POREWORD Practical field interpretation of date Is Une ain Uirust of Ubis: trata "8 manual. Knowledge of certain geological principles and physical laws are helpful in the understanding of the coiense of abnormal prossure, but the sotual intorprota tion of the drilling data generated at the wellsite is an acquired art based mainly upon experience. ‘Therefore, this manual is written expressly for drilling personnel — roughnecks, drillers, toolpushers, drilling superintendents, engineers, geologists, service company personnel — or any other person associated with boring a hole into the earth to find hydrocarbons. Hopefully this manual will give you the knowledge to recognize overpressur~ ed formations while you are drilling. And you ean avoid fire, killed or injured persons, junked holes, severely damaged oil and gas reservoirs, and loss of time, 4, and money. Literally, you can Dritl Abuuringl Pressure Safely. However, this manual is not a "cook book" for drilling a difficult, ‘overprorsured well. It doce not replace commen sense, sound reasoning, ar proven equipa detailed procedures for a specific job. Above all, the manual will not make you an istant expert on abnormal-pressure drilling: expert status is achieved only through extensive study and on-the-job experience. You will learn some basies of how to predict, detect, and evaluate abnormally-pressured formations, and how to solve the resultant drilling and casing problems.CONTENTS Global Occurrence and Geological Age of Abnormal Pressure SECTION |: GEOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES Causes of Abnormal Pressure. 6 + + + Undercompaction . 2. ss sees Chemical Diagenesis so ee Uplift sce ese Fluid Density Contrast. 5 es ee ee (Recharge sia vtarein nuitianer aces : Fading ae Ose Mdeorption eee ee see see eee eee ee Internal Forces... ss ee Summary of Abnormal Pressure Causes se ee ee ee ae Basic Concepts Behind Prediction and Detect Transition Zone... eee Formation Proper tics! Relationship to Abucriul Pressure Drilling Indicators' Relationship to Abnormal Pressure Prediction of Abnormal Pressure +. + + Pete Histarienl Eualitinn af Ahnormal Praceire Rarngnitinn Geophysical Techniques for Predicting Overpressures Seismic Data and Techniques... + ce Basic Concept of CDP we ee ee ee Worldwide Case Histor Summary. eee ee Crewe bac PorePressurePlors 2 ltt Footnote References»... +++ ee eee SECTION I: PLANNING THE ABNORMAL-PRESSURE WELL Genlogie-Snismie Mans and Crass Sections 652 ee ee ce Fracture Gradients and Hole Integrity... 2. 2s eee The Geology/Fracture Gradient Relationship. 6. 6 ee ee eee Qpen-Hole Pressure Integrity «+ ee Pressure Integrity Leak Off lests S022 222220000 cu Use of Graphs. we ee ee eee ee Prepare the DrillingPlon. 2... ss cee ee eee nee Cusiny Design und Seliiny Depila Se ee Drill String and Its Components 2s ee ee ee ae Drilling Fluids and Their Properties... oe ee ee ee ee Specific Equipment and Tools Expert Drilling Personnel. oss ee ee ee ee Selection of the DrillingRig. +s se ee ee ee ee Pre-Spud Meeting of Drillina Group and Contractors. ss ee ee ee ee FootnoteReferences ses cette cnet ese were n eeeSECTION III: PRESSURE INDICA LORS Rate of Penetration Curves «we ee ee eee Mechanically Recorded ROP Coves FETED. iD D ili 4 Manually Recorded ROP Curves 2. sss ee ee Dll ‘Toial|Drilled Gusset cets se HA15 Gos Detection Fquipment 2 DDD DDD DIPPED piri? 11-6 Drilled Gas Examples... 22222222 t late, MudProperties. oe ee ee ellen Chlorides. : es] Flowline Temperature 222222. E DDD DD lege Miscellaneous Properties. 2. fo ce ee ee eo HIE2B Cuttings Analysis... eee ee iA Lihology wt ae os Shale Density +. : Paleontology. sss te Borehole linctabitity arate eines uceicui sierra tssee Hole Fill... Torque and Drag. + « Miscellaneous». Correlation... ss Composite Pressure Inci Protective Casing Seat . . « Protective LinerSeat. . 22S Overpressure at Total Depth,» . ee eee Footnote References ss ee ee eee eee eee SECTION IV: QUANTITATIVE VERIFICATION OF ABNORMAL PRESSURE Electrical Logs Used in Verification. 6 ee eee ee ee WE Acoustle bogie ce errrentrc cers eat te Induction Electrical Loa s 66. ee ee ee Other LogsandMethods 2S. We How to Make Pressure Plots sss. se eee ee es Ne (GenerallGuidelines 0s este see ve ppecitic Rules ond iechniques bili ive Use of Pressure Readers se ese te eee ee ate rive Pressure Plot Examples se ee ee ee ee ee ee ee Me Footnote References sv bts ease ene eect i eer ve APPENDIX Glossary ies rsasee esta rtaiiiie asi Hae ste Hatat stats oo PA? Symbols and Abbreviati De ee ARO Formulae...» « ee 13 Drilling Bit Types DTD Dili ll ae Selacted|Reterences ues ea eee 16 Grohe pies BR Corrected "d" Exponent Nomograph Dl ae Conversion Scales ss ee eee ee eee Cee PRESSURE READERSGLOBAL OCCURRENCE OF ABNORMA Abnormal formation pressures have been encountered both on and. offshore in all continents (see Fig. 1). Sueh abnormal forma- tion pressures are defined as any pressure greater than the normal hydrostatic pressure at any given depth.* Overpressures have been Tolind’ as shallow as only @ few hundred feet below the surface and as deep as 20,000 feet.’ ‘They are most often found in shale and sand sequences but ere not uncommon in evaporite carbonate sections (anhydrite, limestone, and dolomites). Abnormelly-pressured formations fre known ta range throughout the genlagio AND GEOLOGICAL AGE L PRESSURE time scale from the Cenozoie era (Pleistocene period) into the oldest Paleozoic era (Middle Cambrian period). Each epoch within the three sedimentary eras — Cenozoie, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic — contains overpressured formations in a basin located somewhere in the world. The location of some of the best known overpres- sured basins are shown in the column on the right of Fig. 2 Statistically, Tertiary sed ments are most often overpressured but the Jurassic and Triassic are the most severe, often requiring over 20 pounds-per-gallon mud woighte far drilling annteat Figure 1 Abnormal Pressure Basins wory Loast Seudi Arabia * Bee Glossary for further pressure terms and definitions.Some of the better known overpressured basins and their magnitudes in equivalent: mud weights, pound per gallon (ppg) are as follows: NORTH AMERICA - UNITED STATES The best mown and most widely drilled overpressured basin in the world is Ure Gulf of Meaicu busin underlying ‘Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Ala~ bama, and Florida. ‘The magnitude of pressures are from approximately 18.5 ppg mud weights in the Recent-Pleistocene in the Offshore Loui ana Area to over 20 ppg in the Smackover formations in the Jackson Dome Ares, Missis- sippi? The number of overpressured wells within the basin number into the thousands. Abnormal pressure teelmology ws currently practicea Dy the drilling industry was developed during the Grilling of these wells. Unfortunately, we do Figure 2 Geological Ago of Abnormal Prossure Era Period mitions ot Yours -cenozoie she Movonic Paroroie — Period Epoch Location ‘Quaternary “Et Tetiory Se ‘Gurr or mexico Gulf of Mexico | Malaysia | Pliocene Venezuela Gull of Mexico Egypt Mataysta Indonesia Gulf of Mexico ‘Rusia Guif of Mexico Beaufort ‘viyoming & Urah Paleocene | Gulf of Mexico ee Wory Coest : Mauritania | North Sea Wyoming Oligocene Eocerie tion Arctic Be Baska | Auscate | Newoundand Saito Mex Vendsoie Murti NSiope \ iin 8a Camorian Precambrian France Celtic Sea Gull of Mexico Heal ‘Jurassic “Triassic Tran Seudi Arabia Saini NW. Germany W. Texas Saudi Arabia W. Texas ‘Oklahoma Canada Wetfearp Stawn Morrow Chester \Ucambrien Midate Algeria & W. Va. |not always use all of this technology and the result is often @ severe well control problem caused by abnormal pressure. ‘The Appalachian basin in West Virginia has required mud weights of 18.0 ppg to drill the Middle and Lower Cambrian formations whien are pom elasties Gund und shales) and carbonates (limestones and dolomites). The Anadarko basin in Oklahoma has coverpressures in the Pennsylvanian, Mississio- pian, Devonian, Silurian, and Ordovician peri- ods.” Some of the most troublesome formations to drill are the Atoka. Morrow. Soringer. Hun- ton, Viola, Bromide, and Simpson. ‘The highest mud weights used are in the 17.0 to 17.5 pg range. Wells drilled in the Michigan basin have encountered abnormal pressures in the Devonian Reef Trend but the mud weights were relatively mild ~ only 11.0 to 11.5 ppg range. The Delaware basin of West ‘Texas is famous for overpressures in the Permian (Wolf- eamp) and Pennsylvanian (Canyon, Strawn, and Morrow). ‘This basin is unique because the formation pressures below the "Hard Miss" (Chester Formation) have a normal formation pressure gradient which often leads to lost returns and severe well control problems (refer to Section Il for casing designs for abnormal pressure wells In Utls basin. The Powder River basin in Wyoming is overpressured in the Tertiary (Green River) and the Crotaccour (Frontier Series) requiring mud weights between 13.0 and 14.5 ppg. ‘The Wind River, Green River, and Hoback River basins have ‘similar overpressures in the same age formations. The Uinta basin in northeastern Utah has rather high formation pressures, (15.0 to 15.5 ppg) in the Altamont-Bluebell Trend. The overpressures occur in te tractured pre~ dominantly shale section of the Eocene (Ter- tiary Lower Green River and Wasateh forma- tion). California has several overpressured be~ sins but the most famous one is the Ventura basin (Santa Barbara Channel). ‘The Tertiary Miocene sands and shales of the Monterrey formation are mild to rather severe in mud weight requirements — 11.0 to 15.5. ppg — depending upon the depth where penetrated in the basin. Some of the San Joaequin basin wells require 14.5 to 16.5 ppg mud weights to drill the overpressured Eocene format Alaska has several abnormally-pressured formations on the North Slope. This area is Iooated in the Raaufart hacin and the age af overpressures are mainly in the Upper Creta-~ ceous formations — Seabee and Cenomanion. ‘The Sag River of the Jurassie and the Saddle- rochit of the Triassic are also overpressured. Maximum mud weights used for drilling these formations have been in the 15.0 to 16.5 ppg range. ‘The Gulf of Alaska where industry is just how ariiliug In Uwe deeper offshore waiers wil in all likelihood be overpressured because wells Grilled along the shoreline have encountered Tertiary-aged formations in the Lower Oligo- ene that required 15.0 ppg mud densities. ‘The first COST well reportedly had a mud density of 16.5 ppg at total deoth. ‘Summarizing, in’ the United States ab- normal pressures are found both on and offshore in sands and shales most often, but also. in earbonate-evaporite sequences. ‘rnis Tact nas been established from pressure data gathered by industry drilling abnormally-pressured forma tions located in basing within the otates of Alabama, _ Aloske, Arkanses, California, Colorado, South Dakota, Floriéa, Louisiana Michigan, Mississippi, Montana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, Wyom- ing, and West Virginia. CANADA Abnormal pressures in this nation Were first encountered in Western Alberta in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. ‘The Devonian eid Siluries sedinents have been the most troublesome with mud weight require- ments sometimes as high as 16.0 to 18.5 ppg. In tho overthruct holt, the ssippinn_farmn- tions are overpressured and often require mud weights in the range of 15.0 to 16.0 ppg. ‘The Mackenzie Delta area in the Beaufort besin contains very high pressures in the Lower Tertiary sands and shales of the Eocene and Paleocene epochs. The highest mud weight used To aate 1S 18.0 Ppg, DUE Most of the wells have been drilled with 16.0 to 16.5 ppg mud densities. ‘The Sverdrup basin, which underlies the western portion of the’ Aretie Iclande, hes abnormal pressures in the 12.5 to 14.0 pog range from the Upper Cretaceous formations. High pressured gas blowouts occurred on Melville and King Christian Islands when Pan Aretie drilled the first exploratory wells in this basin in 1969 and 1970, ‘he Grand Banks basin off the south anc cast coast of Newfoundland contains overpres- sured formations in the Lower Jurassic shales? Ut have reyuited mud weights as high ao 19.5 ppg. Slight overpressures are also found in the Tertiary and Cretaceous but they have been eontrotiod with mud densities in the 11.0 to 11.5 Pog range. This basin has failed to yield ‘commereisl hydrocarbons, even though it hasbeen explored for 10 years with over 40 wells drilled to date. Wells drilled off the Sable Island area into ‘the Nova Scotia shelf have encountered abnor~ mal pressures in the Cretaceous sediments that required 15.5 ppg mud densities. MEXICO Abnormal pressures found in the area south of the Texas border and offshore are eontained in the sediments in tho wostorn portion of the Gulf of Mexico basin already discussed under United States. Overpressures, commence in the younger ‘Tertiary formations and extend into the Cretaceous and Jurassic as in the rest of this huge basin. SOUTH AMERICA The most prolifie nyaro- earbon producing basin on this continent is the Maracaibo basin located in western Venezuela. Deep exploratory drilling in the Cretaccous portion of this basin has encountered severe ‘overpressures in the black Colon shale, requir- ing 19.5 ppe mud weights. ‘The eastern Vene- zuela basin also has very high abnormal pres- sures in the Lower Miocene with the Oficina shale being particularly difficult to drill, often requiring 15.5 to 16.5 ppg mud weights. Overpressures have been a drilling prob- lem in most of the countries of South America. To name a few: the foothills of the Andes in Argentina, Bolivia, and Colombia; offshore drilling on the west coast of Colombia, Eeuador, and Pamt; alang the aact onnst af Rrazil, Guiena, and Venezuela. AFRICA Abnormal pressure is a drilling prob- Tem in many of the republies and kingdoms of this geologically complex continent. Algeria's famous Hassi Messaoud field encountered pres- sure gradients in the Cambrian formations equivalent to 12.5 ppg mud weight. Slight overpressures have been found in Miocene maris located in Morocco. Tovever, offshore drilling along the coast of Mauritania has found overpressured sands and shales of Lower Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous age that required from 15.0 to 16.0 ppg mud densities. ‘The recent drilling offshore Ivory Coast found sands and shales of basal Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous formations that required mud weights between 14.0 and 17.0 ppg. Nigeria has overpressures in the Tertiary seuiments burled In Ute Niger River besit offshore. Drilling these formations are about the same as for the Gulf of Mexico, but the magnitude ie somewhat loss - approximately 15.0 to 16.0 ppg mud weight requirements. Egypt has reported some interesting pres- sure gradients in the complexly graben-faulted Red Sea basin. Overpressures of 13.5 to 14.0 ppg have been reported in the Triassic sands and shales immediately underlying the massive salt and anhydrite beds. In the offshore Nile Delta area, Miocene aged sediments required the use of mud weights in the 15.0 to 15.5 ppg range. Very high abuurmal pressures are kuowi from deep exploratory drilling in Libya but they fare not as common as in some of the other basine already disouscod. Limited infarmatian indicates that at least one well used mud weights in the 19.5 ppg range and probably in Triassic-aged sediments. In the offshore area several wells required heavy muds in the 15.5 to 16.5 ppg range. KUKUPE ADnormat pressure occurrence nas Been reported in the literature by several authors. For the most comprehensive and complete listing, refer te footnote 4 at the ond of this seetion. Dr. Fertl presents an outstand- ing summary of abnormaily-pressured forma- tions in the various basins of Furone. Some of the countries listed are Austria, Germany, Holland, Italy, Ireland, Hungary, Poland, Ruma- nia, and Bulgaria. Since this article was written in 1972, more recent cata has been published for the petroleum producing basins in the following countries. ITALY Deep drilling in the Po Valley in the northern part of Italy has encountered high pressure gas in the Malossa field, Production is from Mesozoie dolemiter (oquivalent in age ta the Gulf of Mexico's Jurassic) and mud weights have ranged from 17.0 to 19.5 ppg? FRANCE The Aquitaine basin located in southwestern France along the north side of the Pyrenees Mountains contains very severely overpressured formations that also have signifi- cant amounts of poisonous, nyarogen-suit ide gas (very similar to and the same age as the Smackover formation in the Jackson Dome area of central Misaiaaippi). ‘The Borenx field ia the most famous for pressures as mud weights of 20 ppg were used to control a kick in the first well Grilled in 19892 Since then, several wells have been drilled in this basin to depths between 20,000 and 21,500 feet having pressure gradi~ ents in excess of 1.0 psi/ft. (19.2 ppg mud weight). GERMANY ‘There are several abnormal ay-pressured Toriimivny i this country but Ure most recently drilled area for gas exploration has been the NW German basin. “It is a part of tho major NW-European Pormian basin which underlies most of the North Sea area. Over- pressures in the German portion of this basin fare mainly due to salt comes and relateddiapirie structures (shale intrusives). Mud weights used to control these overpressured formations of various ages ineluding basal Ter -y, Cretaceous, Jurassic, Lume: Triassic, and Permian, range from a low value of 10.5 ppg the Groningen gas field in Holland to approxi- mately 19.8 pne for the Main Dolomite seetian of northern Germany. NORWAY AND UNITED _ KINGDOM (NORTH SEA AREA) iis 1s one of the free ‘world's most promising basins for supplying oil outside the Arab Cartel countries. It is Just now coming onto commercial produetion. Sev- cial vf the nnain reservulrs are uverpressured: Danian Chalk (Paleocene) in the south; Dogger sands (Jurassic) in the north, Mud weights have varied, generally lessor in the southern part of ‘the basin than in the northern portion, approx mately 13.0 to 13.5 in the former and 15.5 to 16.5 in the latter. Age of the main zones of overpressure ate Tertiary, Cretaceous, and Jur- assic. A recent well drilled by a major operator to 17,000 feet in the Lower Jurassic required & mud weight of 17.0 ppg. IRELAND The Celtic Sea between Eng- land and Ireland contains abnormally-pressured Jurassic formations that require mud weights a3 high as 17.0 ppg to control the formational pressures. IDDLE EAST This is the area which contains huge reserves of oil and gas, mostly normal- pressured. However, there have been numerous instances of spectacular blowouts in this area caused by overpressured sediments. Saudi Arabia has very few deep wells drilled to date, but mud weights up to 20 yy mere used WW control a Triassic evaporite-carbonate section in the Ain Dar area. Other areas have been less severe raquiring more madarate mud woighte af 13.5 to 15.0 ppg. Iran has a much longer history of abnor- mally high formation pressures ~ some 40 years of Grilling operations. ‘The most severe pres- sures have occurred in the Northern plains of Gorgan in Central Iran where mud weights of 22 ppg were useu In drlling Use Mesozole evapo- rite-earbonate seetions. The most spectacular and disastrous blowout was the discovery well for the huge Albers field. ‘This woll blew cut of control for 80 days, spraying the landseape with more than five million barrels of ofl before bridging* ‘Abnormal pressures have been reported from other countries in this area (iraq, Kuwait, Trucial States, ete.) but no detailed data was avauigoie. SOUTH CHINA SEA This area has rather high abnormal formation pressures, primarily in Ter- tiary sediments (Pliocene, Miocene, and Oligo- cene). ‘The maximum mud weights are in the 15.5 to 16.0 pow range for the Brunei basin and 17.5 to 18.0 ppg for the Malay besin of Malaysia, 18.0 to 18.5 ppg for the Kalimantan area of Indonesia, In the ‘Timor Sea area, overpressured ‘Tertiary formations have requir- ed in excess of 15.0 ppg mud weights. AUSTRALIA ‘The "down-under continent hes also encountered abnormal pressures in the offshore drilling of the Bass Straits area. Mud weights have ranged from 14.0 ppg in the Snapper field to 15.5 ppg in the Flounder field to control overpressured Lower Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous formations. Some of the other countries report overpressures are Burma, with offshore Tertiary sediments of the Irrumaddy River bast regur ing 15.0 mud weights. India recently experi- enced a blowout on their offshore Bombay High Struoture but ne proseure data has been roloas— ed, For overpressures in the U.S.S.R., read reference 1.SECTION I GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES ‘The presentation of few basic geological principles is necessary for the average layman lo better understand the what, how, why, and where (the last has previously been discussed) of abnormal pressure.’ ‘These basie principles are discussed under causes, basic concepts for prediction and detection methods, and n of abnormal proscurc. in of abnormal and normal pressure must be established. Normal formation pressure is defined as being equal to the hydrostatic pressure axerted by a column of Water to.2 socelfic density and extending from the surface to the depth of the formation. Hydrostatic pressure is the unit weight times the vertical height of the column of Tafa. Size and shape of this fluid column have no effect on hydrostatie pressure but it is affected by concentration of dissolved solids (salts) in the fluid column and different or varying temperature gracients. ror example, in the Gulf of Mexico basin, salt water having a total chloride content of 80,000 parts per million has a specific gravity of 1.086. ‘The water exerts a pressure Of apprusiimately 408 pound per syuae inch per fuvt of deplh. Therefore a column of this weight water at a depth of 10,000 feet exerts a pressure of 4,680 psi. The pressure of .468 psi/ft. is the fluid pressure gradient (FPG) for that weight calt water, An PPC that oxoceds the oalaulated hydrostatic prossure gradient is defined as abnormal; if the FPG is less than such a calculated hydrostatic pressure, it is said fo be subnormal. ‘These definitions are from the Houston Geological Society publication Abnormal Subsurface Pressure? The normal fluid pressure gradient in most of the basins of the world is about 442 psi/ft. which is equal to 8.5 ppg mud weight.* This means that the salinity of the fluid is approximately 20,000 ppm total chlorides. Some areas have a fresh water gradient of .433 psi/ft. or 8.33 pog. ‘The North Sea basin gradient 1s near 452 psi/ft. which is 8.7 ppg. This is a salinity of 40,000 ppm total ehlorides. ‘The Gulf of Mexico basin has a salinity of approximately 80,000 ppm) total chlorides Unt yields ati FPG ut 408 psi/Cl. Fur tious uf Unis basin have a density near 96,000 ppm total chlorides. The equivalent mud weight to balance this fluid pressure is 9.2 pg. In general, and according to most of the literature, the gradient of the Gulf of Mexico basin is'.465 psi/ft. necessitating 9.0 ppg mud to balanee it. As a practical rule, we ean generally consider that normally-pressured formations will require 9.0 to 10.0 ppg mud weights to drill safely. *Refer to the Glossary for a listing of the different pressure gradients and the systems for measuring them in pounds per gallon (ppg), pounds per cubie foot (pet), or specific gravity (sp. gr.) for the metrie system. GEOLOGIC. PRINCIPLES Sec. ICAUSES OF ABNORMAL PRESSURE Abnormally high pressures are found worldwide. Such pressures occur when fluid in the pore space begins to support more overbur- den than just fluid weight; i.e., not all of the ‘compressional forees are transmitted by the rock matrix only. Many factors ean cause abnormally high formation pressures. In some areas, @ combina~ tivn of facturs prevails. Because conditions cart vary widely, special care should be taken not to assume that the cause of abnormal pressure petabliched fram oxperionee ins well-known area necessarily is the cause of a similar condition in another basin, which has not yet been adequately tested by drilling. Abnormal pressures cannot exist without some kind of a seal or permeability barrier. either vertical or transverse, Such a seal ean be any material or combination of materials in the earth's crust that will prevent movement or escape of substantial values of fluids, A pressure seal can be physical, chemical, or a combination of the two. Some of the vertical- type seals are massive salt Leds, auliydrite, gypsum, marl, chalk, dense limestone or dolo- mite, and low-porosity non-permeable siltstones fon sandstanas with ealeanantis ot silieenus 0A mentation. Some transverse or lateral seals are faults and salt-shale diapirs (intrusives). Figure 3 Pressure Distribution Relationship I 1. inen ray] | | | Vie 7 fa \ 052 ign? —f) { Pore Presute (Ry) —e\) ar Grain Pressure (Fg) Overburden Pressure (>) | fF eseapuit.or 8.0 yy 0.999 wit. oF 10.2 poy 1.0 psi. oF 19.2 E | COL ae naeG: fe ee — P2000 1505 iF f 16 1.2 09/ 1B0pp> ° 6 5 Pressure, 1000 ps‘The most commonly described causce of overpressured sediments are undereompaction, chemical diagenesis, uplift, fluid density eon trast. recharge or repressuted formations. salt and shale diapirism, faulting, osmosis, adsoro- tion, and internal forees. An explanation of how normal compaction occurs: together with the. resultant pressures would be in order before discussing the various causes of overpressure. The compaction of sediments normally occurs in nature by vertical ‘compression, or by static loading, and by hori zontal compression, or dynamic loading. Under ermal sedimentary aeoimulation, a vertical downward foree (gravity) is exerted by the uppermost sediments upon the lowermost sedi~ ments, thus bringing about a more compacted rock with inereasing depth, A potential energy will be generated within formation fluids and a hydrodynamic flow will result in excess fluids that are rexally expetted into permeable mem= bers of the ground water system. The whole stress system will be in equilibrium expressed very simply by the following equation: amet where (overburden prosure) = tot! vertioa sues, ‘or geostetieoverouren presute yo (nore presere) = Mid peur 9 aren prose) = grainsograin press, A graphical depiction of this formula may be arawn for any overpressurea weil. ror example, Fig. 3 is for a typical Gulf of Mexico basin well in which the normal FPG, or pore preaoure, io «186 poi/ft. and the grain precaure ic 535 psi/ft. The sum of these pressures, 1.0 psi/ft., is equal to the geostatie overburden pressure. In this particular well. the top of abnormal pressure is at approximately 12,200 ft. The maximum pore pressure at total depth is 14,750 psi, which will require 18.0 ppg mud to balance, The grain pressure is 1,250 psi (equal to 1.2 ppg mud weight). The total of the two is 16,000 psi (or 19.2 ppg mud weight), whieh is a gradient of 1.0 psi/tt, ‘A useful quantity in abnormal pressure technology is the conversion factor of .052 which cunverts pressure gradient te equivalent pounds per gallon mud weight, or vice versa. The factor is derived as shown in the upper Fight oarnor af Fig. % 18 gles, We can verify thio quicldy for freah water, which has a pressure gradient of .433 psi/ft. and weighs 8.33 ppg: The Gulf of Mexico gradient of .468 psi/ft. 18 equal to 9.0 ppg: (Refer to glossary in Appendix for other pres~ sure gradients found in the worlc’s basins.) To convert a known mud density to an equivalent pressure gradient is very simple; for example 12.0 ppg: 12.0 ppg x .052 = .624 psi/ft. formally, a series of ‘sands, silts, and muds compact ‘with inereasing depth and over- burden weight into sandstones, siltstones, and Sule. Te muds and vlay> will lus the majority of their fluid volume into the perme- able and porous rocks and will become com- pressed or compacted into shale, The total volume percentage of water decreases from approximately 70 percent to 20 percent during the process of compaction. This water is foreed into the overlying sands where it is released to the surface through outerops. As the sediments are buried deeper and deeper, the sands com- pact only sligntiy put the snaies continue to De squeezed and to lose their interlayer and pore water. Undercompaction Sediments that have retained their pore waters because of some geological or chemical interruption in the normal compaction process are said to be undereompacted. Fluid flow into the ground water system may be inhibited by the static load increasing at a rate faster than the eacess waters can Le expelled. Generally, some kind of impermeable seal on top of overpressured zones prevents the escape of the formation water. As the sarimante are hurled deeper, the formation pressure increases due to this retained water. This zone immediately below the seal or impermeable boundary, is referred to as the transition zone. In this zone the FPG is changing with depth trom a normal gradient to a high gradient. It is in this Transition zone that the protective casing must be set before drilling into higher formation pressures, 1-3Figure 4 Relationship of Abnormal-Pressure Surface to Sand Wedge welt 2 Well 0 Danth Foes Beinw9r¢ > Wells Shales with lsolated Sand Lenses (overpressured) — Time A (oldest) Shute Send Overpressure Zone In the Guif of Mexico basin, overpresoured sections generally occur at, or near, the base of prograding or massive sand wedges where the sands tend to become discontinuous (see Fig. 4). This same depositional characteristic of pre dominantly sands and shales has been noted in other Tertiary basins such as the Beaufort, South China Sea, Niger Delta, Nile Delta, and Burma, to name a few. Beeause of a sedimen- tary buildup of shales in a basinward direction, the abnormal pressure surface becomes yuunge! in age as drilling moves deeper into the basin. Well No. 1 in Fig. 4 (@ schematic stratigraphic erase section) Inented on land and upaip. ead be drilled to a maximum depth, say 16,000 or 18,000 feet, and not encounter overpressures beeause sands would make up more than 50 to 60 percent of the lithology at that location. Well No. 2, however, would drill into abnormal pressure at about two-thirds the depth of Well Nu. 1, ur between 11,000 und 12,000 feet as sketched. Note that ‘the second’ well would encounter overpressure in sediments of age 1-4 ‘Time D which wore normally pressured in the first well. The offshore location, Well No. 3, would encounter abnormal pressures consid ably higher. at about 7.500 or 8.000 feet in formations of age Time F which were normally pressured in the first and second wells, The third well in all likelihood would have to set at least two strings of protective casing Decause of the severe overpressures at total depth. The discontinuous sand lenses in wells number two ‘and three encased in the overpressured shales will have porosity and permeability whieh would permit the flow of fluids and gas into the wellhare if the mnd density ware not erest ‘enough to overbalance or suppress the flow. ‘Another cause of undercompaction may be the relationship of the horizontal to vertical compression. In horizontal compression, a stress (or pressure) is exerted horizontally on & subsurface rock body, essentially parallel to the eurUifs surface. A loud in excess of (he weight of overlying waters is mechanically imposed on fluids contained in the tock. ROCK IS ALWAYSFigure 5 Relationship of Abnormal Pressure Surface to Gravity Faulting Banward —— Wet Won 3 Shoie UNDER STATIC LOAD FROM VERTICAL COMPRESSION, and the resultant total stress will be a veetor (a physical quantity whieh has magnitude and direction) of the vertical and horizontal stresses. ‘The horizontal stresses will act as a couple, or pair, either as one active and one passive or as both aetive, A rock column Detween these forces wiil tend to compress and may also tend to move as in shear. One common type of movement is gravity faulting aa shown in Pig: 6 Thia type faulting, often called depositional or gravity, and sometimes glideplane, is very common in most of the thick Tertiary basins of the world, Fig. 5 is basically Fig, 4 altered by this type faulting, illustrating that a well drilled updip as No. 1, would not encounter abnormal pressures if drilled into Time A, but that Well No. 2 would find overpres~ sures in Age Time E sediments and that Well No. 3 would penetrate the abnormal presswe in Time P formations. Generally, the end result of this type faulting is a rather complex anomaly or structure called "diapirie" fantiolines in which # mohite enre such as salt or shale has injected 9 more brittle overlying rock). Figure 6 illustrates the culmination of the gravity faults into the mobile diapirie sediments and the formation of a ridge or dome at the toe of the fault. Another type of movement is uplift, or thrusting, accompanying lateral shear. A decrease in rock density as a resull uf defurmatios uf abnormally-pressured rocks could perpetuate diapitie uplift as part of either type of movement described above. Figure 6 iustrates hath vartieal and horizontal ‘compression as shown by the common gravity- slippage faults in the Guif of Mexico basin. Well No. 1 in Fig. 6 will drill safely into formation A, using normal weight mud, but Well No. 2 will eneounter abornormal pressure in the sand lenses encased within overpressured shale in formations U, U, and B. These sancs wit definitely kick and could cause a blowout. Well No. 3 will encounter the overpressured sands in formations R; Dy and diapirio chalo immediataly below Formation C. Well No. 3 will have ges~ cut mud from the sand lenses but most likely will not have a blowout from the diapirie shale 1-5Figure 6 Relationship of Abnormal-Pressure Surface to Faulting and Uplift Well Depth, tet Beane — well Well 3 6 because of a lack of permeability in the shale. Note the basinward rotation of the faults due to gravity sliding into the deeper portion of the basin. ‘The net result is that wells 2 and 3 will penetrate vider and deeper furiuations Watt Fig. 5. (B for Well 2 and the diapirie shale C for Well 3.) ‘Tho torm underaompaction has been works ed very extensively by most authors to explain abnormal pressure. Many writers seem to think undereompaction is caused by rapid deposition. regional sealing faults, reduced sand to shale ratios, and impermeable thick marine shales. It is true that these factors often exist and scem Yo Tetard normal compaction, Dut it 1s Delieved that the main cause of overpressures is ehemi- eal diagenesis, deseribed under the next head- ings Chemical Diagenesis: Chemical diagenesis, which is probably the prineipal cause of overpressures in all sediments, is the chemical alteration of rock minerals by geological processes. For conven ience, our discussion is divided into clasties (Sands and shales) and nonelasties (evaporites, Tinrestones, wa dvionTes). Clasties —“Tfarine shales are composed mainly of bentonitie elays of which montmorillonite is by far the most abundant. Although it is tect callv wrong to do so, the words montmorillonite and bentonite are often used interchangeably by many people in the industry. Maurice C. Powers! in his article "Fluid- Kelease Mechanisms in Compacting Marine Niudrocks and Their Importance in Oil Explora- tion," presents a technical explanation for the alteration of montmorillonite (an expanding shale) into illites, chlorites, and kaolinite (non- ‘expanding shales). In essence this laboratory- proven theory ean be summarized ns follows. When in the normal process of deposition these bentonitie shales reagh a temperature-depend- ent phase, (200-300°F) regardless of burialFigure 7 Clay Diagenesis of Montmorillonite to Ilite A — Montmorillonite Before Diagenesis Figure 8 Marine Shale Bulk Composition During Dehydration ES Interlayer Water Swelling Clay Solids (Montmorillonite) E Non-swening clay Savas \ 3 ines \ EETTT Non-Clav Solids z j Potential Volume Loss g Sha a Mater iy Partie store! sue ste ‘Aves Poworst ope depth, the montmorillonite begins to dehydrate and changes into illite. The change releases interlayer bound water trom the montmorfito~ nite into free pore water (see Fig. 7), This free pore water requires 40 to 50 percent more room between the particles than it did as interlayer water. Water and space are added to the interlayer area by transfer from a bound inter- Jayer position; the fransfar eances a decrease in clay particle size with a corresponding increase in the effective porosity, permeability, and free pore water. Dr. Powers’ laboratory. tests on Samples from the Texas Gulf Coast show this alteration begins at a depth of approximately 3,000 feet and continues at an inereasing rate 1O a depth (usually ubout 9,000-10,000 tex), where there is very little discrete montmorillo- nite left. Also the last few layers of bound water have considerably greater density than free (normal) water; this is interpreted to mean that water undergoes a volume increase as it desorbs from between unit layers. As the water expands to its normal density, it inereases the pore fluid pressure to abnormally high levels. Frame A of Fig. 7 represents the first stage of burial, showing the montmorillonite clay platelets with their bound waters in the depth range of 2,000 to 6,000 fect. Frame B represents the desorption, or release, of these bound waters after the higher temperature has caused the change to illite in the 6.000 to 9,000 foot range. Frame C shows the approximately 40 to 50 percent volume that would be lost if the free pore water could escape. However, it cannot escape because there is no porous sandstone or limestone into which it ean move. Therefore, this free pore water causes the imlitie shale to be overpresoured, It io free to move if it has some place to go. Of course, there are often minute, fine sands and silts within an overprassined shale. When a drill bit opens them to the wellbore, their confined waters will move into it, causing the mud to be gas-cut (from the dissolved methane in the 1-7water) and chlorides to increase. However, if the mud column is heavy enough, then ‘its hydrostatic pressure will be greater than the formation fluid pressure. The hydrostatic pres sure will keep the free pore water confined within the slightly permeable sands and silts. John P. Burct® offore a refinement on the diagensis of shales in his article "Diagenesis of Gulf Coast Clayey Sediments and Its Possible Relation to Petroleum Migration." He suggests that water is extracted from subsurface clays in three separate stages as illustrated in Fig. 8 Initially, (stage 1) pore water and excessive (more than 2) water interlayers are removed by the normal eetion of overburden pressure. In volume, this represents by far the largest water removal in the process of sediment dehydration. Shortly efter settling on the basin floor, marine clay sediments of the Mississippi Delta type fontain approximately 70-80 porront water hy volume. ‘The initial dehydration (commonly referred to as "compaction"), which should be essentially completed in the first few thousand feet of burial, reduces the water content to approximately 30 percent (about 20-25 percent interlayer water and 5-10 percent residual pore water). In stage Ml, pressure is relatively ineffec- tive as a dehydrating ageney because of the inoreased density of the intorlayor water pool et, and the sediment remains in a state of quasi-equiibrium as it continues to absorb heat generated deever in the geologic section. When the heat accumulation is sufficient to mobilize the interlayer water (200-230°F), one of the two remaining interlayers is discharged into the bulk system. ‘Ihe amount of water in movement should constitute 10-15 percent of the compact- ed bulk volume. This movement is the most significant fluid displacement subsequent to the initial pore water drainage and is capable of redistributing mobile subsurfaee components. Th stage Tt, the final water ineroment, which approximates capillary water density, is gradually forced out of the élay lattice and the pores as sediment temperature inereases. The total volume of free pore water produced by the alteration of montmorillonite to illite would be roughly equivalent to half the volume of mont- nur tiliunity sv altered. This explanation of the diagenesis of expanding shales (montmorillonite) into nonex- panding shalor (illites, ahlorites, and kaolinite) is a much more satisfactory and reasonable explanation of abnormally-pressured formations than the vague undereompaction theory. Even though in this book the term undercompacted shales, in the transition zones is used extensive- ly, itis meant that the overpressure was caused by chemical diagenesis and that undereompac- tion is a result rather than a cause. Nonelasties iterature contains many articles on the formation of abnormal pressures in sands and shales. Only two authore, C. A. Pasiorand L, R. Louden!’ have written about the cause of pressures in the nonclastic, or evaporite, sedi- ments. Parker did not give any concrete’ cause of overpressures in his paper, "Geopressures in the Deep Smackover of Mississippi." However, he did mention several possible causes, inelud- ing inflation, mineral or hydrocarbon phase changes, and evaporite-related seals. Inflated pressure originates when fluids migrate from adjacent or deeper overpressured strata, which is the same as recharge. Hydrocarbon phase will be discussed under fluid density contrast. Mineral phase ehango is the thermal decampasi tion of limestone, which causes the high pres- sures and large volumes of earbon dioxide in carbonates. Diagenesis in carbonate sequences con- tributes to the origin of abnormal fluid pres- sures by creating permeability barriers in po- Tous sequenves. Permeability barriers inhibit expulsion of fluids from the rocks while the static load continues to inerease; this generates a largo potential onorgy within the pore fluide. Porous and permeable members ere usually overlain by evaporites, anhydrite, or salt, which are totally impermeable. In carbonates. the transition from hydrostatie pressure to abnor- mal pressure is usually startlingly abrupt. Oc- casionally, 2 well can penetrate highly-pres- sured carbonate sequences with no difficulty because the porous section is impermeable. Refer to the next sub-section, "Basie Concepts, Transition Zones," for_a more detailed discus” sion and illustrations of carbonate facies. Under the evaporite-related seals, a re~ lense af water francfarms gypanm ta anhydrite This ehemieal change discussed by Louden could be placed under the category of diagenesis. However, he cites an example of a physical- chemical’ seal that has merit in the gypsum- anhydrite action. As gypsum dewaters (CaSO, + 2H,0- CaSO,), and goes to anhydrite, there is a 30-4u percent shrinkage of formation tnick- ness. This action, however, is reversible. There also exists an intermediate stage, hemihydrate (€a80, + 11,0). In tho dowetering phace, hemihydrate has a 15-20 pereent shrinkage. ‘The taking on of water by anhydrite can be caused bv a pressure leveled up under an anhydrite and water being made available under force for the "remineralization." Even if only @ small percentage of the anhydrite was to take10 os ie a Fire xo-46sope Beet Nata nn en pate 19.000 8.000 ose 112 8000 6,000 770 e210 6000 4000-2780 070138 4000 200080093180 ‘on water, consider the tremendous forces that come to bear. If this process occurs at depth, tremendous pressures can result. ‘rmis can De seen in the central eastern Mississippi area where the onset of pressure in the Haynesville formation is flogged by 0 gradation of anhydrite into gypsum. Uplift Abnormal fluid pressure can be generated by decreasing the total vertical stress on a buried, compacted rock. Uplift is considered here only as the vertical component of any Steuctura movement. Uplift is nut @ unique cause of abnormal pressure, sine any geologi- eal process which lifts a buried rock tends to lift the entire overburden. Thus, related ta a specifie point, if the ground surface moves upward the same distance as the buried rock, there will be no decrease in the overburden pressure and no change in the original stress equilibrium. From this, it is obvious that uplift open e ener teers Sigal by another geotogrear process tra recuees the relict between the buried rock and the surface; typieal processes are plercement salt Gomes, plastic deformation (shale diapirs), ten- sional faulting. or erosion. Time is an imoor- tant factor in the process. Uplift must occur rather rapidly relative to geological time. As the formation is lifted and the overburden reduced, the stress in the system will probably ultimately reduce to maintain equilibrium. However, because of hysteresis (the time lng in a body's reaction to changes), the dilation and compaction curves are never the same, An imbalanee is created when the overburden proscuro danonces factor than the energy with in the pore fluid dissipates; the fluid pressure will slowly decrease to normal for its new depth. ‘A dynamic uplift of @ given amount has different effects at different depths; the shal- lower the uplift, the greater the abnormality. The wole Mt Fig. 9 shows Ue if Ue origin depth of burial was 10,000 feet and then 2,000 feet of uplift occurred, the original formation pressure gradient of 465 psi/ft. (4,630 psi) would inerease to .581. This gradient’ requires 14.2 ppg mud weight at 8,000 feet to balance the formation pressure. The table shows that for @ 4,000-foot original depth of burial, 2,000 feet of uplift would necessitate 18.0 ppg mud to balance the new pressure. Fluid Density Contrast Hydraulic transmission of pressure is an- other method of generating abnormal pressures. From the drilling standpoint, abnormal pres~ sures of this nature are very hard to predict. Reservoir fluids transmit the grestest pressure applied to them to all parts of the Teservoir. The potential energy is greatest at the top of the column, diminishing downward to equilibrium with formation waters at the free weter level. The factors whieh must be considered in estimating this potential energy are: (1) the densities of the hydroearbon and the displaced wator, (2) the height of the column, and (3)the formation fluié pressure within ‘the weter at the base of the column, Formation fluid pressure will be distributed upward throughout the column. The reservoir body shown in Fig. 10 is dipping; the pressure from the decpest pert of the reservoir is transmitted to the shallow enc. ‘Ine pressure in psi at the top of the reservoir equals the formation fluid pressure at the deepest point in Ure reservuit, less the difference in. height x-9Figure 10 Fluid Density Contrast men neo noo A, 02ST casumED GAS GRADIENT sys botwoon the top and bottom of the reservais times the average density of the fluid in this interval. Mathematically: Pr = Ry Img — hg BO where: Pr = Prestre at top of eerrve 2 ~ Pressure at deepest point in restrcir hy = Depth 10 10p of reservoir Obviously, if the reservoir is normally pressured and contains all water, then no abnormal pressures are generated by hydraulic transmission since the pressure at the top is less than the pressure at the deepest point by simply a water gradient, In other words, reservoir pressure Hes along Wie normal pressure curve wt any depth. Abnormal pressures are generated by hydraulie transmission only if the reservoir contains a fluid lose dense than wator, suoh as gas and/or oil. If the formation fluid pressure at the bese of the hydrocarbon accumulation (gas or oil-water contact) is normal, then the pressure at any depth within the gas or oil column will be greater than if the reservoir contained all water. This is because the Pressure at the nyarocaroon-warer contact 15 10 transmitted throughout the reservoir but the density of the water is reduced by the presence of gas or oil, thus resulting in a higher forma- ion pressure within the nydroearnon column. in the example shown in Fig. 10, the mud weight required to balance the formation pressure at geo-water contact of 6,000 foct ic 8.6 ppg At the top of the 1,500 foot gas column, the required mud weight would be 10.5 ppg. ‘Thus, it is readily apparent thet control of long oil and gas columns will call for higher mud weights than are normally required for water- bearing formations. Recharge Abnormal pressures may be generated within a zone by recharge - more commonly nailed changing - if thane is » revistrihutian of fluids or gases by flow through some conduit from a deeper, higher pressured zone. ‘The conduit may be a fault, fracture, accuifer, or borehole. If oil and gas are involved, ‘the mechanics of recharge is similar to fluid density contrast. ‘Consider mie situation of a tela wisten tas been fully developed for several years and whieh is producing gas from a depth around 2,000 foot undor a flowing pressure af 800 psi If @ easing leak provides a passage for the gas from the produeing sand into a sand body at a depth of 1.200 feet. this shallower sand could be charged to 800 psi. A mud weight of 12.8 ppg. would be required to control the abnormal pressure generated within that sand; thus, @ hazara would be createo If it were planned’ to rill through this shallow, overpressured zone with @ mud weight of 10.0 to 10.5 ppg. ‘The degree of overpresaure generated by recharge can be significant and ean occur quickly, especially if gas is the medium that transmits the pressure. Blowouts caused by gas recharge are frequent, spectacular, and ex- tremely hazardous. Part A of Fig. 11 illustrates what happens when an abnormally-pressured formation 1s drilled into with a normal mud weight: the formation pressure is greater than the hydro slalie weight uf Ue aiikl column, so the mud is lifted up the hole and the driller shuts in the well by means of the blowout preventers. If the eurfaco oasing is not firmly eament-handed to ‘the formation, then the mud is lost into a formation behind the casing, thus causing an underground blowout. This type of blowout at a and location usually creates a erater into which the rig topples. Numerous od fields along the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast experienced Dlowouts like (nis. Recharged stallow sands inFigure 17 Recharge of Shallow Formations ‘A~ Underground Blow Out ‘Normal Formation eee Depth. 1000 ft 10) Anat Te B — Leaky Fault Zone Original Fluid Mud Weight Pressure Gradient To Balance 465 140 150 158 108 Dey ud Phy toed Dry (aie) Ay sD HOD Dye) Pol Arp (aut) Mud (post 12,000 9600-080 0.486 2,000 10,000 86700867 18.8 soca 74007 Otas ©2000 «««)o00wis70 om 88 8000 5610 «0700.85 «21000 «G00 «4.670078 «15.0 6000 3886 «O85 0.465 21000 4.000.930 072 14.3 these areas now require mud weights of 14.5 to 16.0 ppg to drill the surface portion of the hole. The table in Fig. 11 illustrates the genera- tion of abnormal pressures oy the transter of abnormally-pressured water into a recipient formation 2,000 feet above the source forma- tion, The ‘calculationa were made with the following formule Pig = ANDER bw XnI eng fy = M2 where: : tg = sree of formation cum 2 (ein x tui pressure gradient of formation 90.1, pee ‘pth to top of racipient formation, ft erica night frm top of soutee formation to 109 of reioent formation, fet {uid proture gradant of recipient formation, pit presure of form ion no. 1 fowergeasuted pe ‘The pressure in a shallow formation re- charged by the transfer of abnormally-pressured water from a deeper formation is equal to the Turuation fluid pressure at the top of the source formation less the statie weight of a column of water of the height h, where h is the vertical distanao fram the fap af the source formation to the top of the recipient formation. ‘Thus, from the table in Fig. 11, a formation at 10.000 feet with an FPG of 465 (4,650 psi) that is ‘in communication through some sort of a conduit (a nonseeling fault in this instance) with a formation at 12,000 feet with an FPG of .80 (9,6u0 psi), the mua weignt necessary to buluniee the recharged formation will be 16.8 ppg. Part B of Fig. 12 illustrates the mud weights to balance the other formations lieted in the table.Foulting In addition to supplying conduits, faults ean contripute to the origin of aonormar pres sures by redistributing sediments and juxtapos ing permeable zones against impermeable zones, thus inhibiting the flow of fluid to re gions in a hydrostatic state. Figure 12 shows an example of this sealing-type fault. Figures 5 and 6, also illustrate this kind of faulting. Osmosis Osmosis is the spontaneous flow of water from “@ more Uilute (y a miure cunventrated solution when the two solutions are separated by a suitable membrane. Clay, an effective semipermenhla membrane, sets as an ion sieve to permit the selective eseape of water and is and gases, but con- centrating dissolved ionie components in pore fluids remaining in the zone of water loss, ‘Osmosis ean contribute To The origin of aonor- mal pressures by inhibiting the vertical hydro- dynamic flow of water from compacting shales. However, from data compiled by P. H. Joncof? it appears that even though osmotic pressure inhibits fluid expulsion to some degree, it is probably ineffectual in halting flow completely. Many investigators fail to examine the efficiency of ‘naturel membranes when con- sidering this origin of abnormal pressure. Currently, it is believed that osmosis is a minor cause of overpressure. ‘Adsorption Adsorption is the adhesion af the malo- cules “of # Tiquid or a gas to a surface; this Figure 12 Formations, Normal vs Abnormal Pressure utero Fuld Presa Relase £ 8adhesion can inhibit the flow of fluid from compacting sediments. However, judging from work by ‘Chenevert, Burst, and others, it appears that adsorption does not contribute much to the origin of abnormal pressure at depth. Internal Forces Several thermodynamic processes may contribute to the origin of abnormal fluid ressure by increasing the volume of the pore fluid and adding internally to the pressure already imposed upon the pore fluids by the weight of the overburden. These processes are fan integeat part of eacn cause described eariter. ‘They appear to make little difference when considering the nature of the abnormal pres- sures apa whole. ‘Two of these preccaces are diseussed below. ‘Thermal Expansion of Water Thermal expansion of water is eaused by the increase in temperature with burial depth and compaction. Water will expend in response to the higher temperature rather than compress in response to the higher pressure. This expansion results in 2 fluid density decrease that reduces the hydrostatic gradient of @ water of given salinity. Also, expansion inereases the volume of the pore fluid within a rock, eausing \erease in para pressure Tinder continiiod ‘and compaction, the excess water will assume the added load; if escape is limited, the fluid pressure will become abnormally high. Thermal Cracking of Hydrocarbons ethermel cracking of yeh causes Dy Increasing temperatures assoc! h continued burial. Whether the hydrocer- bons are a component part of the ground water ayctom or coporated in a continuoue-phaco pool, the immediate effect of the thermal cracking is to inerease the volume of fluids in the pores of the rock. If an excess fluid is confined within a rock, then with continued burial ané compaction an abnormal fluid pressure will be generated within the rock. There is no conclusive proof that thermal cracking 1s 2 major cause ot abnormal pressure. Summary of Abnormal Pressure Causes ‘The processes by which a typical basin deviops overpressures are thought to be basi ally chemical, or diagenetic. Primarily, abnor- mal pressure occurs in basins that lack porous, permeable reservoirs. There must always be an impermeable seal above the abnormal pressure zone tor pressure entrapment. Untortunately, there is no magic formula one can use to predict when porous, permeable formations will change into a nonporous, impermeable rock. A basic understanding of the prineiples of sedi- mentation is very definitely an asset in the iméerstanding of the causes of overpressures. A few basie principles especially relative to over- pressure occurrence in clastic sequences are as follows: 1. If several hundred feet of shele are penetrated without encountering any sands, the likelihood of finding abnormal pressure in- 2. Abnormal pressure tends to remain at or within a particular stratigraphic zone until tho otratigraphy or etructural attitude chang 3. Sands within abnormelly-pressured shales are always overpressured unless artifi- cially drawn down by production. It is possible to encounter nearly normal pressures below abnormally-pressured sediments as occurs in the Delaware basin of West Texes and a few areas within the Gulf ot Mexico basin, However, in these cited instances, the normal fluid pressure gradient is in primarily carbonates or noncles- ies Leluw the overpressured elastics section. 4. Depositional faulting alters the stratigraphic position of the top of abnormal Dreceiire since it enises dramatic stratigraphic changes. 5. Post-depositional sealing faults affect the top of the abnormal pressure zone only as much as the structural displacement of the fault. 6. ‘There must be some trapping mech- antsin Seal preventing fluid release fvuin eur ments in order for overpressures to develop. ‘1. Abnormal pressure is not depth de- pendent. Overpressuros have bean faund fram less than 1,000 feet to depths greater than 20,000 feet. 8, Abnormal pressure is not ase re- lated. ‘It has been encountered from the Upper Quaternary down through the entire geologic sedimentary column into the Cambrian. ¥.-ADNOrmal pressure 1s not Testrieted to clastics alone. It has been encountered in anhydrite, limestone, dolomite, and salt. It vvcurs in) compound’ mixtures of limy shaleoy sandy limestones, dolomitie sandstones, ete. 10. In order for abnormally-pressured fluids fn he dangerous to drill, the host rock must be permeable enough for the entrapped fluids to move into the borehole. Conversely, abnormally-pressured sediments ean be drilled 1-13safely with a mud weight slightly less than the formation fluid pressure so long as the rocks being drilled have extremely low permeability ang Strucwural Integrity. Figure 12 is a geologie cross section showing that all sand formations to the right of tho tranoverce sealing fault will be abnormally pressured, whereas sands to the left of the fault will be normally pressured. This is a simplified version of the subsurface conditions and pres~ sures encountered in the Gulf of Mexico basin. Note that if a well were drilled through the sealing fault at about the location of the dis- placement arcums, it muuld return to normally- pressured sands which have fluid pressure re- lease. This rare phenomenon has oceurred in several wells drad in sah camptorly fantted fields as Bayou Sale, Lake Sand, and Pecan Island in South Louisiana. No doubt, other areas will come to light with further drilling.BASIC CONCEPTS BEHIND PREDICTION AND DETECTION METHODS In order to understand, predict, and detect abnormal pressure, one must have further knowledge of the transition zone. This transi- tion zone has unique electrical and acoustical properties that yield a characteristic anomaly ‘on seismie and logging devices. Careful moni- turing uf vatiuus perameters during drilling operations ¢an detect indications of overpres sure, ‘These indicators, when properly inter~ preted, can give a quelitative magnitude af the degree of overpressure at that particular depth or station in the transition zone. See Section Ill for a detailed diseussion of the pressure indica- tors while drilling. Transition Zone The transition from a normal pressure gradient to an abnorma) proscuro gradient oe curs in a relatively short interval. Due to a unique physical character of its original pore water — it ean be both predicted and detected in several ways. The transition zone is defined as being the interval in which the normal gradient, changes to an abnormal pressure gradient, and in which the protective casing should be set. In most in- stanees, the FPG for an exploratory well is uruund 2070 poi/ft., rewuiring 19.0 ppg mud.* In practice, the range is between 11.5 and 13.5 ppg. Of course, there are some special situa- finns where the pnteative ancing ie set in a higher pore pressure (equivalent mud weight of 13.5 to 14.5 ppg). Examples are field outposts ‘or development wells where there is adequate subsurface pressure information. Soft Rock “The term "sort rock” refers to Ue ess consolidated sands and shales of the Tertiary and Quaternary Systems. Generally speaking, in the abcones of faulting or uneonformitier, soft rock transition zones are not abrupt. They are classified as short (less than 500 feet from top of the zone to 13.0 ppg). moderate (500 to 1.000 feet), and long (over 1,000 feet). This is an erbitrary categorization by length and refers mainly to clastic transition zones. Figure 13 represents a moderately long clastic transition zone with various pressure gradients: normal grain pressure, pore pressure, formation fracture pressure, and the overburden pressure, All four of these pressure gradients fare an integral part of each formation drilled. They camut be separated as cach is dependent on the other just as in the human body blood pressure depends on_ the heart, arteries, musalas, and nerves This interrolationship of gradients is duscusse¢ in more detail under “Fracture Gradients and Hole Integrity" found in Seetion Il. Within a transition zone there are often small, silty, sand lenses (see Fig. 13) which generally have @ higher pore pressure than the Figure 13 Pressure Gradient Relationshio Gradient Gradient * We will froquently rofar to FPG in terme of equivalent mud weight. Koop in mind that FPG equals .052 times mud weight in pounds-per-gallon.hydrostatic head of the mud weight used to drill the hole. This is called underbalanced drilling. When these sands are perietrated by the Bit, the pressure differentiad from the formation ‘ite the wellbore causes fluid within the sands to flow, or "feed-in", to the hole, thus contamina ting the drilling fluid. If those cand fences have adequate permeability and porosity, there is @ risk of having the mud cut by gas* or water to a lighter weight and causing @ blowout. Fortu- nately, silty sands have very low porosity and permeability, so generally the mud weight can be raised sufficiently to control the influx of Hud ane gas. But it 48 this minor intiux wmien helps us to determine the pore pressure as drilling proceeds and thus know when to stop the drilling and run logs for pressure verifica tion. ‘The abnormal pressure sand shown in Fig. 14 hns a pore prassure of just over 12.0 poe. If the mud weight were under this value, then the sand would feed in salt water and gas when drilled, thus contaminating the mud and cutting s weight. This deterioration of the mud would be detected at the return flowline by the mud man and it would be immediately apparent to Tin tinet the weight svuld be Increased before drilling further. The next sand stringer, at about 13.0. ppg pore pressure, would give another mud out, alerting tho drilling porsannol that it is time to log and set protective easing. Other drilling indicators data will baek up this decision. The decision to ston and log is probably not apparent at this time. However, after you have followed the detailed descrip tions and illustrations for monitoring the vari~ ‘ous inaieators of overpresstire, the decision to log will become clearer. And, of eourse, there is no substitute for experience — you must be at the rig and help make the timely decisions of what to do next, knowing that if the decision is wrong the end result could be a dangerous and expensive well control situation Hard Rock ~~ —K hard rock transition zone is defined as Cretaceous or older and can be either elastie or nonelastie rocks. This type of transition zone is often abrupt, primarily beeause of the very compacted, Hard iilneratized rock character ties of formations of this age. Whereas soft transition zones generally occur below a mas- sive, oalearoous comented sandstone sostion, it is not uneommon to find the hard rock transi- tion occurring below a limestone or dolomite seetion. Fig. 14 is a rough approximation of the facies encountered in the Permian Wolfeamp Figure 14 Delaware Basin Hardrock Transition Zone Eee eee tee] very paren ee iia g Aone CShuiny crate Limetone CI sna formation transition zone of the Delaware basin in West Texas. At the top of the section is a normally-pressured limestone (Permian-Bone Springs) that probaly forms the Seat wien re tains the waters in the Wolfeamp shale. The transition zone is primarily @ dark gray, mas- aive, calcarcous, pyritic, and comotimes silty shale with pressure increasing with depth, ‘The underlying Pennsylvanian rocks are overpres~ sured. and protective casing must be set before Grilling into them. Interestingly enough, there are many si- milarities of transition zones in rocks of all geological ages. A limited but woricwide selection of examples indicates that there is generally a caprock, or seal, above the transi- iun zone. Neurly almays stisly, Une 2vue still retains some of its original pore water. ‘The key to detecting transition zones is that the forma~ tion drillability changes ae the dritl bit goes from maximum-compacted sediments into un- dercompucted sediments. It does not matter whether the transition zone is pure shale, cal- careous, silty, anhydritic, or whatever the % Pluids in overpressinad cande afton relonse considerable dissolved gas when they flow into the wellbore. -16Figure 15 Evaporite Sequence — Type | Hardlrack Transitinn Zane Figure 16 Evaporite Sequence ~ Type I Hardrock Transitinn Zane Trapeton % e! Si ie! v [ores umestone BB arnvariee sate F2luny sna] sana EE ootomte Dew 1 Teanstion Tleme uo sate Jones carronase Eden mineralogical components, if the zone is over- pressured the bit will drill differently. See "kate ot Penetration Curves" uncer Section Ill for further details and example: The evaporite transition zone has been alviged Into two sub-Lypes. Type Tis characters izeé by an increase in formation pressure with deeper drilling after the protective casing has boon cot. ‘Type Il is charaotorized by a decrease in formation pressure below the transition zone. Figure 15 illustrates a Type I transition zone: the section portrayed is south of Jackson, Mississippi. The section is not a pure eveporite sequence, but rather a mixture of clastic and nonelastie sediments. This formation (Smack- over) 18 not pure limestone or dolomite, Dut rather a silty, shaly limestone and sandstone overlain by a series of shely, limy anbydrites and salts. Not fully compacted, the shales have retained some of theit original pore waters and have absorbed waters from the gypsum dehydra- fion into hemihydrates and_anbydrites. ‘The porosity and permeability in the Smackover formation is very low -- a favorable condition for the retention of pressure, The top of the transition zone is sealed by a very hard, dense limestone through which no formation water can escape; thus, the build-up of overpressure in the underlying formations. Figure 16 depicts the Type II transition one found In the Jurassic section present in ie panhandle portion of Florida and Southern Ale~ bame. The top of this transition zone is sealed by a’ very low permeability limy sandstone. Throughout the transition zone are alternating beds of anhydrite, salt, and limy and sandy shales, Immediately above the Smackover is @ dolomitie limestone with good porosity and permeability underlain by the Norphlet sand- stone also having good porosity and permeabil- ity. It 15 postulated that tnis combination of events explains the regression in formation pressure in the Smackover and Norphlet, which are normally or only slightly overpressure ixcey the anhydrite seals the pressure out of the Smackover. If any pressure leaks into it and the Norphlot, such pressure is dissignted throughout the wide’ lateral extent of these two excellent quality reservoirs. Wells have been drilled in the South Alabama area that required mud I-17weights of 18.5 ppg through the Buckner anhy- drite section but lost returns in the Smackover, which necessitated setting a protective liner wand revucing Uwe weight lo 11.0 Ww 11.9 peR before drilling could be resumed. Formation Properties! Relationship To Abnormal Pressure As mentioned earlier, overpressured sedi- ments have different physical and chemical properties from normally-pressured sediments, One of The most important 1s The TransmIss101- ity of sound waves. Figure 17 illustrates that as sediments are compacted by burial, the velocity of sound (aciomie waves) increases. The inter val velocity for like sediments, sands, shales, carbonates, salt, anhydrites, ete., are computed and plotted in 'micraseeans par foot an the horizontal axis versus depth in feet on the vertical axis. The plots are made on 2 eyeles x 2 eyeles logarithmic graph paper. In general, as the sediments become more compacted, the velocity increases and the travel time de- creases. An increase in travel time indicates Grat Gre pliysical and chemical properties vf Ure sediments have changed. This unique property is due to a change in type of stratigraphic formation or tho prosence of overprescure. The retention of water in the transition zone causes the sound waves to slow, which results in a larger travel time flower velocity). In the example shown in Fig. 17, the sediments are normally compacted to about 9,500 fect where there is an abrupt decrease in the velocity. This is due to abnormal pressure which was confirmed when the well was logged and elec- trical logs indicated @ pore pressure of 15.0 ppg et 9,000 feet. This teclusiyue is discussed in more detail under "Prediction of Abnormal Pressure” in Section I. Floatrieal lags an bo used ta aaloutate formation fluid pressures because of the same formational properties that affect velocities. The retained waters of the overpressured shales ‘are much more saline then those of the compac- tec shales just above the transition zone. This higher salinity is primarily because the pore water of the overpressurea shales nas essen- tially the same concentration of salts as the original sea water in which the shales were de~ posited. A shale pressure plot ean be made from the acoustic or sonie log as shown by the right- hand curve of Fig. 18. In this example. top of the transition zone is shown at 6,700 feet. At this depth, the travel time increases from 94 Tieroseeonds to 99 in 100 feet, indicating a 1-18 Figure 17 Velocity Profile — South Texas app thts —— VELOCITY (Hee) — drs arty ik Transit Tinareite pure pressure equivalent to @ 11.3 ppg. A shale resistivity or a conductivity for- mation pare preseira plat aan alen he mace from electric logs. ‘The higher salinity of the water retained in overpressured shales increases the conductance of electrical current. This electrical behavior is shown by the curve on the left of Fig. 18. At about 6,600 feet, the maximum compacted zone conduetivity is 1,600 MULimnos anc Dy v,sUV feet 15 approximately 1,850 millimhos. This latter reading is the equivalent of 12 to 12.5 ppg mud weight, somewhat higher than the acoustic value of about 11.5 ppg. The reason for this difference is discussed in detail under Section IV, "Quanti- tative Verifiention of Abnormal Pressure.” Shale has @ specifie weight or bulk densi- ty, which ean be determined in grams per cubic centimeter from the drilled cuttings. This nud weight ofFigure 18 Pore Pressure Plot ~ South Texas CConductnity + 1000 moe Shale Density, gnlse BHC Acoustic Log, miro ae. Mud Wh BH 00 “000 25 24 23 20 100 80 pg Temp T [tea am ab i ale | | ' | le . ¢ Lan | 105 F | ns : birs° i 7518" at 7700] °° 179 ok i 16.2 }-208° ne | property can be measured in a miscible fh density column as discussed in Section III. The values are plolied a> shows by the iidule curve of Fig. 18. ‘The weight of shale increases more or less linearly with depth as it is compacted. Howover, an abnormally-proscured shale has a lighter weight because of its retained pore water. It is very easy, then, to plot these shale density values versus’ depth until a departure from the normal trend --a decrease in weight ~- is detected, This decrease indicates that overpressured shales are being drilled. In th example, the snaie density commences to ce- crease at about 6,600 feet. All three of the cutves show close ‘agreement of approximately 14.5 ppg where the casing was act at 7,700 fect. Shale density measurements and techniques are discussed in more detail under Section Il, "The Pressure Indicators." ‘A shale density plot can also be made from density logs run on a wireline. However, this type of log is seldom run in the transition zone because of the large diameter ot the borehole and the general absence of hydroear~ bon-bearing formations. ‘The log plots’ overall appearance is similar to the plot of densities made from shale cuttings. Drilling Indicators! Relationship Tr Abnormal Prese ire The uniqueness of the transition zone allows one to monitor and plot physical indica tors while drilling is in progress. These physical indicators are eailed abnormal pressure indice: ee eg ee era a Importanee: 1, Rate of Penetration Curves a, Mechanically recorded b. Manually plotted ineluding the "a" exponent 2. Total Drilled Gases a. Background b. Conneetion e. Trip 4, Miscellaneous 3. Mud Properties a, Chlorides inerease b. Flowline temperature inerease¢, Miscellaneous Properties - viscosity, gel strength, density, yield, pH, solids, ion changes. 4. Cuttings Analysis . Change in lithology - color, mineral composition, texture, fracture, size and shape of outtings, porosity, per meability and quantity. b. Shale density decrease 5. Paleontology 6. Borehole Instability a, Hole fill after connections and trips b. Torque while drilling and drag on connections 7, Correlation with Offset Wells All of these indicators are discussed in Welail wider Section Il, “Pressure Indicators." The following examples of indicators are dis- cussed only briefly to show how an abnormal pracsira trancitinn zane ean he detentod while arilling. Figure 19 is an example of a mechanically drawn rate-of-penetration (ROP) curve by & SWACO instantaneous drill rate recorder. ‘The transition zone is an undercompacted sequence of sediments, generally shale that has retained a large percentage of 11s original pore water ‘The porosity is high and these rocks will drill faster than the compacted sediments immedi~ ately above thio cone if they are not drilled overbalanced. Best results are achieved with an ROP curve when the hydrostatic mud weight and the formation pore pressure of the rocks are near balanced. Personal experience verifies that almost always there is a drill rate increase (a drilloff) when the mud weight is less than the formation pore pressure. No method has been devised to equate drilloff rate to abnormal pressure, so it must be used as @ qualitative indicator ‘only. In the ‘example of Fig. 19, even though the mud weight is 12.5 ppg, there is a constant drill rate of 12 Foot par hour from 9,100 to 9,140 fart. ‘There ix no indication of the bit dulling. Note the pore pressures shown to the right of the penetration curve. From 9,140 feet to 9,270 feet where the well kicked, there is one Iong continuous drill- off trend." Note the sharpness of this trend from 9,190 feet to 9,240 feet, where the underbaiance ranges from 1 10 2 ppg. ‘The arht rate more than doubled from 9,150 feet to 9,240 feet — with a supposedly dulling bit. The bit waa helped by the formation literally exploding itself into the wellbore just ahead of the teeth. The jet stream of the mud through the bit nozzles was actually making the hole in this overpressured shale. Figure 20 is a composite plot of a manu- ally recorded ROP curve, mud weight, flowline 1-20 Figure 19 SWACO Drill Rate — South Texas Dring wah 125 p09 Mud [38 0883, Sate Ltolny 125 130 138 2 pri. . Trend e 140 ‘Trend 45 | 160 1 ‘Rickea whi eieurating x 2273 Redeiled with 16.2 ppg mud temperature, mud salinity gain, and background gas units, The induction log (Sb) and resistivity curve are reproduced on the right side of Fig.Figure 20 Pressure Indicators Plot — Offshore Texas 08 20, together with formation pore pressure val- mud weight to 11.5 ppg by 7,840 feet. Added ues. The ROP and background (BG) gas values weight material and cold water dropped the aie fur averaged 10-fuvt intervals. The plouied Howiine temperature, the muc salinity geIn, aNd value scales increase to the left with the the background gas in the interval from 7,740 to exception of mud weights. This is done for uni- 7,840 feet. The penetration rate decreased Farmity and ance nf intorprotation and further from 60 ft/br to juot under 26 fU/hr emphasizes how mud. weight. is the balanee All the indicators behaved as they should wheel or governor of the various indiestors (see have when this seetion of the transition zone “The Effeet of Mud Weight on Drilling Param- was being drilled slightly underhalaneed — they eters," Section IID. all increased, ‘A crill-off commences at 7,510 fect Notice the sharp ¢rill-off from 7,970 to where the flowline temperature and mud salin- 8,160 feet, where the pore pressure is & full 1 ity show an increase. This drill-off continues ppg more than the mud weight. The mud was until the 10.6 ppg mud weight is gas-cut to 10.3 gas-eut from 11.5 to 7.2 ppg and had to be @D ve a 7520-30 ‘teet, The pore presaure raised to.120 ppg patos pulling out of the hole Inoroaced from 10.5 to 11.0 pag. After eiivitier tO TUM logs, "The 120 ppg muG aid not eabrieg Grill-off and gas eutting of the mud to 10.2 ppg the hole as there was 40 feet of fill on bottom, at 7,100 feet, it was decided to increase the Hole fill nearly always. indicates ay underbalanced drilling wud condition. 1-21‘The last abnormal pressure indicator, eor- relation with offset wells, is used by ‘most drilling personnel with a’ blind, unwavering tut. They Uelieve Unet their well will be exactly like the one with which they are correlating. This is a sure way to develop a seriaue well aontral situation. Put yanr faith and trust in the above indicators, then only after thoroughly analyzing them, use log eor~ relations to establish where your well might be in the geologie section, Figure 21 compares the physical charac- teristies of sediments in a normally-pressured well with those in an aonormaliy-pressurea well. The normal well penetrates uniformly compac- ted rocks that have # surface outerop for the hycrostatie release of containec waters. water content of the shales is reduced by nearly two- thirds with added overburden; the drilling rate slums with depth and shows 4 dulling trend of the bits; the shale cuttings are small, rounded, blocky, varicolored chips; and the shale bulk Aencity inaronces with depth and age Sedi- ments in an abnormally-pressured well are undereompacted, because a seal updip prevents escape of the retained, compressed waters; as a result, the drill rate often remains constant or inereases in the shales. The cuttings are gray to dark gray and are often long and splintery with convex-concave surfaces, and tne shale density remains the same or decreases with depth. Figure 21 Normal vs Abnormal Pressure Wells NORMAL, Outerop. ‘ABNORMAL, Water Line bed NORMAL PRESSURE WELL Sediments compact uniformly with depth and celogic ge Water content of shale reduced from 80% to 36% with added overburden Dring rate sows and shows dling trend of bit with Seth ‘Shale cuttings ae varicoore, blocky to rounded, and eal pieces ‘ony mneceaes wt dept an age ABNORMAL PRESSURE WELL Sediments undercompacted—cant expel water int sands becouse of updip seal-no outcrop to surface, Water content of shales high due ta undercompaction, Dring rate often incroaes or remains constant in undercompcted sels, Shot cotings charg in color tod ry often ae tng, siey with ‘Density remains same or decreases,PREDICTION OF ABNORMAL PRESSURE The only means of obtaining subsurface information other than from drilling is by geupliysical ietiods. The must commonly used technique is the reflection seismic system. Although the seismograph has been in use for many years it is only rathor recently that drill ing personnel have begun to discover useful applications, one of which is how to predict the possibility of abnormal pressure. Historical Evolution of Abnormal Pressure Kecognit ion Abnormally-pressured sediments were first encountered during Uwe early days uf rotary rock bit drilling in the Texas-Louisiena Gulf Coast area. Often the results were spentamular hlow-outs with fires, Sometimoe the rigs were completely buried in the huge craters that formed as the well burned. Even- tually, experienced drilling personnel com- menced to recognize overpressured sediments by increase in drill rete, longer bit runs, gas-cut drilling muds, and hole instability, From this experience tactor of these early operations evolved the present day technology of detecting abnormal pressure as the well is being drilled. Tt was not until the developurent of Ue acoustic well log that a method of verification and quantification of overpressures was devel- aped.' Anant the same time a method of quantification of formation pressures was de- veloped for the conductivity and resistivity electrical logs.'* This “pressure plotting" of electrical logs from overpressured wells soon became the standard system for predicting overpressures in nearby proposed wells. Not surprisingly, tis "eorrélation by depth” proce- dure did not always successfully predict the top ‘of overpressure which resulted in many kicks, dlow-outs, and junked holes, Many operators still use correlation with the nearest offset well as their only attempt at predicting where over- prescire will he encountered in their respeotive drilling well. Geophysical Techniques for Predicting Overpressures ‘There 1s a etter metnoa tor precieting abnormal pressure than correlation with the nearest well control. It is the proper use of data generated by the reflection seismic sys- tem. The reflection seismograph is used to generate ant avoustle pleture of Ue sedimentary section of the earth, ‘The structural configura~ tion of the formations is interpreted by geophy- ieicto and a determination made ao to the favorable environment for the entrapment of or gas, In their efforts to produce the best seismic picture of the earth, these highly trained technical specialists also produce seis- mie by-produets which have significant applica tions to well planning and dritling operations. With good data and proper processing, it is possible to ascertain subsurface information such as probable formation fluid pressures, Liuotegles, possible hydrocarbon reservoirs, and potential ¢rilling hazards such as abnormal Pressure. Seismic Data ond Techniques Perhaps the most important seismic data available to drilling personnel is the velocity analysis of a proposed well. This is simply a velocity-time display at various distances along a seismic record section. This data can be rearranged into a form which simulates an average ecuustit lug ur velucity survey display~ ed as interval transit time versus depth. One of the first writers to describe in detail the application of interval volosities ta prodiat gross changes in lithology and warn of possible drilling problems was E. S. Pennebaker." He studied 350 well velocity survevs in the Gulf of Mexico basin and found there was a close correlation between interval velocity (interval travel time) and factors such as lithology and degree ot rock compaction and that interval travel time varies exponentially and predictably with depth. Departure from this normal com- paction trend signifies abnormal pressure and/or gross lithologie changes. He plotted all. his velocity data on 2 eyeles x 2 eyeles logarithmic papor to arrive at the exponential eompaction- depth relationship. Other authors have written some excel- lent papers on the use of velocity analvses to prediet abnormal pressure. Reynolds, May, and Klaveness™ treated the subject with profession al objectivity in their section of the Houston Geological ‘Society's "Abnormal Subsurface Pressure: A Study Group Report." Edward B. Reynolds" reported on the comparison of pre- 1-23otctea versus actual pore pressures by we use of velocity analyses for 35 wildeats drilled by Continental Oil Company. B. W. Aud” wrote an oxecllent paper illuotrating the need for ctatio- tical enhancement of automated velocity analy- ses. Each of these authors presented basic diagrams of reflection geometry for velocity analyses together with several case histories of predieting tops and magnitude of overpressures versus actual values when the wells were drilled. ‘The various geophysical service companies have their own computer automated program for processing wid visually displaying dhe sels mie data. Most seismic common-depth-point (CDP) shooting in the field is designed to yield maximum data in the intermediate to very deep ranges (7,500-16,000 feet). Therefore, in most instances the velocity plots are made to yield information for CDP stacking purposes to interpret the structural attitude and not for finite interval velocity resolution. This means that the data has to be reprocessed for # detailed analysis of possible overpressures. Al- most all velocity programs have a wide range of input parameters which predict pressures and lithology. If pressures “wre suspected below approximately 16,000 feet, it is necessary to shoot a velocity profile across the prospect with the geophone spread pattorn botwoon 12,000 and 15,000 feet, depending upon the type of lithology involved. For shallower gas zones. as found in the Pleistocene formations of the Offshore Louisi- ana and Texas areas, it is necessary to design the seismic lines for dest relative amplitude or "bright spot” processing. Cecil Craft"? de- seribes the techniques used in processing and interpreting seismic data for these anomalies whieh if not ealley ty the attention of oiling personnel, especially before the surface casing is set, can be a potential hazard. For the very shallow gas sands (1,000 to 2,000 fost) it is necessary to run several acoustic systems. ‘The various surveys which are necessary to com- plete an offshore hazards survey reauired for an archaeological report (USGS) are described by Herman C. Sieckin a recent publication. The reflection seismograph measures the tume required for a seismic wave to travel trom some source point to a reflecting horizon and baek to a surface recorder. ‘The amplitude of this reflection is generally dependent upon the magnitude of the acoustic contrast at this boundary (reflecting horizon). ‘This acoustic onteast (nofleation eactfisiont) is in tunn largo ly dependent upon the density and velocity differences that may exist at the reflecting horizon. The particular rock properties that are 1-24 associated with abnormal pressures, lower den= sity and velocity, tend to produce less than normal acoustic contrast and poorer quality data, Special ficld toohniquoc oan bo ured to provide the volume of data required to produce the desired resolution. Basic Concept of CDP Currently, practically all seismic data are the result of ‘some form of CDP such as singlefold, 6-fold, 12-fold, 24-fold, ete. Com- mon-depUr-puint stigvting Is defined es Wie situation where the same portion of the subsur- faces is involved in producing reflections at different offset distances on soveral profiles. Common-depth-point shooting produces redun= dent reflection data from which a common- depth-point stack can be made. Different shotpoint-geophone combinations ‘are used to record the same reflection from the same surface, Figure 22 is a series of diagrams illustrating a CDP field procedure and how a stacking diagram or flow chart is related to the Reographical positions of the shots and geo- phioues on Ure surface. Figure 22 is for sia=fold CDP from a 12-chennel system. The shooting is from left to right, "pulling" the cables and geophones ac normally done in practice. Shot- points (acoustic energy sources) are lettered, and geophones are numbered. The number 12 geophone position is closest to the shot. and the number 1 geophone is the farthest; i.e., geo- phone numbers are increasing in the direction of the shooting. The surface position of shotpoint and geophones are shown above the surtace of the ground (SFC), and positions of the corres- ponding reflection points are below the reflec tor (REPL). Well ein) up wilh # slacking diagram below the reflector. This is used by both field personnel and data processors. The field people, especially those on land, use the stacking diagram for keeping track of skips in the line end for modifying the shooting program to compensate for these skips. The processors use the stacking diagram to determine which traces to select for velocity gathers and CDP stack. We start with shotpoint A and get a signa] trom the supsurtace reflector at each ot the geophones numbered from 12 through one going to the left end of the spread (la). To get Siacfold frum @ 12-teae system! une must sluut or use a surface souree at every geophone station. So shotpoint B which is one geophone station epacing to the right of shotpoint A, and its corresponding depth points are positioned as shown in Ib. Two-fold CDP has been generated; .€., the reflection point of trace B-1 is common.Figure 22 ta Single Fold CDP sre ner scene POTS Na Aer Siacnan 1b 2-Fold CDP Fie eee eee sre SN x REFL. SrAGKiNG tae Biasnane DIAGRAM 1-25to Gait uf A-3, um B-2 fs Common wit Ana, and so on. ‘The odd numbers pair up with odd numbers, and the even numbers pair up with even numbers. This systemic superposition of reflection points inereases as we add more and more overlapping shots and spreads. Sub-figure le shows shot C and its surface positions and reflecting points. The CDP fold has been inereased to three. Refleetion point C-1 is common with B-3 and A-5. It is relatively easy to Dick out the corresponding surtace positions. In sub-figure I¢ shots D, E, and F are shown all at once. Six-fold CDP has been developed and the first six fold point is T 1 where it is common with E-3, D-5, C-7, B-9 and A-11 shown within the box. ‘The corresponding surface positions are citeled. ‘The heavy Tinee connecting the stack to the surface positions denote the six ray paths or the traces that go into @ velocity gather and CDP stack. Since most of the marine seismograph shooting is at least 24-fold CDP with 48 channels, (some of the most recent is of 48-fold) this simple 6-fold inustration graphieully shows ure vot of making velocity studies from which the pressure profiles are made. The modern high- speed computer makes all these calculations for us, thus speeding up the interpretation and decision-making process. Worldwide Case Histories Well planners generally ask three simple questions about abnormal pressure when they are designing a drilling program for a potential- ly overpressured well. 1 - does abnurmal pressure exist? 2- where is the top of the overpressure? 3 - what is the magnitude? Refore an attompt ic made ta anewor those three simple questions, certain physical prop- erties of the sediments to be drilled need to be answered. What kind of rocks will be drilled? Will they be shales and sands or will there be some carbonates such as limestones, and dolo- mites? Perhaps as important as the type of ruck luilogy Is wimt are the geological ages Of these rocks. Are they young rocks such as the Quaternary-Pleistocene or Tertiary (Pliocene, Miocene, Oligocene, Eocene, Paleocene) of the Gulf of Mexico basin or are they older such as the Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic of cen- tral Mississiooi? Or thev may be very old rocks as found in West Texas (Permian, Pennsylva- nian, Mississippian, Devonian, Silurian, Ordo cian, Cambrian), ‘The reason that these ques- tions must be answered before the well plan- hers' questions is that each type and age of rock lithology has a velocity signature for its respec- tive depth encountered in the subsurface. 1-26 Figure 23 Schematic of Downhole Velocity Survey opm Feet | U Physical properties of abnormally-pres- sured sediments exhibit several of the following when compared to a normally-pressured section fat the same depth: (1) higher porosities, (2) higher temperatures, (3) lower formation water salinity in sands, (4) ower bulk densities, and (5) lower shale resistivities. Very impuitant te the use of seismic data to predict overpressure is @ sixth property - lower interval velocity. ‘The reflontion soiemagraph moaciros the time required for a seismie wave to travel from f shotpoint to a subsurface reflecting horizon and back to a surface recorder. If the velocity of the seismic wave through ‘the sedimentary column to a reflecting horizon is known, depth to the reflector can be calculated, Thus, if enougn accurate retieetion information 1s avati- able, knowledge of subsurface structure can be obtained. ‘There are several techniques for deter- mining velocities, one of the most eommon being @ downhole’ well velocity survey. Shots fare detonated near the well and times, are recorded for the seismie energy to travel from the surface to 2 geophone suspended at succes~ sive depths in the wellbore. (See Figure 23). Differences in arrival times at the various geophone locations are used to develop an average interval travel time (ITT) or velocity profile. These checkshots are critical dataFigure 24 Velocity Profile Showing Exponential Function of Compaction with Depth Upper Miocene, Ortsnore Louisiana 1000, sates —— 2000) Interval Travel Time — Microsec!ft. needed to correct the velocities used in the original seismic interpretations before the well was drilled. A recent development of an energy souree for ‘offsnore wells 1s the air gun which utilizes compressed air for the wave souree, There are other unique wave sourees such as gas guno which utilize methane gas ax the energy souree, and aqua guns that operate on hyéraulie principles to supply an energy source. A_more indireot mathad seas data fram siemic field records to compute interval travel time profiles. In this method, each shotpoint in a routine seismograph survey provides data for velocity determination. Routine seismograph survey records yield sufficient data to compute an IP? velocity profile from each shotpoint on the seisinie line. In ulls tecimigue, common depth point data are used to generate plots of root-mean-square velocity versus reflection timo. These plots aro converted into an ITT versus depth plot, which is a gross synthetic acoustic log. This depth-velocity display can then be calibrated in terms of formation pres- sure equivalent mud weight if a normal compae- tion trend can be established. Figure 24 is a velocity analyses for a series of normally pressured Upper Miocene sands and shales in a well drilled in the Offshore Louisiana area. The data are plotted on the 2 cycle x 2 cycles Figure 25 Velocity Profile Frio Trend, South Texas = T anaes {| rin Depts - Feat 20,000, — | ana 306100 —T50-Z0y Interval Travel Time — Microsec logarithmie paper as recommended by Penne- baker. This example shows the exponential funetion of velocity with depth; i.e., a straight lime with a slope of 1/4. ‘Any’ change’ in lithology, pore pressure, or geologie age will manifest itself as a lateral shift in the line and will appear as au anuinely. Geological age manifests itself as either a shift to the left of the interval travel time for the older forma- tione or 2 shift to tho right for the younger formations. Figure 25 is_a velocity profile for a well located in the Frio trend of South Texas. illustrating both a change in lithology and pore pressure. Note the abrupt shift of the velocity to the right at 8,500 feet. This increase in travel Ume (Geerease in velocity) 15 caused by the overpressured shale. Such a drastic change in velocities generally denotes a very short transition sone caused by either a major fault, an unconformity, or a predominantly shale section. ‘The well drilled at the location for which this velocity analysis was made prion to the well spudding, encountered abnormal pres- sure at 8,000 feet. Protective casing was set at 8,817 feet in approximately 15 re pres Sure DY log pressure plots.” At otal doptn of 12,600 feet, the mud weight was 17.0 ppg: pore pressure plots indicated between 17.0 and 17.5 1-27Figure 26 Velocity Profile Presstocene Frend, Onishore Louisiana g 6000 7000: { Depts Feet 110,000 15,000 20,000 : Interval Travel Time — Microsec' Figure 27 Velocity Profile Vicksoury Treml, South Texas 1000 2000. — 3000;— 4000, I Dept Feet Interval Travel Time —Microsec'ft. ppg equivalent mud weight. The electrical logs revealed that the lithology below 8,100 feet to totel depth was shale. The well was probably ‘oritted about one-talf pound per gallon un balanced, The predicted maximum mud weight by seismic data was slightly over one pound per gallon more than actually used te drill the well. Figure 26 is a velocity profile for an Offshore Louisiana well in the Pleistocene trend. Note the verv subtle indiestion of overpressure at 7,000 feet. ‘The maximum mud weight used in the well was 13.0 ppg at 8,000 feet. Electrical log pressure plots confirmed pressure gradient of nearly 13.0 ppg equivalent mud weight. This geological age velocity is the most difficult to interpret with any consistent degree of accuracy. Most interpretations of the top of abnormal pressure are made with a tolerance of #500 feet. Figur 97 is a_veloaity profile from the Vicksburg trend of South Texas illustrating a third type of pressure profile. This type is the easiest for which to make predicted tops and pressure magnitudes. Top of the abnormal pressure transition zone was predicted from this plot to be at 10,500 feet. It was penetrated by ye Ori} DIL ata depth of 9,700 feet. The protective casing was set at’ 10,870 feet in about 12.6 ppg. The well was drilled to 16,050 1-28 feet where the mud weight was 18.2 ppg whieh was very close to the predicted weight of 18.5 ppg as interpreted from the seismie data prior tO Spuddiig. Lug pressure pluts showed 18.2 ppg at total depth. Note that the normal pressure base com- paction line shifted ta the loft near 10,000 foot on this interpretation. In many basins, particu- larly the Gulf of Mexico basin, there is an inerease in the amount, of caleareous and siliceous material immediately overlying the abnormal pressure transition zone. This rock matrix material is reflected on the velocity Profile as an anomaly of lesser travel time. ‘Thicknesses have been observed to véry from @ few hundred to several thousand feet. To predict pore presoure values in euch a case as Fig. 27, the normal pressure base line of the overlay must be shifted laterally to the left to establish » new hase line immediately above the abnormal pressure zone. Notice the new base line is parallel to the previously established base line for the upper portion of the travel time plot. ‘The Delaware basin of West Texas is a challenging area in which to drill because the bnuritally-pressured lower Permian (Wolfeamp formation) and the Pennsylvanian section over- lie normally-pressured, older, Paleozoic rocks.Figure 28 Velocity Profile Delaware Basin, West Texas Figure 29 “— = | som s000 sooo 208 10,000 Deptr- Feet 16,000: 20,000; + 4060 a0 Too 150-200 Interval Travel Time — Microseesft ‘igure 28 1s a velocity protile mace trom a downhole velocity survey after the well was drilled to total depth. Because of the extreme Yelocity problems in this basin, it is very Gifficult to make meaningful interval travel time depth plots, ‘The sedimentary section of this Fanhurger gas producing well isa mixture of elasties and nonelasties to 16,000 feet which is the top of the Mississippian. Top of abnormal pressure is clearly indicated at 8,800 feet, top of the Wolfeamp shale, ‘The protective easing was set at 10,579 feet near the base of the Wolfeamp. Maximum mud weight used to drill the overpressurea Lower Permian and Penmsyl- vanian was 15.9 ppg. A protective liner was set ‘at 16,200 feet in the top of the dense Mississip- pian ‘limestona. The mud weight was thon reduced to 10.8 ppg and the well drilled to total depth of 21,600 feet in the Ellenburger. The velocity plot shows the section to be normally pressured by the travel times of 57 microsee~ onds from 16,000 feet to 19,500 feet and 48 microseconds’ from 19,500 to 21,500 feet. ‘These two microsecond values are the seismie signatures for the respective carbonate litholo- gies in this portion of the Delaware basin. ‘The challenge to drilling personnel in this type of normal-abnormal-normal pressure se~ quence is twofold: (1) set the protective casing Velocity Profile Beaufort Basin, Northwest Canada 1000 nto @ high enougn pore pressure to prevent tost returns at the casing seat while drilling the abnormal section, and (2) stop drilling before returning toa normal formation presoure gradi ent and possibly losing mud returns before the protective liner is set. After the liner is set, then the mud weight enn he reduced to a normal weight in order to maximize penetration rate. The Beaufort basin located off the north coast of Alaska and Canada has unigue seismic problems because of the permafrost zone neat the ground surface. This problem is partially overcome by a special crystal cable survey run In Ue surface portion of Ue Lorelle Unvugh the permafrost section before the surface cas- ing is set. Figure 29 is a veloaity profile for # hese? Tertiary wildeat drilled in the Mackenzie River delta area. The predicted top of overpressure at 9.000 feet was found at 9,700 feet by log pressure plots. The maximum mud weight prediction of 13.5 ppg was less than the 14.7 Pog weights used at total depth of 12,500 feet. This ‘iserepaney 1s cue to the snort spread length of the seismic lines in this area. ‘They are generally around 7,500 feet in length and the seismic resolution limit io roughly ene and a half times the spread length, or approximately 10,500 to 11,000 feet.Figure 30 Velocity Profile Offshore Wrest Atrica Figure 31 Velocity Profile Seuth China Sea Aros =] 2000 Depth - Feet | Interval Travel Time — Microseei ft 1809 2000 300 a Cp amg Eee © 6000; | ii jee & 7000) 8 reo ae 10.000! 4 1000 pt] zeaooi—}_| |__| _| Interval Travel Time — Microsee' ‘The velocity profile shown in Fig. 30 was made for a well drilled off the West Coast of Africa, The predicted top of overpressure at 0,000 feet was within 900 feet uf the lug pressure plotted top at 6,100 feet. The protec tive casing was set at 6,950 feet in an indicated pare prossure of 15.0 ppg. Mud woight was 12.2 pg when the casing was run. ‘The most interesting anomaly on this velocity profile is the decrease in travel time below 10,000 feet. ‘The well was drilled to just below 13,000 feet where mud returns were lost h 14.8 ppg mud weight. Electrical logs plottea between 18 and iv Pog pore pressures from 7,000 feet to 11,000 feet. By 12,500 feet, the log plots indicated a gradual deereese to a normal gradient for this basin. The lithology was described as predominantly shale between 6,000 feet and 12,500 feet. Below 12,500 feet, the cuttings were analyzed as mainly maristone. Returns were lost in fractured skeletal lime- stone at total depth. This velocity profile was very accurate for predicting, both the top and bottom of overpressure. It is regrettable that the operator did not plan on setting a protective liner whieh would have allowed cutting the mud weight, Uius preventing lust returns rather Unt junking the hole. The pressure gradient system for this aree is very similar to the one described 30 for the Delaware basin of West Texas illustrat- ed in Fig. 28. Figure 31 is a velocity profile for a well orilted It the South China Sea aes. The top of overpressure was predicted at 4,500 feet. The log pressure plots showed the top of the transition to bo at 4,600 foot. _Protootive casing was set at 7,500 feet in an indicated pore pressure of 17 ppg by the velocity data and 16.2 by the log plots, ‘Mud weight at this depth was 16.0 ppg. The well was drilled to total depth of 9,600 feet with a mud weight of 16.0 ppg. The log pore pressure plots indicated a slight regres- sion in pressure TO approximately 14.0 ppg at this depth. ‘The seismie data indicated a pressure regression below 8,000 feet but the ‘Quality of the information below 9,000 fect was very poor, hence no velocities could be caleu- lated below that depth. Once again, it is demonstrated that the short sptead length of the seismie Tine has resulted in very accurate velocities in the shallow and intermediate depths. However, in the deeper ranges the velocity information is poor. One really should design a special velocity survey dependent upon the projected depUlt Of Ue propused well su that Ue velucity profile can be made through the lower-most objectives of the well.‘summary The following conclusions are evident from the comments on the previously described velocity profiles. + Interval travel time plots show that veloc- ity inerensex exponentially with depth in normally-compacted sediments. Any de- parture from this normal trend is caused by the presence of overpressured forma- tions and/or gross changes in lithology. ITT plots are vital data and are the only accurate way to predict overpressure be~ fore w well Is drilled; therefore, an ITT plot is a must before planning the drilling program for a wildeat well. ‘All goologioal information should be inte grated into the ITT plots before the easing and mud weight plan is finalized. interpretations of velocity profites imve been used successfully worldwide in all types of lithology to estimate drilled deptho to overgroccured gence and the magnitude of the fluid pressures contained therein. The accuracy of ITT plots depends upon the quality of the seismic data and the experience of the seismic interpreter. ‘The formation fluid pressure gradient and fracture pressure gradient are dependent upon each other and in turn are the produet of stratigraphy and related basin Suvses, Veluvity analyses can be used to prediet stratigraphy before wells are drill- ed, so they should be utilized by the well planners in prediating fracture gradionts and designing casing programs for over- pressured wells. 1-31OFFSET WELL DATA Even though an interval travel time plot may be constructed independently for a propos- ed exploratory well, it is imperative to look nt offset well date (if any are available) for evidence of abnormal pressure. The first items to examine are the electrical logs for the type of lithology and any potential zones of over- pressure, ‘This log information should be vali- dated by mud log information, core description and ameilysis, vested zones, geological reports, and a lithological deseription of the samples by the wellsite geologist. ‘Tho mud log ie usually a good source of general well information. A properly drawn and annotated mud log should give a fairly complete storv of the well. Some of the more important items to look for on a mud log are: 1. Lithology changes, such as the sec- tion becoming shelier, and’ physical changes such aS color, texture, shape, mineralogical content, size, and bulk densities of cuttings. 2. Drilled gas changes, especially in- creases in the background gas, drill pipe con ection gas, shutdown time for slope tests, short trips with the bit, shutdowns for rig equipment repairs, and after trips for a new hit 3. A change in rate of penetration, which is generally plotted in feet per hour in the softer seciments and minutes per foot in hard rock drilling. Look for an increase or fairly constant drill rate in shale. Increases are generally easier to detect if the penetration Fate seule iy plotted Int feet per tour ud on a linear seale. (See "Rate of Penetration" exam- ples in Section Ill.) 4, Tho bit roaord data, euah a& type of bit, time in hole, footage drilled, the speed of the rotary, weight on bit, pump pressure, and grading of bit. 5. Drilling mud rheological properties, primerily weight, funnel viscosity, ehlorides, flowline temperature, and water loss. 6. Notes of Slougning, heaving, caving, or spalling shale; hole fill on connections and after bit trips; excess drag on connections; tight hole or torque while drilling; reamings gao cuto in the mud, kicks, influx of salt water; stuck drill pipe and fishing. Nat all af thaem six aatagaries af tion shown on a mud log are direct individually of drilling in overpressure. How- ever, when used together, they can often be correlated as direct indications of pressure and can help to formulate a better drilling plan for the well. 32 Other information that ean be very help- ful are mechanical ROP curves such as SWACO, TOTCO, or Geolograoh: mud engineer's daily checklist of the drilling mud properties; @ copy of the bit record for condition of the bits after Grilling a suspected zone of overpressure; bot~ tomhole temperatures from electrical logs (lor fa possible change in gradient). If @ eopy of the daily drilling report can be found, look for any Femarks concerning lurgue, dheg, Iwole fill, and reaming; changes in crilling bit parameters such as weight, rotary speed, and pump pressure; any notations of spooifie shutdowns for mochanias! repairs of equipment used to turn the drill string and circulate the mud system. These may be clues to adverse hole conditions caused by overpressure. Pore Pressure Plots In addition to lithology end water satura~ tions uscful data that can be obtained from electrical logs are pore pressure plots. ‘The best logs for this purpose are the induetion electrical and the nemistio logs. Other logs whieh reset to the porosity of shales can be used, but they are not run as commonly as the induetion and acoustic logs, Figure 22 is 2 pressure plot of & wildeat well iocated in South Texas. The curve shown in the left column has pore pressure values in equivalent pound per gallon mud welght. This curve is generated Ly usiing shale conduetivity values from the induction electri~ cal log. The middle curve is made by plotting tho bulk chalo density values from tho well cuttings at the time the well is drilled, The right-column curve shows pressure values by plotting shale values in microseconds from the acoustic log, (See Section IV, "Quantitative Verification of Abnormal Pressure" for the mechanics and guidelines for pressure plotting.) ‘The supporting data adaea inejuae mud welgnts, jing depths, test information, and other per- tinent information, ‘The first indication of preaoure io chown by the shale density plot which commences to decrease at 11,200 feet and reaches 12.5 ppg aquivalent mud weight at 11.500 feet. At the easing setting depth of 11,865 feet the pore pressure js equal to 14.0 ppg. The other two curves show the top of transition to be at 11,300 feet, and about 16.0 ppg at 9-5/8-ineh casing setting depth. The 7-5/8-inch liner was set at 12,900 feet in over 18.5 ppg pore AFigure 32 Pore Pressure Plot — South Texas Corduetvity + 1000 mma: 00 20003000 hale Density BHC Sonic Micro See. 90 100 150) Mod BH Weight Tem. 2a 23) pressure. Note that the final mud weight at TD was 19.2 ppg. The log plots do not show this high a pore pressure. Tt is very nearly a gradient of 1.0 psi/ft (or geostatic, which is the weight of the entire overburden, both solids and Muids, of the earth's arst). ‘The hottom-hale shutin pressure of 14,000 psi at 15,351-15,465 feet is equal to 17.5 ppg mud weight. The logs plot roughly 18.0 ppg in this interval. This well is ant excellent example of pore pressure data that would be required in order to predict abnormal pressure and its magnitude if one were preparing to drill an offset woll 1-331-34 FOOTNOTE REFERENCES Section I lwalter H. Fertl. "Abnormal Formation Pressures," in Developments in Petealoum Saienes, 2, (Risovier Selentitia Publishing Company, 1976) charles A. Stuart and H. G. Kozik. "Geopressure Mechanism of the Smackover Gas Reservoirs, Jackson Dome Area, Mississippi," Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME Paper No. 4571 (1973). 3w.G. Ayrton, D. E. and J. H. Smith, "Grand Banks — Future Marine ineater?” Uliana és Jounal, january 14, 1944), pp. TH8U. 4W, H. Fertl "Worldwide Occurrences of Abnormal Formation Pressure, Port 1," Society of Petroleum Engincers of AIME Paper No. 9044, (1972). °A Petroleum Engineer Staff Report. "How AGIP Drills, Completes Uitradeep Po Valley Wells." Petroleum Engineer. (April, 1978), pp. 80-86. SBernard Guiraudet, "Drilling for Ultradeep Sour Gas in France," Petroleum Engineer, (September, 1972), pp. 40-45. Tyouston Geological Society. Abnormal Subsurface Pressure: A Study Group Report, 1969-71, (1971). Syjaurice C. Powers. "Fluid-Release Mechanism in Compacting Marine Mudrocks and Their Importance in Oil Exploration," AAPG Bulletin, (July, 1967), pp. 1240-54, Syohn F. Burst. "Diagenesis of Gulf Coast Clayey Sediments and Its Possible Relation to Petroleum Migration," AAPG Bulletin, (January, 1969), pp. 73-93. 1c. A. Parker. "Geopressures in the Deep Smackover of Mississippi," Journal of Petroleum Technology, (August, 1973), pp. 974-9. 1), R. Louden. "Chemical Caps Can Cause Pressure Buildup," Oil and Gas Journal, (November 15, 1971), pp. 144-61. "pH. Jones. "Hydrodynamics of Geopressures in the Northern Gulf of Mexieo Basin,” Journal of Petroleum Technology, (July, 1968), pp. 802-10. ‘Sc. B, Hottman and R. J. Johnson. "Estimation of Formation Pressures from Log-Derived Shale Properties," Journal of Petroleum Technology, (June, 1965), pp. 17-22. My, E, Wallace. "Abnormal Subsurface Pressures Measured from Conductiv- ity on Resistivity Logs," Oil and Gas Journal, (July, 1965), pp. 102-6. 155. s, Pennebaker, Jr. "An Engineering Interpretation of Seismic Data,” Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME Paper No. 2165, (1968). \6naward B. Reynolds, John E. May, and A. H. Klaveness. "The Geophysical Aspeets of Abnormal Fluid Pressures” in Abnormal Subsurface Pressure: A Stud Group Report. 1969-1971. (Houston Geological Society. 1971). pp. 31-47.‘Eaward B. Reynolds. "The Application of Seismic Techniques to Drilling Techniques," Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME Paper No. 4643, (1973). 1B. W. Aud. “Abnormal Pressure and Relative Lithology from Seismic Velocities," Sixteenth Annual Logging Symposium Transactors, Paper No. ce, Gociety of Professional Well Log Analysts, June, 1975). "cecil Craft. "Detecting lydroearbons — for Years the Goal of Exploration Geophysies," Oil and Gas Journal, (February 19, 1973), pp. 122-5. 20yferman C. Sieck. "Practical Application of Offshore Site Hazard Surveys," Ocean Engineering, (November 15, 1975), pp. 6-9.Section Il PLANNING THE ABNORMAL-PRESSURED WELL After an interval travel time plot has been made tor a proposed exploratory well and all the offset well data have been assembled, the drilling group is ready to outline a drilling program. But before the outline can be completed, a number of facture must Le considered. ‘The drilling plan must provide the safest and most efficient way to drill this one-indlvidual well To evaluate the proposed geological objective: cere The incividuality nf exploratory wells is stressed heeanse no two wildeat wells ever drill exactly alike. As a result, the drilling plan for this particular proposed wildeat has to be individually tailored. ‘To get the plan as near perfect as possible, we must consider @ lot of information. In gathering this data, Keep this thought in mind: BUILD A DRILLING PLAN WITH FLEXIBILITY, so that if the gathered date are inaccurate, there is an alternative to Junking the hole. This approach requires good communication and cooperation between the drilling group and the personnel Broposing the wen. Each of the items and actions listed below is essential for developing an efficient flexible drilling plan. ‘The rest of this section goes into most of these itome in details 1. Geologie-seismie maps and cross sections of the proposed well. 2. Types of formations, the expected formation pressure gradients, and a review of the fracture gradient history of the area. Planning session with the personnel who generated the prospect so they ‘ean explain the geology. 4. ‘The type of rig and equipment needed to drill the well. 5: ‘The availability and experience of personnel to drill the well. 6. A preliminary meeting between the drilling group and contraetors to discuss needed well services before the well is spudded. PLAN THE WELL Sec. II 11GEOLOGIC-SEISMIC Both geologie structure maps and eross seetions are valuable as an aid in the drilling of an overpressurec well, but the most informative aid to the drilling group is a geologic cross section. It shows the depth to the prospective formations and the probable trouble points in the proposed well. Such cross sections are especially valuable for field wildeat and outpost drilling as illustrated in Wig. 1 and 9. This type well is probably the most difficult well that is Grilled today. As a matter of preference, the author would much prefer to look for 2 easing seat on a rank wildeat rather than the case illustrated by the outpost well in Fig. 1. haps this point ean be made clearer by d Ing une ease history for ce & Well No. the benefits and shorteomings of strueture maps and cross sections for use in drilling plans. Well No, 3 was proposed to look for gas accumulations below the SP5 sand series to TD. of 16.500 feet. A large fault of some 2.500 feet Pers MAPS AND CROSS SECTIONS Figure 1 Structural Mop an Top af Bol. 2 Sand Before Drilling Well No, 3 ~ South Louisiana Figure 2 Geologie Cross Section — South Lovisiana nw ee No. No.3 No.2 Original Interpretation 10,000 Trverpreauto Atver br von | 4 : | | | deere ‘oop 1 ns | nt ; care | on wou | Tat ° samo FT iso | 1-2Figure 3 Structural Map on Top of SP 5 Sand After Drilling Well No.3 — South | auisiana ee of displacement was speculated to cut the propased location at aronnd 17.200 feet as shown by the original struetural interpretation in Figure 1. On Fig. 2 the dashed line shows the original interpretation on the cross section. Cutting the fault at this point in the section would put normal pressure (low side of fault) against normal pressure (high side of fault). This would periit Ue Uritting peuple ty monitor abnormal pressure indicators and stop the well in about 11.5 ppg pore pressure at 13,000 feet in the top of the SP3 sands and set the 9-5/9-inch protective casing. An upper and lower depth value should have been given to the drilling group so that they could have built more flexibility into their drilling plan, However, they did plan on the possibility of setting cesing at 13,000 fect if the wellbore had not crossed to the high side of the fault by that depth. ‘Ine hole was drilled uneventfully to 12,850 feet at which point logs revealed the fault had not been cut. Monitoring ROP and "d" exponent, drilled gas, and chlorides (and with a paleontologist at the wellsite), drilling was resumed with 12.8 ppg mud. At 12,917 feet, mud returns were lost at the 13-3/8-ineh easing shoe and the drill pipe Stuck. The shoe was squeezed with cement and the hole sidetracked around the junk. It was drilled with 9.7 ppg mud to 12,850 foct where the 0 6/2-ineh easing war cot. ‘The shoe held only 13.5 ppg equivalent on a pressure integrity test; so it was squeezed and then held 16.0 ppg equivalent mud weight. Drilling resumed with 15.0 ppg mud to 13,211 feet. At this depth the mud was gas-cut to 14.3 ppg and the chlorides inereased from 11,000 to 17,000 pom. ‘This mud cut came trom @ tive-toot drilling break that increased penetration rate trom 25 to 60 feet per hour. While the mud was conditioned back to 13.0 ppg, the paleontologist found the key microfossil assemblage for the SP5 sand series at 13,150 feet. Logs were run which indiaated 15.0 ppg equivalent pare pros sure in the shale at the top of the SP5 sand. ‘The throw on the fault was in excess of 2,500 feet. Fig. 3 shows the structural interpretation on top of the SP5 sand after welll No. 3 cut the fault at 13,100 feet. ‘The major problem in orting well No. 3 was not Lie Iniceuracy Of Une geologic and seismic data but failure to perform a pressure integrity leak-off test on the float collar and guide choo. ‘Thie tost ic docaribed in the next sub-section "Fracture Gradients and Hole Integrity." In retrospect. it is obvious that the geo logie cross section, showing the offset well correlations, was needed to drill this well. But Grilling personnel must be informed of the limitations of seismic data. ‘rhe difference of about 1,000 vertical feet between the predicted ‘and actual depth to the fault is significant to the driller, but within the resolution of the seismic data, Fault displacement was predicted accurately, The exact location and displace~ ment of large depacitinnal faults eannot he exactly interpreted. This type of faulting is fairly common in the Gulf of Mexico basin and will most probably be found to exist in other basins as additional well control is gained. 11-3FRACTURE GRADIENTS AND HOLE The least understood phase of drilling abnormally-pressured wells is the strength and Denavior Of rocks under the stress of @ dri Dit and hydraulic pressure from the drilling fluid. ‘This poor understanding of rock knowledge is not limited to any particular discipline; it is shared by engineers, geologists, and rig person~ nel alike. ‘The basic reason for this lack of nderstanding is that the subject has not been described in easy-to-read and understandable language. It has only been approached in theoretical terms of mathematies and physics. ‘All drilling personnel need @ good funda~ mental knowledge of fracture gradients, espe- cially in the drilling of abnormally-pressured wells; is, wily Ue protective sting must be set in greater-than-normal pressure; how to minimize lost-cireulation problems; and the relationship between overburden pressure, pore pressure, grain pressure, and fracture pressure. The following will give you a fundamental introduction to the role that geology plays in the fracture gradient relationship. ‘The Geology/Fracture Gradient Relationship ‘The following geological events must be considered in the drilling of a well. It matters not whether the pressure gradient is normal or abnormal for the respective rocks through which a borehole is foreed—and let us alwavs remember that fact~a borehole is forced through @ rock. So long as the mineralogical content of the rock remains constant within allowable parameters, the fracture gradient remains essentially the same. However, when the rock minerals are rearranged or changed in any recognizable manner, then the fracture gradient changes also. ' It either becomes greater (rarely) or lesser (commonly). In other words, en Tang ac tha ranks remain homa- geneous, the fracture gradient remains the same; when the rocks become heterogeneous the fracture gradient changes. ‘Therefore, it is readily apparent that a borehole can be forced through a series of homogeneous rocks but the borehole itself is heterogeneous. For exemple, the upper part of ule ole may be ulvernating sands and shales; the intermediate part may be limestones and dolomites; and the lower part may be anhydrites and calt. Each of thoco rock types has a distinet fracture gradient depending upon @ number of factors: mineralogical com- position. depth in the borehole. tensile strength, q1-4 INTEGRITY mechanical properties, physical properties, structural features, in-situ stresses, contained fluida, borchole fluid, temperature, and times Because of these factors the cutting of a borehole is a rather tedious and complex opera~ tion. And therefore, each distinet lithological sequence should be ‘considered before actual eoth, 1060, > 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 10 K = Horizontal Stas / Verveal Stoss Figure 5 Internal Transit Time to Overburden Pressure Relationship Atof 100,secitt @ wo M4 GB 19 202 P= Owmrburdon Gradion, 9 11-7can be determined trom bulk density togs, or from gravity, or from other geophysical evi- dence. Tn the absence of density data, one of the curves of Fig. 5 may be helpful for planning purposes. Use of the curves for areas other than the Gulf nf Moving hasin is possible if an acoustic log is available. With such @ log in hand, one merely by inspection, finds the approximate depth at which the average inter- val transit time over a 500-foot vertical inter val averages 100 microseconds per foot, then uses the “proper 100 microsecond per’ foot compaction curve shown in Ti. 9 to establisii the desired overburden gradient. Figure 6 Typical Acoustic Log Inoeal Transit Time ace 107580 125 Dersn, 1000 te or instance, to rina Fo at 2,000 feet for the well whose acoustic log is shown in Fig. 6, it is observed that at about 4,200 feet the beds are compacted to 100 microcooonds por foot. Referring to Fig. 5, 2 gradient curve for the well in question is constructed as shown by the heavy dashed line paralleling the other curves through the interseetion of 2,000 foot depth and the 100 microseconds per foot compaction curve. The value for Po at 2,000 feet is read from this new curve as 18.2 ppg equivalent mud weight. In the same manner, Po can be estimated from a seisiie velucity piufile obtained near the planned well location, since it is in effect ‘an acoustic log with interval transit times measured aver cansiderahly geeator dapth intor~ vals. Pore pressure gradient, Pp is the forma: tion fluid: preesure Sepressee in ppg equivalent mud weight required to balance the pore pres sure. Pp is estimated from seismic data, or may be derived from correlation wells either directly, such us from DST deta, or indirectly from analysis of sonic logs, shale densities, and other evidence. Example 1 Given: Well to be drilled to 12,000 feet TD. Protective casing seat expected at 8,600 feet ‘opposite 12.0 pouna-per-gaiion pore ‘pressure formation. Inspection of sonic log of the ref- erence well and seismic velocity profile at this qwcation shows average transit time of 100 microseconds per foot at 8,000 feet. Surface casing planned for 2,000 feet. Question: Will liner be required to reach TD if maximum mud weight goes to 17.5 ppg? Solution: Assume that the open hole below pro- tecuive casing will rupture within 100 feet of the casing seat. (1) From Fig. 4 (or Graph 6 located in the Appendix), K at 8,600 foot ~ 0.78. (@) From Fig. 5 (or Graph 7), Po at 8,600 feet on the 8,000 curve = 18.7 ppg. (3) Po = 12.0 ppg. (@) From Equation 1 : FG = 0.78 (18.7 12.0) + 12.0 = 5.2 + 12.0 = 17.2 ppg. This is the fracture gradient at 8,600 feet, The expected mud weight of 17.5 ppg will exceed the fracture gradient, in fact, since weean oxpect surge proccures of approximately .6 ppg curing drilling operations, a liner will be required to prevent lost returns by the time a mud weight of 16.7 pog is reached. It might be possible to avoid setting a liner by drilling deeper to set easing opposite 13.0 ppg pore pressure formation. With surface casing Set at Z,UU0 teet in normal pressure formations, however, the fracture gradient will be only 12.9 ppg at the bottom of the surface pipe. ‘Thus, additional surface casing would be advisable. An alternative method involves preparing # cot af ainves of ealenlated fracture gradient versus depth for various values of pore pressure for the planned location. ‘The curves ean be very useful in planning the easing program, because numerous combinations of casing set~ ting depths, pore pressures, and mud weights ean be studied quickly. Effect of Shaliness ~~As mentioned in the preceding discussion, cone of the important factors is the nature of the rock. Increasing shaliness causes an_in- crease in breakdown pressure. Unusually high fracture gradients have been observed even at shallow depths in offshore areas near the Mississippi River. PILOT tests have been used suecessfully there to establish K factors for materially inereasing prediction reliability. Offshore Fracture Gradients Shore fracture gradients are calculated fundamentally in the same manner as land gradients. However, since the uppermost inter- Val hatwean the sen oor and wellhead is water. which is considerably less dense than rock, the overburden pressure gradient is lower than for a comparable onshore location. Asa result, fracture gradients can be lower, substantially so in deep water and shallow formation. The reduction may at times result in the fracture gradient becoming the eontrouing factor in the determination of the number and setting depths of conductor and surface casings. ‘Tho following oxamplo shows the offeot of drilling the same well (1) on dry land and (2) from a floating rig in 1,500 feet of water. Example 2 Given: (1) Casing set at 1,000 feet below the ground or below mud line, (2) Mud weight = weight = 8.55 ppg. seawater 10 pees (2) Po from ground or mud line to casing seat = 15.7 ppg (bulk density log). 4) Ke 43. Fo = KiPo— PtP pe = 180048.551 1000 157 7500 +1000 = 401057061486 114 pea eau = 4a. +86 491114881486 = 205+86 - 12486 = 1185 999 + 9868 Formation wil not fracture Lost retur ‘The above, of course, assumes that the effective stress tatios will be the same for the two locations, an assumption which could be in considerable error. Field measurements have shown that, particularly in offshore areas, the K values are sensitive to depositional environ- ent, UF shines uf Ue cucks, ou tine Pressure Integrity Leak Off Tests discussed next are a must for improving reliability and accuracy of the predictions. Fortunately, it appears that in the deeper waters, particularly in the offshore areas of the Gulf of Mexico, the fracture gradients in the upper part of the hole arc unusually high because of high shale content tending to offset the problem caused by the lower density water layer. Pressure Integrity Leak Off Test Aceurate measurement of the fracture pressure gradient below the casing shoe is extremely important during the drilling of well. Many of the critical decisions such as easing setting points and alternatives during well control operations are based on this value. This measurement ean be made through’a relatively simple field procedure, a Pressure Integrity Leak Off Test (PILOT). The same vusle provedure call alsy be wed ty pressure test the easing and to check the cement job around the easing shoe. The guidelines that follow are dosigned for uniformity, to make interpretation easier and to minimize the cost of performing these tests by requiring less rig time. The Pressure Integrity Leak Off Tests are necessary data on critical wells, especially where abnormal pressure is anticipated, or where the final mud weight is not known. It is recommended that PILUT cata De gathered on all wells where the cement job is questionable, the fracture pressure gradient is not known, and/or final mud weight is not known. Thi generally applies to wells that will require 11-9weeater than 11.5 ty 12.0 ppg mud weights. Conversely, the PILOT ‘s not intended for those wells where the fracture pressure gradients and Final mud woighte af lose than 11.5 to 12.0 are certain. PILOTs are mandatory by the USGS on offshore wells in the continental U.S.A, ‘The author recommends these tests on all wildeats and overpressured wells regardiess of their location worldwide. ‘They are preventative measures to help control formation influxes into the wellbore and prevent disastrous blowouts. ‘The theory behind the Pressure Integrity Leak Off Test is that through the controlled imposition of @ procure upon tho mud aolumn in the wellbore, some small vertical fractures are induced into the formation. A small amount of whole mud is forced into these fractures when this occurs, the pumping is stopped and the pressure held for a short period of time to observe the "bleed-off." The pressure is then released at the surtace and driling can de resumed immediately. There is conclusive evidence that these small fractures heal or close as soon as the pressure is released because there are no proppants in the whole mud to hold them open. Hence, there is no damage to the wolthore ‘The pirpase af thie test is to determine the maximum mud weight the hole will support before higher mud weights are required. There is now enough evidence to indicate that all types of formations, carbonate-evap- orite as well as sand-shale, can be safely pressured up to oblaln Une fracture pressure gradient data without any permanent damage to ‘the wellbore. In fact, the hole integrity often ineroases a cubsoquont proccuro tosts are run at deeper depths with higher mud weights. General Procedure ressure Integrity Leak Off Test is performed by closing the top BOP and slowly pumping mud into the well until either the specified casing test pressure or the FILUI limit for uncased holes is reached. During the course of the test, a graph of surface pressure versus cumulative yuluine pumped must be constructed to determine when the pump should be stopped. Fig. 7 is © typical pressure varans valime plot of & PILOT test where @ short section of open hole was exposed below the easing. Once the initial slaek, Point A, in the system is overcome, there is a constant pressure increase for each fraction barrel of mud pumped so that the points fall on @ more-or-less straight line. Iris 18 The same extect that Would De seen when pressure testing a casing string prior to drilling out the cement shoe. Figure 7 Typical PILOT Plot oy gas bce { i i : i fg) — stack m svsren ‘CUMULATIVE VOLUME PUMPED = ‘The trend of constant pressure increases for equal volumes pumped continues until Point B, where the plotted points begin to bend to the right. Starting at Point B, the formation ‘through tiny fractures begins ‘to accept whole mud Slice less pressure increase is seen for an equal volume of mud pumped. Point B is called the PILOT "Limit", and the surface pressure is ucually converted’ inta png equivalent mud weight. It is sometimes necessary to record several more points as the curve continues to bend away from the straight line to ensure that the PILOT Limit has been reached. More will be said about this additional value later. At Point C, the pumps are shut down and ‘the instantaneous shut-in pressure 1s recorded (Point D). Between Points D and B, the well is left shut-in to observe the rate of pressure bleed-off of filtrate into the open hole. ‘This bleed-off time is @ gauge of the porosity of the formations in the open hole as well as the water Ines theolngy of the drilling fluid used to conduct the test. Caleulate Formation Fracture Pressure “The pressure recorded at the PILOT Limit is used to calculate the formation fracture pressure (equivalent mud weight) as follow: Eauiatent PILOT Lint od Mud. 4, “Gonwtant x Cap Seat Deptt TVS)Figure 8 Typical Surface Casing Plot ‘900 | 00 700 400 SUFFACE PRESSURE P31 a 200 aS 16° CASING @ 4000" 100 v 2 2 4 (CUMULATIVE VOLUME PUMPED (#8LS) ‘The constant is 0.052 for a pound-per-gallon system and 0.007 for a pound-per-cubie-foot system. ‘The metrie system conversion is as follow: PILOT Limi kg/Om2) MW (gage) = Min ole + a Recommended PILOT Pryvcedure it 1s possible to perform PILOT's tripping in or out of the hole, and by pumping down the dri) pipe, ennulve, ar hath simultancously Each operational procedure has some merit, but ean also introduce errors into the test results. Errors result from non-uniform density of the drilling fluid in the drill pipe, from the barite slug before tripping, and in the annulus from cuttings in the mud, and fom pumping frietion, ‘The fewest errors are introducea Dy using the following procedure: 1. Perform the PILOT on the way out of the hole. Gelation of the mud io net ao great at this time as it would be if the test were performed when going back into the hole. Also, if the cement job is faulty, then a squeeze tool can be picked up on the trip out of the hole after performing the PILOT. ‘This eliminates en extra trip if the test is performed on the way into the hole with @ new bit and the cement is found to be faulty. 2. Pull the bit into the casing just above the casing shoe aitd circulate the slug out of une aritt pipe, Close une rau preventer above the drilling spool. Begin pumping mud down the drill pipe at a constant rate. Record the drill pipe proscuro for each one-fourth or ‘one-half barrel pumped and plot versus cumula~ tive volume. 3. If testing on the wav out of the hole is hazardous from a well-control standpoint, then the test should be conducted on the way into the hole. After running the bit below the Hirst sand, eiteulate at least the volume of the Grill string to: a. Ensure a uniformly dense column of mud in the dritl string. b. Wipe off the static filter eake builé- up opposite the permeable sands just below the fencing: if this is nat done, the fracture pressiire gradient is progressively marched down the hole which results in misinterpreting the PILOT Limit value as an erroneously high casing seat gradient, ¢. Break up the gel strengths in the annulus; then pull the bit back into the easing und proceed as in Step No. 2. Specific PILOT Procedures Sete Tea procoduree Tor running Procoure Tn tegrity Leak Off Tests at the following five wellbore stations are designed to obtain maxi- mum results with a minimum of rig time and effort. They are essential on critical wells and must be earried through to completion to make sure the data yield a clear and definite inter- pretation, CASING PRESSURE TEST PROCEDURE. Good uperating practices and the various State and Federal regulatory agencies require that each string of casing be pressure tested prior to Grilling ont. Ttis snggasted that thie tect he used as a calibration for the tests to follow. An example surface casing pressure test is shown in Fig. 8. The procedure is as follows: i, ‘Test before drilling out the cement and guide shoe with the bit positioned at the float collars, 2. Close a preventer above une arining spool and begin pumping at one-fourth to one- third barrel-per-minute down the drill pipe. 3. Moasure the volume and plot voroue rill pipe pressure until the required test pres~ sure is reached. 4. Shut down the oumo and record the instantaneous shut-in pressure. Hold the pres- sure for the period of time specified by the regulatory agency. In unregulated areas, hold ‘he pressure until you are convinced the easing is not leaking. 5. Bleed off into the trip tank and record the volume of mud recovered. Compere relwith the theuretical volume required for dat size and depth of easing (Refer to Graph 1 in the Appendix.) CEMENT PRESSURE INTEGRITY LEAK OFF TEST PROCEDURE. ‘This test is designated to cheek the primary cement job around the casing shoe bonding it to the formation. The PILOT Limit from the test should be at least as high as the predicted fracture pressure gradient for the area. If the exposed formation or cement will not hold the predicted fracture pressure gradi- ent value, then the easing shoe may need to be aqucene comented. An cuample of a ourface casing cement pressure test where a permeable formation is not exposed in the open hole is shown in Fig. 9. 1. Drill out ten to fifteen feet of a new hole below the casing shoe. 2. Pull up into the easing above the shoe. 3. Close a preventer above the drilling spool and begin pumping down the drill pipe at the same pumping rate used for the Casing Pressure Test (one-fourth to one-third barrel- per-minute). 4. Moacuro and plot oumulative volume pumped versus drill pipe pressure during the test until the PILOT Limit is reached. 5. Shut down the pump. Record the instantaneous shut-in pressure and trap the pressure for ten minutes or until it levels off, whichever comes first. Record shut-in pressure decline at one-minute intervals. 6. _ Release the pressure and record the volume of drilling fluid recovered in the trip tank 7. Compare the plot with the Casing Pressure Test or with the theoretical build-up curve for that easing size and setting depth (Graph 1.) 8. If the cement job is good, the build- up curve should approximately parallel the Previous easing pressure test or the theoretical build-up curve (Graph 1). If a sand is exposed the high rate of filtration will require a greater volume uf imud ty Le pumped, ou the slope of the plot will not be flatter. | ‘The pump rate should be sueh that the slope of the plot is very nearly parallel ta the easing prossure tact slope FIRST OPEN-HOLE TEST BELOW CASING. ‘This test is to be conducted on the first trip for a new bit after drilling a sand section, usually a hundred or more feet. Anomalies that occur in the plot of barrels of fluid pumped versus pressure cou result in premature pump siiut- down before the PILOT Limit is actually reached. Be sure whole mud is pumped into the wa Figure 9 Typical Surface Casing Seat PILOT 1" 8 Figure 10 Typical First Open Hole PILOT Below Surface Casing of Oe PoMPsToRPED PILOT unerr — Maat = if :” "a4 ig 300) eo / formation before shutting down the pump, as shuwi al Point C on Fig. 10. The provedare for running the test and plotting the results is the same as previously deseribed for the cementMuegrity lest, Duc ule pump rate should ve inereased to 3-3/4 barrel-per-minute in order to overcome filtration loss into the sands. The PILOT plot will be vory similar in shape to Fig. 10. SECOND OPEN-HOLE TEST BELOW CASING Hole integrity should be evaluated before: (1) drilling into the transition zone while looking for a casing seat, (2) drilling into a potential lost-eireulation zone, or (3) ihereasing the mud weight significantly. ‘The purpose of this test is to determine whether the primary cement job is atill competent or whether a. leas competent zone has been drilled since the last test. If this second open-hole test shows that the hole intogrity is nat at lonct equal tn the first apen hole test value, then either the primary cement job has failed or a weaker formation has been drilled, If the latter is suspected, it may be advisable to run induction—electrical and acoustic logs to define the stratigraphy, espe- cially if it is planned to set the protective easing in a very nigh pore pressure (13.0 to 15.0 pe). The test procedure is the same as before; however, the pumping rate chould be ineroaced to overcome filtration losses. The rate should be in the 3/4 to 14 barrels-per-minute range, It will depend on how many permeable formations ‘are open and the theological properties of the drilling fluid. ‘This test should be completed in less than 15 minutes. If it is apparent that more than 15 minutes will be required, stop pumping, release the pressure to zero, and commence pumping at @ higher rate. A typical eaaiuple is shunt it Pigs 11 Figure 17 Typical Secon Hote PiLOT Below Surface Casing een OPEN-HOLE TEST ON ABANDONMENT. This test is run routinely during the plugging of a cry hole. ‘The information gained from these tests io necessary to build empirical data for hotter definition of fracture gradients, especially in the less densely drilled basins. Open-hole PILOT on abandonment is an economical method to obtain the data, ‘The portion of the hole tested by this method extends from the open-hole cement plug (if set) to the shoe of the deepest easing string and mud will be lost to the weakest formation exposed when the PILOT Limit is reached. For this auwidonnent PILOT to be meaningful, the following procedure should be used: 1, Set a cement retainer on drill pipe near the hattom of the deepest essing in the well. 2. Disengage drill pipe from retainer and eireulate the drill string volume to ensure a consistent mud weight in the drill string. 3. Engage the retainer. Perform the PILOT by pumping at a constant rate down the rill pipes The pump rate will depend on how many permeable formations are exposed, but most of the time should be in the 3/4 to 1f barrels-por-minute range. 4, After injection is established, pump in five to ten barrels and then read instanta~ neous shut-in pressure upon shutting down the pumps. The shape of the resulting PILOT plot should closely resemble the PILOT plot per- formed earlier at this casing seat. >. Proceed with the abanconment as planned. Intanpratatian of PILOT Plots The following plots represent ideal pres- sure integrity curves. They illustrate an incom- plete test. a complete test. and a cement channel test (poor cement bonding of the easing to the formation). INCOMPLETE TESTS-GOOD TESTS. The primary purpose of the PILOT is to determine the fracture pressure gradient of the formations exposed Leluw Uie easing sive. li Fig. 12, Ure test was not carried to the PILOT Limit. Although the test pressure was above the prodiated fracture prossure, the actual feseture pressure was not determined beeause only shale was exposed in the open hole. In Fig, 13, the test was carried to comple- tion. Local experience and knowledge plus previous PILOT data quality and quantity will determine whether it is always necessary to go To the PILUT Limit as shown here. Asa generar rule, if only shale is exposed in the open hole it is recommended that the pressure not be run q1-13Figure 12 Incomplete Test — Only Shale Exposed Figure 14 Incomplete Test ~ Possible Slowdown in Pumping Rate Pressure» Pressure Pressure > Volume : > Figure 19 Good Test — Only Shale Exposed Figure 15 Good Test ~ Stop Pump, Repeat to Check Bend ———— a, im Volume Volume excessively above the predicted fracture pres- sure because of the possibility of breaking down the cement which may not be fully cured. ‘An Incomplete vest, us tlustrated by Fig. 14, may be caused by a slowdown in the pump rate, a high filtration loss into permeable bando, cloppy drilling fluide, a leak in the system, or @ bad cement job. If, during the test, the bend appears below the expected fracture pressure. it is advisable to stop pumping for several minutes to allow the pressure to bleed off below the pressure at whieh the bend was first observed, then resume the test at the same rate (See Fig. 19). INIS procedure will tell whether or not the bend was due to one of the above listed causes. CEMENT FAILURE. Quite often a cement failure will cause the characteristic shape of 1-14 Figure 16 Cement Channe! — Repeat for Confirmationburld-up curve snown in Fig. 16. 11 the torma: tion is broken down during the test and a pressure drop is observed, the test should be Tepeated after a $ or 10 minute shut in period to test for a lower PILOT Limit indicative of a breakdown of cement at the shoe or a channel in the oament Use of Graphs The following instructions are for Graphs 1 through 7 located in the Appendix. GRAPH NO. 1: This graph is constructed for 9.0 pag muds using a compressibility of 4 x 10" at 60°F for 1.000 psi on water. It can be used as a quiek reference to get fan approximate idea of the volume of mud needed for a given size of easing set at a given depth to pressure up to 1,000 psi, AS an example, 3,000 feet of 13-3/8-inch easing re- quires 1.8 barrels of 9.0 ppg mud to pressure up to 1,000 psi (this is before drilout). If te desired pressure is 1,500 psi, merely multiply by 1.5 as it is a direct ratio relationship. Con- versely, if the dasined praceure ie SN pei. divide by .5 to obtain the volume of mud required. For a given combination of 13-3/8-inen gasing and 124-ineh open hole totaling 8,000 feet, 4.8 barrels of 9.0 ppg mud would be required to pressure up to 1,000 psi. GRAPH NU. 2: “rnis grapn is usea In conjune- tion with Graph No. 1 where the mud in the hole is greater than 9.0 ppg. As a practical matter, very little correction fa needed for mud weight® of 10.0 ppg or less. However, if the PILOT is with 14.3 ppg mud, the volume obtained from Graph 1 ‘must be corrected by a reduction af 40 percent. ‘The easy way to use Graph No. 2 is to enter the mud weight at the bottom and go up, as in the example, to the calibration line, and then left to the percent factor whieh is multi plied by the volume of mud required from use of Graph No. 1, ‘The reduetion in compressibility iS due (o increased mud density. GRAPH NO. 3: This chart may be used for aonverting a surface pressure roading te an equivalent mud weight or for getting an approx- imate surface pressure value needed to test a given mud weight to a specified fracture gradi ent. In the example shown, the 13-3/8-inch cusing Is sel al 2,000 feet with approxtmacely 10 feet of open hole below the show. ‘The specified casing seat test pressure calls for an oquivalont mud woight of 13.5 ppg. Mud woight in the hole is 9.2 ppg; therefore, the mud weight difference is 4.3 ppg. By entering the depth column on the left side of the chart at 2.600 feet and going across to the 4.3 ppg mud weight line, and then dropping vertically to the surface pressure shown across the bottom of the chart, ‘we find that 580 psi pressure 15 required on top of the 9.2 ppg mud weight to yield an equivalent mud weight of 13.5 ppg. On the other hand, if you test a casing seat at 2,600 fect to 580 psi with 9.2 mud, then by reversing the process described above you wil find that 4.2 ppg isthe mud weight difference to be added to 9.2. ppg mud, thus giving 13.5 equivalent mud weight at the casing shoe. GRAPH NO. 4: ‘This graph is used in the same manner as Graph No. 3 but is for depths to 14,000 feet (Grapit 3 is only for depths to 4,000 feet). As an example, the maximum pressure for safety reasons to be imposed on the surface tocting equipment is not to exooed 1,450 pei. Enter the bottom of Graph 4 to 1,450 psi; go up to a point opposite 8,000 feet, the depth of the 9-5/8-ineh casing seat. Bv interpolation it, is determined that the 1,450 psi pressure on the 11.0 ppg mud is equal to an additional 3.5 ppg weight. Thus, the equivalent mud weight at the shoe depth ot 8,UUU teet 15 equal to 14.9 ppg. Note: when testing protective casing with relatively light mud weights, it is always a good idea to check the working test pressure of the surface equipment against the maximum pres: sure needed. ‘The mud may have to be weighted up a little or alee the test will have to he stopped before the yield point is reached. GRAPH NO. 5:_ is for converting mud weights in ppg to pressure gradients in psi/ft. It is self- explanatory, as shown by the example in the heading. A similar conversion chart is found in most arining thuta manuals. GRAPHS NO. 6 and 7: are explained in the text ef the Open Mole Procouro Integrity disouscion for Fig. 4 and 5. ‘These graphs are included for easy reading of the K factor (Graph 6) and the ‘overhnrden gradient (Graph 7). when using Fa. 1 to caleulate the fracture gradient. 11-15PREPARE THE DRILLING After a prospect has been proposed and data reviewed with the originating personnel, the following intormation snoutia De on hand: 1. The proposed depth and objectives. 2. The recommended evaluation of the objectives. 3. A seismie velocity profile showing the possibility of abnormal pressure and its magnitude. 4. The geologic and seismie cross sec- tions across the prospect showing the probable lithology to be drilled. ‘The offset well data such as mud weight, casing setting depths, shows, tests, pore pressure plots, formation fracture gradients, bie. With this information the drilling group is now ready to formulate a drilling program that wil) be tailored specifically for the well under consideration. Some of the more critical items to be considered in working up the master drilling program for an’ overpressured explora~ tory well are: 1. Casing design and setting depths 2, Drill string and its components 3. Drhling Mules and Mele chevlogical properties 4. Special equipment and tools &: Expert drilling porsonnel 6. _ Selection of the drilling rig Each of these items is diseussed in the pages that follow. Casing Design and Setting Depths After all seismic and offset well date have been assembled, the drilling group can Uesigit the casing progam. ‘The casing setting depths are determined by changes in formation pressure gradients. There are four principal types of gradiants in tha cadimantary hasins of the world. They are classified by casing settings in ppg equivalent pore pressure as follows (see Fit: 17). i : Type_A - Protective casing at approxi- mateij 13:0 ppg; no liner is generally required if the final mud weight is not more than 16.5 to 17.0 ppg ‘Type B - Protective casing at approxi- mately 150 poe; protective liner at about 16.5, ppg if final mud weight ic in the 17.0 to 10.5 range. ‘Type C - Protective casing at approxi- mately Thr ope: protective linet In approxi- 1-16 PLAN mately normal pressure (due to pressure regres sion); final mud at TD is near normal weight. Tye D - Protective casing at approxi mately 13.0 ppg; protective liner in near normal pressure (due to pressure regression); third protective or full easing string in about 13.0 ppg (Gue to pressure increase). Of course, it is possible to imagine a more complicated system of pressure gradients in a single well; for example, a system caused by a combination of major depositional faults, thrust faults, unconformities, and intrusives. | When Suen @ complex pressure phenomenon oceurs und it is not anticipated, the casing program will probably not be flexible enough to cope with Such anomalicn. ‘The above four proscure gradient types can be handled successfully if seismie velocity in formation is available and abnormal pressure technology is applied during ‘the drilling. The most complicated is Type D, which requires mueh planning effort before the well is ever spudded, because of the third proteetive casing string, Seismic data can predict this pressure gradient type as well as the other types but often special velocity lin are ueded fur the tesulution secessary for the finite interpretation. Drill String and Its Components The prineipal parts of a drill string are the @rill pipe, rill collars, stabilizers, “and bit. Different geological structures and formations require some modifications, however, to. the Stangara aril string. For example, steep- dipping, hard formations require a different bottomhole assembly than low-angle, soft for- mationa, Gometimos chook cube aro used in Grilling the hard, limy cap overlying the transi~ tion zone. Bumper subs are used in the drill string of a floating drilling vessel not equipped with motion compensators to compensate for heave. Different types of drill collars such as spiral, square, woodpecker eccentric, and dyns- ill, have been developed tor ditterent driliing conditions. All these modifications are re- garded as improvements to the drill string. They cuit elauge (he Lehavior or reaction of standard string. Some examples of abnormal pressure indicators (see Section Il) illustrate how coma of thoce foals oftentimes hinder rather than help monitoring for indications of overpressure. The main thing is that the pressure detection team should be aware of theFigure 17 Pressure Gradient Types Tse 8 Tye, say He downhole equipment. ‘The drilling program should emphasize the need to normalize the drilling parameters as much as possible, espe- cially when drilling the transition zone while looking for the protective casing seat. The drilling parameters, such as bit type, weight on bit, rotary speed, and pump pressure should be maintained as near constant as possible. The type of drill bit is very important in abnormal pressure detection, Its hole-eutting Chareteristies generate at instantaneuus drill rate that gives a clue to the type of lithology before the cuttings are available for inspeetion. Fig. 18 shows ono oxamplo of the throo principal types of bits now in use. Most of the abnormal pressure technology has been develop- ed from drilling overpressured sediments with the milled-tooth bit. This is particularly true for transition zones drilled by 124-inch bits. Recently, the compact insert bit with special alloy-seaiea Dearings nas come mto use tor drilling this section of the hole, ‘The larger diameter (greater than 8!-inehes) diamond bit hao been used only experimentally in transition zones and has performed very poorly. However, the smaller diameter diamond bits (6-ineh) are used extensively in drilling the higher tempera ture and pressured formations. The favorite bit for drilling the transition zone is the milled tooth hit. The main resson is that the interpretation of pressure indicators is easier for drilling personnel. All the guidelines and techniques. of detecting, increases. in, pres sure while drilling were developed by the use of this bit, primarily through its predictable dull- ing trend. However, the compact insert bit is gaining popularity because of its luiger life and consequently cheaper cost per foot of hole Grilled. ‘The interpretation of the pressure indicators is baciaally the same, only the dogroc of ehange is more subtle. After the proteetive string has been set, general practice is to drill the rest of the overpressured hole with either a compact insert or diamond bit. Abnormal pressure specialists have been successful in detecting increasing overpressure trom the indicators while drilling this part of the well. This will be illustrated in more detail under the pressure indicators di cussion in Section II. Tn summary, factors to consider in design- ing the drill string are the type of lithology 1-17q1-38 Figure 18 Types of Bits Compact Insert 133 Soft Diamond Hard Fmtm expected, the Geptlr aud meguilude uf uverpres sure, the size hole to be drilled for the protective casing, the type of bits and type of hatinm-hole assembly far maintaining tho desir ed hole angle; all compatible for the mainte- nance of constant drilling parameters to facili- tate the detection of abnormal pressure. Drilling Fluids and Their Properties ‘The detection of abnormally-pressured sediments during drilling operations depends more on the rheological propertico of the drilling mud than on any of the other tools used in rotary drilling. All the indicators which are monitored during drilling are affected by the physical charaeteristies of the mud used. All the indicators except the instantaneous ROP plot are "after the fact"; i.e., after the hole is Grilled and, therefore, cannot be plotted and analyzed until the mud carries them to the surface. These indicators are various types of gases (background, connection, circulating, and trip) measured by a mud-logging unit; flowline temperature; mud weight decreases; funnel vis- easity; ehlorides; gol strongths yield ohangos; formation cuttings for a thorough geological deseription; bulk density and shale factor deter- minations: microfossils and microfauna for paleo age dating and original environment of burial. Improper mud properties ean cause torque, drag, and hole fill after connections and trips. "the KO instantaneous curve, the prime indicator of overpressured sediments, depends direetly on the mud weight and its properties, asiuming that the drilling parameters such a2 bit weight, type, rotary speed, and pump pres- sure are held constant. Turing casing-seat hunting, mud proper ties and drilling parameters must be kept constant. If the mud weight and chemical properties are changed to any degree, then the plotted parameters of the various indicators are much more difficult to interpret. A special effort must be made to maintain high-quality Urilling Muids, particularly us drilling moves to more hostile environments of extreme cold and deep offshore waters. A well-trained drilling fluid spesialist or toohniaian is neoded in the drilling of overpressured formations. Most of the major mud companies have drilling fluids manuals which eontain recommendations for the maintenance of good mud properties for the four prineipal types of drilling fluids used in the drilling of overpressures (fresh water, sea water, salt prines, and oil muds).Consistent ariiling fulos with the Dest theological properties are necessary to yield the best data for plotting and interpreting the presoure indieatore. In cummary, any drilling fluid ean be manipulated so as to completely mask or wipe out most of the indicators mentioned above. It is imperative that all members of rilling management and the casing seat team be in complete agreement on the pore pressure objective and how the preselected mudweignt- ing schedule may be altered by the team after arrival at the well. The mud-weighting sehed- ule causes more friction between the tearm on the rig and drilling management back in the offiee than any other single item. ‘The mud woight should he only onanigh to provent swah- bing on trips. Arbitrary inereases based on depth should be avoided because such increases will mask or eliminate all the pressure indi- cators except paleo information, shale density, and cuttings description. There are two principal ways to control the mud weighting program while drilling the transition zone. 1. Drill the top of the transition zone with a nonmat Wud Weight oF 100 to 105 pyr “Gepending on the gradient for the basin and hole reaction after bit trips. Then, as the pressure indieators begin to respond to overpressure, raise the mud weight by increments of .5 ppg. This should be done while circulating in place, generally for one eycle of mud circulation. When the mud balances at tne new weignt resume drilling until the indicators commence to react again. Repeat the above described process until the desired pressure is found. ‘This method permits a much better qualitative inter~ pretation of the indieators for the approximate pare praceina at that paint in the transition zone. There is a better feel from the intensity of the increase in pressure as to whether the transition zone is short, moderate, or long in overall length. It gives the drilling superin- tendent more confidence in the control of his well, so he ean do @ better Job of plating and coordinating the running of electrical logs and protective casing. Overall, the transition zone drilling phaco ic aeoompliched in a cafor man- ner, drilled quicker, and with much more confi dence by the drilling team on location. 2. Inerense it i to the planned maximum at Scie or depth before entering the transition zone, then drill until one Sr more of the Indicators shows evidenee that the desired pore pressure has been penetrated. ‘The reasoning behind this method is that when Que Iuuleators commence to rexel to, say, a 12.5 ppg mud weight, the pore pressure at that time is about 12.5’ ppg. This is not sound reasoning beoauce it dose not male allowance for the age or type of transition zone being riled’ this system works most of the ime Miocene and vounger sediments that have per- meability. However, for older sediments and especially the nonelasties, this is a very poor method. If one waits until the indieators reaet with 12.5 ppg mud, @ well control problem may develop. Experience has shown that looking for a casing seat under these mud-weighting condi- tions has always resulted in the logged pore pressure being at least one to 1.5 ppg greater than the mud weight. Another disadvantage of arhitrarily inevonsing the mud weight ta the planned maximum before drilling the transition zone is that the high hydrostatic overbalance impedes the drill rate — which equates to more rig time, thus eosting more money. Special Equipment and Tools The two most important pieces of special squipmont to drill an ovorprorcured well are an instantaneous drill rate recorder and a mud~ logging unit. To keep good consistent mud properties, other special eauipment is often necessary (such as desilters, degessers, and desanders). Other items used are torque gauges, equipment to monitor the mud system Tor pit volume inereases or decreases, and equipment to measure changes in mud densities, chlorides, and temperatures. ‘The drill rate recorder mechanically draws a rate-of-penetration trace on paper. ‘This is commonly called an ROP curve. ‘The fingt_ machine that recaried thie data wae the Geolograph. It did so indireetly by making an ink mark for each foot drilled in time (minutes). By the use of a reference rule, these ticks could be measured and the drill rate determined in either minutes per foot or feet per hour. The main disadvantage was that a plot had to be raw manually on & piece Of graph paper Lo see the trend. Later, the Bell Recorder (SWACO) was invented to record the drill rate on a sealed ahart to cave tho roplotting top. Generally, this was on a scale of 5 inehes to 100 feet of Grill depth. TOTCO developed a continuous drill-rate recorder (CDR) that is now the favorite with most drilling personnel. It is more flexible for both depth and rate seales than the SWACO unit. The most recent CDR is the bastman tleetronie recorder. A motion com- pensator was developed by VETCO for recording 11-19au ROP un fluating drilling vessels. Regaculess of personal preference, some kind of a CDR is an absolute must in the drilling of overpressured wolts A mud-logging unit is also necessary when drilling an exploratory well in which abnormal pressure is expected. Generally the mud logger is placed on the well by the Exploration Department to gather samples, deseribe lith- ology, and evaluate hydrocarbon’shows. Drilling personnel utilize the mudlogging unit to gather additional data, Modern mud-logging units have become very sophisticated and offer a variety of services ranging from the bare essentials to elaborate, computerized services for the drill- ing group. During transition zone drilling, the al_mud-logging data and servieos ie looking for the desired casing-seat pore pressure are the following: 1. A good sample-description log. 2. Aeareful recording of the total drilled gases for an average background rate, connection gas, and trip gas. 3. A consistent method of picking, weighing, and measuring shale densities. 4." A recording of drill rate, preferably in foot por hour. 5. A measurement of chloride changes ‘through resistivity probes in the mud tanks. 6. An in and out drilling fluid tempera ture recording. 7. _ A twice-daily calibration cheek on the hot-wire and chromatograph filaments, for Signs of deterioration. 8. Experieneed personnel, preferably with training in overpressure drilling, to gather the data listed. Fxpert Drilling Parcnnnal ‘The most important factor in the execu- tion of a drilling program at a rig is trained personnel. In spite of all the electronic devices, drilling rigs will not run themselves. People are still the most important and vital tool at the wellpite. Therefore, care slwuld be taken to seleet the best experienced personnel available. Deep abnormal pressure drilling is beconring more diffioult beoause of dooper water drilling, restrigtive antipollution legislation, the remote~ ness of most worldwide wildeatting (eausing time delay for supplies. ete.) and a shortage of experienced personnel. At this point in the formulation of the drilling program, the casing-seat team should be Selected and their auties and areH of respons\~ bility defined. Each member of the team should be experienced in drilling abnormally-pressured 11-20 seulmienis. Bact should be aware of amd familiar with the various pressure indicators that the other members are monitoring. After ‘tho toam hae boon soleated, the momhors should be given the opportunity to review the drilling program of the designated well for possible improvements. ‘The team members and drilling manage- ment should be in agreement as to what indicators will be monitored, the reliability of each, and when to begin ‘monitoring them. Generally, each member draws upon his experi~ ence for a recommendation of what will prob- ably be the most reliable pressure indicators for the type formations this well will likely en- eounter. ‘The foam should he an location 800 to 750 feet before the transition zone is expected. ‘This lead time will give them the opportunity to commence monitoring all the indicators so that, a normal trend” reference line can be estab- lished. This reference line makes any dev tions, inereases or decreases, much easier to detect and therefore simplifies interpretation. ‘The duties and responsibilities of each of the easing seat team members are summarized en follows: 1. The drilling superintendent should have experience it duling- abiorial pressure wells. Sinee he is responsiblle for the rig and all its activity, he must be designated as the leader of the easing-seat team. He acts on advice supplied by other members of the team and decides when drilling will de stopped (in predetermined pore pressure) and electrical logs run. 2. _ An experienced drilling geologist is the key man on’ the casinig-seat-team~ His duties are to plot and interpret the various Dressure indieators monitored on thet particular well. The indicators inelude: rate of penetra- tion curves; background, connection, and trip gas; changes in physieal character of the cut- ‘ngs; shale densities; changes in mud chlorides and temperature; interpretation and correlation of electrical logs; and caleulation of pore pressure from electrical logs. 3. A drilling engineer complements the rilling guperinterdent and th ‘and the drilling geolo- gist fos ano tn acsict in gathering and Tronitoring the data, He helps by fooking after the mechanical devices on the rig (such as rate- of-penetration recorders); maintaining uniform bit weight, rotary speed, and mud pump pres- sure; plotting the "d" exponent curves; observ- ing the mud trip tank on trips; and watching the torque Indieator for evidence of increased torque and drag. He helps the drilling super- intendent maintain a uniform method for mak-ing dri pipe connections, tow cheeks, anc pit trips. He watches for evidence of hole fill after connections and trips. ‘The drilling enginecr io charged more with the mechanical devices and procedures whereas the drilling geologist is charged with the physi- eal formation characteristies. The two must maintain close communication at all times and be constantly sorting, sifting, and analyzing the Gata gathered from the various indicators moni- tored as each toot of Note 1s drilled. 4. Ona wildeat well, a competent mud logger is one of the best "tools" available during The Gilling of overpressures, Me measures the shale densities, gathers and records data such as penetration rates, background, connection, and trip gas: makes a lithologie description of the cuttings and ealls attention to any change in ‘their physieal character. Oftentimes, the most conscientious and dedicated mud loggers are the small independents who work in a local area, such as the offshore Louisiana or Frio-Vieksburg, of South Texas. Therefore, the prime factor in living a aud-logging company is the quality and experience of theit personnel on the well during overpressure drilling operations. A good experi- eneed mid logger isn definite ascot during casing-seat hunting operations. He will do an even better job if he is allowed to share in the operation and made a member of the team. 5. A good mud technician is a valuable individual to have on location when drilling overpressures. He is needed to maintain uni- forn inud properties, especially if mud cutting occurs caused by salt-water influx. He can also help determine if the added mud chemicals are fluoneing any of the manitared mud penper ties. ‘The team should plot abnormal pressure indicators in @ uniform manner as shown in Fig. 19. All of the plotted values increase to the left, except mud weight and "d" exponent members. The rate of penetration and "d" exponent (nol used In tlds exaiuipls) are plotted on the left side. The mud weight is shown inereesing to the right and is shown this way boaause it is the governor or halanee wheel which governs all the other indicators. The mud chlorides are plotted by a dashed or colored line along with the mud weight. The total hotwite gas (BGG) is shown as a solid line in the right column. Where the connection gas is very small, as in this example, the values are often written out and not plotted. AJL cpiling groups snouia use @ stanaaro- ized form for plotting the pressure indicators. The form can be copied and distributed to the varioup intorcated groups and it will fit into a standard three-ring notebook or onto a clip- board for easy plotting and assimilation of the data, The seales are open and the individual plotter may choose the values that best fit his particular well conditions. It can be placed in the well file as a part of the permanent well record. Gelection of the Dri ng Rig Ideally, the rig is selected after the facts fare known about the well to be drilled. Practi~ ally, especially now, rig selection is on an availability basis. On exploratory wells, there is the possibility of deepening after reaching the original total depth. ‘The likelihood of tus possibility must be determined before the rig is hired. ‘The component parts of an individual rig such as drawworks, mud pumps, derrick rating for casing running capacity, and most important of all. the quality of the drilling crews. tell the story of whether or not that is the rig for your particular well. Obviously, one wants the best Tig available at @ competitive price. Aiso, it must be able to accommodate and utilize all tne extra equipment and tools needed to drill overpressured wells. In the final analysis, if the Fig is underpowered, all the advance planning is, useless. For example, if the seismic data indicates that protective casing will probably have ta he sot hetween 10,500 and 11,000 feet. then a rig that can only run 10,000 feet of casing should not be hired to drill ‘the well. If the ultimate mud weight is expected to be 18.5 ppg but the mud pumps on the rig selected ean only efficiently mix, pump, and circulate 17.5 Pog mud, then the hole may be junked when the WeRht reyuivement gets beyond 17.9 pug An underpowered, poorly maintained rig with inex- perienced, unhappy personnel attempting to aril a doop, high-prossiined wall is one af the most frustrating experiences in the oil patch. The corollary of "Never send a boy to do a man's job" is "Never hire an underpowered, poorly maintained rig to drill your well.” It will cost you more money than a first class rig and often as not will never reach the geological objective Ue well was Uesigited lo evaluates 11-21Figure 19 Pressure Indicators Plot 22PRE-SPUD DRILLING GROU After the rig and all the service com- es nave Leen selecied, a pre-spud meeting should be set up. At this meeting, the drilling Plan should be explained and each contractor made aware of the role that he and. his equipment wil play in the drilling of the well. ‘The drilling contractor will be told what is expected rom fis Hz the extra eauloment to be used on it, and if there are complications involved with @ particular pieee of equipment. ‘The mud service company representative will be givetr the MUG progtam-and’ the desired properties for the various seetions of hole to be drilled. ‘The mud logging company will by tld what is expected of its logging personnel. ‘The wireline logging company should be inoluded in this moating so i= personnal ean begin checking their equipment and its avail- ability, especially if high temperature, HyS, ‘Og, and overpressures are expected. | ‘THe need to know where the logging depths will be MEETIN P AND G OF CONTRACTORS and the specific logs that will be run at each aepune ‘The easing-seat team should be present as active participants. The meeting will help them got a better overview of the well from spud to total depth. Many problems and misunderstand- ings ean be eliminated and cleared up at this time. This meeting. if it is conducted in a eandid and open manner can save many hours of rig time after the well is started. It is a good idea to have present one or two members of the Group that originated the prospect. They need hot get into specific geologic presentations and explanations; they should show a diagrammatic cross section and a type log of the section drilled by the nearest control well. At this meeting, the contractors should be made aware fof any major revisions to the drilling program that might be caused by a change in the geology. ‘This gives them a chance to plan ahead and be ready for such revisions. 11-23FOOTNOTE REFERENCES Svetivn 1 Ix, K. Hubbort and D. G. Willis. "Moohanios of Hydraulie Fracturing.” Petroleum Transactions, AIME, vol. 210 (1957), pp 153-63. 2p, P. Seott, W. G. Bearden and G. C. Howard. "Rock Ruptures as Affected by Fluid Properties." Petroleum Transaetions, AIME, (October, 1953), pp 111-24. 3Stan A. Christman. "Offshore Fracture Gradients." Journal of Petroleum ‘Teehnology, (August, 1973), pp 910-14. x1-24Section UL PRESSURE INDICATORS This is the most important scetion in the book as it contains techniques and guidelines for doteoting overpressure: whilo drilling. Examples af artual walle that Grilled. into overgressures are shown. ‘The overpressures were not always recognized with the result being kicks, lost returns, and junked holes. Several different geologic basins that contain overpressures throughout the sedimentary geologic column are represented. ‘The terms indicator and parameter need to be defined as they are often used interchangeably — which is not technically correct. Indicator means something ‘that points out or to, with more or ress exactness, such ag a INEX hand on # Glil OF fa pointer on a gauge. Parameter means one of a set of physical properties whose values determine the ‘characteristics or behavior of a system. In this book parameter is used to cover the drilling variables auch as bit weight, RPM, ROP, the mud gas units, mud properties, ete. that are plotted into some kind of graphical form. The plots indicate that some kind of action must be taken. In other words, ‘only aftar the monitored paramaters are plotted do they hecame indicators. ‘This is the key to successful overpressure detection: (1) gathering and plotting the data, (2) interpreting the meaning of the indicators, and (3) making a decision on the proper action to take. ‘The abnormal pressure indicators are presented in their order of reliability based on experience and intense study of the overall problem, Relatively simple examples are shown at the beginning with the more subtle and obscure ones at the 1 Of excl Indicator discussion. Compysite examples uf all indicators are presented at the end of the section. ‘They are divided into three categories: a. drilling the transition zones for the first protective easing-seat, b. drilling for the proteotive liner seat, 0, overpressures that preelude further drilling. The indi- eators are: 1, Rate of Penetration Curves - mechanically and manually plotted, and ‘exponent. 2. Total Drilled Gases - includes background, connection and trip gas, plus other miscellaneous types. 3. Mud Properties ~ changes in weights, chlorides, flowline temperature, viseosity, solias, yield, ete. 4." Cuttings Analysis ~ lithology changes such as color, texture, form, size, compaction, permeability and bulk shale density decreases. 5, Ralcontology _cnvironmental changes. 6. Borhole Instability - mainly tight hole, fill on bottom after connections and trips, torque and drag. 7." Correlation with nearest wall - hy hath eleatrieal and lithology logs. the INDICATORS sec.1t1 PRESSURE TIt-1Milied-tootn pits were used in nearly ant of the transition zone drilling shown in the following illustrations. ‘This type of bit is used in drilling softer rocks ouch as poorly ccmentod sands, shales, chalks and marls. Most of the current technology of drilling abnormally-pres- sured sediments. was gained from data gene- rated by these bits, Recently, the compact insert bit, especially the J-22 and J-33 Hughes, 248 and 3J8 Smith types, are being used more for drilling the transition zone. ‘The principal advantage is that in the deeper ¢rilling below 10,000 feet, the trip time for a rock bit becomes # majur econumic fact, the longer lasting insert bit reduces trip time. There is much to learn about the interpretation of the prossuno indiaatare when using thie type hit The technology for more efficient use of these bits will be developed which should simplify abnormal pressure interpretation. ‘A few definitions are in order before getting into 2 detailed interpretation of the various indicators: ‘Balaneed aruting ~ a teennique in wnten the hydrostatic weight of the mud column is essentially equal to the formation fluid pres- Overbalanced drilling - a technique in whieh the hycrastatle weight of the mud column is grenter than the formation fluid pressure. Underbalaneed_ drilling — a technique in whieh the hydrostatic weight of the mud column is less than the formation fluid pressure, The effect of equivalent circulating density (ECD) 1s ignored especially when looking for the first protective casing seat in a 122-inch borehole. ICdoes play a usjor role in Ue smaller d meter borehole when the mud weight is high and a diamond bit is being used to cut the hole. Flow chook - a prasodure whoraby drilling: is stopped, the drill bit is pulled off bottom and set in the slips, and the rotary engaged so that the drill pipe rotates slowly as the mud pump is stopped. The mud stream is watehed at the flowline at the shale shaker to see if the volume ceases after the mud pump is stopped. It generally takes severa! minutes = one to three = for the flow to stop. However, if the mud stream continues to flow or gains in volume, the well is said to be flowing (fluid and/or gas entering the wellbore from the formation: - an underbalanced condition). Dulling trand ~ 9 dearesse in the drill rate over a given interval of seetion drilled. Drill-off trend - an inerease in the drill rate over a given interval of seetion drilled. Before the casing-seat team begins mom~ toring the various parameters to plot into meaningful indicators of overpressure, there is 11-2 portant LiL Uf euniunieation tat is necessary. This is a meeting of the team upon arrival at the rig to review the work plan for finding the docired pressure gradient for tho protective casing. ‘This meeting is to bring cach team member and the contract personnel up to date on: how the well is drilling; what part, if any, of the original drilling program has been changed; what funetion each team member is to monitor and interpret; how the special equip- ment 1s working; ana determine snifts or tours of duty. Casing-seat hunts are often very lengthy and it may be necessary for team members to ahare responaibilities. ‘This meeting is also the time and place to remind each other that it is a very rare case when all the indicators point to the presence of abnormal pressure. It only takes one indieator to trigger a reaction - which is to reexamine the other plotted parameters. Upon reexamina~ tion, other indicators of overpressure will prob- ably be found. Then it is time to take some kind of action sueh as inerease the mud weight vr stop drilling ud run lugs. However, if only one indieator is found, it must be honored and appropriate corrective measures taken. EFFECT OF MUN WRIGHT ON DRITLING PARAMETERS - A mud weight change either balances or overbslances the hydrostatie mud column pressure-formation pressure relation- ship. Ideally, the transition zone should be

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