Oil Wells Cement
SPPC, SPE
INTRODUCTION:
Cementing an oil or gas well comprises
the displacement of cement slurry down
the drillstring, tubing or casing to a
predefined section of the annulus of the
well. The cement slurry itself typically
contains water, portland cement and
various additives. The actual
composition varies from application to
application. Cement is made from
calcareous and argillaceous rocks such
as limestone, clay and shale and any
other material containing a high
percentage of calcium carbonate. The
dry material is finely ground and mixed
thoroughly in the correct
proportions.The chemical composition
is determined and adjusted if necessary.
This mix is called the kiln feed. The kiln
feed is then heated to temperatures of
around 2600-2800 F (1427-1538 C).
The resulting material is called clinker.
The clinker is then cooled, ground and
mixed with a controlled amount of
gypsum and other products to form a
new product called Portland cement.
Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) is added to
control the setting and hardening
properties of the cement slurry and to
prevent the flash setting cement.
The viscosity of the mud should be
reduced to the lowest practical level
before the drillpipe is removed from the
hole. Effort should be directed at
reducing the low shear-rate rheology of
the mud (i.e. gel strengths and yield
points). However, care must be taken
not to reduce the mud rheology below
the minimum level required to suspend
the weighting agent such as barite.
Once the casing has been run, the mud
should be further conditioned to remove
gelled mud which will have formed
beneath the casing in areas of poor
centralisation. Two to three hole
volumes are normally considered
sufficient conditioning - however, this is
highly dependent
upon the viscosity of the mud in the
hole and the casing centralisation.
If it has not been possible to reduce the
mud viscosity to the levels
recommended above and casing
centralisation is poor, extended
conditioning may be required. After
conditioning the hole, cementing should
start without any break in circulation.
Good centralization is the most
important factor in achieving efficient
mud displacement and cement
placement. The best possible casing
centralisation should be obtained by
running a centralisation program.
A in combination with a weighted
minimum standoff of 70% is a good
rule-of-thumb to allow unhindered
circulation beneath the casing, when the
mud rheology and displacement rates
have been optimized. Centralizers
should be fastened to allow pipe
reciprocation, or rotation, in strings
where casing movement is to be
employed If washouts are expected, or
are known to have occurred, then the
number of centralizer required should be
calculated to take the increased hole size
into account. It has been demonstrated
that good centralisation can reduce
casing running difficulties by helping to
prevent differential sticking. Whenever
possible the casing should be
reciprocated or rotated. Numerous
laboratory and field studies have shown
that pipe movement increases
displacement efficiency by helping to
break-up gelled pockets of mud.
Movement should be attempted for all
stages of the cementing operation - from
hole conditioning to displacement.
There is still a debate as whether casing
reciprocation or casing movement
provide the best displacement aid.
However, rotation does require special
equipment. For liners, rotation is
recommended – due to concerns over
setting the liner and the increased
danger of swabbing gas during the
upstroke of reciprocation.
Optimal mud removal will be obtained
by the use of a simple wash, as this type
of fluid will achieve turbulence around
the complete annulus at relatively low
annular velocities. However, well
control considerations may dictate the
use of a weighted spacer. In such cases,
the use of a thin wash pumped
spacer may provide good mud
removal. When a turbulent
wash, or spacer, is used a
minimum contact time of 10
minutes must be achieved. This
contact time should take
account of the effects of U-
tubing. Any spacer designed for
turbulent flow must be
sufficiently viscous to suspend
the weighting agent . If
turbulence across the complete
annulus cannot be achieved,
weighted spacers in laminar
flow can provide effective mud
displacement. However, the
physics of such displacements
are complex and the density,
viscosity and annular flow rate
must be carefully designed taking into
account the properties of the mud and
cement slurry. For laminar
displacements, the ideal volume of
spacer required can not be predicted and
minimum quoted volumes range from
300-1000 ft of annular fill. It is
important to use a volume of spacer
sufficient to ensure separation of the
mud and cement when intermixing of
the three fluids is taken into account.
Displacement rates should be
maximised to obtain the most effective
cement placement. Limiting
displacement rates to those necessary to
achieve turbulence is not sufficient, due
to the inadequacies of estimating the
onset of turbulence and the variable
casing eccentricity. A useful guideline is
to ensure that the annular velocity
(assuming concentric casing) is above
260 ft/min. The bottom plug is first
released and is followed by cement.
When the bottom plug lands on the float
collar a pressure increase on surface is
indicated. A small increase in pressure
will rupture the bottom plug and allow
cement to flow through it, through float
collar, shoe track, casing shoe and then
around the casing. The top plug is
released from surface immediately after
the total volume of cement is pumped.
The top plug is displaced by the drilling
fluid and it, in turn, pushes the cement
slurry into the annulus. When the top
plug lands on the bottom plug a pressure
increase is observed at surface. This is
called bumping the plug.Bumping
indicates that the total volume of cement
 or gas migration problems. Stagnant 3. squeeze cementing,
areas form due to the distorted velocity 4. plug back cementing.
profile that occurs when the casing is
eccentric. Flow will favour the wide Functions of Cement
side of the annulus possibly leading to The functions of the different cement
the situation where turbulent and jobs differ according to the various
laminar flow exist in different areas objectives. The list below gives of some
across the annulus. Laboratory and field main objectives for the different cement
experience have shown that once the jobs.
stand-off falls below about 60%
Cement Powder
no practical combination of flowrate and Primary Cement functions:
is now displaced behind the casing.
fluid viscosity will remove the stagnant 1. Isolate a hydrocarbon bearing
Usually, at this time, the casing is
mud.The minimum stand off should be formation from other formations,
pressure tested to a precalculated design
at least 70%. To ensure that the stand- 2. Protect and secure the casing in the
value to check its integrity. Pressure
off is greater than 70% at all points well,
testing casing while the cement is still
along the string, a centralizer 3. Prevent caving of the hole,
wet is recommended as this reduces the
programme should be run. The 4. Provide a firm seal and anchor for the
chances of breaking the set cement or
programme should take into account the wellhead equipment,
creating micro-channels if the test is
mechanics of the complete casing string, 5. Protect casing from corrosion by
carried out a few hours later when the
along with any buoyancy and density sulfate rich formation waters
cement sets. shows the plugs
differential effects during displacement.
arrangement prior to being drilled out.
Numerous studies have shown that if the Liner Cement
Efficient mud displacement is essential
displacing fluid is in turbulent flow the 1. Case off open hole below a long
in order to achieve a good cement bond
displacement will be highly effective. intermediate casing,
and zonal isolation. Incomplete mud
However, in an eccentric annulus 2. Case off open hole resulting from
removal can lead to cement channelling,
ensuring turbulence occurs at all points casing stuck at the bottom,
allowing hydrocarbon invasion and
across the annulus is difficult. More 3. Case off previous open-hole
communication between permeable
often than not, the turbulent completion in order to control water, gas
zones. The force required to initiate
displacement will result in gelled mud or sand,
movement in a mud which has been left
remaining in the narrow section of the 4. Case off zones of lost circulation or
to gel can be considerable and will
annulus. Where turbulence for the high pressure zones encountered during
increase with time. The current
spacer/wash can be achieved, the drilling,
understanding of how best to mobilize
displacement rate should be as high as
gelled mud is poor, mainly due to the
possible to achieve the best results. Squeeze Cement functions
difficulties of characterising the gelation
Where turbulent flow cannot be 1. Reduce water-oil, water-gas, or gas-
properties of muds. The standard 10-
achieved it is still possible to achieve oil ratios,
minute gel-strength test is
effective displacements by using a 2. Shut off a zone that is been depleted,
unrepresentative of the complex effect
carefully designed laminar is not economical to produce or whose
of the shear-history of the mud and the
displacement. production will
prevailing downhole conditions. Gelled
Although the physics of mud removal be delayed until the more promising
mud can only be removed by applying
through casing movement is complex to zones in the same borehole are depleted,
sufficient shear stress to overcome the
analyse, the beneficial effects of 3. Isolate a zone before perforating for
gelled strength of the mud. This shear
reciprocating and rotating casing have production or stimulation,
stress can come from pipe movement or
been shown in laboratory and field tests. 4. Supplement a faulty primary cement
from the mobile mud (or other
Both reciprocation and rotation are job,
displacing fluids). In the latter case, the
beneficial, however, reciprocation 5. Repair casing or joint leaks, spit or
required shear stress is generated by
suffers the following drawbacks: parted casing,
frictional pressure drop. Thus, the shear
(a) Induced swab and surge pressures 6. Stop lost circulation in an open hole
stresses generated can be increased by
which can lead to well control problems, while drilling.
increasing the mud flow rate, or varying
especially Plug Back Cement
the properties of the mobile fluid.
with small annular clearances. 1.Shut off bottom hole water
Ideally, the problem should be
(b) The risk of the casing becoming production,
minimised by reducing the mud's low
stuck. 2. Abandon permanently deeper zones,
shear-rate viscosity and gel-strength
Typically casing is reciprocated 3. Completing a zone uphole,
during circulation before the casing is
between 20-40 ft over 1-5 minutes. 4. Place a cement bridge plug,
run.
However, the movement downhole can 5. Set plug to provide a seat for
Once the hole has been circulated clean
be reduced due to pipe stretch and directional tools like whipstock,
of cuttings, additional circulation can be
buckling. Pipe rotation is commonly 6. Set plug in unintentionally deviated
used to condition the mud and to
undertaken for liners at rates between well when vertical trajectory is
remove the gelled and dehydrated mud
10-40 rpm. intended. After setting
that becomes far more difficult to
the plug the vertical hole is continued.
remove after a prolonged static period.
When casing is run in a deviated well,
Different cement slurry placement 7. Set plug through keyseat portion of
the resulting eccentricity will trap
techniques are: the well and redrill it.
pockets of mud against the low side of
1. primary cementing, Properties of Cement Slurry
the hole resulting in cement channelling
2. liner cementing,
and possible incomplete zonal isolation,
API has defined standard classes (Class
A to Class H) as well as standard types
of cement used
within oil and gas wells. The standard
types are:
1. Ordinary,
2. Moderate sulfate-resistant,
3. High sulfate-resistant,
The standard classes are defined as:
1. Class A: Intended depth range for
usage: surface to 6,000 [ft], when
special properties are
not required, available in ordinary type
only.
2. Class B: Intended depth range for
usage: surface to 6,000 [ft], when
conditions require
moderate to high sulfate-resistance,
available as moderate and high sulfate-
resistance types.
3. Class C: Intended depth range for
usage: surface to 6,000 [ft], when
condition require high early strength,
available in ordinary, moderate and high
sulfate-resistance types.
4. Class D: Intended depth range for
usage: 6,000 to 10,000 [ft], at
moderately high temperatures and
pressures conditions, available in
moderate and high sulfate-resistance
types.
5. Class E: Intended depth range for
usage: 10,000 to 14,000 [ft], at high
temperature and pressure conditions,
available in moderate and high sulfate-
resistance types.
6. Class F: Intended depth range for
usage: 10,000 to 16,000 [ft], at
extremely high temperature and
pressure conditions, available in
moderate and high sulfate-resistance
type.
7. Class G: Intended as basic cement in
the depth range: surface to 8,000 [ft],
when used with accelerators and
retarders covers wide range of
temperatures and pressures, no other
additions than calcium sulfate, water or
both are to be blended with the clinker,
available in moderate and high sulfate-
resistance types.
8. Class H: Intended as basic cement in
the depth range: surface to 8,000 [ft],
when used with accelerators and
retarders covers wide range of
temperatures and pressures, no other
additions than calcium sulfate, water or
both are to be blended with the clinker,
available in moderate sulfate-resistance
type only.
Cement properties include the chemical,
physical and rheological characteristics
of the cement.
The rheological properties of cement
slurries are generally the same as the
ones of the drilling fluids discussed in
previous sections
Physical Properties
The physical properties of cement and
cement slurries include:
1. Thickening time,
2. Fineness,
3. Water content,
4. Slurry density,
5. Compressive strength,
6. Fluid loss,
7. Yield,
8. Bottom hole temperature
Slurry density
To minimize the danger of fracturing
the formations, lost circulation or kicks,
the cement slurry density should be the
same as the drilling fluid density at
cementing operations.
Yield
By definition, the yield is the volume of
cement slurry obtained when mixing
one sack of cement
with a specified amount of water as well
as other additives. Note that one sack
cement (94 [lb]
sack) contains 1 [ft3] bulk volume and
0.48 [ft3] absolute volume
Thickening Time
The length of time the cement slurry is
pumpable is also called “thickening
time”. To control the thickening time,
adding of setting time retarders, a
reduction of rapidly hydrating
components and an adjustment of the
cement fineness is performed. When the
time it takes to properly place the
cement slurry at the predetermined
annulus interval (mixing and
displacement time), including a safety
factor, exceeds the thickening time,
parts of the cement will remain in the
tubular used to pump down the cement
slurry.
Compressive Strength
To hold the casing in place, enable
support capability of the surface
wellhead equipment and withstand
the differential pressures across the
cement-formation interface, the
compressive strength of the set and
hardened cement has to be high enough.
As general practice, 500 [psi] of
compressive strength has to be
developed by the hardening cement
before any other downhole operation
commences. The time it takes the
cement to reach this minimum
compressive strength is often referenced
as “wait on cement” (WOC). During
this time, other routine surface service
operations are usually carried out.
Extenders
Extenders are used to increase the
volume of the cement slurry gained per
sack cement (yield).
This is done by allowing an adding of
extra water to the slurry. In turn, this
extra water reduces
the density of the cement slurry.
Commonly used extenders that reduce
the density of the slurry are low specific
gravity solids like:
1. Bentonite,
2. Diatomaceous earth,
3. Solid hydrocarbons,
4. Expanded perlite,
5. Natural pozzolans,
6. Silica,
7. Chemical extenders (liquid or solid
silicate).
Accelerators
To reduce the thickening time as well as
increase the rate of early strength and
thus reduce
the WOC time, accelerators are added to
the cement slurries. When cementing
shallow, low temperature section of
wells, accelerators are often essential.
Commonly applied accelerators are:
1. Sodium chloride,
2. Calcium chloride,
3. Hemihydrate form of gypsum,
4. Potassium chloride,
5. Sodium silicate,
6. Sea water for mixing.
Retarders
In contrary to the accelerators, retarders
are added to cement slurries to prolong
the thickening time and decrease the
rate of early strength development.
1. Calcium lignosulfate at very low
concentrations,
2. Calcium-sodium lignosulfate used
with high concentration of bentonite,
3. Sodium tetraborate decahydrate
(borax) used as a catalyst for the
deflocculants,
4. Carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl
cellulose.
Weighting Material
Weighting material are cement additives
that are capable of increasing the
density of the cement slurry. Commonly
used weighting materials are high-
specific gravity solids like:
1. Barite,
2. Ottawa sand,
3. Hematite,
4. Ilmenite.
Fluid Loss Material
Fluid loss material is added to the
cement slurry to help minimize the loss
of water from the slurry into the
formations. During displacement and
cement setting, a differential pressure
across permeable formations and the
cement does develop which causes a
reduction of water in the slurry that is
lost into the formations. Commonly
added fluid loss materials are:
1. Latex,
2. Bentonite with a dispersant,
3. Various organic polymers,
4. Attapulgite,
5.Carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl
cellulose.
Dispersants
Dispersants are added to thin the cement
slurry. This causes a reduction of slurry
viscosity and is achieved without adding
of extra water. Commonly applied
thinners are:
1. Calcium lignosulfate,
2. Sodium chloride,
3. Certain long chain polymers.
Cement Truck
Primary Cementing
The first step when performing a
primary cementing job is to calculate
the volume of cement and cement slurry
required to fill the annulus interval that
has to be cemented. The cement volume
is calculated by estimating the volume
between the casing and the borehole
wall at the selected interval. When the
borehole is ingauge this volume is
straight forward to calculate. When
washouts and other gauge variations are
present, the hole diameter has to be
checked with a caliper log and an
average borehole diameter calculated.
Other parameters that have to be
computed before the cement job
commences are:
1. Determination of the quantities of
cement and additives,
2. Thickening time,
3. Displacement volume,
4. Differential forces,
5. Annular velocities.
Once these parameters are known,
displacement rates, type and amount of
spacers and preflushes, the displacement
process itself and the appropriate
cement slurry composition as well as
mixing procedures have to be designed.
For example, in most drilling operations
laminar flow behavior
is desired, for displacing the cement
slurry, turbulent flow is the preferred
one. Having this in mind, the
corresponding pumping rate can be
computed applying the power-law flow
model.
In conventional primary cementing the
cement is displaced through the casing.
In order to avoid contamination of the
cement with mud, a so called “spacer” is
placed between them. The spacer in
front of the cement, which is also called
“preflush”,
is
commonly
water.
Water is
often chosen
since it is
easy to
obtain, it
can be put in
turbulent
flow
condition at
relatively
low
circulation
rates and it
does not
affect the
setting time
of the
cement. The column of water pumped
ahead of the cement causes a desired
reduction of hydrostatic pressure in the
annulus. To calculate the pump rate to
displace the spacer in turbulent flow, the
Newtonian flow model is used.
The procedure of primary cementing is
described as follows:
To perform the primary cementing job,
a device called “cement head” or “plug
container”,, is mounted on the top joint
of the casing which is hanging in the
elevator. This cement head serves as
connection from the cement pumps to
the casing. Inside the cement head, a
bottom wiper plug and a top wiper plug,
are placed.
When the bottom plug reaches the float
collar, it stops and while continuing
pumping, the pump pressure
increases.At a certain pressure the
diaphragm of the bottom plug ruptures
and the cement slurry can flow through
the open valve in the collar, out the
guide shoe and into the annular space
between the casing and the borehole.
During this flow, the casing is often
reciprocated or rotated to help displace
the mud. When the top plug moves
down the casing, it wipes cement off the
inside walls. It also prevents the mixing
of the cement slurry with the
displacement fluid behind it. Since the
top plug is solid, once it lands on top of
the bottom plug, flow stops and the
pressure rises. This increase of pressure
indicates that the cement is fully in
place and the pumps are bled off. When
the pressure inside the casing is
released, the valve in the float collar
closes and keeps the cement from
flowing back up the casing
Pressure in the casing should be
released before the cement sets since it
causes the casing to bulg. When the
pressure is released after the cement
starts to set, the casing pulls away from
the hardening cement and looses the
bond.
Liner Cementing
Liner cementing constitutes one of the
most difficult cementing operations. To
perform it successfully following
individual processes are to be compl-
eted:
1. Running the liner on drillpipe,
2. Pumping the cement slurry through
the drillpipe
and the liner,
3. Displace the cement slurry behind the
liner up to
just above the liner hanger.
The equipment used to perform a liner
cementing job includes: a float shoe, a
float collar, a landing collar, the liner,
the liner hanger, liner setting sleeve and
setting tools, the swivel assembly and
liner wipe plug as well as a pump down
plug.
Sometimes it is necessary to extend a
Cement Plug
liner back to the surface in order to
complete the well. This casing type is
also known as “tieback liner”. When the
liner is extended back but not until the
surface, the casing is called “stub liner”.
To repair a leaking liner top, a stub liner
is installed usually.
Squeeze Cementing
Under squeeze cementing, the process
of forcing a cement slurry under
pressure into a confined interval of the
well behind a casing is understood. A
squeeze cementing job may be
necessary during drilling, at completing
the well or as workover after the well is
completed and/or producing. The main
influence to the success of squeeze
cementing operations is how good the
cement slurry is placed into the interval
that is to be squeezed off. Normally, the
interval (e.g. perforations) is treated
with an acid wash or matrix acidizing
using hydrochloric acid to clean the
surfaces before the job is performed.
To perform a squeeze cement job, three
different methods can
be applied:
1. Bradenhead method,
2. Packer squeeze method,
3. Hesitation squeeze method.
To perform a squeeze cement job with
the Bradenhead method,
the following procedure has to be
completed:
1. Running the drillpipe to just above
the perforations
where the cement has to be squeezed in,
2. Displace cement from the drillpipe,
3. Close the pipe rams and apply a
precalculated pressure from the surface
to squeeze off the perforations.
When using the packer squeeze method,
either a retrievable squeeze packer or a
cement retainer is applied. First the
packer is run to just above the interval
that has to be squeezed off. Afterwards
surface pressure is subjected to the
tubing or drillpipe. This provides a close
control of the squeeze cement slurry
during squeezing. In contrary to the
retrievable packer which is run on
drillpipe, the retainer packer is run on
wireline.
At the hesitation squeeze method, the
cement is squeezed into the desired
section with relatively low pressure
while pumping intermittently. The
cement is slowly dehydrating and
increasing in viscosity during the non-
pumping cycle. This method is used
most often to squeeze off low permeable
zones.
Plugback Cementing
Two different methods for plug
cementing operations are encountered in
practice: (a) the plugback cementing and
(b) spotting a cement plug at any desired
depth of the well. The most common
type, plugback cementing, is used to
plug back and abandon deeper zones.
Spotting plug cementing is usually
performed in open hole sections. To
design the spacer and cement slurry, the
same considerations and equations as
for primary cementing operations are
applied. For the pug cementing
operations a balanced plug techniques
that requires pumping a preflush and a
spacer behind the cement, is most often
carried out. When the hight of the
spacer inside the tubing is equal to the
hight of the preflush, the cement plug is
placed balanced
Cement requirement, water volume to
be pumped behind the slurry to balance
the plug, plug length before the pipe is
retrieved from the slurry. In 1824,
Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer, was
granted a patent for making a cement he
called Portland cement after stone
quarried on the Isle of Portland in
Dorset, England. However, this original
Portland cement, was actually an
artificial hydraulic lime similar to a
material called Roman cement, a crude
formulation of lime and volcanic ash
used as early as 27 BCE (pozzolanic
materials are still used in oil well
cementing to this day). It is sometimes
reported that Aspdin did his original
experiments with his kitchen oven. The
first true Portland cement is believed to
have been made in Germany around
1867.
Dealing with water intrusion into oil
wells, and the use of cement to prevent
such movement, led to the birth of
petroleum engineering. Some primitive
oil well cementing may have taken
place as early as 1883, but the use of
Portland cement to seal casing began in
1903 in the Lompoc Field in
California. Almond A. Perkins was the
father of the two plug method of well
cementing. In 1916, Perkins employed
Earl P. Halliburton, and in 1919,
Halliburton set up shop on his own as
the New Method Oil Well Cementing
Company, changing the name to the
Halliburton Oil Well Cementing
Company (HOWCO) in 1920. Perkins
later sued Halliburton for patent
infringement, but the case was settled
with Halliburton being granted a license
to use the Perkins
methodology. Halliburton eventually
even licensed inventions to Perkins, but
in the end Halliburton wound up buying
Perkins. Halliburton perfected the use
of the measuring line and the jet mixer
among other well cementing
innovations. Interestingly, over the
course of the first 30 years of well
cementing, waiting on cement time
gradually shrank from 28 days to a mere
72 hours.
Cementing problems
It is apparent most cement mixed in
Kentucky, and in perhaps a few other
jurisdictions, is being mixed with far
more than 5.5 gallons of water per
sack. The biggest problem with this
practice is that the resultant set cement
will have a compressive strength much
lower than properly mixed cement. In
the majority of these cases, no bentonite
or other appropriate additive is being
used, so there will be settling. Further,
the cement column weight will be lower
than anticipated, and that can be a
problem in wells that need the fluid
column weight to kill the well for proper
setting.
Wells should be plugged and completed
with the highest density cement
practical under the particular
circumstances. In the shallow wells
here in Kentucky, that would almost
always be 5.2 or at the most 5.5 gallons
of water per sack neat cement. While I
have no statistics, it is likely there have
been plugging failures due to
improperly mixed cement. There is no
doubt there have been completion
failures, but these do not show up on the
regulatory radar here as much as they
would in say Texas due to differences in
the rules on completions (every Texas
completion must have a pressure test, a
bond log, and the compressive strength
of cement is specified). Notably, in
overpressured wells, the heaviest
practical cement slurry may be crucial
to even get a successful plugging job
absent setting a bridge plug.
It is customary practice to catch cement
samples in little Styrofoam cups during
the cement job, but many times I have
seen the cementing contractors pour off
the separated water before handing the
sample to the oil operator or to the
resident regulatory inspector (it takes a
few minutes for separation to occur and
it will not be evident at the mixing unit
itself). I think the problem here is a lack
of recognition of the significance of
separated water. If the mix has 5.5
gallons per sack or less, there will be no
free water separation (or only a trace),
and the entire mass will gel / set in the
sample cup (this assumes a neat cement
with no additives). The assumption
seems to be if the stuff gels / sets at all it
must be mixed properly. In fact much
of the settling seen in wells in the field
is likely attributable to settling of
slurries mixed with more than 5.5
gallons of water per sack. And
inspectors do not generally hang around
long enough to really determine what
the ultimate settling will be, an
additional potential problem.
Ignorance of proper procedures is a
large factor here, but there is a darker
side to this problem. Contractors using
bulk cement equipment have the
opportunity to sell the same cement
more than once. For instance, a 5.2
gallon mix will yield 1.18 cubic feet per
bag, while a 10.4 gallon mix will yield
1.92 cubic feet per bag. Since everyone
uses the Halliburton cement tables in the
Halliburton cementer's bible, and the
tables are based on a 5.2 gallon mix, the
contractor has an opportunity to charge
for much more cement than is really
used, and oil operators are none the
wiser. Further, contractors using
centrifugal pumps, tend to mix thin to
save wear and tear on equipment (and if
they are using a bulk truck, they get to
play the selling it twice game as well). I
want to make it clear that this is not an
argument against the use of centrifugal
pumps for cement mixing because I
have personally mixed 15.6 pound per
gallon and even a little thicker neat
cement with my own centrifugal pump
cement mixing rig in years gone by. If
concrete suppliers engaged in this
practice, it would be noticed since it is
well known that skimping on cement or
using too much water results in weak
concrete, but oil well cement goes down
a hole and is never seen again.
This practice persists because oil
operators and inspectors lack the
equipment and/or knowledge to catch
the problem. A true neat slurry mixed
with 5.2 gallons of water per sack of
cement will have a density of 15.6
pounds per gallon (the API preferred
mix). But a slurry mixed with 10.4
gallons per sack will still weigh 13.1
pounds per gallon, and even to the
trained eye looks quite heavy and thick
(plain water is 8.33 pounds per
gallon). The "finger test" used by some
inspectors cannot distinguish between
these two examples with any degree of
reliability. Putting this example in
perspective, the 5.2 gallon neat mix will
exhibit compressive strength at least
five times greater than the 10.4 gallon
mix, and the 10.4 gallon mix will
undergo some settling. Stated bluntly,
absent the use of a cement / mud
balance or a hydrometer, nobody can be
certain of cement density (some of the
big cementing companies have
continuous reading densitometers on
their mixing units, but this would not
likely be encountered in Kentucky). Oil
operators and regulators alike have been
at the mercy of cementing contractors,
and they do not always mix cement as
they should.
Both the EPA Region IV Underground
Injection Control (UIC) Program with
jurisdiction over injection wells in
Kentucky, and the Kentucky Division of
Oil and Gas (DOG) with jurisdiction
over oil wells, need to adopt standards
that require cement to have a preferred
density of no less than 15.36 pounds per
gallon (this corresponds to the
maximum 5.5 gallons of water per sack
ratio mentioned above). Under no
circumstances should cement be
pumped with a density of less than 14.0
pounds per gallon, but it is being done
every day in Kentucky at
present. Inspectors should also be
equipped with inexpensive drilling mud
balances to make field measurements of
cement slurry density. I would hazard a
guess that the majority of the cement
mixed for well plugging, remediation,
and new completions in Kentucky has
been mixed with far too much water for
optimal results. Granted, light cements
are sometimes used in deep wells, but
that is seldom the case in Kentucky to
date. The major service companies like
Halliburton do not play these games, but
the majority of the smaller independent
service companies seem to, some with a
vengeance.
After the casing string is run, the next
task is cementing the casing in place.
An oil-well cementing service company
is usually called in for this job although,
as when casing is run, the rig crew is
available to lend assistance.
Cement service companies
Cementing service companies stock
various types of cement and have
special transport equipment to handle
this material in bulk. Bulk-cement
storage and handling equipment is
moved out to the rig, making it possible
to mix large quantities of cement at the
site. The cementing crew mixes the dry
cement with water, using a device called
a jet-mixing hopper. The dry cement is
gradually added to the hopper, and a jet
of water thoroughly mixes with the
cement to make a slurry (very thin water
cement). Special pumps pick up the
cement slurry and send it up to a valve
called a cementing head (also called a
plug container) mounted on the topmost
joint of casing that is hanging in the
mast or derrick a little above the rig
floor. Just before the cement slurry
arrives, a rubber plug (called the bottom
plug) is released from the cementing
head and precedes the slurry down the
inside of the casing. The bottom plug
stops or "seats" in the float collar, but
continued pressure from the cement
pumps open a passageway through the
bottom plug. Thus, the cement slurry
passes through the bottom plug and
continues on down the casing. The
slurry then flows out through the
opening in the guide shoe and starts up
the annular space between the outside of
the casing and wall of the hole.
Pumping continues and the cement
slurry fills the annular space. A top
plug, which is similar to the bottom plug
except that it is solid, is released as the
last of the cement slurry enters the
casing. The top plug follows the
remaining slurry down the casing as a
displacement fluid (usually salt water or
drilling mud) is pumped in behind the
top plug. Meanwhile, most of the
cement slurry flows out of the casing
and into the annular space. By the time
the top plug seats on or "bumps" the
bottom plug in the float collar, which
signals the cementing pump operator to
shut down the pumps, the cement is
only in the casing below the float collar
and in the annular space. Most of the
casing is full of displacement fluid.
After the cement is run, a waiting time
is allotted to allow the slurry to harden.
This period of time is referred to as
waiting on cement or simply WOC.
After the cement hardens, tests may be
run to ensure a good cement job, for
cement is very important. Cement
supports the casing, so the cement
should completely surround the casing;
this is where centralizers on the casing
help. If the casing is centered in the
hole, a cement sheath should completely
envelop the casing. Also, cement seals
off formations to prevent fluids from
one formation migrating up or down the
hole and polluting the fluids in another
formation. For example, cement can
protect a freshwater formation (that
perhaps a nearby town is using as its
drinking water supply) from saltwater
contamination. Further, cement protects
the casing from the corrosive effects
that formation fluids (as salt water) may
have on it. comprising: a. flowing a slug
of preflush solution comprised of an oil
and a dispersing agent, said solution
having a lower viscosity and lower gel
strength than said drilling mud and
having a critical turbulence pump rate of
no greater than three barrels per minute,
into the annular space between said
casing and the wall of said well; b.
flowing into said annular space and
emplacing therein a cement slurry; and
c. allowing said cement slurry to set and
form an impermeable cement sheath
which bonds said casing to said wall of
said well.
2. The method of claim 1 wherein said
oil is selected from the group consisting
of kerosene, diesel oil, and mixtures
thereof.
3. The method of claim 1 wherein the
volume of said slug of preflush solution
is within the range of 10 to 50 barrels.
4. The method of claim 1 wherein said
dispersing agent is lecithin.
5. The method of claim 4 wherein the
amount of lecithin in said preflush
solution is 1 to 5 pounds per barrel of
said preflush solution.
6. The method of claim 1 further
comprising, subsequent to step (a) and
prior to step (b), flowing a slug of an
aqueous solution having a water wetting
surfactant therein into said annular
space between said casing the the wall
of said well.
7. The method of claim 6 wherein said
slug of an aqueous solution is injected in
an amount within the range of 5 to 50
barrels and contains therein 1/2 to 10
pounds per barrel of a polyoxyethylene-
aryl ether of the structural formula:
wherein: R is a hydrogen atom or an
aliphatic substituent having no more
than nine carbon atoms, and n is an
integer within the range of 10 to 100.
8. A method of cementing casing in a
well penetrating a subterranean
formation, said well having an oil base
drilling mud therein, comprising: a.
flowing a slug of preflush solution
comprised of an oil, a dispersing agent,
a viscosifier, and a weighting material,
said solution having a lower viscosity
and lower gel strength than said drilling
mud and having a critical turbulence
pump rate of no greater than three
barrels per minute, into the annular
space between said casing and the wall
of said well; b. flowing through said
annular space and emplacing therein a
cement slurry; and c. allowing said
cement slurry to set and form an
impermeable cement sheath which
bonds said casing to said wall of said
well.
9. The method of claim 8 wherein the
volume of said slug of preflush solution
is within the range of five to 50 barrels.
10. The method of claim 9 wherein said
oil is selected from the group consisting
of diesel oil, kerosene, and mixtures
thereof.
11. The method of claim 10 wherein
said dispersing agent is lecithin.
12. The method of claim 11 wherein
said viscosifier is an amine substituted
bentonite.
Description:
This invention relates to cementing
casing in a well drilled from he surface
of the earth into subterranean
formations.
Wells are drilled into subterranean
formations for various purposes. For
example, they may be drilled into
subterranean formations for the purpose
of producing hydrocarbons or water
therefrom, or for injecting fluids into the
subterranean formation.
Rotary drilling techniques wherein a
drilling fluid or mud is circulated
between the surface of the earth and the
bottom of the well are commonly
employed in drilling wells. Oil base
muds, including water-in-oil emulsion
muds of low water content, wherein oil
forms the continuous phase, are often
used in the drilling and completion of
wells. Drilling muds serve many useful
purposes, including removal of earth
cuttings from the well, control of
formation pressures, and cooling and
lubricating of the drill bit used in
forming the well. However, there are
also certain detrimental characteristics
associated with drilling muds. For
example, drilling muds tend to flow
from the well into exposed permeable
formations with the result that mud
solids are filtered out on the wall of the
well, forming a filter cake thereon.
Thick filter cakes are particularly
harmful in that they may impede or stop
the movement of drilling tools in the
well. Even thin filter cakes are
detrimental in the completion of wells in
that they interfere with obtaining a good
cement bond between the wall of the
well and the casing positioned in the
well.
Drilling muds may be considered to be
non-Newtonian fluids and are referred
to as plastic-type fluids. Their fluid
movements are known as plastic flow.
Two flow properties, plastic viscosity
and yield value, must be known in order
to describe the flow behavior of a
drilling mud as compared with one flow
property, viscosity, required to define
the flow characteristics of a Newtonian
fluid. Another property often used in
characterizing a drilling mud at rest is
gel strength.
Plastic viscosity is that part of flow
resistance in a mud which represents
mechanical friction (1) between solids
in the mud, (2) between the solids and
the liquid which surround them, and (3)
of the shearing of the liquid. Yield
value, the second component of
resistance to flow in a drilling fluid, is a
measurement of the interparticle forces
in the mud. These forces are the result
of positive and negative electrical
charges located on or near particle
surfaces. If the mud is allowed to come
to rest, the forces tend to move the solid
particles around until they reach a
geometrical arrangement where the
attraction and repulsion forces are best
satisfied. A gel-strength measurement is
an indication of the magnitude of these
forces under conditions of rest. Yield
value is a measurement under flowing
conditions of those forces in the mud
which cause gel strength under rest
conditions.
Various procedures and apparatus,
including the Stormer viscosimeter and
the Fann V-G Meter, have been used in
determining plastic viscosity, yield
value, and gel strengths of drilling
muds. In a paper entitled "Measurement
of Plastic Flow Properties" by Fred
Chisholm and Sam Kohen,
PETROLEUM ENGINEER, vol. 26,
No. 4, pp. B-87--B-90, April, 1954,
there is described a procedure
employing a Model 30 Fann V-G Meter
to measure the plastic viscosity, yield
value, and gel strength of a drilling mud.
In the completion of wells, casing is
normally lowered into the well and a
cement slurry is flowed down the well
and up the annular space formed
between he casing and the wall of the
well. Cement slurries have been
emplaced in the annular space between
the casing and the wall of the well by
flowing them thereinto in direct contact
with the mud, thereby displacing the
mud from the annular space. This
procedure may result in poor cement
jobs because of contamination of the
cement slurry and because of failure to
remove the filter cake from the wall of
the well. In order to obtain improved
cement jobs, various techniques,
including the use of preflush solutions
or washes, have been developed. For
example, Joseph G. Savins, in U.S. Pat.
No. 3,291,211, describes a method of
cementing a well wherein the drilling
mud in the annular space between
casing and a wellbore wall is removed
by passing into a well, prior to placing a
cement slurry therein, a liquid
comprising a solvent containing
dissolved therein a solute which imparts
viscoelastic properties to the liquid.
Joseph U. Messenger, in U.S. Pat. No.
3,348,612, describes a technique of
cementing casing in a well wherein a
slug of liquid having mutual solubility
for oil and water is passed into a well
and into the annular space formed
between the wall of the well and the
outer surface of the casing and is
followed by a cement slurry. A slug of
an organic solvent for oil and asphalt
may be passed into the annular space
ahead of the slug of liquid having
mutual solubility for oil and water.
Another technique for cementing casing
in a well is described by Joseph U.
Messenger in U.S. Pat. No. 3,467,193.
A preflush comprised of formation
water containing dispersants is flowed
through the annular space formed
between casing and the wall of a well.
Thereafter, a spearhead of cement slurry
containing a turbulence inducer and
silica or diatomaceous earth particles
and having a density at least as great as
the drilling mud employed in drilling
the well is flowed into the annular
space. This is followed by a densified
cement slurry and the cement slurries
allowed to set.
This invention is directed to a method of
cementing casing in a well penetrating a
subterranean formation, which well has
therein an oil base drilling mud. A slug
of a preflush solution comprised of an
oil and a dispersant, which solution has
a lower viscosity and lower gel strength
than the drilling mud and has a critical
turbulence pump rate of no greater than
three barrels per minute, is flowed into
the annular space between the casing
and the wall of the well. Thereafter,
cement slurry is emplaced in the annular
space and allowed to set and form an
impermeable cement sheath which
bonds the casing to the wall of the well.
In another embodiment, the preflush
solution further includes a viscosifier,
and a weighting material.
DESCRIPTION OF THE
PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
This invention is directed to a method of
cementing casing in a well that has an
oil base drilling mud therein and has a
filter cake on the wall of the well.
In accordance with this invention a
preflush solution comprised of an oil
and a dispersing agent is injected into a
well that has an oil base drilling mud
therein and into the annular space
between the casing and the wall of the
well to displace the mud and remove the
filter cake from at least a portion of the
annular space. This is followed by a
cement slurry which is emplaced in the
annular space and allowed to set,
thereby forming an impermeable cement
sheath which bonds the casing to the
wall of the well. In another
embodiment, water having a water
wetting surfactant therein is flowed into
the annular space following the preflush
solution and preceding the cement slurry
to displace the oil from the surface of
the casing and the wall of the well.
The preflush solution is designed for use
in a well having an oil base drilling mud
therein and is formulated to have a
lower viscosity and lower gel strength
than the drilling mud. Further, the
preflush solution is formulated to have a
critical turbulence pump rate of no
greater than three barrels per minute. By
the term "critical turbulence pump rate"
is meant the pump rate at which the
preflush solution will go into turbulence
when flowed through a 1/2-inch annulus
formed between two concentric pipes,
the smaller of which has an outside
diameter of 7 inches, and the larger of
which has an inside diameter of 8
inches. A low critical turbulence pump
rate is beneficial for two reasons: (1) the
well wall is exposed to turbulent action
a maximum length of time for a given
volume of preflush solution; and (2) a
lower pump pressure can be used to
obtain turbulent flow than must be used
for solutions having higher critical
turbulence pump rates. The dispersing
agent employed in carrying out the
present invention may be any suitable
material which functions to promote and
maintain separation of the individual,
extremely fine particles of solids which
are usually of colloidal size. As will be
recognized by those skilled in he art,
various such dispersing agents are
conventionally employed in drilling
muds in order to maintain adequate
dispersion of clays added to impart
desired rheological properties to such
muds. A particular dispersing agent
which gives good results when
employed in the preflush and which is
preferred in practicing the present
invention is lecithin. Lecithin is a
naturally occurring amino, and is
available from Baroid Division,
National Lead Company, under the
trade name "Driltreat."
A particular preflush solution found to
give good results is comprised of an oil
and lecithin in an amount of 1 to 5
pounds per barrel of preflush solution.
Oils that are preferred are kerosene,
diesel oil, and mixtures thereof because
they are compatible with oils used in oil
base drilling muds. However, other oils
such as light crude oils may be used.
This preflush solution goes into
turbulence at a low rate of flow, thus
exposing the wall of the well to the
scouring action of turbulent flow for a
maximum amount of time for a given
size slug of solution. In addition, the
dispersing agent permeates the filter
cake and through dispersing action
causes a deterioration of the filter cake.
Thus, by combination of the turbulent
action and dispersing action the filter
cake is effectively removed. In addition,
the turbulent action of the preflush
solution effectively displaces the
drilling mud from the portion of the
annular space into which cement slurry
is to be emplaced. A 10- to 50 -barrel
slug of preflush solution injected into
the well and into the annular space
preceding the cement slurry is sufficient
to displace the drilling mud and filter
cake from the portion of the annular
space of concern, thereby allowing a
good cement sheath to be formed
between the casing and the wall of the
well.
An aqueous wash containing a water
wetting surfactant may be flowed into
the annular space subsequent to the
preflush solution and prior to the cement
slurry to remove from the casing the oil
film remaining from the preflush
solution, thereby providing a clean
surface and enhancing the bond formed
between the cement sheath and the
casing. This aqueous wash, when
employed, should be flowed into the
annular space in an amount of five to 50
barrels, preferably 10 to 20 barrels, and
should contain 1/2 to 10 pounds of
water wetting surfactant per barrel of
water and preferably 2 to 4 pounds per
barrel. A suitable water wetting
surfactant may be chosen from the
classes of nonionic and anionic
surfactants. An example of a class of
nonionic surfactants from which a
suitable water wetting surfactant may be
chosen is the polyoxyethylene-aryl
ethers of the structural formula:
wherein: R is a hydrogen atom or an
aliphatic substituent having no more
than nine carbon atoms, and n is an
integer within the range of 10 to 100.
Within the class of nonionic surfactants
a preferred surfactant is the
poloyoxyethylene ether of phenol
having 30 ethylene oxide groups.
Anionic surfactants which may be
employed in the present invention may
be chosen form he class of salts of fatty
acids or salts of sulfonic acid
derivatives. Two examples of anionic
surfactants are di-ethyl sodium
succinate and sodium lauryl sulfonate.
When cementing a well having a
weighted oil base drilling mud therein, I
have found it desirable to displace the
oil base drilling mud ahead of the
cement slurry with a weighted preflush
solution. It is particularly important to
use a weighted preflush solution having
approximately the same weight as the
drilling mud when there exists in
communication with the well a
formation having fluids under high
pressure contained therein. The use of
such a preflush solution ensures that the
hydrostatic pressure exerted by the
drilling mud in the well is not lessened,
thereby allowing the fluids under high
pressure in the formation to flow
uncontrollably into the well.

A weighted preflush solution which I
have found to be particularly suitable
for such an application is comprised of
an oil, a viscosifier, a weighting
material, and a dispersing agent
formulated to have a lower viscosity and
a lower gel strength than the drilling
mud and to have a critical turbulence
pump rate of no greater than three
barrels per minute. Oils found to be
particularly useful in this preflush
solution are kerosene, diesel oil and
mixtures thereof, though other oils may
be used. A viscosifier found to be
particularly useful is an amine
substituted bentonite used in a sufficient
amount to increase the viscosity of the
preflush solution to a value which will
prevent settling of the weighting
material. Normally no more than 5
pounds of viscosifier per barrel of
preflush solution are required to provide
this viscosity. Such a viscosifier can be
prepared by treating bentonite, sodium
form, with a long-chain quaternary
ammonium salt and is available under
the trade name of "Geltone." A
weighting material suitable for use in
this preflush solution is barite. A
sufficient amount of barite should be
used to increase the weight of the
preflush solution to a weight of at least
14 pounds per gallon and preferably to
approximately the weight of the drilling
mud in the well. A particular dispersing
agent found to be useful in this preflush
solution is lecithin which is available
under the trade name of "Driltreat." A
sufficient amount of the dispersing
agent is added to ensure that the
weighted preflush solution has a critical
turbulence pump rate of no greater than
three barrels per minute. Normally this
requires no more than 5 pounds of
dispersing agent per barrel of preflush
solution. The dispersing agent reduces
the interparticle forces in the preflush
solution and thereby the yield value of
the preflush solution, thus enabling the
solution to go into turbulence at a low
rate of flow.
Cementing is a difficult operation and
the quality of the result depends on
many factors associated with: the state
of the open hole section; the equipment
and materials employed; the fluids used;
the procedures applied. This document
presents an update of the information
and recommendations on methods and
procedures to be applied at the well site.
1. Drawing up the cementing program:
Cement classes according to API
specifications. Slurries. General
information on flow regime and on
spacers. Mud conditioning before
cementing. Summary.
2. Different types of cementing: One-
stage cementing and two-stage
cementing. Cementing with stinger.
Cementing a liner.
3. Setting cement plugs to combat lost
circulation: Thixotropic slurries, cement
gels, cement slurries without additives,
and their placement. Plaster Diesel Oil
Cement (PDOC) and Diesel Oil Cement
(DOC), and their placement.
4. Causes of failure in casing cement
jobs and remedies: Losses during slurry
placement. Slurry overdisplacement.
Lack of tightness of the cement sheath.
Flash set. Setting defect. Lack of
mechanical strength. Cement
deterioration. Casing disconnection.
The key factors necessary to ensure a
successful primary oil well cement job
are as follows:
1. Good information: Related
information such as calculated hole
diameter, hole volume, depth, etc from
related personnel is required in order to
design cementing programs.
2. Good cementing design: There is a
number of cement purposes such as
primary cement, cement squeeze,
cement plug. To meet the purpose of
each job, cementers must design a
cementing program in correct and good
way.
3. Good procedures: Clear and concise
procedure will lead to good job because
cementer and assistants can perform the
cementing job correctly, fast, safely.
4. Good equipment and experienced
personnel: Experienced staff with good
equipment can perform great jobs, no
lost time, safe and fast.
5. Good centralizer placement:
Centralizers help casing in the center of
hole. Casing with good centralizer
placement, cement can form properly
cement sheath around casing.