B
A B > BC
OF L C D
Concl. OD < O E
O E < OF
Concl.: A B > CD

A n a l y s is : A lthough the chords do not have to have a n endpoint in com ­

m on, for sim plicity of proof they were draw n in th a t m anner. In addition,
this theorem will hold w hether the chords ap p ea r in the same circle, as
above, o r in congruent circles. PROOF
By the postulate on the existence and uniqueness of order
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS one of the following statem ents m ust be true and no other possibility exists:
4—¥ (1) A B > CD (2) A B = CD (3) A B < CD
1. Let D E be the line through 1. W hy possible?
O rd e r (1) will be shown to be true by proving that both order (2) and
points D and E.
order (3) lead to contradictory statem ents.
2. OD L A B , O E ± BC 2. Given
Part 1
3. OD bisects A B \ 3. A radius perpendicular to a chord
Let us accept the possibility that A B — CD. From the
<-> _ bisects the chord.
O E bisects BU. theorem th a t congruent chords of a circle are equidistant from the center
4. But A B > BC 4. Given of the circle, it follows th at O E = OF. However, the Given D ata states
th a t O E < OF. Hence, accepting the possibility that A B = CD .led to the
5. D B > BE 5. If unequals are divided by equals,
logical inconsistency of the tru th ol both O E = OF and OE ?±.OF. By the
the quotients will be unequal in the
law of contradiction, both can not be true a t the same time. Since OE < OF
same order.
by virtue of the C-iven D ata, then OE = OF must be false and, therefore,
6. tn Z 2 > tn Z l 6. If two sides of a triangle are u n ­ so m ust A B — CD be false.
equal, the angles opposite them are
unequal, and the angle opposite the Part 2
greater side is the greater angle. (The proof of this p art is left for you to do.)
 INEQUALITIES 573
572 INEQUALITIES

Illustration: 3 . G iven: A A BC is isosceles G iven: A A B C is isosceles 4.

w ith A B — AC. w ith A B = AC.

BA extended to D CD draw n w ithin

C o n cl.: BD > DC /A C B
G iven: A A B C is equilateral. Concl.: DC > D B
C oncl.: BD > AD D
A

A n a l y s is : T o sh o w th a t B D > AD , i t is n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v e t h a t /.D A B >

/B .

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

1. A A B C is equilateral. 1. Given
2. m / C A B = m / B 2. An equilateral triangle is equiangu­ 5. G iven: A A B C is isosceles G iven: A B i . B D 6 <

lar. (See Problem 20, page 152.) with A B = AC. C oncl.: AD > AC (H in t:
3. m / D A B > m / C A B 3. T he whole is greater th an any of its Prove th a t / \ is
parts. A B extended to D
obtuse.)
4. tn / D A B > m / B 4. Substitution postulate Concl.: tn / A C D > tn / D
5. B D > AD 5. If two angles of a triangle are u n ­
equal, the sides opposite them are
unequal, and the side opposite the
greater angle is the g reater side.

EXERCISES

"7, G iven: A B J l CD G iven: AC > A B 8«

1. Given : A A C B is a right tri­ G iven: / A B C is an obtuse 2. BD > BC BD bisects /A B C .
angle w ith / A C B the angle. Concl.;. AD > AC (H in t:
right angle. Concl.: A C > A B CD bisects / A C B .
Construct B E S BC)
C oncl.: A B > AC A C > CB C oncl.: D C > D R
A B > BC
574 INEQUALITIES 575
INEQUALITIES
9. G iven: A ABC is isosceles G iven: A A BC is isosceles 10. 15. G iven:
<—^
AO intersects 0 0 G iven: Point P is any point 16.
w ith A B ~ AC. w ith A B ^ ~AC. in th e interior of the
a t B.
m Z l > m Z2 D C > BD Concl.: AC > AB (H int: triangle.
Concl.: BD > DC C onci.: 77i Z D AC > Use Postulate 19.) C o n cl.: at 4- y + z >
77i Z D A B + b -f- c) (H int:
Use Postulate 19.)

17. Given: A A P C is isosceles 18.

12.
G iven: A A B C is isosceles
11. G iven: A M is m edian to BC. Given: M is the m idpoint
w ith A B S AC. w ith A B S AC.
AC > A B of ~BC. ^—► 4—^
B P intersects AC extended to D
Concl.: m Z A M C > i?Z>s UE
C oncl.: B D > CD (H int:
771 Z A M B D M > EM A c at R. Prove m Z l > 77i ZZ.)
C oncl.: A C > A B C o n cl.: P B > PC

19. G iven: © 0 with m Z 2 > m G iv e n : M is jhe m idpoint 20/

Zl of BC in 0 0 .

13. G iven: ABCD is a p a ral­ G iven: D B = E C 14. C o n c l.: 77i DC > m OA J . D E

lelogram. DC > B E C oncl.: D E > B C
77i Z B A D > C oncl.: A C > A B
771 Z 4 Z > C

C o n cl.: B D >
 577
576 INEQUALITIES TEST AND REVIEW
6.* A point is in the interior of a circle b u t not a t the center. T h e smallest
21. G iven: O 0 Given: G O with AC > A D 22 . chord th a t can be d raw n through this point is the one th a t is perp en ­
C o n cl.: m / P C S > tn / P B C Concl.: m /.D A B > m / C A B dicular to the radius through the point, (H in t: Use P ostulate 32.)
(H im : D raw OC.) (H int: Mo other lines
are needed.) J | Test and Review

Prove each of the follow ing:

41. Given: A B and CD intersect G iven: AC > A B 2.

D is any point of BC.
a t E.
Concl.: A B + CD > AD + CB C oncl.: A C > A D
23. If light, being reflected from Given: PQ J . plane a 24. (H in t: See P roblem 1,
th e m irror surface BC, travels R Q > QS page 576.)
from point A to po in t D , it C oncl.: P R > P S (H int:
will take the p a th APD. Show Use sam e m ethod
th a t this p a th is shorter th a n as in problem 7.)
any other p ath , such as AQD.

3. G iven: D C > A B |
G iven: O O w ith CD > E F 4.
B D bisects / A B C . AU&US

C oncl.: D C > D A (H in t: Prove OA J . E F

3 tn / \ > m / 2 . ) O B I CD
1. T h e sum of; two sides vf a triangle is greater th an the third sid e .t C oncl.: m /A C O > m /B C O
2. If a triangle is n o t isosceles, then a m edian to any side is g reater th an the
a ltitu d e to th a t side.
3. (a ) H ow w ould you express Problem 19 in G roup A in the form of the
statem ent of a theorem ?
(b ) W rite the converse of your answer to Problem 3(a) and prove it.
4. U sing th e inform ation in Problem 3(b), prove th a t if two m inor arcs of a
circle are unequal, then the chord corresponding to the larger arc is
g re ater th an the chord corresponding to th e sm aller arc.
5. W rite th e converse of Problem 4 an d prove it.
t T h is p ro b le m often ap p e a rs as a th e o rem .
 578 579
INEQUALITIES TRY THIS FOR FUN
5. G iven: ABCD is a rhom bus. G iven: A BCD is a paral- 6. O u r first reaction is shocked surprise: of course it is possible to do these
BC > AC lelograro. things! W hy should m athem aticians have been puzzled over these construc­
C o rel.: m Z D AD > m Z A D C tions for so long a time? Thus, in answer to problem (3) all we need do is
m /.B A D > rr. /C 'B A
m easure the angle with a protractor, then but divide th at n um ber by 3 and,
Concl.: B E > A E
lo, we have an angle one-third the measure of the original angle! But hold,
we have been too hasty and failed to listen to the statem ent of the com plete
problem . N ot only must these figures be constructed but our freedom of
m ovem ent has been severely restricted : these constructions m ust be done
w ith the aid of only two instrum ents, the straightedge (no m arkings on the
straightedge, please!) and the compass.
M athem aticians have proved by m eans beyond our present depth of
the subject that these constructions are impossible w ith the restrictions
placed upon them . Has this deterred the w ould-be angle trisectors from bus­
ily plying th e ir trade? By all m eans, no! For year after year newspapers in
B various p arts of the nation rep o rt the am azing success achieved by local
J o e Spivis, the child prodigy,- who has trisected the angle, succeeding w here
Prove each of the following statem ents:
m athem aticians for centuries have failed!
1. T h e sum of the diagonals of a q u ad rilateral is less th a n the sum of th e L et us take a look a t one of these constructions.
sides.
2. If a triangle is not isosceles, then the angle bisector of any angle of the
triangle is greater than the altitude from that vertex.
3. If two oblique lines a n d a perpendicular are draw n to a plane from an
external point, the g reater oblique line will intersect the plane a t a
greater distance from th e foot of the perpendicular th a n th e sm aller
oblique line. (H int: Use the indirect proof and apply Problem 24,
page 576.)

/ A B C i s the given angle. A t B construct D B JL BC; a t A construct A E X BC;

■ Try This For Fun
a t A construct A H II BC. Hold the ruler at B and move it in a w ay such th a t
For m any, m any hundreds of years m athem aticians and F H — 2 A B , then draw BH.
pseudom athem aticians have tried to solve three construction problem s th a t
(1) C a n you prove th a t m / H B C = \m /A B C ?
have com e to b e know n as th e “ T h ree Fam ous Problem s of A ntiquity.”
T h ey are (2) W here in the construction did we cheat and not use the instrum ents
to w hich w e w ere restricted?
(1) T h e squaring of a circle.
(2) T h e duplication of a cube.
(3) T h e trisection of an angle.
Specifically, these are the problem s:
(1) Is it possible to construct a square whose area will be the same as
th e a re a of a given circle?
(2) Is it possible to construct a cube whose volume is twice the volume
of a given cube?
(3) Is it possible to construct an angle whose measure is one-third the
m easure of a given angle?

Areas of Polygons
and Circles
M E A S U R E M E N T , E X C E P T F O R V ERY FE W S IT -
uations, is the process of com paring the object whose size we would like to
know to a n object_whose size w e do know. T h e object whose size is known
is called standard unit, j i t is determ ined, usually, by some governm ental
decree orppo5stbfyr5y"a m athem atical definition. In any event, its size is
fixed a n d th e m easurem ent of o th er sim ilar objects consists in determ ining
how m an y stan d ard units are contained in the object being measured.
T hus, th e m easure of a line segm ent is a num ber th at shows a com ­
parison betw een this line segm ent a n d th e sta n d ard u n it called, perhaps, th e
inch, th e yard, tl)f ceritimgter, o r any one of m any others. T he statem ent
T hat the length of a line segm ent is 15 feet implies that the m easure of this
segm ent is 15 tim es the m easure of th e sta n d ard un it called th e foot. T h e
im p o rta n t feature, however, is th e fact th a t both the object and the sta n d ard
u n it are creatures of the sam e classifications; they are both line segments.
N ow , le t us tu rn to th e subject m a tte r o f this chapter. O u r first objective
is to determ ine a m ethod for assigning a n um ber to the region enclosed by
such curves or polygons as those below. Since the w ord “ re g ao ^w H l ap p ear
several tim es in this chapter, w e should reach som eam derstanding as to its
m eaning. A lthough we can a n d will define ,a triangular region, ^defining the
regions such as in Figures 17-1 and 17-2 w tid d involve ~GT in m ore diffi-
AREAS OF POLYGONS AND CIRCLES 581
culty than is w arranted by the im portance of this w ord. W e will accept an
intuitive understanding of the general term “ region” based on th e definition
of a triangular region.
D e f in it io n 97: A t r i a n g u l a r r e g i o n is t h e u n i o n o f t h e s e ts o f p o i n t s c o n s i s t ­
in g o f t h e t r i a n g l e a n d i t s i n t e r i o r .
In the illustration given earlier concerning the length o f a line segm ent
the standard u n it belonged to the same classification, a line segm ent, as
the object being m easured. But to determ ine a unit of m easure for the crea­
tures above seems as though it would be an impossible task, for they o b ­
viously belong to different categories. It is not the objects themselves, how ­
ever, for which we are seeking a standard of m easure, but ra th e r the region
bounded by these creatures! Hence, any object th a t itself bounds p a rt of
the plane m ight act as our standard of m easure. Several of these are pic­
tured in Figure 17-4.
Figure 17-4.
T hus, the second o f these m ight be called the tria n g u la r u n it; th e
fourth, the circular unit; the fifth, the hexagonal unit. And to say th a t the
size of the region bounded by the curve in Figure 17-1 is 9 tria n g u lar units,
would, as before, im ply
(1) th a t the size of the region enclosed by the curve is 9 tim es as great
as the region enclosed by the sides of the triangle or
(2) th a t the triangle can be m ade to fit exactly 9 tim es into the region
enclosed by the curve. A>C > ’f ' i,J C
Sim ilar comparisons could be m ade were we to use any of the rem aining
four units. As you well know from other courses in m athem atics, the square
unit was selected to be the standard for m easuring the size of th e region
bounded by closed curves or polygons.
D 98; T h e area of the region enclosed by a curve or polygon is
e f in it io n ,
the num ber of square units contained w ithin this region.
582 AREAS OF POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES 583
AREAS OF POLYGONS AN D CIRCLES
P o stulate 42: If the intersection of two polygons is a line, then the. area
(2) th a t the region enclosed by the rectangle is 24 times as large as the
of the region bounded by these polygons is the sum of the areas of the
two polygons. region enclosed by 1 square inch.

I t is im portant th at wc realize th at just as the m easure of a line segm ent

was a num ber, and the m easure of an angle was a num ber, so too is ihs area
of a region simply a number. It is the num ber assigned to th a t region in term s
of the n um ber of square units th a t are contained in the region. As you recall,
the m easure of a line segm ent was the num ber assigned to th at line segm ent
by the coordinate of one of its endpoints w hen th e other endpoint w as th e
zero value on the num ber line.
T o simplify the way of expressing ourselves, we shall henceforth speak
of finding the “ area of a triangle” or the “ area of a rectangle” ra th e r th an
the “ area of a triangular region” or the “ area of a rectangular region” as
we should.
As has been the case over and over again in the developm ent of each
segm ent of this course, it has been necessary to assume certain properties
a bout some of the sim pler figures. H aving m ade these assumptions, we w ere
th en in a position to prove m ore complex properties about m ore complex
figures. So, too, is our present problem . O f the m any polygons whose area
w e m ay have to investigate, the simplest of these is the rectangle.
O bservation indicates th at the num ber of square units in the rectangle
c an b e found by counting th e num ber in th e first row and th en m ultiplying
this n um ber by the num bst-ef-w ass. Thus, we would say th a t the area of
this rectangle is 24^(square in ch e sy o r th a t the area of this rectangle is
V ■X.
8 inches
Figure 17-5.
24 times the area of 1 square inch. This same num ber, however, could have
been obtained by finding the product of the m easure of its base, 2?C, with
th a t of its altitude, ZX?. H ence, we seem to be on fairly safe ground if w e
assume th a t
P ostu la te 43; T h e area of a rectangle is equal to the product of th e m eas­
ures of its base and altitude.
I t is im p o rtan t to realize th a t it is not 8 inches th a t is being m ultiplied
by 3 inches, but simply 8 by 3. T his product, 24, being the area, implies either
(1) th a t th ere are 24 square inches in the region enclosed by the rec­
tangle or
EXERCISES
1. Find the area of a rectangle whose base is 10 yards 1 foot a n d whose
altitude is 6 yards.
2. T h e floor of a rectangular living room was scraped and finished a t
15 cents per square foot. T he dimensions of the room are 18 feet by
12 feet 4 inches. W hat was the total cost of this work?
3. T h e dimensions of an asphalt tile are 9 inches by 9 inches. T h e tile
selected to be laid on the floor of a rectangular/deft costs 9 cents per tile.
Assuming no waste, w hat was the cost of the tiles for this room whose
dimensions were 17'3’' by 12'6"?
4. If each square below is considered as a square unit, determ ine the
5. If each side of a square is a linear units in length, w rite a form ula ex­
pressing the area of a square in term s of a.
6. (a) T h e dimensions of a rectangle are 32 inches by 2 inches. W h a t is
the length of the side of a square whose area is equal to th a t of this
rectangle?
(b ) If the dimensions of the rectangle h a d been 8b by 2b, w hat w ould
the length of the side of the square have been?
7. (a) T h e area of a rectangle is 216 square feet. W hat is the base of the
rectangle if its altitude is 18 feet?
(b ) If the area of the rectangle was 1 2 square units, w hat w ould the
altitude be if the base was 3a linear units?
8. F ind the area of the rectangle whose diagonal is 39 inches a n d whose
base is 36 inches.
9. Find the area of the square whose diagonal is 6 inches.
4 10. A rectangle is inscribed within a circle having a diam eter of 26 inches.
W hat is the area of the rectangle if its altitude is 10 inches?
11. (a) T he bases of two rectangles are each 15 inches. If the a ltitu d e of
the first is 7 inches while that of the second is 10 inches, w h at is the
ratio of the areas of these rectangles?
584 AREAS OF POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM, TRIANGLE, TRAPEZOID 585
(b ) T h e bases of two rectangles are each a linear units. If the altitu d e th a t any side of a rectangle can be considered as its base, w hile one of its
of the first is b lin ' i r units while th a t of the second is c linear units, ad jacen t sides is the altitude.
w h at is the ratio of the areas of these rectangles? Sim ilar considerations are m ade when we exam ine the areas of the
(c) M ake up a scatement showing w hat you have proved in p a rt (b) of parallelogram , the triangle, and the trapezoid. If in the parallelogram
this problem . (Figure 17-8) A B is referred to as the base, then EF, the comm on perpendic­
12. U sing the m ethod presented in Problem 11(b), prove th a t if the alti­ u lar segm ent to A B and DC, is its corresponding altitude. If on the other
tudes of tw o rectangles are congruent, th en the ratio of th eir areas is h a n d B C is the base, then Cttf m ust be considered as the altitude of the par-
—• • .i • i _ t xi. _
equal to the ratio of the m easures of their bases. allelogram . In the same way,
13. T h e a rea of a square inscribed in a circle is 64 square inches. W h at is
th e radius of the circle?
14. T h e m easure of the side of one square is three times the m easure of the
side of a second square. W hat is the ratio of their areas? D
o tr y L
15. If the m easure of the diagonal of a square is a, w hat is the area of the
square in term s of a?

I
■ Area of the Parallelogram, the Triangle, and the Trapezoid
T here are only three special polygons, other th an the F ig u re 17-8. F ig u re 17-9.
rectangle, whose areas are considered im p o rtan t enough to investigate.
T hese polygons are the parallelogram , the triangle, and the trapezoid.
T h e area of any other polygon is found by draw ing lines so_as_to divide it
into a com bination of these four polygons.
Y ou m ay have noticed th a t When we expressed the area of a rectangle,
the statem ent was in terms of the “ base” and “ altitude” rather" than in
term s of the “ sides.” Norm ally we think of BU (see Figure 17-6) as being
F ig u re 17-10,
triangle can be considered as the base of the triangle. O nce the base has
been specified, then the a ltitu d e of the triangle is sim ply the a ltitu d e to th a t
side. T hus, if P R is called the base, the altitude of the triangle would be
Q T . If R S is the altitude of the triangle, w hat will the base be?
In a trapezoid, the bases, as before, are still the parallel sides, while
the a ltitu d e is the com m on perpendicular segm ent to the bases. In Figure
17-10 the bases are K J and GH, w hile L M is the altitude.
J u s t a w ord about the symbols th a t will be used. T h e statem ent th a t
the area of polygon ABCD is equal to the area of polygon X Y Z W T will be
abbreviated to read as, A BC D = X Y Z W T . I t is im p o rtan t to rem em ber
th a t this implies only that the areas of these two polygons are the same.
F i g u r e 17-6. F ig u r e 17-7. O ne further postulate still rem ains to be stated before it is possible to
continue.
the base, while either A B or D C is the altitude. H ad the rectangle been
ro tated 90° in a counterclockwise direction, as in Figure 17-7, the base P o st ul a te 4 4 : If two triangles are congruent, then their areas are equal.

w ould then appear to be A B and the altitude BC. Thus, the roles of the T H E O R E M 136: T h e a re a o f a p a ra lle lo g ra m is e q u a l to th e p ro d u c t
m easures of the segments w ould have been reversed. It is apparent, then, o f th e m easures of its base a n d c o rre sp o n d in g a ltitu d e
' (A - b k). — ...............................
586 AREAS OF POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM, TRIANGLE, TRAPEZOID 587
T H E O R E M 137: T h e a re a o f a tria n g le is e q u a l to o n e -h a lf th e p ro d u c t
of the m easures of its base a n d a ltitu d e (A = \b h ).
A D
Given: O A B C D w ith altitude A E
Concl.: Area CJABCD = A D -A E
G iven: A A B C w ith a ltitu d e A E to B C
C oncl.: A rea A A B C ~ j(B C -A E )
Figure 17-11.
B E C
T h e re is b u t one postulate a t our disposal upon w hich to base
A n a l y s is :
F i g u r e 17-12.
the proof of this theorem . This concerns itself w ith the area of a rectangle.
H ence, it is necessary to show th at some relationship exists between the PROOF (The reasons will be left for you to supply.)
area of a parallelogram and th a t of the rectangle. T his we will do by proving
th a t A BC D = AEFD. 1. L et A D be the line through 4 6. O A B C D = A A B C + A CD A
i—► 7. A A B C + A CDA = B C -A E
parallel to BC.
( proof STATEMENTS 8. B ut A A B C £* A C D A
REASONS
2. Let CD be the line through C 9. A A B C = A CDA
1. ABCD is a parallelogram . 1. Given 10. A A B C + A A B C = B C -A E
i—► parallel to A B .
2. Let D F be the line through D 2. W hy possible? or, A BC = B C -A E
3. A B C D is a parallelogram .
> 11. T hus, A A B C = j(B C -A E )
parallel to AE. 4. A E is an altitude to BC.
3. Extend BC until it intersects 5. CJABCD = BC X A E
3. W hy possible?
<—►
DF. T H E O R E M 138: T h e a re a o f a tra p e z o id is e q u a l to o n e -h a lf th e p ro d ­
uct of th e m easures of its a ltitu d e a n d th e sum o f th e
4. A E is an altitude. 4. Given
m easures o f its bases; A = \h ( b i + bi).
5. AEFD is a rectangle. 5. Reverse of def. of a rectangle
6. A E == D F (/) 6. O pposite sides of a parallelo­ G iven: T rapezoid A BC D 'w ith altitude
gram are congruent. A E to the bases A D and BC
1. A B ~BC (h) 7. Sam e as 6 C oncl.: A rea of trapezoid A BC D =
8. A A B E — A D C F 8. H.L. \A E {B C + AD)
9. .-. A A B E =. A DCF 9. If 2 triangles are congruent,
then their areas are equal. F i g u r e 17-13.
10. AECD = AECD 10. Reflexive property of equality
11. A A B E + AECD = PR O O F (The reasons will be left for you to supply.)
11. Addition postulate
AECD + A DCF 1. A E is an altitude to bases of 6. AECF is a parallelogram .
12. But 12. Postulate 42; see page 582. 7. A E = CF
trapezoid ABCD.
A A B E + AECD = O A B C D 4—► 8. A rea A C D A = \C F -A D
13. A ECD + A DCF = 2. Let AC be the line through
13. Sam e as 12 9. A rea A C D A = \A E - A D
rectangle AEFD points A a n d C.
<-> 10. Area A A BC — \A E - B C
14. O A B C D = rectangle AEFD 14. Substitution postulate 3. E xtend AD. 11. A A B C + A C D A =,
15. However, 15. Why? I A E - B C + { A E -A D
rectangle A EF D = A D -A E 4. Let CF be the line through
> 12. ABCD = A A B C + A CDA
16. A BC D = A D -A E 16. Substitution postulate C perpendicular to AF. 13. A BC D = | A E - B C + i A E -A D or
ABCD = \A E (B C -f AD)
5. A E j| CF
 588
AREAS OF POLYGONS AND CIRCLES AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM, TRIANGLE, TRAPEZOID 589
Illustration:
into two segments of 8 inches and 2 inches in length. F ind the area of
the triangle.
7. If a leg and the base of an isosceles triangle are 10 and 12 respectively,
G iven: A A B C with m edian A M find the area of the triangle.
Concl.: A rea A A M B = area A A M C
8. T he hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle is 8. Find the area of the
triangle.
9. Find the area of an equilateral triangle un d er each of the following
conditions:
PRO OF |' STATEMENTS (a) if a side is 6 inches. (b) if an altitude is 6 inches.
REASONS
•f—
> ^ 10. T h e length of the line segm ent from a point to the cen ter of a circle
1. L et A D be the line through 1. W hy possible? is 25. If the diam eter of this circle is 14, wha<v;s the area of the triangle
A perpendicular to BC. whose sides are this segm ent, the tangent segm ent from this point, and
2. A M is th e m edian to the radius to the point of contact of the tangent?
2. Given
11. T h e area of a rhom bus is 442 square feet. If one of the diagonals is
3. M is the m idpoint of BC.
3. Def. of a m edian 34 feet, w hat is the length of the other diagonal?
4. B M = M C
4. Def. of a m idpoint / 12. T w o sides of a triangle are 25 and 26, while the a ltitu d e to the th ird
5. A A M B = IB M -A D
5. T heorem on area of a triangle side is.24. Find the area of the triangle.
6. A A M B = iM C -A D
6. Substitution postulate 13. A triangle is inscribed in a circle such th a t one of its sides is a diam eter
7. A A M C iM C -A D
7. Sam e as 5 of the circle. If the radius of the circle is 30.5 inches a n d one of the
A A M B = A AMC
T ransitive
------- v property ui
of eequality
q u a l ity sides is 60 inches, find the area of the triangle.
T H E O R E M 139: I f tw o tria n g le s h a v e c o n g ru e n t bases a n d c o n g ru e n t ✓ 14. T w o adjacent sides of a parallelogram are 8 a n d 14 respectively. If th e
a ltitu d e s, th e n th e ir area s w ill b e equal. angle between them is 45°, w hat is the area of the parallelogram ?
> 15. T h e bases of a trapezoid are 8 and 11 respectively, while the a ltitu d e
T h e proof of this theorem is very m uch the same as th a t of is 6. Find the area of the trapezoid.
the illustration above. I t will b e left for you to do. 16. T h e area of a trapezoid is 42 square feet, w hile its u pper a n d low er bases
are 6 feet and 7 feet respectively. W hat is the length of the altitude of
EXERCISES the trapezoid?
17. T h e m edian of a trapezoid is 25, while the altitude is 8. F ind the a rea
of the trapezoid. (H int: See Problem 12(c), page 405.)
18. T h e area of a trapezoid is 480 square inches. If the a ltitu d e is 15 inches,
1. F in d the area of a triangle whose base is 42 inches and whose a ltitu d e w hat is the length of the m edian of the trapezoid?
is 17 inches.
19. T h e area of a trapezoid is 80 square feet. If the lower base is 11 feet
2. (a ) T h e legs of a rig h t triangle are 5 and 12 respectively. F in d the and the altitude is 8 feet, w hat is the length of the u p p e r base?
area of this right triangle. , 20. T h e upper and lower bases of an isosceles trapezoid are 10 a n d 16 respec­
(b ) F in d th e altitude to the hypotenuse of this right triangle. tively. If one of the lower base angles is 45°, w h at is the area of the
3. I f th e hypotenuse and one leg of a rig h t triangle are 52 and 48 respec­ trapezoid?
tively, find the area of the triangle. ' 21. T h e upper and lower bases of an isosceles trapezoid are 20 a n d 36 respec­
4. F in d th e a rea of a rhom bus whose diagonals are 16 and 20 respectively. tively. If one of the nonparallel sides is. 10, w hat is the area of th e
5. T h e a re a of a triangle is 195 square inches. I f the altitude is 15 inches, trapezoid?
w h a t is the length of the base? 22. T h e altitude of an isosceles tiapezcid is equal to 4, w hile one of the
6. T h e a ltitu d e to th e hypotenuse of a rig h t triangle divides the hypotenuse congruent sides is 5. If the area of the trapezoid is 14, find the lengths
of the upper and lower bases.
 591
A R EA O F PA RA LLELO G RA M , TRIANGLE, TRAPEZOID
590 AREAS OF POLYGONS AN D CIRCLES
8 . G iven: ABCD is a p aral­ G iven: A D X BC 9.
lelogram. B E 1 AC
B
C oncl.: B C -A D =
A F X BC
A C -B E
1. G iven: ABCD is a paral­ Giver. •. A BCD is a trapezoid «-> *-*
A E X CD
lelogram .
w ith AD II BC. C oncl.: B C - A F -
C o n c l: A A B C = A DBC
Concl.: A A B C = A D B C C D -A E
A -------------------- - 0

10. G iven: PQ RS is a O -
G iven: 0 1 inscribed w ithin 11.
3 . G iven: A BCD is a p aral­ G iven: E is any point on AABC
M is the m idpoint
lelogram . m edian AD. C oncl.: A A B C *=
C oncl.: A A B E = A AED C oncl.: A E B D - A E D C o ffS .
%r{AB + AC + BC)
A, R M meets QP a t *4.
C oncl.: A AQ R = O P Q R S
(H int: Prove
A A P M S A R SM
a n d use addition
postulate.)

5. Using the sam e Given D ata as in Problem 4, prove th a t A A B E =

A AEC. (H int: Use the information proved in Problem 4.)

6. G iven: M edian AD of G iven: B E is the m edian to AC. 7 .

A A B C was extended SZ) is the m edian to AS.
to point E. Concl.: A D B C = A E BC
Concl.: A A B E = A A C E (H in t: See Theorem 12. G iven: P m idpt. of BD
G iven: A C X B D 13.
■7 CZ C o n c l.: A BC D = $ A C -B D
Concl.: ABCP = ADCP
592 AREAS OF POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES
A^EAi OF PARALLELOGRAM, TRIANGLL, TRAPEZOID 593
14. G iv e n : A BCD is a p a r a l­
G iven: B E is the m edian to AC. 15.
lelo g ram . CD is the m edian to A B . 'S O . i G iv e n : A ABC w ith m e d i­ G iven: A B C D is a p a ra l­ 21.
M is the m idpoint C oncl.: ans AM , BN , an d UP lelogram .
of AD. (1) A B D F = A C E F intersectin g a t G.
CE intersects D A
•V is the m idpoint (See Problem 7.)
GF 1 BC a t F.
of HU. (2 ) A A B E = A ACD
C oncl.:
C o n c l.: B N D M = \A B C D A H 1. BC
A. (1) A D E C = \O A B C D
C oncl.:
A ... M 0 (2) A A D E = A F E B
(1) A H = 3GF (H in t: See
Problems 19 a n d 20,
page 392.)
(2) A G B C = \ A A B C

16. G iv e n : A BCD is a trap ezo id G iven: ABCD is a trapezoid 17.

w ith A D li BC. w ith AD II BC.
BC = IA D M is the m idpoint
C o n c l.: A D BC — 3ABD A
of S C
C oncl.: A M D A - f A M C B
= AM AB
(H int: Prove
A MDA + A M CB
= \A B C D .) 1. If two. parallelogram s have congruent bases, the ratio of th eir areas is
equal to the ratio of the measures of their altitudes, f
2. If two parallelogram s have congruent altitudes, th e ratio of th eir areas
is equal to the ratio of the measures of their bases.f
3. (a) M ake up two statem ents sim ilar to those in Problem s 1 a n d 2 th a t
refer to triangles ra th e r than parallelogram s.
(b ) Prove the statem ents th a t you w rote as your answ er to p a rt (a).
18. G iv e n : AD bisects ZBAC. G iven: D m idpt. of A B 19. J 4. T he area of a rhom bus is equal to one-half the pro d u ct of the m easures
C o n c l.: A A B D -.A A C D = of its diagonals.
E m idpt. of A U
A B ’.A C 5. If a line passes through the m idpoint of a diagonal of a parallelogram ,
C oncl.: A F B C .= AD FE
•it will divide the parallelogram into two equal q uadrilaterals.
6. T he diagonals of a parallelogram will divide the p arallelogram into
four equal triangles.
7. * If two polygons are congruent, then their areas are equal, f
8. * If the three m edians of a triangle are draw n to their po in t of concur­
rency, then ihe triangle will be divided into th ree Squal triangles.
(H int: See Problem 20 in G roup B.)

t T h is statem en t o ften ap p e ars as a theorem .

 594
AREAS OF, POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES
AREAS O e SIMILAR TRIANGLES 595
Areas of Similar Triangles It is interesting to note th a t had we replaced j by ra th e r th an vice
T h e areas of sim ilar triangles bear a special relation to versa, step 13 would have been
each other th a t is im portant enough in m athem atics to be worthy of our
attention. A com parison can be m ade of the areas of two sim ilar triangles— AAjBiCi _ hi ' hi
or two sim ilar polygons, in fact—w ithout the necessity of having to find AAzBsCz hi h2
these areas. T h e next theorem will give us this tool. A A \B \C \ _
✓ T H E O R E M 140: T h e ra tio of th e a reas of tw o sim ilar tria n g le s is e q u a l or A A iB tC i ~ V
to th e ra tio o f th e sq u a res o f th e m easures of a n y tw o H ence, it appears that we have also proved th a t
c o rre sp o n d in g sides.
T H E O R E M 141: T h e ra tio o f th e areas o f tw o sim ila r tria n g le s is e q u a l
to th e ra tio o f th e sq u a res o f th e m easu res of a n y tw o
c o rre sp o n d in g a ltitu d e s.
Given: A A ,B ,C , ~ A A 2B2C2
These two theorems pave the way for the proofs of several theorem s in
C o n cl.
A A iB jC i space geom etry. As usual, however, term s will have to be defined before
&AzB%C% we cari proceed.

REASONS
1 • Let h be the perpendicular
1. W hy possible?
from A\ to 3,.
2. Let be the perpendicular 2. W hy possible?
from Az to a2.
3- A A iB tC i = \a\hi
4. A A iB t Ci 3. T heorem on the area of a triangle
= \aihi 4. Same as 3
5. A_AiB,C, \ a xhi _ a ht
5. Division postulate
\ aih2 as ' /,2
6. But A ^ S , C , ~ 6. Given
7. . £i Ci D 99: A pyram idal surface is a surface th a t is generated by a line
e f in it io n
Q% Ci 7. Def. of sim ilar polygons th a t moves so as to always pass through a given point a n d always in te r­
8- Z52 sect a given polygon w here the given point is not in the plane of the
8. Sam e as 7
9. Z A XD XB-, ^ / A iD iB t 9. Why? polygon.
A A iB iD i ~ A A tB iD i In the figure above, the fixed point, P, is called th e vertex,, while the
10. A.A. theorem on sim ilarity
given polygon is ABCDE. Any one of the m any positions th-at'the m oving
11. Sam e as 7 line m ay assume is called an element of the surface. N otice th a t the surface
extends above point P as well as below. E ach of these two sections is called
12. W hy? (See steps U a n d 7.) a nappe of the surface.
T o define the term th a t we are seeking will require the need for another
13. Substitution postulate (See step 5.) and final undefined term.

S o lid
A A2B2C2
M O W ! R ather th an attem p t to describe, the term solif!, we will
assume th at all of us have a comm on u n derstanding of it. ■
 596 AREAS OF PO LYG O NS A N D CIRCLES AREAS O F-SIM ILAR TRIANGLES 597

p REASONS
PROOF ! STATEMENTS

1. Plane D EF II plane ABC 1. Given

<r-¥ <->
2. I f a p la n e in te rsects tw o p a r a lle l
2. E F II BC
planes, th e lin es o f in te rse ctio n are
p a ra lle l. ( T h e o re m 43, p a g e 281)

Z P E F = ZP B C 3. C orresponding angles of parallel lines

Z.PFE ^ ZP C B 4. Same as 3
A P E F ~ A PBC 5. A.A. theorem on sim ilarity
H ence, EF: BC = PE'.PB 6. D ef. o f s im ila r p o ly g o n s
F ig u re 17-17.
In the sam e m an n e r, b y p r o v in g A P D E ~ A P A B it w ill fo llo w th a t

D e f in it io n 100: A p y r a m i d is a s o l i d b o u n d e d b y o n e n a p p e o f a p y r a m i d a l 7. D E '.A B = P E '.PB 7. S a m e as 6

s u r f a c e a n d a p l a n e t h a t i n t e r s e c t s e v e r y e l e m e n t o f th i s s u r f a c e b u t 8. EF'.BC -■ D E '.A B 8. T ransitive .property of equality
d o e s n o t c o n ta in th e v e rte x o f th e s u rfa c e . Again, in ihe same m an n e r it can be shown th a t
D e f in it io n 101: T h e base of a pyram id is tHe polygon form ed as th e in te r­ E F'.BC = D E '.A B = D F'.AC
section of the plane w ith th e pyram idal surface. 9. H en ce, A A B C ~ A D E F | 9. S.S.S. th e o rem on s im ila r ity
D e f i n i t i o n 102: T h e altitu d e of a pyram id is the perpendicular segm ent
th a t exists from the vertex to th e p lan e of th e base of th e pyram id. T H E O R E M 143: If a p la n e isp a ra lle l to th e base of a tr ia n g u la r p y r a ­
D e f i n i t i o n 103: A triangularjpyram id is a pyram id whose base is a triangle. m id , th e n th e ra tio of th e a re a of th e tr ia n g le o f i n t e r ­
section to th e a re a o f th e base is e q u a l to t h e r a tio o f th e
sq u a re of th e d istan c e of th e p la n e fro m th e v e rte x to
I t w ould seem as if we h a d gone to extraordinarily g reat lengths m erely
th e sq u a re of th e m easure of th e a ltitu d e .
to build the background for one or two sim ple theorem s. U nfortunately,
as is the case in any area of the sciences, we can not speak intelligently unless
w e lea rn the language!

T H E O R E M 142: If a p la n e is p a ra lle l to th e base o f a tria n g u la r p y r a ­

Given: Plane D E F II p lan e A BC
m id a n d in tersects its p y ra m id a l surface, b u t n o t th e
vertex , th e n th e in te rse ctio n w ill b e a tria n g le sim ila r P R X plane A B C
to th e base.
ADEF (P Q )1
C Concl
AABC (P R y

G iv e n : Plane D E F II plane A BC
Concl.: A A B C ~ A D E F
PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS |

1. Plane D EF 11 plane ABC 1. Given

B 2. PR J- plane ABC 2. Given
Figure 17-18. 3. If a line is p erpendicular to one of
3. P R 1 plane D EF
two parallel planes, it is perpendicu-
 598AREAS:OF PO LYG O NS A N D CIRCLES
AREAS OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES 599
p

S o l u t io n : — = (T heorem 140)
Ai a%
= <>? = 6 X 6 = 2 X 2 = 4
45 92 9X 9 3X 3 9
F ig u re 17-19, A i = 20

Illustration 2:
A tria n g u lar pyram id w ith an altitude of 20 inches has a base of 144
square inches. How far from the vertex m ust a plane be passed such th a t
th e area of the triangle of intersection will be 81 square inches?
| u la r to th e other also. (T heorem 46,
j page 284) S o l u t io n : • 4* = 3 (T h eo rem 143)
Ai U2
4. DQ || A R
4. If a plane intersects two parallel
i ! = A
planes, the lines of intersection are 144 202
parallel.
5. Z P Q D S* Z P R A and * 202 X 81
5. W hy?
Z P D Q S Z A 4/J * - 144
6. A W ) Q ~ A / M A d\ — 15 inches
6. A A . theorem on sim ilarity
. PQ PD
1' T r = 7 a 7. Def. of sim ilar polygons

8. D E II A B
8. Sam e as 4 EXERCISES
9. ZJPDE ~ Z P A B 9. W hy?
and A P E D S
10. A P D £ ~ A P A B
10. Sam e as 6
11.
DE PD LA]
A 3 = A4 11. W hy?
1. W h at is the ratio of the areas of two sim ilar triangles if two correspond­
12. D E _ PQ ing sides are respectively
A B ~ PR 12. T ransitive pro p erty of equality
(a) 5 inches and 4 inches (b ) 2 inches and 6 inches
13. B ut A D E F ~ A A B C 13. T heorem 142 (c) 10 feet and 20 feet (d ) 6 feet and 8 feet
14.
■ ADEF (D E )1
" A /4 f iC ~ 04B )1 14. T h e ratios of the areas of tw o sim ­ 2. W h at is the ratio of two corresponding sides of two sim ilar triangles if
ilar triangles is equal to th e ra tio of their area's are respectively
the squares of the m easures of any (a) 1 and 4 (b ) 4 and 36
two corresponding sides.
,is5. H
H ence,
ence A A B Q ^ W
{pR )i 3. A plane is passed parallel to the base of a triangular pyram id. If the
15. Substitution postulate
distance from the vertex of the p yram id to the plane and the altitu d e
Illustration 1; of the pyram id are given by the figures below, w hat is the ratio of the
area of the triangle of intersection to the area of the base?
T w o corresponding sides of two sim ilar triangles are ' 6 inches a n d
(a) 14 feet and 35 feet (b) 72 inches a n d 96 inches
8 inches respectively. If the area of the second triangle is 45 square inches,
w h at is the area of the first triangle? 4. A plane is passed parallel to the base of a triangular pyram id. If th e
area of the triangle of intersection a n d the area of the base are given
600 AREAS OF POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES
AREAS OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES 601
by the figures below, how does the distance from the vertex to the
ratio of the squares of the m easures of any pair of corresponding angle
p lane com pare w ith the a ltitu d e of the pyramid?
bisectors.
(a) 108 and 147 (b) 14 and 50
3. If two triangles are sim ilar, then the ratio of their areas is equal to the
5. T w o triangles are similar. If a side of one is four times a corresponding ratio of the squares of the m easures of any pair of corresponding m edians.
side of the other, w hat is the ratio of their areas? 4. Construct a triangle whose area is equal to one-sixteenth the area of a
6. T w o triangles are sim ilar. If the area of one is four tim es the area of given triangle by draw ing a line parallel to the base of the given tri­
th e other, w hat is the ratio of any two corresponding sides? angle.
7. If two corresponding altitudes of two sim ilar triangles are in the ratio 5. G iven: /LA is an angle of
of 3 :5 , w h at is the ratio of their areas? A -4 £ F a n d A A B C .
8. If the areas of two sim ilar triangles are in the ratio of 5 :9 , w hat is A F -A E
A A E F = _______
the ratio of any two corresponding altitudes? Concl.
A ABC A C -A B
9. T w o triangles are sim ilar. If the area of one is 16 times the area of the
(H int: D raw altitudes from
other, w hat is the ratio of any two corresponding altitudes?
E and B in each of the tri­
10. T h e angles of a triangle rem ain unchanged, but the sides of the triangle
angles.)
a re doubled. W hat happens to the area of the triangle?
11. T h e area of a triangle is 63 square inches, while one of its sides is 6. G iven: Points D, B, and C are collinear
3 inches. In a sim ilar triangle the side corresponding to the 3-inch side
„ , AABC B A -B C
is 5 inches. W hat is the area of the second triangle? C o n c l . ' --------------
ADBE B E -B D
12. T h e areas of two sim ilar triangles are 48 and 60 square inches respec­
(H int: D raw the altitudes
tively. If a side of the first is 8 inches, w hat is the length of the side
from C and D in each of the
corresponding to this in the second triangle?
triangles.)
13. A plane is passed parallel to the base of a triangular pyram id such
th a t the area of the bace is 9 times the area of the triangle of intersec­ 7. If the area of a triangle is one-half the product of the m easures of two
tion. How far from the vertex does the plane intersect the altitude? sides of the triangle, then the triangle is a right triangle. (H in t: Use
14. A plane is passed 4 feet from the vertex of a triangular pyram id whose the indirect m ethod of proof.)

@
altitude is 6 feet. If the area c f the base of the pyram id is 108 square If two triangular, pyram ids have equal bases and congruent altitudes,
feet, w h at is the arp'a of the triangular intersection? then sectiohsf m ade by planes parallel to the bases and equidistant
15. A plane is passed parallel to the base of a triangular p yram id to m ake from the vertices are equal.
a cross section whose area is 56 square inches. If the base a n d altitude
of the pyram id are 72 square inches and 12 inches respectively, w h at 9. G iven: Plane D E F II plane A B C
is the distance from the base to the plane? ADEF {V E )1
Concl.
16. * An altitude of one equilateral triangle is congruent to a side of another. AABC (V B Y
W h at is the ratio of the areas of these two triangles?

H
1. If a line joins the m idpoints of two sides of a triangle, it cuts off a tri­
angle whose area is one-fourth of the area of the original triangle.
2. If two triangles are sim ilar, then the ratio of their areas is equal to the
t A “ s ectio n " of a p la n e a n d a solid is th e in tersectio n o f th e tw o.
 602 AREAS OF. PO LYG O NS A N D CIRCLES
AREAS OF REGULAR POLYGONS 603
10. Given: Plane D E F II plane A B C
D ef in it io n \0 4 : A reg u lar polygon is a p o ly g o n t h a t is b o th e q u ila te ra l a n d
VP is any line through V in­
equiangular.
tersecting D E F a n d A BC in
In the illustration above we started with a circle and showed th a t there
P and Q respectively. existed a regular polygon th a t was inscribed w ithin a circle. T h e converse
A D E F _ (V P Y of this is also tru e; th a t is, a circle can be circumscribed about a regular p olygon.
C one!.:
A ABC (VQ)" Since we have no need for this statem ent, we d o not intend to prove it.
Let us retu rn to the regular polygon on page 602. Since all the triangles
were shown to be congruent, the altitudes from point 0 , such as OP and
0 3 , will be congruent. Each of these altitudes is called an apothem of this
polygon; the point from w hich they are draw n is the center of the regular
■ A re a s of R «guU f Polygons polygon. A radius, such as OA or O B , is said to be the radius of a regular polygon.
A nd the perimeter, of course, is the sum of the m easures of the sides of the
O u r study of th e areas of polygons has been lim ited to areas
of either 3-gons or special 4-gons. W hat can be said of the areas of other polygon.
polygons? In general, very little. If enough inform ation is known, the polygon T H E O R E M 144: T h e a re a of a re g u la r p o ly g o n is e q u a l to o n e rh a lf th e
can always be divided into triangles and the area of the polygon can be p ro d u c t o f th e m easu re o f th e a p o th e m a n d th e p e rim ­
found by com puting the sum of the areas of all the triangles. T h ere is, how­ ete r.
ever, a special class of polygons whose areas can be found m ore readily.
. C 8
Consider the circle below th a t has been divided into n con g ru en t arcs.

G iven: A B C D . . . is a reg u lar polygon.

a is the m easure of the apothem .
Concl.: A rea o f A B C D . . . = \ap

F ig u re 17-21.

PROOF I STATEMENTS REASONS

1. Let OA be the line through 1. W hy possible?

points 0 a n d A.

2. Sam e for 0 1 i, OC, . . . 2. Same as 1

3. A O A B = \a - A B 3. Area of a triangle
T o be as general as possible, we have stated the n um ber as n ra th e r th an AOBC = ■B C etc.
the 10 that you observe. Since the arcs are congruent, their corresponding 4. A O A B + A O B C + . . . = 4. Addition postulate
chords are congruent and, hence, th e polygon A B C D . . . is equilateral. By
\ a 'A B %a ' B C -j- . . .
draw ing in the radii the triangles can readily be proved to be congruent by
5. Area of ABCD . . . = 5. Why?
the 1W .1S'. congruency theorem , From this it would follow th a t Z l = Z 3 =
Z 5 = Z 7 , . . and, too, th a t Z 2 S Z4 = Z6 . . . . By th e a d d itio n postu­ A O A B + A O B C + • ■■
6. Area of ABC D . . . — 6. Substitution postulate
late Z A B C — Z B C D = Z C D E . . . ; hence, the polygon is, also, e q uiangu­
lar. Polygons such as these are called regular polygons. %a(AB + BC + . . .)
1. p = A B + B C + . . . 7. Definition of perim eter
8. Area of ABCD . . . = \<ip 8. Same as 6
 604 AREAS OF POLYGONS AND-CIRCLES'
AREAS OF REGULAR POLYGONS 605
Illustration:
5. T h e radius of a square is 3. W hat is the area of the square?
W h at is the area of z regular hexagon, one of whose sides is 8? 6. Find the area of an equilateral triangle if its radius is
M e t h o d : T h e perim eter can im m ediately be found as 48. Finding the (a) 8 (b) 12
apothem is a bit m ore involved. By draw ing the radii of the hexagon, w e (c) 7 (d) 2a
find th a t each central angle is 60°. Since UA = OB, each of the angles 7. Find the area of an equilateral triangle if its apothem is
(a) 6 (b) 24
(c) 5 (d ) a
8. A circle with a radius of 14 is inscribed w ithin an eq u ilateral triangle.
Find the area of the triangle.
9. A circle with a radius of 9 is inscribed within a regular hexagon.
W hat is the area of the hexagon?
10. A sqViare is inscribed in a circle of radius R. W h at is the area of the
square?
11. (a) A circle is inscribed w ithin one square a n d circum scribed about
another. If the radius of the circle is 6, w hat is the ratio of the area
of the larger square to th at of the sm aller square?
(b ) If the radius of the circle is la, w hat is the ratio of the areas of the
Figure 17-22. two squares?

O A B a n d O B A will also have to be 60°. Hence, A O A B is eq u ian g u lar 12. A circle is inscribed w ithin one regular hexagon a n d circum scribed
and, therefore, equilateral. Thus, OA = 8. T h e apothem OP bisects the about another. If the radius of the circle is 4, w hat is the ratio of the
base; therefore, A P = 4. Using the theorem of Pythagoras, a is found to be - - ^ r e a of the larger hexagon to that of the sm aller hexagon?
4 V 3 . Hence,
13. In the pyram id at the right, ABCD
area = \ap = ^•4V /3 '4 8 = 9 6 ^ 3 , is a regular polygon; in this case,
a square. T h e altitude VP passes
through the point of intersection of
EXERCISES
the diagonals. A pyram id such as
this is called a regular pyramid. VQ,
the altitude in face VCD, is called
the slant height. If BC = 8 and
1. T h e perim eter and apothem of a regular polygon a re 48 and 6 respec­ VQ = 12, w hat is the lateral surface
tively. W hat is the area of the polygon? a rea o f the pyram id? (T h e lateral
2. Find the area of a regular hexagon if the length of one of its sides is surface area will be the total surface
(a ) 10 (b ) 16 area excluding the_area, of.the ba^£.)
(c) 5 (d ) la 14. Refer to the pyram id above for each of the following problem s:
(a) BC = 6, VQ = 10. Find the total surface area.
3. If the radius of a regular hexagon is 12, w hat is the area of the hexagon?
(b ) BC = 12, VP — 8. Find the lateral surfacc area.
4. If the apothem of a regular hexagon is 7V ,3, w hat is the area of the
hexagon? (c) BC ~ 8, m /.P V Q = 45. Find the lateral surface area,
(d) BC = a, VQ = s. Find the total surfacr a re i.
| L e a v e answ ers in ra d ic a l form.

15. (a) T h e base of a regular pyram id is a regular hexagon, each of whose

 606 AREAS OF POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES
sides is 8. If the slant height of the pyram id is 10, w hat is the lateral
surface area of the pyram id?
(b) W hat is the total surface area of this pyram id?
16.* T he base of a regular pyram id is a regular hexagon, one of whose sides
is 6. If the altitude of the pyram id is 5, w hat is the laterai surface area
of the pyramid?
17.* T he base of a regular pyram id is an equilateral triangle, one of whose
sides is 12. If the altitude of the pyram id is 2, w h a t is the total surface
area of the pyram id?
A sequence of num bers representing the perim eters! These num bers can be
1. A radius of a regular polygon bisects the angle to w hich it is draw n.
2. T h e perpendicular bisector of a side of a regular hexagon passes through
the center of its circum scribed circle.
3. If two regular polygons have the sam e num ber of sides, then they are
similar.
4. If two regular polygons have the sam e num ber of sides, then the ratio
of the measures of their radii is equal to the ratio of the m easures of their
apothems.
5. A square and a regular hexagon are inscribed w ithin the sam e circle.
Prove: The ratio of the m easure of a side of the square to the m easure of
a side of the hexagon is v / 2:1.
6. Prove: The lateral surface area of a regular pyram id is equal to one-half
the product of the m easure of the slant height and the perim eter of the
base.
\j ■ Circumference of a Circle
W e could not very well leave the topic concerning the
regular polygon w ithout showing how some of its properties can be extended
to form ulate properties of the circle. Notice in Figure 17-23 w hat appears
to be happening when the num ber of sides of a regular polygon is increased
from 4 to 8 to 16 and finally to 32. As the num ber of sides increases, the
607
CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE
polygon itself resembles more and m ore the circle in which it is inscribed.
Yet no m atter how large the num ber of sides m ay be, the polygon will
always differ from the circle, for the sides of a polygon are line segments
while any portion of a circle between tw o points of the circle m ust be an
arc of th a t circle.
M athem aticians frequently encounter situations such as this where for
“ all practical purposes” one quantity can be m ade to so closely resem ble
another th at a replacem ent of one for the other is perm itted. T hus, in the
situation here, as the num ber of sides of the regular polygon is increased,
the perim eters of the polygons approach closer and closer to the circum fer­
ence of the circle. If this is so, and it seems reasonable to suspect th at it is,
then the m athem atician would say, “ W hy bother to pursue this endless
m ade to differ so little from the circum ference of the circle itself th a t for all
practical purposes we may as well use the circum ference of the circle to
represent the perim eter of the regular polygon w hen the n um ber of sides
of th at polygon is very, very large.” . . . A nd of course we have assumed
th at you recall from your work in elem entary m athem atics that,
105: T he circumference of a circle is the m easure of the circle
D e f in it io n
(in linear units).
In view of our analysis it seems th at we would not be going too far
astray by postulating the following,
P ostu la te 45: W hen the num ber of sides of a regular polygon inscribed
in a circle is very large, then the circum ference of the circle can be
used as a replacem ent for the perim eter of the polygon.
O u r discussion above has been on an extrem ely elem entary level. .Some
day you may examine this topic m uch m ore thoroughly in the subject
called calculus. T he topic is the theory of limits which, needless to say, is
quite beyond the scope of our work a t this tim e. Postulate 45, however,
enables us to prove the theorem below. T h is theorem , in turn, leads us to a
m ethod for finding the circumference of a circle.
T H E O R E M 145: In a n y two circles th e ra tio o f th e c irc u m fe re n c e to
th e ra d iu s of th e first is e q u a l to th e ra tio of th e c ir­
cum ference to th e ra d iu s of thg second.
Given: O O and O P w here Co
and Cp represent the cir­
cum ference of e&clv re ­
spectively.
• Concl.: Co'-OA = Cp '.PQ
 608 AREAS OF POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES
CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE 609
PRO OF STATEMENTS REASONS But w hat is the value of the symbol x? It was a pproxim ated by A rchi­
1. L et regular polygons of n sides medes, an ancient Greek m athem atician, to fall som ew here betw een 3f$-
1. A regular polygon of n sides
be inscribed in each of the and 3-fft. More recently, m athem aticians have approxim ated ir far more
can be inscribed in a circle.
circles. accurately. This symbol can never be expressed as an exact n u m b er— either
2. OA = OB in the form of a term inating or a non-term inating decim al. B ut approxim a­
2. T h e radii of a circle are con­ tions do exist th at will give as great a degree of accuracy as one m ight
gruent.
desire. Some of these approxim ations are,
3. PQ = PR 3. Sam e as 2
4. OA'.PQ = OB'.PR 3, 3.14, 3.1416, 3.1415927, 3.14159265359
4. Division Postulate
5. m A B = m BD = m D E = . . . T h ere is also, of course, the im proper fraction th a t you m ay have used in
5. I f in a circle two chords are
= 360 elem entary school:
congruent, their corr. arcs are
n congruent.
360
6. m Z A O B =
6. T h e measure of a central angle Illustration 1:
f!
of a circle is the m easure of the W hat is the circumference of a circle whose diam eter is 20 inches?
m inor arc it intercepts. (Rev.
M e t h o d : T he form ula for the circum ference of a circle, calls for the m easure
of Def. 82.)
of the radius. By dividing the m easure of the diam eter by 2 we find th a t the
7. m QR = m R S = m S T — . . . 7. Sam e as 5
m easure of the radius is 10 (inches). Hence,
= I™
n C = 2irr
= 2tt(10)
8. m Z Q P R = — = 20ir
n 8. Sam e as 6
9. Z A O B S Z Q P R 9. T ransitive Property Unless otherwise called for, the answer is usually left in term s of ir.
10. A / i O B ~ A QPR 10. iS’,/4.6'. T heorem on Sim ilarity By applying the com m utative property of m ultiplication, it is possible
11. AB-.OA = QR-.PQ 11. Def. of sim ilar triangles to rewrite the form ula for the circumference of a circle as,
12. n(A B ):O A = n(Q R ):PQ 12. M ultiplication Postulate C = ir2r
13. But n(A B ) ■= pi 13. Def. of perim eter of a regular T hen, by realizing th at the m easure of the diam eter of a circle is twice the
and n(QR) = pi polygon m easure of the radius of the circle, it is possible to replace 2r by d. T his will
14. pi'.OA — p z’.PQ 14. Substitution Postulate lead to the following variation of the form ula that, is often used.
Now if we allow the num ber of sides in the two polygons to rem ain equal C = ird
b u t becom e very large, then
We would like to take a m om ent now to tie together the two measures
15. C o’- OA = Cp:PQ | 15. Postulate 45 th a t we have created for a circle. O n the one hand we created the a rc degree
We have ju st shown th a t the ratio of the circumference of a circle to (see page 453) wherein we state arbitrarily th at the m easure of every circle
the m easure of its ra d ius is always the same no m atter w hat the size of the is 360 arc degrees. O n the other hand we have ju st discovered th a t the cir­
circle m ay be. T hus, we can set this ratio equal to a constant th a t we will cumference of any circle can be found by using the form ula C = 2irr. T he
call 2 t (read as two pi). Therefore, arc degree unit is w hat is called a non-denominate unit. In reality, the arc
degree is not a unit in the sense of such things as the pound, the yard, or the
gallon—for it is not fixed in size. T o say th at an arc contains 60 arc degrees
is merely to d ra w a com parison betw een the length of th a t arc and the
Hence, by applying the m ultiplication postulate we find that, length of the entire circle. In this case it would im ply th a t the arc is -yW of
C = 2irr the length of the circle. T h u s its length is shown to be some fraction of the
T his is the form ula frequently ysed for finding the circumference of a circle. length of the circle rather th a n some definite quantity. However, by saying
th a t an arc is 6 inches we are applying an absolute unit as its m easure. Now we
610 CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE 611
AREAS OF: P O L Y G O N S -A N D CIRCLES
have indicated that the arc— if stretched tight— will be 6 times as long as (c) m AB = 150; radius is 25 feet
the linear un it called the inch. As we know, the inch is a very definite.length.
(d ) m A B = 120; diam eter is 40 feet
Consider now the arc AB whose m easure in arc degrees is n. W e w ant
to determ ine the num ber of lin ear units in this arc. T o do this we realize (e ) m A B = 80; diam eter is 35 feet

th a t an arc of n arc degrees has a length ■— of the length uf its circle. 3. O ne of the sides of a square is 8 inches long. T h e square is inscribed in a
circle.
Since the length of a circle is but a nother nam e for the circum ference of the
(a) W h at is the radius of the circle?
circle, arc A B is ^ of 2-irr, w here r is the m easure of the radius of the circle (b ) W h at is the circumference of the circle?
(c) W h at is the length of an arc of the circle cut off by one of the sides
of w hich A B is an arc. Using symbols, this can be expressed as,
of the square?
m AB = n
4. An equilateral triangle is inscribed in a circle. If the apothem of the
therefore, the length of /IB = of its circle triangle is 5 inches, w hat is the length of an arc of the circle th a t is cut
off by one of the sides of the triangle?
hence, the length of A B = ^ • 2irr
5. A n isosceles right triangle is inscribed in a circle.
T H E O R E M 146: T h e le n g th of a n a rc of a c irc le is g iv en b y th e fo r­ (a) If the length of the hypotenuse of the triangle is 10 feet, w hat is
m ula, the length of the arc cut off by one of the legs?
(b ) If the length of one of the legs of the triangle is 10 feet, w hat is the
' - 3 S 5 ' 2" length of the arc cut off by this leg?
w here n is th e n u m b e r of a rc d eg rees in th e a rc a n d r
■6. A wheel travels the distance of its circum ference in one revolution.
is the n u m b e r of lin e a r u n its in th e ra d iu s o f th e circle.
(a) H ow far will a bicycle having a 28 inch diam eter wheel travel if

Illustration 2: the wheel makes 1,000 revolutions? (Use as the approxim ation
for ir.)
If the radius of a circle is 5 inches, find the length of an arc of this circle
(b) H ow m any revolutions will a wheel of this bicycle m ake during a
whose central angle has a m easure of 40.
trip of 1 mile? (Use as the approxim ation for ir.)
M e t h o d : Since the m easure of the central angle is 40, the m easure of the
arc is 40. Hence, by T heorem 146, 7. A n arc of a circle has a m easure of 30 arc degrees and is 5ir inches in
length.
‘ = 350 • 2 " (a ) W h at is the radius of the circle?
(b) W h at is the circumference of the circle?
40 0
= 360 ' 2* 5 8. T h e back wheel of a m otor bike is placed on a stand and spun a bout
its axle. T h e diam eter of the wheel is 22 Jnches. How far does a point
= — ir (inches)
V on the wheel travel w hen a spoke on the wheel rotates through an angle
of 72 degrees?
EXERCISES
9. A rope is stretched around the two
(Unless otherwise stated, leave all answers in term s of it .)
pulley wheels as shown in the diagram .
1. Find the circumference of each of the following circles.
(a) r = 20 (b ) r = 5£
(c) a = 16 (d) d = 6 \
2. Find the length of each of the following arcs.
(a) m A B = 60; radius is 10inches
(b ) m A B = 90; radius is 12inches
612 AREAS OF POLYGONS AND CIRCLES AREA OF A CIRCLE 613
10. T h e “ 30th parallel” on the e arth ’s of the circle as the num ber of sides increases. We need ju st such a postulate
surface is a circle determ ined as before it is possible to prove a theorem relating to the area of a circle.
shown in the diagram . P o stu la te 46:W hen the num ber of sides of a regular polygon inscribed
(a) If the diam eter of the earth is in a circle is very large, then the measure of the radius of the circle
approxim ately 8,000 miles, w hat can be used as a replacem ent for the measure of the apothem of the
is the circum ference of the 30th polygon.
parallel? (Use 3.14 as the approxi­ T H E O R E M 147: T h e a re a of a circle is giv en b y th e fo rm u la ,
m ation for ir.)
A = irr!
(b ) D uring one day the earth makes
one revolution abn-.it its axis. How
m any miles per hour is a tree trav ­
PROOF
eling if it is located on the 30th
parallel?
T hrough our analysis on page 602 we know th at it is pos­
(c) H ow m uch faster would the tree
sible to inscribe a regular polygon within a circle. T h e area of this polygon
in (b) be traveling if it were lo­ is eriven by the formula,
cated along the equator? A = \ap
11. A circle is inscribed in a square one of whose sides is 12 inches. Find where a is the measure of the apothem and p is the perim eter of the polygon.
the length of the arc whose endpoints are two successive points of Now, by making the num ber of sides of the polygon sufficiently large,
tangency.
by Postulate 45, C can replace p
(a) If the polygon had been an equilateral triangle, w hat would the and by Postulate 46, r can replace a
length of the arc have been? H ence, A - VC
(b) If the polygon had been a regular hexagon, w hat would the length but since, C = 2irr
of the arc have been? then, A = \r-2irr
12. Im agine the earth to be a perfect sphere and consider a thin sheet or A = irr2
of m etal draw n tightly about the surface at the equator w here the And this is what we set out to prove.
circum ference is approxim ately 24,000 miles. T h e length of the m etal
is increased by 50 feet. It is then held aw ay from the surface by the Illustration:
same distance throughout the 24,000 miles. Is it possible for a man
In the figure at the right, a circle is inscribed in a
who is 6 feet tall to stand beneath the m etal sheet? Justify your answer.
square one of whose sides is 8 inches. Find the area of
the shaded region.
M ethod :
I Area of a Circle Area of square = 8 X 8 = 64 sq. in.
E xam ine Figure 17-20 on page 602 and imagine the num ­ Area of circle = irr2 = ir '4 J = 16ir sq. in.
ber of sides of the regular polygon to increase indefinitely. W hat conclusion Area of shaded region = (64 — 16ir) sq. in.
did we draw concerning the perim eter of the polygon when this occurs? Before completing our discussion of area as related to a circle, it would
W h at do you believe will occur to the radius of the polygon under this seem only natural th at we exam ine the area of a region such as the “ pie
condition? A nd finally, w hat will happen to the apothem CKj? slice” pictured in Figure 17-24. Earlier o'.:r discussion led from the circum ­
Actually, nothing will happen to the radius of the polygon for the radius ference of a circle to the length of an arc of a circle— the arc being but a
of the polygon is also the radius of the circle, and as the polygon approaches section of the circumference. Now our discussion is leading us from the
the circle in appearance, the radius of the circle does not alter. However, area of a circle to the “ pie slice” —where the “ pie slice” is but a section of
the apothem of the polygon becomes closer and closer to being the radius the area of the circle.
 615
a r ea o f a circle
614 AREAS OF POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES

n
360
T H E O R E M 148: T h e a rea of a sector of a c irc le is g iv e n b y th e fo rm u la ,

A- h " *
w h e re n is th e n u m b e r o f a rc d eg rees in th e a rc a n d r
is th e m easu re of t t e ra d iu s of th e circle.
Obviously, the actual nam e of this region is not a “ pie slice” but rather,
a sector oj a circle.
D e fin itio n 106: A s e c t o r o f a c i r c le 0 is t h e u n i o n o f t h e s e ts o f p o i n t s
Illustration:
A square inscribed in a circle has a side of 6 inches. Find th e a rea of
c o n s is tin g o f 02, AB a n d th e s e t o f p o in ts in th e in t e r io r o f ZAO B
w h e re th e d is ta n c e f r o m e a c h o f th e s e p o in ts to 0 is le ss t h a n OA.
th e region bounded by a side of the square a n d its corresponding arc.

In finding the form ula for the area of a sector of a circle we m ust apply A nalysis : O u r problem resolves to one in w hich we are
seeking the area of the shaded region in the diagram .
a slight variation of Postulate 45. T h a t is, not oniy is it possible to replace the
T o do this we will find the area of A O A B a n d th e area
perim eter of a regular inscribed polygon w ith the circum ference of the circle
of the sector bounded by the radii T)A and U E and the
w hen the num ber of sides becom e sufficiently large b u t we are also ab le to
arc AB. T h en the difference betw een these areas will be
replace any fraction of th a t perim eter by an equal fraction of the circum ­
ference. Thus, intuitively we m ight gather from Figure 17-25 th a t as the the area of the region we have been asked to determ ine.
M e t h o d •. Since th e sides of the square are congruent, their corresponding

arcs will be congruent and hence, the m easure of each arc is90.In view of
this, m A.AOB = 90 and by using the T heorem of Pythagoras we can find'

that OA = 4 -
V2
H ence, Area of sector = • iff2

90 / 6 V
Figure 17-25; “ 360 ‘ T ' { V 2 j

num ber of sides of the regular polygon increases the sum of the m easures of 1 36
the sides between points P and Q would com e very close to the m easure in 4 ' r ‘ 2

linear units of PQ. But the sum of the areas of the region bounded by the 9jt . 1
= square inches
red line segments is,
A = \at
Also, A rea of A OAB = ^ O A -O B
w here a is the measure of the apothem and I is the sum of the m easures of
the sides from P to Q. Hence, as the num ber of sides of the polygon increases,
a can be replaced by r and i can be replaced by = 1 . JL . 6
2 . V2 V2

360 ' 2,rr = 9 square inches

since this expression represents the num ber of linear units in the length of Therefore, the area of the shaded region is,
the arc of a circle (see T heorem 146). Hence,
616 AREAS OF POLYGONS AN D CIRCLES AREA OF A CIRCLE 617

A = ir (R — r)(R + r)
where R is the m easure of the radius of the larger circle and r is
9v — 18 . . the measure of the radius of the sm a lk ' circle.
= ------ ^------ s q u a r e i n c h e s
8. (a) A sector of a circle has an arc of 40 degrees. If the area of the sector
T h e shaded region in the illustration above is called a segment cf a circle. is 5ir, w hat is the area of the circle?
(b ) A circle has an area of 36 jt square feet. W hat is the area of a sector
of this circlc if the arc of the sector is 20 degrees?
EXERCISES 9. Using the dimensions shown, find the area of the shaded region of each
of the figures below.
A
(Leave all answers in term s of ?r unless otherwise stated.) f
1. Find the area of each of the following circles.
(a) r = 7 (b ) r = 4^ (c) d = 24 (d ) d = 15
2. Find the area of each of the following sectors of a circle.
J ,
Measure oj Arc Radius of Circle
(a) 60 8 inches
(b ) 40 12 inches
(c) 90 4j inches
(d ) 120 3} inches
3. Using 3.14 as the approxim ate value of ir, fold the approxim ate area
of the segm ent of the y rc le in the illustration on page 615.
4. An arc of a circle has a measure of 90. Find the area of the segment of
the circle bounded by this arc and its corresponding chord if the radius
of the circle is 16 inches. 10. (a) Show that the ratio of the areas of two circles is equal to the ratio
of the squares of their corresponding radii.
5. (a) An isosceles right triangle is inscribed in a circle th at has a diam eter
of 10 inches. Find the area of the segm ent of the circle bounded by (b ) Show th at the ratio of the areas of two circles is equal to the ratio
one of the legs of the triangle and its corresponding arc. of the squares of their corresponding circumferences.
(b ) If the right triangle in (a) had been a “ 30-60 degree” right triangle, 11. Show that the area of a circle can be expressed by the form ula A = \trrP
w hat w ould be the area of the segment bounded by the shorter leg where a is the m easure of the diam eter of the circle.
and its corresponding arc? (See problem 10, page 370.)
6. (a) A regular hexagon is inscribed in a circle th at has a radius of 12
feet. Find the area of the segment of the circle bounded by a side
0
Prove each of the following statem ents.
of the hexagon and its corresponding arc.
1. T h e area of the circle circum scribed about a square is twice the area
(b ) If the polygon in (a) had been an equilateral triangle, w hat would
of the circle inscribed w ithin the square.
the area of the segm ent have been? ------ .
2-. T he area of a circle circum scribed about an equilateral triangle is four
7. T h e shaded region bound by two concentric circles is called an annulus.
times the area of the circle inscribed w ithin the triangle.
(a) Find the area of an annulus if the radius of the larger circtfc-4s-lil-
3. In a right triangle if semicircles are constructed on each cf the sides as
inches while the radius of the smaller circle is 7 inches.
a diam eter, then the area of the semicircle on the hypotenuse is equal
(b ) Show th at the area of an annulus can be expressed by the formula,
to the sum of the areas of the semicircles on the two legs.
618 AREAS OF POLYGONS A N D CIRCLES
4. Prove th at the area of the annulus a t the
right is equal to 7r(/lC)2.
5. In the diagram at the right, ~AC is a di­
am eter of the larger circle while A B and
BU are diam eters of the sm aller circles.
Prove th a t the area of the shaded region
is equal to the area of the unshaded re­
gion. (See problem 11 of group A.)
6.* Prove th a t the area of A A BC is equal to
the area of the shaded region in the figure
a t the right, where A B and BC are d iam ­
eters of the sm aller semicircles and AC is
a diam eter of the largest semicircle.
I Test and Review
A (c) If the lower base angle were 60°, w hat
1. (a) Find the area of a right triangle, one of whose legs is 12, while the
hypotenuse is 13.
(b) Find the altitude to the hypotenuse of this triangle.
2. T h e altitude to the hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle is 8.Find
the area of the tri-angle.
3. (a) The ratio of the m easures of two corresponding sides of tw o sim ilar
triangles is 3:5. Find the ratio of their areas.
(b ) T he ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is 27:64. Find
ratio of the m easures of a pair of corresponding sides.
4. A rectangle and a parallelogram have equal areas. T h e base a n d a ltitu d e
of the rectangle are 16 and 12 respectively. If the m easure of the base
of the parallelogram is to the m easure of the base of the rectangle as
5:8 , then w hat is the a ltitu d e of the parallelogram ?
5. (a) Find the area of a parallelogram if its sides are 8 and 12 respectively,
while the m easure of the angle formed by these sides is 45.
(b ) If the m easure of th e angle were 30, w hat would th e area be?
(c) If the m easure of the angle were 60, w hat would th e area be?
TEST A N D REVIEW 619
6. T h e coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are (0, 0), (8, 0), a n d (5, 7).
Find the area of the triangle.
7. T h e side of a regular 8-gon is b. If the m easure of the apothem is a,
express the area of the polygon in term s of a a n d b.
8. T h e tan g e n t segments to a circle from a n external point form a n angle
of 120°. If the radius of the circle is 6, w hat is the area of the triangle
whose sides are the tw o tangent segments and the line segm ent joining
the points of tangency?
9. T h e m easure of the lower base of an isosceles trapezoid exceeds the
m easure of the upper base by 8, while the m easure of each of the non­
parallel sides is 5. If the area is 36, w h a t is the m easure of each base?
10. T he m easures of two sides of a triangle are 10 and 12, while m easure
of the angle formed by these sides is 30. Find area of the triangle.
11. (a) Find the area of a regular hexagon if the length of one of its sides is 6.
(b) Find the area of a regular hexagon if the length of its apothem is 10.
(c) Find the measure of the side of a regular hexagon if its area is
108V 3.
12. (a) T h e upper and lower bases of an isosceles trapezoid are 18 and 24.
If the lower base angles are 45°, w hat is area of the trapezoid?
(b ) I f the lower base angle were 30°, w hat w ould the area be?
would the area be?
13. A plane is passed parallel to the base of a pyram id in w hich this base is
an equilateral triangle. T he m easure of the altitu d e of the pyram id is 4,-
while the distance from the vertex to the plane is 3. If the area of the
base is 64, w hat is the m easure of a side of the intersection?
14. Find circum ference and area of the circle whose d iam eter is 18feet.
15. A .“ 30-60 degree” right triangle is inscribed in a circle. If the side
opposite the 30 degree angle is 5 cm, find length of its corresponding arc.
16. (a) Show th a t the ratio of the circumferences of two circles is equal to
the
the ratio of the measures of their corresponding diam eters.
(b) If the m easure of the radius of one circle is 3 times the m easure of
the radius of a second circle, how do their circumferences com pare?
(c) H ow do the areas of the two circles in (b ) com pare?
17. A square, one of whose sides is 8 feet, is inscribed in a circle. F ind area
of segm ent bounded by a side of the square a n d its corresponding arc.
18. T w o tangent segments are draw n from an external point to a circle
having a diam eter of 10 inches. T h e angle form ed by the rays of these
two segments has a m easure of 60. Find the area of the region bounded
by the tangent segments and the m inor arc of the circle.
 620
Prove each of the following:
1. G iven: A B C D is a O .
Cone).: A A B P = A A D P
3 . G iv e n : A D is the m edian to ~B€.
E is th e m id p o in t of AD.
C oncl.: A A B E = A D C E
5 . G iv en : A BCD is a O .
C oncl.: A P A B + A P D C =
hABCD
AREAS OF POLYGONS AND CIRCLES
B
Given: E is the m idpoint 2.
of. AD.
Concl.: A A B C = A D B C
Given: Q uadrilateral ABCD
with diagonal BD
B F ^SE
Concl.: A BCE = AFCD
Given: ABCD is a £3.
M is the m idpoint
of BD.
Concl.: A B M E - CFMD
TRY THIS FOR FUN 621
JL
Prove each of the following statem ents:
1. If the altitudes of a triangle are congruent, then the triangle is equilateral.
2. T he median to a side of a triangle separates the triangle into two equal
triangles.
3. T h e product of the m easures of the legs of a right triangle is equal to the
product of the m easures of the hypotenuse and the a ltitu d e to the h y ­
potenuse.
4. T he sum of the measures of the perpendiculars from any p o in t w ithin an
equilateral triangle to the sides is equal to the m easure of an altitude of
the triangle.
5. If two regular polygons have the same num ber of sides, th en the ratio
of their areas is equal to the ratio of the squares of the m easures of any
two corresponding sides.
6. T h e area of a sector of a circle is equal to one-half the m easure of the
radius times the length, of the arc of the sector.
B Try This For Fun
At the tim e we studied the theorem of Pythagoras, it was
pointed out that the early proofs of this theorem were very likely those th a t
relied on the areas of polygons. T he figure below was supposedly the one
used by Leonardo D aV inci, the famous Italian painter, to prove this
theorem . Using his diagram , can you prove that, “ T he square on the hy­
potenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the legs” ?
G iven: R ight A A C B w ith
Z A C B the right angle.
PQ II BC
PQ II AC
Concl.: A B R P = A S T C +
CBYW
(These are the squares
on each of the sides.)
Suggestion: Prove A B Y S ~ APQC and T S Y W ^ RQCB.
 VOLUMES 623
E ach of these solids is called a prism. Before a pyram id was defined, it
was necessary that the pyram idal surface first be defined. So, too, before
the prism can be defined, the prismatic surface will have to be defined.
D e f in it io n107 : A prismatic surface is a surface th a t is generated by a line
th a t moves so as to always be parallel to a fixed line and always inter­
sect a fixed polygon. T h e fixed line does not He in the plane of the fixed
polygon. (Note the sim ilarity between this definition and th a t of a
pyram idal surface.)

F i g u r e 18-2.

In Figure 18-2 the fixed line is the line /, while A BC D is the fixed poly­
gon. T h e lines a, b, c, d, e, f, and g are various positions of the m oving line.

IT SE E M S O N LY N A T U R A L T H A T H A V IN G D e f in it io n 108: A prism is a solid bounded by a prism atic surface and two

learned how to determ ine th e m easure of a plane figure, w e w ould tu rn parallel planes.
to space geometry and try to devise some m eans of com puting the m easure
of a space figure. O u r first objective will be to establish an a p p ro p riate u n it
for determ ining this m easure. W ith this as a tool, we can then turn our a t­
tention to certain special solids and develop theorem s th a t will enable us to
com pute their m easure in term s of this unit.
O f th e m any space figures th a t exist, perhaps the m ost im p o rta n t of
these are solids such as those in Figure 18-1.

F ig u r e 18-3.

T h e lines AiAi, B A . C iA are called th e latsral edges of the prism. Since

they represent the m oving line in various positions, they m ust be parallel
to each other, for lines in space th ? t are parallel to the same line are parallel
Figure 18-1.
to each other.

622
 624 VOLUMES 625
VOLUMES
T H E O R E M 149: T h e la te ra l edges of a prism a re p a ra lle l. \ 10. G iven: Prism A B C -D E F is a right
T h e intersection of a plane and a prism atic surface is called a iectjon. equilateral triangular prism.
^ In the prism above, the sections <4i5iC; and A-.BiC} are the bases of the prism .'’ Plane Q R S II plane D E F
If the section is m ad e by a plane parallel to the bases, then- this section is a Plane P R S contains RS.
if cross section of the prism . If the section is m ade by a plane perpendicular to a Concl.: A P R S is isosceles.
1/ lateral edge, then it is a right section of the prism.
T h e polygons A3A i B ,B i , B iB xCxC%, and AtAiC:Cj are called the faces
of the prism . T h e com m on perpendicular to the bases of a prism is its
■v altitude. Should a_ lateral edge be perpendicular to the b'Sses, then the prism
i/ would be a right prism.
11. G iven: A B C D -E F G H is a prism.
Prisms are also classified by the polygons th a t form their bases, Thus, a
S triangular prism is one in which the bases are triangles. T he prism o^ page 611 } C oncl.: If D F and H B are draw n,
is a tria n g u lar prism . W ere it an equilateral triangular prism, the bases-w-euld they will bisect each other.
^ be equilateral triangles.

EXERCISES

12. Use the sam e diagram as in Problem 11.

A G iven: R ight prism A B C D -E F G H
EFG H is a rectangle.
A num ber of the statem ents to be proved in the following Concl.: (H B )2 = (H E )2 + (EF)* + (B F )1
group of problem s should be considered as^theorems, Nas they will be -used
in the p r o o fs jh a t are to follow. Each of these statem ents will be marked
w ith a n (as’te risk \ r

1. T h e faces of a prism are parallelogram s.*

2. T h e lateral edges of a prism are congruent. *
3. T h e bases of a tria n g u lar prism are congruent triangles.*
4. A cross section of a triangular prism is a triangle congruent to either
base of the prism . *
5. A cross section of a prism is a polygon c o n g T u e n t to either base of the
prism .* (H in t: See th e definition of congruent polygons and then use
the inform ation in Problem 4.)
6. T h e lateral area of a prism is equal to the product of the perim eter of a
rig h t section and the m easure of a lateral edge. * (T he lateral area of a
prism is th e sum of the areas of the faces.)
7. If a plane is passed through two nonadjacent lateral edges of a prism,
th e intersection of the plane with the prism will be a parallelogram .
8. T h e faces of a rig h t prism are rectangles.
9. If a plane is passed parallel to an edge of a triangular prism, the inter­
section of the plane w ith the upper and lower bases of the prism will be
cong ru en t line segments.
B
Each of the problem s in this group will dep en d upon the
theorem you proved in Problem 6 of the exercises in G roup A.
1. T h e base of a right prism is,an eight sided equilateral polygon, one
of whose sides is 5. Find the lateral area of the prism if the lateral
edge is 12.
2. A side of the base of a right equilateral trian g u lar prism is 10. If the
lateral edge of the prism is 15, w hat is the Lateral area of the prism?
3. T h e base of a right triangular prism is a right triangle whose legs are
18 and 24 respectively. If the lateral edge of the prism is 38, w h a t is
the lateral area of the prism?
4. T h e iateral area of a prism is 448. If the lateral edge is 7, w hat is the
perim eter of a right section?
5. T he lateral area of a prism is 684, while the length of a lateral edge
is 12. If a right section is an equilateral triangle, w h a t is the length
of one of its sides?
6. T h e base of a right triangular prism is a right triangle whose legs are
626
VOLUMES
24 and 32 respectively. If a lateral edge is 14, w hat is the total area
of the prism? (T he total area of a prism is the sum of the lateral area
and the areas of the bases,)
7. A side of the base of a right square prism is 16. T he length of a lateral
edge is 24. W hat is the total area of the prism?
8. A side of the base of a right equilateral triangular prism is 4. If a la t­
eral edge is 6, w hat is the total area of the prism?
9. A right section of a prism is an equilateral triangle, one of whose
sides is 12 inches. T h e prism ’s altitude, whose length is 8 inches, m akes
an angle of 45° w ith a lateral edge of the prism. W h at is the lateral
area of the prism?
10. * T h e right section of a prism is a rhom bus whose diagonals are 6 inches
and 8 inches respectively. T h e lateral area of the prism is 140 sq u a re ’
inches. If a lateral edge of the prism makes an angle of 45° w ith the
altitu d e of the prism, w hat is the length of the altitude?
VOLUM E OF A PRISM 627
E ach of these definitions brings us som ew hat closer to the objective of
this ch ap ter: to determ ine a means of expressing the m easure of a solid.
T h ere were a num ber of units available to us at the tim e we were
seeking a way tu express the m easure for the region enclosed by a plane
figure. T he unit selected was one th at was, possibly, the “ sim plest” polygon
th at enclosed a region of the plane. It'w as the square unit. So, too, in select­
ing the unit through which the m easure of a solid can be com puted, we
reach for a solid th at appears to us to have the “ sim plest” form. T his solid
is the cube. T hus, a cube, each of whose edges is one unit in length, is called
a cubic unit.
112: T he volume of a solid is the num ber of cubic units con­
D e fin itio n
tained by the solid.
L et us exam ine w hat this will im ply in term s of the rectan g u lar p a r­
allelepiped. By actual count we find th a t there are 24 cubic units in the

■ Volum e of a Prism
Perhaps the m ost com m only observed prism is the sim ple
“ box.” 'S ince its base is a rectangle and its lateral edges a re perpendicular / /
4 un its
tQ. th e base, it could be called a right rectangular prism . I t is, however, 1
1
know n as a rectangular parallelopiped.
D e f in it io n109: A parallelepiped is a prism whose base is a parallelogram .
D e f in it io n110: A rectangular parallelepiped is a right prism whose base is /\ ) f"7^ 7---- 7------7------ 7 -------- 7 ' 7/~7
a rectangle. c L J
/ // / / / / / ^ / 3 units
In w hat two ways does a rectangular parallelepiped differ from the — -ft- — -j£ — — -jL. — ^ —
/ / / / / / / /
general parallelepiped? ' - ./•■ / - t. / / . J .. /
8 units
D e f in it io n 111: A c u b e is a r e c t a n g u l a r p a r a l l e l e p i p e d w h o s e e d g e s a r e c o n ­
F i g u r e 18-6.
g ru e n t.

Figure 18-4 shows the general rectangular parallelepiped, w hile Fig­
ure 18-5 is a draw ing of a cube. In term s of the letters of these diagram s w h at
a re sorae of the properties of these solids?
bottom layer of this box. Since this box is 4 units high, there will be a total
of 4 layers, or 96 cubic units, w ithin the box. T h e number of cubic, units in
the first layer could have been determ ined by finding the area of the base
of the rectangular parallelepiped, for there exists a one-to-one correspond­
ence betw een the cubic units in the first layer and the squares in the region
of the base. To find the volume of this solid w ould then be a m atter of
sim ply m ultiplying the area of the base by the m easure of the altitude.
47: T h e volume of a rectangular parallelepiped is equal to the
P o s tu la te
product of the area of the base and the m easure of the altitude.
It is im portant to realize that “ volum e,” like “ a re a ,” “ m easure of a line
segm ent,” and “ measure of an angle,” is simply a number. It is the n um ber
assigned to a solid dependent upon the num ber of cubic units th a t the surface
of the solid bounds.
628 VOLUMES VOLUM E OF A PRISM
T o d eterm ine tlie-'vclumcs of othersS iids will necessitate assuming the T H E O R E M 150: T h e v o lu m e o f a prism is e q u a l to th e pro<fu
statem ent know iyas Cavalicri's Principle, y m easure of its a ltitu d e a n d the a re a o f its base.
P ostulate 4 8 : v th tr e exist tw ojettcfs and a fixed plane such th at every G iven: Prism w ith base C and altitude £
plane paralleTTxr-tti^r-ftxed plane intersects the solids in sections th a t C oncl.: V — Ch
have equal areas, then the solids have equal volumes.
T his principle can be illustrated by exam ining a deck of playing cards.
W hether they are stacked vertically or ruffled slightly and placed on th e
table such as in Figure 18-7b, the volume of the deck will not be altered.

PROOF STATEMENTS REASONS

1. Prism with base C and altitude Jt 1. Given

2. Let rectangle D have the same 2. Postulate
No m atter how we may twist or distort the position of the cards, just so we area as the base of the prism
do not separate the cards, the volume of the deck will always be the total and be in the same plane as the
volum e of the individual cards. base of the prism ; thus,jC = D.
T his sam e conclusion can be justified in term s of Cavalieri’s Principle. 3. At each vertex of the rectangle 3. T here exists only one line p e r­
W ere a plane passed parallel to the table on w hich the cards were lying, let the lines in the diagram be pendicular to a given plane a t
it w ould intersect each of the decks in a single card. As the decks are id en ­ the perpendiculars to the plane a given point on the plane.
tical, the cards of intersection will have equal areas. Since every plane p a r­ th a t exist at those points.
allel to the table and cutting both decks m ust always do the same, then 4. A t a distance h from D let the 4. W hy possible?
C avalieri’s Principle grants us the right to say th a t the volumes of the decks
plane draw n be the one th a t is
will be equal.
parallel to the plane of the base.
In this illustration the polygons or cards happened to be congruent.
5. Let any plane be passed p a ral­ 5. Same as 4
T his is not of im portance. W hat is vital, though, is that the sections m ade
lel to the plane of the base in­
by each plane parallel to the fixed plane always be equal in area. Below,
tersecting the prisms in A and B.
one of the sections of equal area is a quadrilateral, while the other is a
triangle. 6 .B = C , / i S C 6. A cross section of a prism is a
polygon congruent to the base.
V P (See P roblem 5, pagfe 612.)
7. B = D, A = C 7. T h e areas of congruent poly­
gons are equal. (Prob. 7, p.
593.)
8. A = B 8. Why?
9. H ence, volume of prism P = 9. C avalieri’s Principle
volum e of rectangular parallel­
epiped R .
F ig u r e 18-8.
10. B ut volume of R = Dh 10. Postulate 45
P ostu la te 49: For any given polygon there exists a rectangle of equal area.
11. Volum e of prism P = Ch 11. S ubstitution postulate
630 VOLUMES VOLUM E OF A PYRAMID 631
the trough is 8 feet, w hat is the w eight of the w ater w hen the trough is
EXERCISES
full? (1 cu. ft. of water = 62.4 pounds)
------1
A
B
1. T h e altitude of a prism is 12, while its base is a right triangle whose
legs are 24 and 10 respectively. W hat is the volum e of the prism?
1. If two prisms have equal bases, then the ratio of th eir volumes is equal
2. T h e base of a prism is a square 15 on a side. W hat is the volum e of the
prism if the altitude is 25? to the ratio of th e measures of their altitudes.
3. A side of the base of a right equilateral triangular prism is 8. W h a t is 2. If tw o prisms have congruent altitudes, th en the ra tio of th eir volum es is
the volume of the p r \ m if a lateral edge is 14? equal to the ratio of their bases.

4. T h e base of a right trian g u lar prism is an isosceles triangle whose leg

and base are respectively 15 and 24. If a lateral edge of the prism is 16,
■ Volume of a Pyramid
w h at is the volume of the prism?
5. T h e base of a right prism is a parallelogram in w hich two ad jacen t T o develop the theorem concerning the volum e of a p y ra ­
sides are 8 and 12 respectively. T he angle between these sides is 45°. m id, we again fall back upon Cavalieri’s Principle. I t is not possible, though,
W h at is the volume of the prism if the altitude is 17? to prove this theorem w ithout paving the w ay w ith two prior theorem s a n d
6. A prism whose altitude is 18 has a base with an area of 72. T h e volum e a postulate.
of a rectangular parallelepiped is equal to the volum e of the prism .
If the dimensions of the base of the rectangular parallelepiped are 8 P ostulate 50: If the intersection of two solids is a region of a plane, then
the volume of the solid formed from these two solids is equal to the
by 6, w hat is the length of its lateral edge?
sum of the volumes of the two solids.
7. (a) If the volume of a cube is 64, w hat is the length of one of its edges?
(b ) W hat is the length of a diagonal in a face of the cube? THEOREM 151: If two tria n g u la r p y ra m id s h a v e e q u a l bases a n d con­
(c) W hat is the length of the line segment th at joins a p a ir of opposite g ru e n t altitudes, th e n th e ir volum es a re equal.
vertices of the cube? (This is called a diagonal of the cube.)
8. A diagonal of the base of a cube is 5V 2, W hat is the volum e of th e cube? G iv e n : B 1 and B i lie in the sam e plane a.
9. H ow m any cubic feet of w ater could B i = Bi
be stored in a tank such as the one hi = hi
shown in the diagram a t the right? C oncl.: Volum e of V = volum e of P

V P

10. T h e front yard of the Evans hom e was rectangular, having dimensions
of 100 feet by 45 feet. In planning his front lawn M r. Evans decided to
cover the area w ith top soil to a depth of 9 inches. If the cost of top soil
is $3.50 per cubic yard, w hat was the total cost of the soil?
11. A watering trough for horses has an end th at is in the shape of an
isosceles trapezoid whose lower base is 2 feet and whose u p p e r base
is 3 feet. T he distance between the bases is 18 inches. If the length of
632 VOLUMES
VOLUME OF A PYRAMID 633

PR O O F STATEMENTS REASONS

F ig u r e 18-10. 1. In plane let P R II S W 1. W hy possible?

and W R II SP.

2. In plane S P T let P Q W S T 2. W hy possible?

STATEMENTS
and TQ II SP.
PROOF REASONS
3. T hrough P let plane PQR 3. W hy possible?
1. Pass any plane parallel to a 1. W hy possible? be parallel to plane S T W .
th a t intersects the two p yra­ 4. P Q R -S T W is a prism. 4. Why?
mids. 5. A S T W == A P Q R 5. T he bases of a tria n g u la r prism are
2. B\ = B%, hi = h2 2. Given congruent triangles. (See Problem 3,
3. Ai = A2 3. If two triangular pyram ids have page 612.)
equal bases and congruent altitudes, 6. A S T W = A PQR 6. If two triangles are congruent, 'then
then sections m ade by planes p a r­ their areas are equal.
allel to the bases and equidistant 7. A ltitude of P - S T W = alti­ 7. Reflexive p roperty of equality (Both
from the vertices are equal. (See tude of W -P Q R altitudes are the a ltitu d e of the
Problem 8, page 601.) prism.)
4. H ence, volume of V = vol­ 4. C avalieri’s Principle 8. .'. P -S T W = W -P Q R 8. If two tria n g u lar pyram ids have
um e of P equal bases a n d congruent altitudes,
T H E O R E M 152: T h e v o lu m e of a tria n g u la r p y ra m id is eq u al to o ne- then their volum es a re equal.
th ir d th e p ro d u c t of th e m ea su re of th e a ltitu d e a n d th e 9. A T Q W ^ A R W Q 9. iS'.j'.j’. theorem on congruence (Prove
a re a of th e base. the triangles congruent.)
10. A T Q W - A R W Q 10. Same as 6
11. A ltitude of P - T Q W = al­ 11. Reflexive property of equality (T he
titude of P -R W Q altitudes of both pyram ids is the
perpendicular segm ent from P to
G iv en : Pyram id P -S T W plane Q T W R .)
C oncl.: Volum e of P - S T W = \B h 12. /. P -T Q W = P -R W Q 12. Same as 8
13. B ut W -P Q R = P -R W Q 13. Reflexive property of equality
-7 W 14. .-. P -S T W = P - T Q W 14. T ransitive property of e quality
15. P - S T W + P -T Q W 15. Postulate 48, page 619.
W -P Q R = P Q R - S T W
F ig u re 18-11. 16. P - S T W + P - S T W + 16. Substitution postulate
A n a l y s is : Ak prism is constructed around the given pyram id. O ur objective
P - S T W = P Q R -S T W
then becomes one of showing th at the given pyram id is one of three equal 17. But P Q R -S T W = Bh 17. T he volume of a prism is equal to
pyram ids in this prism. Perhaps the most difficult part of this proof is visual­ the product of the m easure of its
izing the three pyram ids in the prism. T hey will be P -S T W , W -P Q R , altitude and the area of its base.'
and P -T Q W . T h e pyram id W -P Q R will have to be observed from two 18. Hence, 3 P -S T W = Bh 18. Same as 16
different points of view: once w ith vertex W and base P Q R ; the second 19. .'. P -S T W - \B k 19. Division postulate
tim e w ith vertex P and base Q R W .
634
T H E O R E M 153: T h e v o lu m e of a p y ra m id is e q u al to o n e -th ird th e
p ro d u c t o f th e m ea su re of its a ltitu d e a n d th e a re a o f its
base.
PROOF STATEMENTS
1. L et V T R be the plane th a t exists
through V, T, and R.
2. L et V TQ be the plane th a t exists
through V, T, and Q.
3. V - T tiS = \ A T R S - h
4. V -T Q R = \ A T Q R - h
V -T P Q = \ A T P Q h
5. V -P Q R S T = V -T R S +
V -T Q R + V-TPQ
6. V -P Q R S T = l & T R S 'h +
J A T Q R -h + J A TPQ -h
or, V -P Q R S T = JA(A T R S +
A T Q R + A TPQ)
7. B ut P Q R S T = A T R S +
ATQR+ATPQ
8. H ence, V -P Q R S T = ih -P Q R S T
or, V -P Q R S T = ih B
VOLUMES
EXERCISES
REASONS
1. W hy possible?
2. W hy possible?
3. T h e volume of a tria n g u lar p y ra ­
m id is equal to one-third the
product of the m easure of its al­
titu d e and the area of the base.
4. Sam e as 3
5. If the intersection of two solids is
a region of a plane, then the vol­
um e of the solid form ed from
these two solids is equal to the sum
of the volumes of the tw o solids,
6. Substitution postulate
7, Postulate 42, see page 582.
8. Sam e as 6
VOLUM E OF A PYRAMID 635
1. Find the volum e of a pyram id whose base is a square w ith 12-inch sides
and whose altitude is 15 inches.
2. T h e base of a pyram id is a rectangle whose diagonal and one side are
35 inches and 28 inches respectively. If the a ltitu d e is 16 inches, w h at
is the volum e of the pyramid?
3. T h e solid a t the right is a cube whose
edge is 9 inches. W hat is the volume
of the pyram id A -E F H ?
H E
4. Find the volume of an equilateral tria n g u lar pyram id with 12-inch
sides and whose altitude is 8 inches.
5. A pyram id whose base is a square has an a ltitu d e of 15 feet. If the vol­
um e of the pyram id is 180 cubic feet, w hat is the length of one of the
sides of the square?
A pyram id whose base is an equilateral triangle has a volume of 80 v j
cubic inches. If the altitude of the pyram id is 10 inches, w hat is the
length of one of the sides of the base?
7. A pyram id has a base, of 48 square inches and an altitude of 8 inches.
A plane is passed parallel to the base and 6 inches from the vertex. W hat
is the volum e of the pyramid th a t was cut off the top of the original
pyram id?
8. A plane is passed parallel to the base and 8 feet from the vertex of a
pyram id whose base is 45 square feet and whose altitude is 12 feet.
W hat is the volume of that part of the pyram id th a t rem ained after the
top had been removed?
9. A pyram id has a square base, each of whose sides is 12 inches. A plane is
passed parallel to the base and 2 inches from it. If the altitude of the
pyram id is 8 inches, w hat is the volume of th e pyram id th a t was re ­
moved?
636 AREA AND VOLUM E OF CYLINDER AN D CONE 637
VOLUMES
10. In the pyram id a t the right ABCD is V
a square. VE, the a ltitu d e of the
pyram id, passes through the point
of intersection of the diagonals.
m Z E V C = 45. I? CD = 6, w hat is
the volume of the pyramid?

D e f in it io n 114: A circular cylinder is a solid bounded by a circular cylin­

drical surface and two parallel planes.
T erm s such as section of a circular cylinder, bases, cross section, right section,
lil altitude, and right circular cylinder have m eanings sim ilar to those used w ith
1. If two pyram ids have equal bases, then the ratio of their volumes is the prism.
equal to the ratio of the measures of their altitudes, t
2. If two pyram ids have congruent altitudes, then the ratio of their volumes
is equal to the ratio of their bases, f
3. 1/ the bases of two pyram ids are sim ilar triangles, then the ratio of the
volumes of the pyram ids is equal to the ratio of the products of the
m easures of their altitudes and the squares of the m easures of a p air of
corresponding sides of the bases.
4. If a plane is passed parallel to the base of a triangular pyramid, then the
ratio of the volum e of the top pyram id to the volume of the original Right Circular Cylinder
pyram id is eq u al to the ra tio of the cubes of th e m easures of their altitudes.
F i g u r e 18-14.
5. A plane bisects the altitude of a triangular pyram id and is parallel to the
base. T h e ratio of the volum e of the p yram id above th e plane to th e
Applying m ethods similar to those employed in the proof of T heorem
■original pyram id is 1 : 8 . (H int: Use Problem 4 .)
147, it is possible for us to prove the theorems below. As honors work, you
m ight w ant to determ ine w hat postulates will have to be assumed and how
| Surface Area and.Volume of a Cylinder and a Cone
each of these theorems can be proved.
W ith b u t slight variations of th e definitions th a t we already T H E O R E M 154: T h e volum e of a c irc u la r c y lin d e r is e q u a l to th e
have, it is possible to extend the theorems developed for prisms and pyram id p ro d u c t of th e m easure of its a ltitu d e a n d th e a re a of
to theorem s th a t apply to circular cylinders and circular cones. First, however, its base.
w hat are these latter solids?
Since the base of a circular cylinder is a circle, then the area of the
D 1 1 3 : A circular cylindrical surface is a surface generated by a
e f in it io n
base is represented by A — wr'K Hence, it follows that,
line th a t moves so as to always be parallel to a fixed line and always
intersect a fixed circle. T h e fixed line does not lie in the plane of the T H E O R E M 155: T h e volum e of a c irc u la r c y lin d e r can b e expressed
fixed circle. (How does this definition differ from th a t of the prism atic b y th e form ula:
surface?) V = vr*h
t T h e se s ta te m e n ts o ften a p p e a r as theorem s.
w h e re r is th e m easu re of th e ra d iu s o f th e base a n d h
is th e m easure of th e a ltitu d e of th e c y lin d e r.

638 VOLUMES
T h e circular cone th a t we m entioned earlier has a definition m uch
like th a t of the pyram id. A nd it, too, is derived from a surface sim ilar to
the pyram idal surface. T hus,
D 1 1 5 : A circular conic surface is a surface generated by a line
e f in it io n
th at moves so as to always pass through a given point and always
intersect a given circle w here the given point is not in th e p lan e of
the given circle. (Figure 18-15.) ■
Again, such terms as vertex, nappe, and element m ean m uch the sam e
w hen related to the circular conic surface as they do in the p y ram idal
surface (p. 595).
D 116: A circular cone is a solid bounded by one nappe of a
e f in it io n
circular conic surface and the plane of the circle used in g enerating
the surface. (Figure 18-16.)
F i g u r e 18-15. F i g u r e 18-16.
T heorem s 142 and 153 apply equally well for the circular cone as they
do for the pyram id.
T H E O R E M 156: If a p la n e is passed p a ra lle l to th e base of a c irc u la r
cone a n d in tersects its surface, b u t n o t th e v e r te x , th e n
th e in te rse ctio n w ill b e a circle.
T H E O R E M 157: T h e v o lu m e of a c irc u la r cone is e q u a l to o n e -th ir d
th e p r o d u c t of th e m easu re of its a ltitu d e a n d th e a re a
o f its base.
Since the base of a circular cone is a circle, then the area of the base
can be found by the form ula A = nr1. H ence, it follows that,
T H E O R E M 158: T h e v o lu m e of a c irc u la r cone can b e e x p ressed b y
th e fo rm u la,
V = fr M
w h e re r is th e m ea su re o f th e ra d iu s o f th e b a se a n d h
is th e m ea su re o f th e a ltitu d e .
AREA AN D VOLUME OF CYLINDER A N D CONE 639
T h e regular pyramid discussed in problem 13 on page 605 finds its
co u n terp art in the right circular cone.
117: A right circular cone is a circular cone in which one end­
D e fin itio n
point of the a ltitu d e is the center of the base, (Figure 18-17.)
p
T h e slant height of the regular pyram id which is an altitude of one
of the faces now becomes the slant height oj the right circular cone.
118: T h e slant height of a right circular cone is the set of line
D e f in it io n
segments whose endpoints are the vertex of the cone and a point of
the base.
Notice th a t the slant height has been defined in term s of a right circular
cone only. W hy was this definition not broadened to include all circular
cones?
W ith this as a background, Theorem 159 below appears to be a natu ral
extension of problem 6 on page 606.
T H E O R E M 159: T h e la te ra l surface a re a o f a r i g h t c irc u la r cone is
e q u a l to o n e -h alf th e p ro d u c t of th e m easure o f th e
s la n t h e ig h t a n d th e c irc u m fe re n c e of th e base.
Needless to say, the circumference of the base is 2w . Hence, one-half
of this becomes r r and therefore, T heorem 159 becomes,
T H E O R E M 160: T h e la te ra l surface a re a of a r ig h t c irc u la r cone can
b e e xpressed b y th e fo rm u la,
A = irrl
w h e re r is th e m easure of th e ra d iu s of th e base a n d 1
is th e m easu re of th e sla n t h e ig h t.
Should, we now add the area of the base to th a t of the lateral surface,
we com e up w ith,
 AREA AN D VOLUM E OF CYLINDER AND CONE 641
640 VOLUMES
M e th o d :In the diagram at the right
T H E O R E M 161: T h e to ta l surfacc a rea of a r ig h t c irc u la r cone can we perceive that the solid generated
b e e x p ressed b y the fo rm u la,
is a right circular cylinder whose radius
T.A. = irr! + ■*rl and altitude have measures of 6 and 8
or T.A. — tsriy -}-1) respectively. Hence,
w h e re r ts th e m easure of th e ra d iu s of th e base a n d I (a) V = irrVi
is th e m ea su re o f th e sla n t h e ig h t. — tt62-8
O u r w ork w ould not be complete if we failed to consider the area of = 288ir cubic inches
the surface of a right circular cylinder. 'As an outgrow th of problem 6 on (b ) T.A. = 2,rr(r + h)
page 624 we can say that, = 2ir •6 (6 + 8)
= 168tt square inches
THEOREM 162: T h e la te ra l surface a re a of a r i g h t c irc u la r c y lin d e r
is e q u a l to th e p ro d u c t of th e c irc u m fe re n c e of th e base
a n d th e m ea su re of th e a ltitu d e .
EXERCISES
T H E O R E M 163: T h e la te ra l surface a re a o f a r i g h t c irc u la r c y lin d e r
c a n b e e x p ressed b y th e fo rm u la ,
(Leave all answers in term s of ir unless otherwise stated.)
A = 2irrh 1. Find the volume of each o f the following circular cylinders.
THEOREM 164: T h e to ta l surface a re a of a r ig h t c irc u la r c y lin d e r (a) r = 7", A = 5" (b ) r. = 12', h = 4§'
can b e expressed b y th e fo rm u la , (c) d = 18', A = 6'4 " (d ) d = 24', h = 5'3 " ;;
T.A . = 2irr2 + 2ir rh 2. Find the' volume of each of the following circular cones.
or T.A. = 2irr(r + h)
(a) r = 6 cm, h = 8 cm ( b ) r — 15 yards, h - 5 yards
(c) d = 8 feet, h = 4 feet 6 inches (d ) d = 3 yards 2 feet, h = 6 yards
Illustration 1: 3. Find the lateral surface area of each of the following right c ircular
In a right circular cone, the altitude forms an angle of 30 degrees cylinders.
w ith the slant height. If the slant height of the cone is 12 inches, find (a) the (a) r = 10', I, = 4'3 " (b ) d = 14', h = 5'6 "
total surface area (b ) the volume 4. Find the total surface area of each of the following right circular cyl­
U sing the diagram , we can
M e th o d : inders.
determ ine the m easures of the altitude (a) r = 5", / = 8" (b ) r = 6", I = 4*"
and the radius of the base. Hence, (c) r = 6 cm, // = 8 cm (d ) d = 10 feet, h = 12 feet
(a ) T .A . = t r(r + 0 5. A right circular cylinder has a lateral surface area of 168 tt square inches.
= *6(6 + 12) T h e altitude of the cylinder is 14 inches. W hat is the area of one of the
= 108 tt square inches bases?
(b ) V = \xr-h
6. A right circular cone has a lateral surface area of 32ir square inches.
= 6J ’6 v /3
The^siantjieight) of the cone is 8 inches. W hat is the total surface area
= 72 ttV/3 cubic inches
of the cone?
7. T h e volume of a right circular cone is 96 tr cubic inches. If the altitu d e
of the cone is 8 inches, w hat is the lateral su^'ace area?
Illustration 2 :
8. The. altitude, of a right circular cone makes an angle of 45 degrees w ith
A rectangle whose dimensions are 6 feet by 8 feet is rotated about its
longer side. D eterm ine the slant height. If the radius of che base is 6 feet, w hat is the volume
of the cone?
(a ) the volume (b ) the total surface area of the solid generated.
642 VOLUM E AN D SURFACE AREA OF A SPHERE 643
VOLUMES
find a solid w here every, cross section of th at solid has an area th a t is equal
9. (a ) If the altitude of a right circular cone isdoubled while the radius
to the area of the corresponding cross section of the sphere. T o do this we
of the base rem ains the same, w hat happens to the volum e of the
work w ith half the sphere rather th an the total one. Therefore, when the
cone?
proof is com pleted we will, have to double the volume found to determ ine
(b ) Tf the radius of the base of a right circular cone, is doubled while
the volume of the sphere.
the altitude rem ains the same, w hat happens to the volume of the T o create the solid needed, we construct a right circular cylinder w here
cone? the radius of the base and the altitude of the cylinder are both congruent
(c) If both the altitude and the radius of the base of a right circular to the radius of the sphere. We then construct a right circular cone whose
cone are doubled, w hat happens to the volume of the cone? base is the upper base of the cylinder while its altitude is the altitude of the
10. A plane is passed parallel to the base of a
cone a n d 6 inches from the base. T he
altitude and radius of the base of the
original cone are shown in the diagram .
(a ) W hat is the radius of the upper cone?
( b ) W hat is the volume of the upper
cone?

11. A pile of sand is in the shape of a right circular cone w here the rad iu s
of the base is 10 feet and the altitude is 6 feet. A board is passed parallel
to the ground removing all the sand w ithin 2 feet of the vertex.-W hat
is the volum e of the sand th a t remains? F i g u r e 18-18,

12. T h e bases of a circular cone and a circular cylinder are exactly the same cylinder. It is the solid a t the left above to w hich we are referring.
and the vertex of the cone lies in th e same plane as the u pper base of Specifically, our objective is to prove th a t the volume bounded betw een
th e cylinder. Com pare the volumes of the two solids. the cone and the cylinder is equal to the volum e of the hem isphere (half­
13. T h e area of the base of a circular cone is equal to the lateral area of the sphere). T o do this we will show th at the areas of the shaded regions in the
cone. How does the radius of the base com pare to the slant height? two solids are equal. Since they represent sections formed by any plane
14. A n isosceles right triangle is rotated about its hypotenuse. If the m easure parallel to the plane containing the bases of the two solids, then by applying
C avalieri’s Principle we can conclude th a t the solids have equal volumes.
of the hypotenuse is 14, w hat is the volume of the solid th a t is generated?
For the shaded region of the hemisphere:
15. A hot w ater tank is designed in the shape of a right circular cylinder
Since this is a circle its area will be,
large enough to hold 75 gallons of water. If the d iam eter of the tank
A \ = t y 2
is to be 2 feet, approxim ately how high will the tank have to be? T h ere
but, / = r2 — x2
are 7§ gallons in 1 cubic foot. (Use as an approxim ation for jr.)
therefore, A i = ir(r2 — x-)
16. (a ) Show th a t the ratio of the area of the base of a right circular cone
For the shaded region of the solid at the left:
to the lateral area is equal to the ratio of the radius to the slant
Since A A B C ~ A A D E , x'.A B = z:r
height.
(b ) Show th at if two cylinders have, equal altitudes, th en the ratio of E ut, AB is the measure of the altitude of the cylinder and hence it is the same
their volumes is equal to the ratio of the squares of their corre­ as the m easure of the radius.
sponding radii. Therefore, x ;r = z:r or x = z
T h e area of the shaded region at the left is,
■ Volum e and Surface Area of a Sphere A2 = r r1 — t:z‘ or A.i —ir(r2 — z2)
In developing the theorem for determ ining the volume of a Since x = z
sphere we fall back on Cavalieri’s Principle. H ence it is necessary for us to T h e area is, A2 = 7r(r* — x4)
644 VOLUMES 645
VOLUM E AND SURFACE AREA OF A SPHERE
T hus, the areas of the shaded regions are equal and hence the volumes of
And by factoring,
the solids are equal. B ut the volume of the solid at the left is the difference
V = 3r(/li + A% + A-j + . . . + A„)
between the volume of the cylinder and th a t of the cone. Hence,
However, (A\ + A, + A, + . . . + A n) represents the surface area of th ;
Vh — irr2 r — %wr2-r
sphere which we call A. Hence,
or Vh — rr3 — jirr3 = jirr1
V = \rA
Therefore, the volume of the hem isphere is, T h e volume, though, can be replaced by ^ivr1. Thus,
Vk = W ^jrr3 = \rA
And, in turn, the volume of the sphere is, A nd finally we can conclude that,
A = 4 nfl

T H E O R E M 165: T h e volum e of a s p h e re can b e ex p ressed b y th e fo r­ In view of the above, the following postulate appears justifiable.
m u la , P o s t u l a t e 51: T he surface area of a sphere can be expressed by the f o r ­
V = m ula,
A = 4 AT2
w h e re r is th e m easure o f th e r a d iu s o f th e sp h ere.
w here r is the m easure of the radius of the sphere.
T h e proof of the last statem ent we w ould like to develop is som ewhat
beyond the scope of this course. However, it is possible to justify it intuitively
by m aking use of T heorem 164. Illustration:
Consider the possibility of cutting u p a sphere as shown in Figure 18-19 L iquid storage tanks are frequently constructed in the shape of a sphere.
below. Each of the solids resembles a pyram id except for the fact th at the How m any gallons can a spherical tank hold if it has a d iam eter of 21 feet3
(Use as the approxim ation for ir.)
M ethod : ^ = $ ,rrS
-fV 'W -)*
= 4,851 cubic feet
Num ber of gallons = 4,851 X 7 ; = 3 6 ,3 8 2 |

EXERCISES

(Leave all answers in terms of ir unless otherwise stated.)

1. Find the volume and surface area of each of the following spheres
(a ) r = 4" Y . (b ) r = 2 J"
Figure 18-19,
(c) d = 4'6" = y 6'.U;f £ (d ) d - 6 yds. 2 ft.
base is a region of the surface of a sphere ra th e r than a polygon. However, 2. T h e surface area of a sphere is lOOir square inches. Find the volum e
should each of these regions be taken small enough, then for all practical of the sphere.
purposes the areas of the bases of these solids could be considered to be the
3. T h e volume of a sphere is 2887T square feet. Find the surface area of
same as the areas of the bases of pyramids. By accepting this, we can find
the volum e of the sphere by adding the volumes of all the “ pyram ids.” the sphere.
Hence, 4. A circle of radius 6 inches is rotated about a diam eter.
Volum e of sphere = $A,/ii + iA ,/ii + lA 3h3 + . . . + \A nh„ (a) Find the surface area of the sphere that was generated.
(b ) How does the surface area of the sphere com pare w ith the area o:
B ut the altitude of each of the “ pyram ids” is the radius of the sphere.
Therefore, the generating circle?
(c) Is the conclusion found in (b ) true of any sphere a n d its generating
V = + 3^jr + . , . + \ A nr
circle? Justify your answer.

£ r <c h ~ 2- , S ' ^ 1h
j , /a /bftA r Zd,
 646 VOLUMES
5. A spherical balloon is inflated to the point where the m easure of its
radius is three times its original measure.
(a) How does the new surface area com parc with the original surface
area?
(b ) How does fhe new volum e com pare w ith the original volume?
6. (a ) Show th at the ratio ol" the surface areas of two spheres is equal to
the ratio of the squares.of their corresponding radii.
(b ) Show th a t the volumes of two spheres com pare as the cubes of
their corresponding radii.
7. T w o glass m arbles having diam eters of 4 inches and 6 inches respec­
tively a re m elted down and then the molten glass is reshaped into a
single m arble. D eterm ine the diam eter of the new m arble. (Leave
answer in radical form.)
8. A hollow plastic ball has an inner diam eter of 12 feet and an outer
d iam eter of 18 feet. If a cubic foot of the plastic weighs 6 ounces,
w h a t is the total w eight of the ball? (Use 3.14 as the approxim ate
value of ir.)
9. A sphere is inscribed in a right circular
cylinder.
(a ) Show th at the volum e of the right
circular cylinder is 1^ times the vol­
um e of the sphere.
(b ) Show th a t the lateral surface area
of the cylinder is equal to the sur­
face area of the sphere.
10 T h e upper and lower bases of a right circular cylinder are circles of a
sphere. T he radius of the sphere is 15 inches while the radius of the base
of the cylinder is 12 inches. How m uch of the volume of the sphere lies
outside the cylinder?
11. In the diagram at the right, how does
the surface area of the sphere com pare
w ith the total surface area of the right
circular cylinder?
12.* H ow does the volume of the sphere in
the adjacent diagram com pare w ith the
volum e of the right circular cor.e?
Trr~ief ■
TEST A N D REVIEW 647
■ Test and Review A
1. T h e base of a right prism is a triangle whose, sides.are 4, 5, a n d 7. If
the lateral edge of the prism is 12, w hat is the lateral area of the prism?
2. (a) T h e base of a right prism is a rhom bus whose diagonals are 10 and
24 respectively. )f the lateral edge is 8, w hat is the lateral area?
(b ) W h at is the totai area of this prism?
3. T h e base of a right prism is a q u ad rilateral whose sides are 3, 4, 7,
and 8. If the lateral area of the prism is 132, w hat is the m easure of a
lateral edge?
4. A right section of a prism is a right triangle with legs of 9 and 12.
T h e altitude of the prism makes an angle of 45° with the lateral edge.
If the measure of the altitude is 10, w hat is the lateral area?
5. T h e volume of a rectangular parallelepiped is 105. If the dim ensions
of the base are 3 and 7, w hat is the total area of the parallelepiped?
6. T h e base of a right prism is an equilateral triangle th a t is inscribed in a
circle of radius 6. If the lateral area of the prism is 9 0 \/3 , w hat is the
m easure of a lateral edge?
\ / 7. T h e dimensions of the base of a rectangular parallelepiped are 6 a n d 5
respectively. If the total area is 412, find the volume of the solid.
8. T h e length, width, and height of a rectangular parallelepiped are in
the ratio of 2 :3 :4 . If the volume of the solid is 648, w hat is the total area?
9. If the m easure of the diagonal of a cube is ^ 7 5 , find the volume of the
cube.
10. T w o cubic feet of liquid plastic is poured into a rectangular m old whose
base is 20 feet by 10 feet and allowed to cool. How thick will the sheet
of plastic be?
11. T h e base of a right prism is an isosceles rig h t triangle whose hypotenuse
is 4. If a lateral edge of the prism is 7, w h at is the volume of the prism?
12. T h e base of the prism is a square w ith diagonal 4 v /2. A lateral edge
w hose measure is 8 makes an angle of 60° w ith the altitude. W h a t is
the volum e of the prism?
13. O ne of the great Egyptian pyram ids has a square base, one of whose
sides is approxim ately 233 meters, w hile its height is approxim ately
145 meters. If the average weight of th<> m aterial from which it was
constructed is 2.8 tons per cubic m eter, w hat is the approxim ate w eight
of the pyram id? (Assume th a t it is a solid.)
14. T he base of ?. pyram id is an equilateral triangle w ith a side whose
m easure is 8. T he altitude of the pyram id is 10. A plane is passed parallel
 649
648 VOLUMES TRY THIS FOR FUN
frequently lay aside one of these two instrum ents a n d a tte m p t to seek out
to the base and 5 units from the vertex, rem oving a pyram id off the top.
th e solution to their problem w ith the aid of the o ther alone.
W hat is the volum e of the rem aining solid?
T hus, in the two intersecting circles below the objective was to find the
! 15. Find the volume and lateral surface area of a right circular cylinder
center of each circle by using only the straightedge. T o do this, a point P
! that has a diam eter of 8 cm and an altitude of 7 cm.
i 16, Find the volume and total surface area of a right circular cone where
the d iam eter of the base is 24 inches and the altitude is 16 inches.
17. Find the volume and surface area of a sphere that has a diam eter of
10 feet:
18. If an object sinks when placed in a basin filled with water, then the
am ount of w ater th a t spills out of the container is equal to the volum e
of the object. An iron ball having a d iam eter of 3 inches is lowered
into a hollow right circular cone th a t was filled with water. If the
radius of the base or'che cone is 8 inches while the altitude is 6 inches,
how m any cubic inches of w ater rem ain in the"cone? S—f
was selected on the circle a t the left. PA was draw n a n d extended until it
19.* T w o cubic feet of m etal is draw n into a wire having a diam eter of
■j inch. How m any inches of wire will there be? intersected the second circle a t Q. T his was followed by draw in g Q B and
20.* T h e base of a right circular cone is the base of a hem isphere while extending it to the point of intersection w ith the circle a t R. A second point
its vertex is a point of the hem isphere. Show th a t the volume of the
hem isphere is twice the volume of the cone.

0
Prove each of the following statem ents:
1. T w o right sections of a triangular prism are congruent triangles.
2. If a plane is passed through two diagonally opposite edges of a p a ral­ P ' was then selected and the process was repeated. T his, in tu rn , was followed
lelepiped, these edges and the intersections in the two bases will form a
by finding the points of intersection of PP' w ith R R ' a n d P R w ith P 'R ';
parallelogram .
3. If a p lan e is passed through two diagonally opposite edges of a p a ral­ these being M and / /. Now, were we to draw M jV, this line w ould pass
lelepiped, it will divide the solid into two equal triangular prisms. through the center of the larger circle.
4. If a line segm ent contains the point of intersection of the diagonals of a (a) C an you prove this?
(b ) W h at further construction is necessary to find the center of the
parallelepiped and term inates in the bases, then th at point is the m id­
larger circle?
point of the line segment.

■ Try This For Fun

M athem aticians seem to go out of their way in order to
throw obstacles in their path. T o illustrate, earlier we had learned th a t
a lth o u g h . they have m any instrum ents a t th eir disposal, they insist th a t
geom etric constructions be m ade with the use of but the straightedge and
compass. T o lim it the scope of their m ovem ent even further, they will
 Index

N u m erals show n in italic in d ic a te p ag e n u m b e rs o f d efin itio n s.

A b s o l u te v a l u e , 56, 384 s u p p le m e n ta ry , 31, 95. 96

A ltitu d e v ertical, 101
o f a p rism , 612 A n te c e d e n t, 85
o f a re c ta n g le , 582, 584 A p o th em , 603
o f a tra p e z o id , 5*85 A rc
of a tria n g le , 747, 549, 584, 585 co n g ru e n t, 454
A n a l y t i c p r o o f s , 423 d eg ree, 453
A n g le , 18 in te rc e p te d , 452
a c u te , 30 le n g th , 610
b isecto r of, 35, 33, 147 m ajo r, 451
c e n tra l, 457 m easu re of, 452
c o n stru c tio n o f an an g le co n g ru cn t to a m in o r, 451
g iv en a n g le , 540 sem icircle, 451
d egree, 453 A re a
d ih e d ra l, 290 la te ra l a re a o f a prism , 624
ex isten ce p o stu la te, 154 o f a circle, 6 1 2 -6 1 3
ex te rio r an g le o f a p o lygon, 220, 221. of a p a ra lle lo g ra m , 585
in scrib ed , 483, 4155 of a p o ly g o n , 580-606
in te rio r of, 142 of a rectan g le , 582
m easu re of, 2 7 -2 9 of a reg io n , 581
m easu re o f a d ih e d ra l an g le, 297 of a sector o f a circle, 615
o b tu se, 30 of a tra p e z o id , 587
p la n e an g le, 291 of a trian g le , 586
r ig h t, 30, 90 of sim ilar trian g les, 594, 595
sides, 18
s tra ig h t, 30, 95 B e tw e e n n e s s
v ertex , 18 p o in ts, 13, 55
A n g le s rays; 59, 173
a d ja c e n t, 173 B is e c to r
a lte rn a te ex terio r, 237, 240, 250 o f an an g le, 34, 38, 526, 542
a lte rn a te ir.te rio r, 236} 239, 248 o f an an g le o f a tria n g le , 549
co m p le m e n ta ry , 31, 96, 97 o f a line seg m e n t, 25, 38, 524
c o n g ru en t, 38, 103, 201
co rresp o n d in g angles o f c o n g ru e n t p o ly ­ C a t e o o r i c a l s ta t e m e n ts , 191, 193
gons, 115 C a v a l i e r i ’s P r in c i p le , 6 28, 631, 642
c o rresp o n d in g angles o f p arallel lin^s, C e v a ’s T h e o r e m , 374
237, 239, 249 C h o r d s , 450
d ifference of, 61 e q u id is ta n t from ce n ter, 4 6 1 -4 6 2
o f a p o lygon, 3 0 0 -3 2 2 in tersectin g , 498
re m o te in te rio r angies o f a trian g le, 220 r a d iu s p e rp e n d ic u la r to c h o rd , 462
su ra, 60 u n eq u a l, 570-571
 652 INDEX INDEX
v
........ . .'.T1 - M
S®
C i r c l e , 156, 440, 4 4 0 -4 4 5 , 450^513, 530, C o n v e r s e , 248, 269, 517 -5 2 2 , 5 6 2 -5 6 3
612 C o o r d i n a t e g e o m e tr y , 3 7 5 -4 4 9
E q u a t io n s , 22 ^ L i g h t w aves, 52 :' • 'i i l i l
area* 612, 613 d e p e n d e n t, consistent, in co n sisten t, 422 L ines, 10
abscissa, 379
area o f a secto r, 615 a n a ly tic geo m etry , 375 eq u a l p ro d u cts, 353 bisector of a lin e s e p m -n t * 2 ||
center, 156, 441 co llin e ar points, 396
eq u a l rntios, 353 lin e o f centers, 457 ' ■'■**
circum ference, 606, 607, 6055 of a ciiclc, 441 line segm ent, 7 5 .....
c o o rd in ate, 377, 378
circu m scrib e d , 547, 548 of a line, 441 oblique, 45 -*■'* fH
c o o rd in a te system , 23, 28, 55, 379-
c o n g ru en t, 454 p ro p o rtio n , 329 opposite sides o f a lin e, 28.9
m id p o in t o f a line seg m en t, 388
e q u a tio n , 441 E q u a l i t y , 22 parallel, 234 **
o rd e re d pairs, 379
exterior, 482 reflexive p ro p erty , 72 parallel to th e sam e lin e , 2 5 0 ,
o rd in a te , 379
im ag in a ry , 443 sy m m e tric p ro p erty , 72 perp en d icu lar to a ' | S ^ | p § $
orig in , 376
inscribed, 547, 548 tra n sitiv e p ro p erty , 72 p erp en d icu lar to th e sam e iin e 94®
p o in t th a t divides a lin e seg m e n t in to a
in terio r, 482 E u c lid , 246, 247, 314, 316 sam e side o f a lin e, 289
given ratio , 386
le n g th o f an a rc of, 610 fifth p o stu la te, 247 secant, 4SG
q u a d r a n t, 377
E x is te n c e , 255-257, 540 skew, 230 ;i1vi
point,' 443 slope, 395
rad iu s, 156, 441 E x is te n c e a n d u n iq u e n ess o f o r d e r , 316, ta n g en t, 466
C o p l a n a r p o in ts, 20 1
sector, 614, 615 564 transversal, 235
C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , 23, 28, 1 1 2 - U 6 , 380 trisectors of a lin e seg m e n t, 27
ta n g e n t, 467 ch o rd s a n d m in o r arcs, 452
C i r c u l a r c o n e , 638 G e o d e sic , 179 L in e segm ents, 15
co rresp o n d in g angles, 115
la te ra l su rface a re a , 639 G e o m e tr ic f ic u ri-, 12 a ltitu d e, 147
co rresp o n d in g sides, 115
rig h t c irc u la r cone, 639 G r a p h , 411 angle bisector o f a tria n g le , 747, 549
e q u iv a le n t, 116
s la n t h e ig h t, 639 circle, 442-445 bisector of, 25
C u b e , 626
to ta l su rface a re a , 640 o f a n e q u a tio n , 414 c h o rd , 450
volum e, 638 o f ineq u alities, 425-433 co m m ensurable, 334
D a V in c i, L e o n a r d o , 621
C i r c u l a r c o n ic s u r f a c e , 638 line, 414-418 co n g ru en t, 38, 103
D e f in itio n s
C i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , <537 co n struction of, 540
co n n o ta tiv e , 6, 7
H a l f - p l a n e , 289, 377 , 431-432 co rresponding sides o f c o n g ru e n t tri­
la te ra l su rface a re a , 640 co n s tru c tin g a d efin itio n , 4 -6
angles, 115
to ta l surface a re a , 640 d e n o ta tiv e , 7
I f - c la u s e , 191 d iag o n al o f a p o ly g o n , 259
volum e, 637 n ee d for, 2
C i r c u l a r c y u n d r i c a l s u r f a c e , 636 In c o m m e n s u ra b le lin e secm en ts, 334 d iam eter, 451
o f geo m etry , 540
C o l l i n e a r p o in ts , 2 0 1 I n e q u a l i t y , 219, 426-428, 564-579 difference, 58
p ro p erties, 6
C o m m e n s u ra b le l i n e s e g m e n ts, 334 an g les o f a trian g le, 566 hypotenuse, 161, 360,. 361, 366
reverse of, 40
C o m p le m e n ta ry a n o l e s , 31 ch o rd s, 570 lateral edge, 623 •\
syno n y m o u s, 6
co m p lem en t, 31, 96, 97 e x te rio r an g le o f a trian g le , 221, 303 m easu re of, 2 3 -2 4 , 338 ‘ f
D e g re e
Com pound l o c i , 436, 533 -5 3 7 existence a n d uniqueness o f o rd e r, 316, m edian, 147, I'll
a n g u la r , 31, 453
C o n cu rren c y 564 m id p o in t, 25, 38
arc, 453
g rap h s, 425-431 secan t segm ent, 471
o f altitu d es o f a tria n g le , 559 D e s c a r te s , 375
o p e n sen ten ce, 427 sum , 57
o f an g le b isec to rs o f a tri.an.gte, 517 C a rte s ia ir c o o rd in ate system , 379
sides o f a trian g le, 565 ta n g en t segm ent, 471
o f m ed ian s o f a tria n g le , 392 D e s c r ip tio n , 9
tra n sitiv ity o f o rd er, 316, 564 L o b a c h e v sk y , 247, 313, 314
o f p e rp e n d ic u la r bisectors o f th e sides of D e te rm in e , 200
a tria n g le , 536, 559 I n s c r ib e d a n o le s , 483 L o cu s, 434
a line, 200 co m p o u n d , 436, 5 33-537
C o n d i t i o n a l s t a t e m e n ts , 85, 191 -1 9 2 in a sem icircle, 485
a p la n e , 201, 204, 205, 280
C o n g r u e n c e , 62 in th e sam e arc, 491 in co o rd in ate g eo m etry , 4 3 4 -4 3 7
D i h e d r a l a n o l e , 290
o f angles, 38 m easu re of, 483 in synthetic g eo m etry , 5 1 4 -5 6 3
c o n g ru e n t, 291
o f arcs, 454 I n t e r s e c t i o n o f sets, 11, 4 1 9 -4 2 2 , 437 L o g i c a l in c o n s is te n c y , 2'27
edge, 290
o f circles, 454 I n v e r s e , 517 -5 2 2 , 563
faces, 290
o f lin e segm ents, 38 Iso scei.es t r i a n c l e , 142
m e asu re, 291 ,
base, 142 M easure
o f polygons (see tria n g le s), 118 p la n e a n g le of, 291
b ase a n g le s /l 42 of a cen tral an g le, 452
postulates, 73 D is ta n c e , 179
. legs, 142 o f ? line seg m en t, 2 3 -2 4 , 50, 338
C o n s e q u e n t, 85 b e tw e e n a p o in t a n d a line, 378
C o n s tr u c t io n s , 5 3 9 -5 5 4 th eo rem s, 145-146 c f an angle, 2 7 -2 9
betw e en tw o p o in ts, 180, 3 82-385
com pass, 539 vertex an g le, 142 o f an angle w hose vertex lies o u tsid e a
eq u a lly d ista n t, 180
straig h ted g e, 539, 626-627 circle, 487
e q u id is ta n t, 180-186
C o n tr a p o s i tiv e , 5 1 7 -5 2 2 , 562-563 L a w o f C o n tr a d ic t io n , 227 of an arc, 452
geodesic, 179
L a w o f t h e E x c lu d e d M id d le , 227 o f an inscribed an g le, 483, 485
 655
654 INDEX INDEX
construction of, 552
of a ta n g en t-ch o rd angle, 27-29 co p lan ar, 2 0 7
p a r a g r a p h , 228 H .L , theorem , 161
u n it of, 333 end p o in ts o f a lin e seg m en t, 15 tw o -co lu m n , 91 hypotenuse, 161
M e d ia n foot o f a line, 207
P r o p o r t i o n , 329 legs, 161
o f a tra p ezo id , 392, 405 m id p o in t, 2 5
ex trem es, 330 R o p e s t r e t c h e r s , 365
o f a trian g le , 7 4 7 , 277, 392, 549 of tan g en cy , 467 fo u rth p ro p o rtio n a l, 330
M i d p o i n t o p a l < n e s e g m e n t , 25, 3 8 . 184 on th e sam e side of a line, 2 8 9 g en e ra l p ro p o rtio n , 330
m id p o in t form ula, 388 orig in , 376 m e a n p ro p o rtio n , 330 S a c c h e r i , 314-319
plo tting, 376
m ean s, 330 q uad rilateral, 315
N on -E uclidean ceom etry , 2 4 5-247, 313— trisection points, 27
p ro p o rtio n a ls, 330 S e c a n t s e g m e n ts , 476, 498-502
319 P o l y c o n s , 7 72 p ro p o rtio n b y a d d itio n , 331
L obachevsky, 247, 313, 314 S e c t io n , 601, 624
area, 580-606
R ie m a n n , 247, 314, 315 P r o t r a c t o r , 28 S e l f - e v i d e n t t r u t h s , 53
circum scribed, 5 4 7
P y ra m id , 201, 596 S e t , 10, 409, 514
co n g ru en t, 7 7 8
a ltitu d e , 596 elements or members of, 10
O p e r a t io n a l postulates , 57, 6 2 -7 0 convex, 3 0 9
b ase, 596 intersection, 11, 419-422, 437
O r d e r e d p a ir , 379 decagon, 312
re g u la r, 605 of ordered pairs, 410, 411
du odecagon, 312
s la n t h e ig h t, 605 solution set, 41 i
P a r a g r a p h p r o o f , 228 hexagon, 312
tria n g u la r, 596 subsets, 10
P a ra lle le p ip e d , 6 26 inscribed, 5 4 7
v o lu m e, 631-634 union, 11
re c ta n g u la r, 6 2 6 n-gons, 311, 312
P y r a m i d a l s u r f a c e , 595 S h o rte s t p a th
cu b e , 6 2 6 octag o n , 312
P a ra lle lis m elem en t, 595 ’ betw een two points, 179
p en tag o n , 312
c o n stru c tio n o f a line p arallel to a given q u ad rilateral, 2 5 8 n a p p e , 595 , from a point to a line, 378
line, 546 reg u lar, 6 0 3 , 602-604 p y ra m id , 596 S k e w lin e s , 280
in a p la n e, 218-278 sim ilar, 3 4 2 vertex , 595 ‘ S lo p e , 393-403
in sp ace, 279-299 P y t h a g o r a s , 365-366 ' .. of a line, 395, 416
sum o f th e m easures o f th e angles, 309
co n v erse o f th e o re m of, 370 c f a line segment, 395
line p arallel to a side of a tria n g le , 324, sum o f the m easures o f the ex terio r a n ­
P y th a g o re a n S o ciety , 365 of lines parallel to the a- or^-axis, 402
325, 334, 336, 404 gles, 311
th e o re m of, 366, 507, 621 of parallel lines, 397
p a ra lle l lines, 2 3 4 , 279, 281, 397, 398 P o n s A s i n o r u m , 171
p a ra lle l planes, 2 7 9 , 283, 596, 597 of perpendicular lines, 400
P o s t u l a t e s , 53
P a r a l l e l o g r a m , 2 5 8 , 258-273 ad d itio n , 62 one over zero slope, 403
Q u a d ra n t, 377
diagonals, 259, 262 assum ptions, 54 Q u a d rila te ra l, 258 S o lid , 595
re c ta n g le , 2 5 9 axioms, 54 prism , 623
r h o m b u s 26 0 , 263 division, 68 • \ volum e, 627
sq u a re , 260, 262 equality, 72 R a d iu s o f a c irc le S p a c e , 199
P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e , 247 m u ltip licatio n , 68 d e fin itio n of, 156 S p h e re , 477, 477-480, 642-649
P a s c h ’s A xiom , 144, 255 th e o re m , 156 center, 477
op eratio n al, 57, 6 2 -7 0
R a d iu s o f a r e g u l a r p o ly g o n , 603 intersection o f a plane and a sphere, 478,
P e rp e n d ic u la rity Pasch’s Axiom, 144
betw e en a line a n d a p la n e, 198-217, 284 reasoning, 85-87 R a t i o , 329 479
b etw een tw o lines, 172-197, 400, 401
equality, 353, 354 radius, 477
su b trac tio n , 65
b etw e en tw o planes, 2 9 3 P ris m , 6 2 3 R a y , 76 surface area, 645
b ise c to r o f a n an g le, 35, 38 ta n g e n t planes, 479, 480
c o n stru c tio n o f p e rp e n d ic u la r lines, 5 4 2 - cross section, 624
544 faces, 624 e n d p o in t of, 16 volum e, 644
p e rp e n d ic u la r lines, 3 4 , 240 o p p o site ray s, 17 S q u a r e , 260, 262
lateral edges, 623
p la n es p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e sam e line, parallelep ip ed , 6 2 6 R ea so n jn o S t r a i g h t a n g l e s , 30
282 rig h t prism , 624
correct, 86, 90 theorem , 95
P i, 608 -6 0 9 in c o rre c t, 87 S u b s t i t u t i o n p r o p e r t y , - 175
rig h t section, 624
P l a n e , 1 9 9 , 201 R e c t a n g l e , 259 S u p p le m e n ta r y a n g l e s , 37
trian g u la r, 624
R e p l a c e m e n t p r o p e r t y , 173 supplem ent, 31
faces o f a d ih e d ra l angle, 290 volum e, 626-629
R h o m b u s, 260, 263 theorems, 95, 96
h a lf-p la n e , 2 8 9 , 377 P r i s m a t i c s u r f a c e , 623
R ie m a n n , 247: 314, 315
p e r p e n d ic u la r planes, 2 9 3 P ro o f S u r f a c e , 198
ta n g e n t to a sphere, 4 7 9 R j o h t a n g l e s , 30 plan*, 799
ap p eal to a u th o rity , 2
P l a y f a i r , 246 by elim ination, 226 th e o re m , 9U prism atic, 623
P o in t, 9 by force, 1 RtOHT t r i a n c l e , 742 pyram idal, 595
a ltitu d e to h y p o te n u se , 360, 361, 507
co llin e ar, 2 0 7 , 396 in d ir e c t, 144, 224-229 sphere, 477
arm s, 1 6 1