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Orbits in A Central Force Field: Bounded Orbits
Orbits in A Central Force Field: Bounded Orbits
Subhankar Ray∗
Dept of Physics, Jadavpur University, Calcutta 700 032, India
J. Shamanna
Physics Department, Visva Bharati University, Santiniketan 731235, India
(Dated: August 1, 2003)
arXiv:physics/0410149v1 [physics.ed-ph] 19 Oct 2004
The nature of boundedness of orbits of a particle moving in a central force field is investigated.
General conditions for circular orbits and their stability are discussed. In a bounded central field
orbit, a particle moves clockwise or anticlockwise, depending on its angular momentum, and at the
same time oscillates between a minimum and a maximum radial distance, defining an inner and an
outer annulus. There are generic orbits suggested in popular texts displaying the general features of
a central orbit. In this work it is demonstrated that some of these orbits, seemingly possible at the
first glance, are not compatible with a central force field. For power law forces, the general nature
of boundedness and geometric shape of orbits are investigated.
The central force motion is one of the oldest and widely Almost 100 years later Newton realized that the plan-
studied problems in classical mechanics. Several familiar ets go about in their nearly circular orbits around the sun
force-laws in nature, e.g., Newton’s law of gravitation, under the influence of the same force that causes an ap-
Coulomb’s law, van-der Waals force, Yukawa interaction, ple to fall to the ground, i.e., gravitation. Newton’s law
and Hooke’s law are all examples of central forces. The of gravitation gave a theoretical basis to Kepler’s laws.
central force problem gives an opportunity to test one’s Kepler’s laws can be derived from Newton’s law of grav-
understanding of the Lagrange’s equation, Hamilton’s itation; this is often referred to as the Newtonian syn-
equation, Hamilton Jacobi method, and classical pertur- thesis. Kepler’s first and third laws are valid only in the
bation. It also serves as an introduction to the concept of specific case of inverse square force. There are, however,
integrals of motion and conservation laws. We need only certain general features which are observed in all cen-
to appeal to the principles of conservation of energy and tral field problems. They include (i) certain conserved
angular momentum to describe the nature and geometry quantities (energy, and angular momentum), (ii) planer
of the possible trajectories in central force motion. Most nature of orbits, and (iii) constancy of areal velocity (Ke-
books in classical mechanics1,2,3,4,5,6 , treatise7,8 , and ad- pler’s second law). A large class of central forces allows
vanced texts9,10 discuss the central force problem. In this circular orbits (stable or unstable), bounded orbits, and
article we present some interesting features of bounded even closed and periodic orbits. Certain common charac-
orbits in a central field. teristics about the generic shapes of bounded orbits can
also be ascertained.
A. Kepler’s Laws
II. EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THEIR
One of the most remarkable discoveries in the history of FIRST INTEGRALS
physics is that of Keplerian orbits. A tremendous wealth
of data on planetary positions was collected by Tycho A. Central field orbits: confinement in a plane
Brahe and Johannes Kepler after detailed observation
spread over several decades. After a thorough analysis
The central force motion between two bodies about
of this data Johannes Kepler formulated three empirical
their center of mass can be reduced to an equivalent one
laws that described and correlated the motion of the five
body problem in terms of their reduced mass m and their
planets then known:
relative radial distance r. Hence in this reduced system,
1. Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the a body having the reduced mass moves about a fixed
sun at one of its foci. center of force.
Consider the motion of a body under a central force,
2. The radius vector from the sun to each planet F = F(r) = f (r)r̂ with the origin as its force center. The
sweeps out equal areas in equal times. potential V (r) from which this force is derived is also a
function of r alone, F = −∇V, V ≡ V (r).
3. The square of the periods (T 2 ) of the planets are On account of the central nature of the force, the me-
proportional to the cube of the lengths of the cor- chanical properties of the body do not vary under ro-
responding semimajor axes (a3 ). tation in any manner around the center of force. Let
2
11 60
10
40
9
kinetic energy
velocity
8 20
7
Angular momentum
0
6
total energy
5
-20
3 -40
potential energy
2
-60
radial position
1
0 -80
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
FIG. 2: Constancy of angular momentum in an inverse square FIG. 3: Constancy of total energy in an inverse square poten-
potential. Total energy is 60% of the minimum of effective tial. Total energy is 60% of the minimum of effective potential
potential Ṽ (r). Ṽ (r).
The force in terms of the potential (conservative force) D. Equation for the orbit
is given by, f (r) = −∂V /∂r, whence the above equation
becomes From the equation giving energy as a first integral of
motion, we get the expression for radial velocity,
mr̈ − mrθ̇2 = f (r) s
Using the first integral of motion, one can convert this 2 l2
ṙ = E−V − (7)
second equation into an equation for r alone. m 2mr2
1 l2 On integration we get,
d
mr̈ = − V + Z r
dr 2 mr2 dr
t= p . (8)
Integrating we get r0 2/m(E − V − l2 /(2mr2 ))
30
On integration this yields,
Z r
l/(mr2 ) l^2/(2mr^2) (a) circular orbit
θ − θ0 = p dr 20 (b) elliptic orbit
(c) elliptic orbit of higher eccentricity
r0 2/m(E − V (r) − l2 /(2mr2 ))
For understanding the qualitative nature of motion in 10
a central field one looks at the equivalent one dimensional ~
V(r)
problem.
r 0
2 l2
ṙ = (E − V (r) − )
m 2mr2
r -10 (c)
2
= (E − Ṽ (r)). (b)
m
(a)
-20
We call Ṽ the effective potential, introduced to make
the problem similar to that of a particle moving in a
one dimensional potential field. The effective radial force -30
V(r) ~ - 1/r
(f˜(r)) is connected to the effective radial potential (Ṽ (r))
by the expected relation,
-40
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
r
∂ Ṽ (r)
f˜(r) = − (10)
∂r FIG. 4: Effective potential for an inverse square force
2
(a) spiral in
the effective potential has a minimum, the effective forces
(b) circle cause the particle to remain in a bound orbit confined
(c) spiral out
1.5 in an annular space. For small deviations the annular
radii are nearly the same, and hence the orbit is close to
1
a circle. One can understand the stability question by
studying the forces (restoring or unsettling) that come
into play when the system is moved infinitesimally from
0.5
the position of circular orbit.
The circular orbit is stable if,
0
∂ 2 Ṽ
> 0. (16)
-0.5
∂r2
(a)
That is equivalent to,
(b)
-1
∂ 2 Ṽ 3l2
∂f
= − + >0
(c) ∂r2 ∂r mr4 r0
-1.5
∂f 3l2
|r0 <
-2
∂r mr0 4
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Using Eq. (13),
FIG. 5: Spiralling orbits, f (r) ∼ −1/r 4
∂f 3f (r0 )
|r < − (17)
∂r 0 r0
particle away from the positions of zero radial velocity
in an inward or an outward spiral. If the total energy
IV. NATURE OF BOUNDED ORBITS
is equal to the maximum or minimum of the effective
potential, the system can stay with zero radial velocity,
and hence move in a circular orbit. General bounded motion has both lower and upper
The condition for circular orbit is, bounds. It means that the particle cannot approach
nearer than some minimum or move farther than some
maximum distance. One has to remember that the angu-
l2
∂ Ṽ ∂V
= − =0 (12) lar velocity has a constant sign, same as that of the con-
∂r ∂r r0 mr03
r0 stant angular momentum, throughout the motion. How-
ever its magnitude decreases with increase in the radial
whence we get, distance (∼ 1/r2 ). Together with the angular motion, the
radial distance changes from rmax to a rmin , then back
l2
∂V to rmax and so on. From this general nature of motion
f (r0 ) = − =− 3 (13)
∂r r0
mr0 two families of generic orbits are suggested in popular
texts11 (Fig. 6, Fig. 7). However it can be shown that
The negative sign on the right hand side clearly shows the generic types shown in the later figure (Fig. 7) are
that the force must be attractive. The particle moves in not feasible for any attractive potential.
a circular orbit, since the force of attraction due to the We consider below a general bounded orbit confined in
central field provides the necessary centripetal force. an annular region. We would like to investigate the na-
For a given attractive central force ( f (r) and V (r) ture of the orbit close to the point where it touches the
given ) it is possible to have a circular orbit of radius inner or the outer annulus. Let us choose the reference
r0 provided the angular momentum and energy of the line (polar line) of the coordinate system such that the
particle are given by, orbit touches the annular ring at θ = 0, or more specifi-
cally at r = R, θ = 0. Since at this point P (r = R, θ = 0)
l2 = −mr03 f (r0 ) (14) the orbit is at its closest (or farthest) approach from the
l2 pole, (∂r/∂t)P = 0. As r is a function of θ, using Eq. (4)
E = V (r0 ) + (15)
2mr02 we get for motion along the trajectory,
2 1.5
1.5
1
0.5
0.5
0 0
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1.5
-2 -1.5
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
FIG. 6: Generic orbits in central field (allowed) FIG. 7: Generic orbits in central field (not allowed)
The equation of motion for r is given by, One can expand r(θ) in a Taylor series in θ, and remem-
ber that r′ (0) = 0,
mr̈ − mrθ̇2 = f (r)
r( θ) r( θ)
tan tan
r( θ)
Inner traj trajectory
Outer r( θ) trajectory
annulus annulus
θ (not allowed) θ traj
(not allowed)
trajectory
r (allowed)
rannul annul
tangent tangent
trajectory trajectory
(allowed) (not allowed)
FIG. 8: Curvature of the trajectory in comparison to the FIG. 9: Curvature of the trajectory in comparison to the outer
tangent to the inner annulus annulus
r(∆θ)traj < r(∆θ)tan (19) For the case of a power law central potential
which means that the orbit bends more sharply than the k nk
V (r) = , f (r) = − (21)
tangent and stays closer to the inner annulus for nearby rn rn+1
points (Fig. 8). Hence the second type of orbits shown
From the stability condition Eq. (17),
in some texts (Fig. 7) are not possible for central forces.
For the outer annulus the analysis with respect to tan- ∂f 3f (r0 )
gent is not very meaningful as one can set up an even |r0 < −
∂r r0
stronger bound for its orbit, directly considering the po-
tential Ṽ (r). In this case the effective potential has a we find,
positive slope with respect to the radius, and hence a
(n + 1)nk k 1
negative effective force (f˜(r) < 0). The orbit should not < −3 −
only remain nearer than the tangent, but even nearer r0n+2 r0n+1 r0
than the outer annulus. This condition is confirmed if n < 2 (22)
8
40
For the point of extremum
amn
r0 n−2 = .
30 l2
l^2/(2m r^2)
Finding the second derivative of Ṽ with respect to
r at the point r0 ,
20
d2 Ṽ an(n + 1) 3l2
(a) unstable circular orbit 2
= − n+2
+
dr r mr4
10
an(n + 1) 3l2
(b) unbounded orbit 1
= 4 − +
~ r rn−2 m
V(r)
l2 3l2
0 1
= 4 −(n + 1) +
r0 m m
1 l2
-10
V(r) ~ - 1/r^3 = 4 (2 − n) < 0
r0 m
30 30
20 20
10 10
~
V(r)
0 0
-10 ~ -10
V(r)
-20 -20
V(r) ~ ln(r)
V(r) ~ -1/r
-30 -30
-40 -40
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
FIG. 11: Effective potential for f (r) ∼ −1/r 2 force FIG. 12: Effective potential for f (r) ∼ −1/r force
30
The second derivative of Ṽ with respect to r,
d2 Ṽ n−2 3l2
25 = an(n − 1)r +
dr2 mr4
3l2
1
= 4 an(n − 1)rn+2 +
20 r m
1 l2
= 4 (2 + n) > 0
15 r m
Hence it is a point of minimum. The orbit is always
10 V(r) ~ r^2 bounded.
~
V(r) The findings for the general power law potential can
be summarized as follows,
5
V (r) = sign(n)arn n 6= 0 (27)
l^2/(2m r^2)
f (r) = −abs(n)arn−1 (28)
0
and
-5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
V (r) = b ln r (29)
b
f (r) = − (30)
FIG. 13: Effective potential for f (r) ∼ −r force r
Hence it is a point of minimum. The orbit is always TABLE I: Dependence of boundedness on power law.
bounded. n of V (r) ∼ ar n nature of boundedness
−2 spiralling orbit
5. V (r) = ar n where n > 0
) − 2, 0( bounded or unbounded depending on E
For this potential the effective potential is given by,
0 (ln r) always bounded
2
l
Ṽ (r) = arn + n>0 (26) )0, +∞( always bounded
2mr2
8
∗
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