UENG 103 Introduction To Earth and Its Environment Feb 28 - 2023

UENG 103
Introduction to Earth and its Environment
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Feb 28_2023
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3_
10
Ramananda Chakrabarti / Attreyee Ghosh
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Center for Earth Sciences
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UENG 103
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Feb 28_2023
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3_
10 Grading:
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2 exams
2 quizzes
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Tutorials mandatory (some exercises)
Min 80% attendance

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UENG 103
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Feb 28_2023
20
3_
10 Reading material:
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How to build a habitable planet (Langmuir and Broecker)
Intro to global geophysics (Fowler)
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Reading material will be provided

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Pale blue dot
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10
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Image from NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft
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from the edge of our Solar System in 1989

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“There is perhaps no better demonstration of the folly of human conceits than this
distant image of our tiny world. To me, it underscores our responsibility to deal more
kindly with one another and to preserve and cherish the pale blue dot, the only
home we've ever known”. - Carl Sagan
Pale blue dot
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10
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Image from NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft
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from the edge of our Solar System in 1989

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Earth science deals with understanding the origin of this planet, its evolution,
and its future
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10
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EN
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Earth science deals with understanding the origin of this planet, its evolution,
and its FUTURE
~4.56 Ga history of the Earth in 12 hours
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Homo sapiens appeared in the last 2 seconds!

What happened back in time?
~4.56 Ga history of the Earth in 12 hours
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Understanding the past is key to our future

Earth Science: diverse (interacting) domains
Physics, Chemistry, Math, Biology, Engineering and GEOLOGY
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3_
10
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Earth Science: diverse (interacting) domains
Physics, Chemistry, Math, Biology, Engineering and GEOLOGY
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Planetary Science
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Climate, natural disasters, Seismology
Water, soil, …
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Geobiology Geodynamics/
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Earth Science structural geology
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Energy/natur
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al resources Mineral physics
Petrology
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Geochemistry
Geomagnetism …..
EES major/minor
revamped
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• 18 credits of core courses (3 in Earth Science,
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3 in Env. Sc.)
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• 18 credits of courses offered in CEaS, CAOS,
Civil, CST
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• 16 project credits
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Earth Science: what do we study?
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10
Meteorites – oldest solids in the Solar System
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Impact craters
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Molten material from the deep Earth
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Sediments deposited from 2.5 billion years old oceans!
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10
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23
Globigerinoides ruber
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3_
10
Ancient life-forms (macro and micro)
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Globigerinoides ruber
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3_
10
Paleoclimate reconstruction
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EN
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20
3_
10
Extreme climatic events, pollution, natural resources
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EN
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Computational studies: Geoid anomaly, dipolar magnetic fields
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3_
10
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EN
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Earliest history of the Solar System:
rocks from space
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3_
10
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ISRO, NASA, ESA, JAXA…
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Internships…
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Evolution of other planetary bodies
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3_
10
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EN
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Lunar rocks collected from the Apollo Perseverance and InSight – probing
missions have provided insights into for life on Mars and studying its
the formation of the Moon interior structure
Occurrence of earthquakes and
volcanism
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3_
10
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USGS data
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Studies based on seismology

Why does the mantle melt at specific
locations?
(petrology, geochemistry)
Plate motions
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3_
10
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EN
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Submarine volcanism:
origin of life, mineral deposits
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10
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EN
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Research organizations in India: NIO, NGRI

Atmospheric CO2 Concentration
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10
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Paleoclimate reconstruction
Drilling the ocean floor
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Some basic questions
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• What are planets made up of?
• What is the Earth made up of?
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• What is the Sun made up of?
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• Starting composition?
• Age of the Earth? 10

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• Age of the Solar System?
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• Is the Earth’s interior solid or liquid?

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• What causes volcanism and earthquakes?

Some basic questions
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• What are planets made up of?
• What is the Earth made up of?
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• What is the Sun made up of?
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• Starting composition?
• Age of the Earth? 10

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• Age of the Solar System?
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• Is the Earth’s interior solid or liquid?

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• What causes volcanism and earthquakes?

Nucleosynthesis, Radionuclides, Determination of ages, plate tectonics, seismology
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3_
10
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Period is represented by a row (7)

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Group is represented by a vertical column (18)

98 naturally occurring elements (hydrogen to californium)
Others till 118 have been synthesized in laboratories
Internal Structure of Atoms
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Z = atomic number (number of protons, proton number)
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N = number of neutrons
A = mass number (A = Z +N) = mass of an atom
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10
General notation for a nuclide: AZC
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Isotope = same Z, different A due to difference in N
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Atomic weight of an element?

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Weighted average of isotope masses and their relative abundance
When is atomic weight equal to mass number?

Chart of the nuclides
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3_
10
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•solid squares = stable nuclides (264 stable nuclides out of ~1700 nuclides – define the central
path of stability)
•open squares = unstable nuclides
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•open square with dot = naturally occurring short-lived unstable nuclides

•partly filled squares = naturally occurring long-lived unstable nuclides
•smooth envelope = theoretical nuclide stability limits, beyond this prompt decay occurs
•Zig-zag outline = limits of experimentally known unstable nuclides (match at Z<22)
Beta (Negatron) decay
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Atomic # Neutron # Mass #
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Parent Z N Z+N = A
Daughter Z+1 N-1 Z+1+N-1 = A
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Daughter is an isobar
10 + b- + n +Q (1.4 Ga)
40 K 40
20Ca
Atomic number (Z)
19
Stable
daughter Q = max. decay energy = 1.312 MeV
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Z+2, N-2
Unstable 87 Rb 87 Sr + b- (49 Ga)
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37 38
daughter
Z+1, N-1
Parent
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Z,N
Neutron number (N)

Beta (positron) decay
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20
Parent Z N Z+N = A
Daughter Z-1 N+1 Z-1+N+1 = A
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Parent
Z,N
10 + b+ + n +Q
18 F 18 O
Atomic number (Z)
9 8
Unstable
daughter Q = max. decay energy = 1.655 MeV
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Z-1, N+1
Stable
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daughter
Z-2, N+2
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Neutron number (N)

Electron capture decay
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20
Parent Z N Z+N = A
Daughter Z-1 N+1 Z-1+N+1 = A
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Parent
Z,N
10
40 K + e- 40 Ar (12 Ga)
Atomic number (Z)
Unstable 19 18
daughter
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Z-1, N+1
Stable
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daughter
Z-2, N+2
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Neutron number (N)

Alpha decay
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20
Parent Z N Z+N = A
Daughter Z-2 N-2 Z+N-4 = A-4
3_
 particle has 2p and 2n and hence
a charge of +2
10
Atomic number (Z)
Parent
Z,N Daughter is not an isobar
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147 Sm 143 Nd +  (106 Ga)
62 60
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238 U 206 Pb +  (4.5 Ga)

92 82
235 U 207 Pb +  (0.7 Ga)
92 82
232 Th 208 Pb +  (14 Ga)
Daughter 90 82
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Z-2, N-2
Neutron number (N)

Gamma decay
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20
• Occurs when a nucleus is in an excited state with too much energy
• Typically happens after a beta or alpha decay
• No particles are ejected from the nucleus
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• High photon energy/ short wavelength EM radiation
10
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EN
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Examples of nuclear reactions in the chart of
the nuclides
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20
3_
10
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EN
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Examples of nuclear reactions in the chart of
the nuclides
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20
3_
10
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EN
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Nuclear Binding Energy (EB)
•Energy required to split the nucleus of an atom into neutrons and protons (nucleons). It explains the overall
trends in a nuclear reaction.
•Specific binding energy is the binding energy per nucleon (EB/A)
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•Highest binding energy is 8.8 MeV for 6228Ni followed by 5826Fe and 5626Fe
•Nuclei can lower their total energy by moving towards the Fe-Ni region either by fusion (light nuclei), emission
of alpha particles or fission (for heavy nuclei)
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•Binding energy per nucleon of most nuclei is close to 8 MeV
3_
10
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Nuclear Binding Energy (EB)
•Light nuclei have smaller binding energy per
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nucleon i.e. each nucleon experiences attraction
from a small number of other nucleons e.g. 2H
(1.1 MeV per nucleon)
20
•Exception is the doubly magic 42He (7.07 MeV)
•Also 84Be (7.07 MeV) – however it is extremely
unstable – dissociates into 2 alpha particles as
3_
the alpha particles are a bit more tightly bound
– this is an exception to the rule that light nuclei
10
prefer to fusion to heavier nuclei
•NOTE: Without 84Be, there would be no life on
Earth; Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced no
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elements heavier than Be (that too in trace
amounts) – C formed in the interior of aging
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stars when 84Be captured another alpha particle

(“triple alpha process”)
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Why is 126C stable?
Binding energy of 126C is 7.68 MeV per nucleon which is greater than that of alpha particles
Magic number
Z N A = Z+N #stable
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nuclides
Even Even Even 157
20
Even Odd Odd 53
Odd Even Odd 50
3_
Odd Odd Even 4
10
G 264
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•Magic number is a number of protons or neutrons (nucleons) or both such that they are
arranged into complete shells within the atomic nucleus
•Nuclides with magic numbers of Z or N or both are more stable e.g., Ca (Z = 20) isotopes
with A = 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48; 4020Ca is doubly magic
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•Magic number for Z and N are 2, 8, 10, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126
•N:Z increases from 1 to 3 with increasing A
Solar System (cosmic) abundances of elements
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•A realistic model for the nucleosynthesis of the elements must be based on
empirical data for the ‘cosmic abundance’
20
•True cosmic abundance can be derived from stellar spectroscopy or by
3_
chemical analysis of galactic cosmic rays
10
•However, such data are difficult to measure at high precision, so cosmic
abundances are normally approximated by Solar System abundances
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•These can be determined by solar sprectroscopy or by direct analysis of the
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most ‘primitive’ meteorites, carbonaceous chondrites

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Solar System abundances of elements
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•A comparison of elemental
concentrations from solar
20
spectroscopy and direct analysis
of carbonaceous chondrites
3_
demonstrates good agreement
for most elements
10 •Exceptions are the volatile

elements which have been lost
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from meteorites, and the Li-Be-
B group, which are unstable in
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the stars
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Abundance of elements in the solar nebula
23
20
After Anders and Ebihara, 1982
Data listed in Faure, Table 2.2
3_
10
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•H and He are the most abundant elements
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•Abundance of Li, Be, B are anomalously low

•Abundance of elements decrease with increasing Z (somewhat exponentially)
•Abundance of elements with even Z are higher than those of their neighbors (Oddo- Harkins rule*)
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•Anomalously high abundance of Fe (Z = 26) – possibly due to maximum in the binding energy
curve at A = 56
•Abundance pattern is primarily a result of nuclear reactions
Abundance of nuclei in the solar nebula as a
function of atomic number Z
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20
3_
10
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EN
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Origin of elements
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•Nucleosynthesis is the study of the nuclear
20
processes responsible for the formation of
elements which constitute the baryonic matter of
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the Universe
10
•Production of nuclides (elements/isotopes or
groups of elements) are associated with specific
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astrophysical settings:
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WHERE?
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Dark (night) Sky Paradox
Proposed by Heinrich Olbers in 1826
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20
3_
10
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EN
• If Universe is infinite and at steady state, the night sky

should be brightly lit up everywhere
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• If there is dark matter in between, it would eventually heat up

and emit its own light
Spectrum of stars from distant galaxies
Hubble,1929
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20
3_
10
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EN
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And for light from other galaxies the dark bands occurred in the same pattern,
but shifted towards the red: “the red shift” (objects moving away –
wavelengths stretched towards longer wavelength)
Red Shift: Olbers Paradox RESOLVED
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20
• All galaxies are moving away from us
• The universe is expanding
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10
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Spectral fingerprinting of a star
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• A hot, dense object (star) will emit a continuous spectrum (loose electrons) of
radiation of different wavelengths
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• The cooler gas in the outer atmosphere absorbs photons with the characteristic
wavelengths corresponding to the transitions between different energy levels of
the atoms in the gas (line spectrum, bound electrons).
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• This leads to dark lines in the spectrum
• Every element has a unique line spectrum
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Elements in a star’s outer layer will absorb light, each element with its own spectral
fingerprint
Red Shift and distance
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Hubble discovered in 1929
that measurements of
velocity by the red shift
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correlated with
measurements of distance.
3_
10
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Distance and recession velocity

are linearly related!
v = HoL, (Ho = Hubble
constant)
Age of the universe
23
Straight line means everything started at one place at one time (1/H o = age of
Universe)
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3_
10
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Velocity = Distance/time -> Time = Distance/Velocity

Age of the universe
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Straight line means everything started at one place at one time (1/H o = age of
Universe) – ~14 billion years ago
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3_
10
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Velocity = Distance/time -> Time = Distance/Velocity

Nearby Galaxy: (4.6 x 1026 cm)/(1x109 cm/s) = 4.6 x 1017 s
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= 1.45 x 1010 yrs

Farther Galaxy: (4.6 x 1027 cm)/(1x1010 cm/s) = 4.6 x 1017s
= 1.45 x 1010 yrs
Origin of elements
•Nucleosynthesis is the study of the nuclear
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processes responsible for the formation of
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elements which constitute the baryonic matter of
the Universe
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•Production of nuclides (elements/isotopes or
10
groups of elements) are associated with specific
astrophysical settings:
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EN
(i)cosmological Big Bang

(ii)Stars
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(iii)Supernovae
Immediately after the Big Bang
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Planck epoch (10-43 seconds) - Very
high T – all four forces unified
Grand unification epoch (till 10-36
seconds) - Expansion, cooling, phase
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transitions, Gravity separates from
other forces
Inflationary epoch (started after 10-
3_
32 secs
Electroweak epoch (~10-12 sec ) -

Separation of strong force from
10
weak force
………
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Photon epoch (10 sec to 380K years)
– universe is dominated by photons;
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temperature of the universe falls to

a point where atomic nuclei can
form – protons and neutrons begin
to combine (fusion)
Temperatures are so high that no atoms exist, only
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fundamental particles even smaller than neutrons -Big Bang nucleosynthesis – 3 to 30

and protons. There are no elements yet. minutes after big bang – WHY?
Big Bang nucleosynthesis
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20
Single electron
Proton (+)
cloud (-)
3_
10
Soon after Big Bang, matter was largely in the form of neutrons
n p + e- (half life of neutrons is 10.2 minutes)

G
EN
Free neutrons collided with protons (hydrogen ions) to form 2 1H (deuterium); other
collisions resulted in formation of 3He and 4He along with Deuterium fusion to form
4 He (high nuclear binding energy)
2
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No stable nucleus of mass 5 or 8
“mass traps”
23
•A helium nucleus colliding
20
with protons or neutrons
produce no reaction
3_
10
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EN
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“mass traps”
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•Rare reactions produce
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masses 6, 7, 8 e.g. triple
collision of a p, n and 4He
nucleus (statistically rare,
3_
hence low abundance)
10
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EN
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“mass traps”
23
•A helium nucleus colliding with protons or
neutrons produce no reaction
20
•Rare reactions produce masses 6, 7, 8 e.g.
triple collision of a p, n and 4He nucleus
(statistically rare, hence low abundance)
3_
•Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced no
elements heavier than Be (that too in trace
10
amounts)
•84Be is extremely unstable – dissociates

rapidly into 2 alpha particles (higher binding
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energy)
EN
•Without 84Be, there would be no life on

Earth;– C formed in the interior of aging stars
when 84Be captured another alpha particle
(“triple alpha process”)
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THE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
NAME OF RELATIVE DISTANCE WHERE IT
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FORCE STRENGTH OVER IS
WHICH IT IMPORTANT
20
OPERATES
STRONG FORCE 1 10-15 m In the atomic
3_
nucleus
ELECTROMAGNETIC 1/137 Infinite Everywhere
10
FORCE
WEAK FORCE 10-5 10-17 m Nuclear particles

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10-39
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GRAVITY Infinite Well beyond the

atomic scale, large
masses needed
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Big Bang nucleosynthesis:
fusion and energy constraints
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20
3_
10
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EN
•Electric force keeps protons apart (repulsive)

•The strong force is >100 times stronger than the electric force, but operates only
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over very small distances

•If the protons get within one trillionth of a centimeter of each other, the strong
force suddenly kicks in and sticks them together
Big Bang nucleosynthesis – energy constraints
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E= MC 2
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•If there is a loss of mass, then energy is released.
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•If there is a gain in mass, energy needs to be added to make the reaction happen.
10 Important Concepts:
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•Nuclear Fusion happens as long as mass of the product nucleus is lower than the
reacting nuclei
EN
•AND, nuclear fusion requires the nuclei to “touch” so the strong force can operate, and
this requires very high temperatures. A confined environment helps.
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Big Bang nucleosynthesis – fusion and energy
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Mass of 4 hydrogen atoms: 6.696 *10-24 gm
Mass of 1 helium atom: 6.648 * 10-24 gm
20
Mass LOSS of 0.048 *10-24 gm during conversion of hydrogen atom to helium atom
3_
Converting one gram of hydrogen to helium releases enough energy to boil 4.4 million
pounds of water
10
BUT, temperatures (energy) of 10 million degrees are required for the protons to be
forced together
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EN
During the Big Bang, the universe is rapidly expanding so temperatures decline
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very rapidly. There is a very short time window in which nuclear reactions can
occur.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
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•The process of light element formation in the early universe is called “Big Bang nucleosynthesis”
•The early Universe was a very hot place; one second after the Big Bang, the temperature of the
20
universe was roughly 10 billion degrees and was filled with a sea of neutrons, protons, electrons, anti-
electrons (positrons), photons and neutrinos
3_
•As the universe cooled, the neutrons either decayed into protons and electrons or combined with
protons to make deuterium
10
•During the first three minutes of the universe, most of the deuterium combined to make helium; trace
amounts of lithium were also produced at this time
G
•It is believed that 30 minutes after the Big Bang, the matter of the universe (in the form of protons and
neutrons) consisted mostly of 1H and 22-28% by mass of 4He, along with traces of 2H and 3He
EN
•Hydrogen is by far the most abundant element in the universe (88.6% of all nuclei) and with He, makes
up 98% of its mass
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•Elements heavier than lithium* are all synthesized in stars

Stellar nucleosynthesis
•If nucleosynthesis of heavy elements had occurred in the Big Bang then the
23
element distribution would be uniform – which is NOT the case
•Stars of different ages have different compositions which can be detected
20
spectroscopically
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10
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EN
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Stellar evolution (H-R diagram)
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20
The length of the life-history of some typical
3_
stars depends directly on the stellar mass,
and can be traced on a plot of absolute
magnitude (brightness/luminosity) versus
10
spectral type (color) or classifications and
effective temperatures, referred to as the
Hertzsprung-Russell or H-R diagram
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EN
U
23
•stellar nucleosynthesis is linked to different stages of stellar evolution
•Elements from C to U are all synthesized in stars and supernovae; supernovae
20
also return heavy element enriched matter to the interstellar gas from which
new stars are formed
3_
•Heavy elements comprise ~1.8% of the mass of our Solar System; stars forming
today in our galaxy can be enriched 2-3 times in heavier elements
10
•3 dominant sites of nucleosynthesis of heavy elements: (i) intermediate mass
G
stars (M/M0 = 1-10), (ii) massive stars (M/M0 > 10) and associated type II
supernovae, and (iii) type Ia supernovae
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Star formation and the solar nebula
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20
3_
10
•Galaxy = stars + stellar remnants + ISM (H, He and dust)
G
•Stars form in higher density regions of the ISM – interstellar
EN
clouds
•Clouds with optimal density and size have molecular hydrogen
(H2) – hence molecular clouds – other areas have ionized gas
U
•Stars form by the collapse of dense regions of molecular clouds

(gravitational force > gas pressure)
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Star formation
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Stars form by gravitational collapse of dense regions of molecular clouds
20
As the cloud contracts, all its energy is confined to a smaller volume and it heats up
3_
It keeps contracting and keeps heating up until some force operates to offset the
gravitational contraction.
10
That force is the heat generated by nuclear fusion.
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The bigger the star, the stronger the gravity, and the more heat is required to keep
EN
it from contracting
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Stellar evolution (H-R diagram)
23
20
The length of the life-history of some typical
3_
stars depends directly on the stellar mass,
and can be traced on a plot of absolute
magnitude (brightness/luminosity) versus
10
spectral type (color) or classifications and
effective temperatures, referred to as the
Hertzsprung-Russell or H-R diagram
G
EN
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•Present day models of stellar nucleosynthesis are based heavily on a classic review paper by
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Burbidge et al., 1957 in which 8 element building processes were identified (hydrogen
burning, He burning, alpha, e, s, r, x*, and p) to explain the abundance pattern of different
groups of elements
20
(i)Hydrogen burning – powers stars for 90% of their lifetimes
(ii)Helium burning – responsible for production of the two most abundant elements after H
3_
and He – 12C and 16O
(iii)alpha-process – combination of carbon, neon and oxygen burning
(iv)Equilibrium (e) process – silicon burning proceeds to the formation of a nuclear statistical
10
equilibrium abundance peak centered on A = 56 (Fe)
(v)Slow (s) and rapid (r) processes (neutron irradiation) – mechanisms of neutron capture for
synthesis of the heaviest elements (A > 60-70); in s-process, neutron addition is slow while in
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r-process, neutron addition is rapid – compared to b-decay; r-process occurs only in
supernovae
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(vi)p-process – responsible for synthesis of a number of stable isotopes of nuclei on the

proton-rich side of the ‘valley of beta stability’ (along which nuclides do not undergo beta
decay)
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Stellar evolution and nucleosynthesis
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20
3_
10
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EN
Multiply temperature by ~ 10 million to get temperature in degrees Kelvin.

U
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20
3_
10
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EN
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Hydrogen burning
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3_
10
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•Fusion of 4 protons (?) to form one 4He nucleus (+ energy) – p-p reaction
EN
•Strongly exothermic
•Long t1/2 explains long duration of H-burning (Main sequence) stage for small stars
•Consumption of 2D and 3He explains their lower abundance than 4He
U
Hydrogen burning - CNO cycle
more important in large stars
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20
3_
10
G
•If heavier elements are present in a star
EN
•4 protons combine to form one 4He nucleus

•Much shorter reaction times than the p-p reactions
•CNO elements have greater PE barrier to fusion than Hydrogen – higher T required
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•CNO reactions contribute less than 10% of H-burning reactions in small starts like our
Sun but is the dominant reaction of Hydrogen burning in large stars (>10 ME)
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20
3_
10
G
EN
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p-p reaction is a fusion reaction that converts Hydrogen to Helium

Stellar nucleosynthesis and evolution
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20
3_
10
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EN
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Helium burning
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20
3_
T1/2 of 8Be is <10-15 sec but critical for a 3-particle collision to form 12C
Decay of C* to ground state C is exothermic – drives the equilibria to the right
10
G
EN
After synthesis of 12C, He burning produces up to mass 24; intervening nuclides

like 13N can be produced by adding a proton
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x-process
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20
3_
10
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EN
•Li, Be, B have low nuclear binding energy – unstable at T>107 K (star core) – hence
U
bypassed in stellar nucleosynthesis – leading to their low cosmic abundance

•They exist because of spallation reactions of cosmic rays with interstellar gas atoms
Carbon burning
Old red giant stars
23
20
3_
10
Allow further reactions that fill gaps between masses 12 and 24
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EN
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Alpha process
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When small star reaches max. core T of 109K
20
3_
10
Overall reaction has a positive energy budget
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•Similar to helium burning but different source of 4He
EN
•Can build 28Si, 32S, 36Cl, 40Ca – 44Ti is unstable

U
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20
3_
10
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EN
U
O, Si burning
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20
3_
10
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EN
U
23
20
3_
10
G
EN
U
23
20
3_
10
G
EN
U
Nuclear fusion can continue only up to 56Fe
23
20
3_
10
G
Once 56Fe is produced, no further heat production is possible through fusion
EN
Nothing to prevent further collapse of a star

Iron nuclei are so close that their nuclear shells begin to interpenetrate
Resistance to further compression generates a catastrophic shock wave and explosion – a
U
type II supernova – releases free neutrons

(type I supernova forms when a white dwarf accretes material from companion stars –
upon reaching a particular mass 12C and 16O fuse to form 56Fe and a gigantic explosion)
Explosive nucleosynthesis
23
20
3_
10
G
EN
U
Creating elements heavier than Fe:
Neutron capture
Can occur at room T! (no charge, can freely enter a nucleus)
23
•Occurs during supernova
•Inside a close-packed exploding star, neutrons
20
encounter a nucleus (many with Fe nuclei) long
before undergoing spontaneous decay to a p+e-
3_
•Rapid addition of neutrons (“r”) – no time for decay
•A nucleus gets heavier until it cannot accept any
more neutrons
10
•During this brief pause, neutrons undergo beta
decay by emitting an e-
•Can go past U and Th – when nuclei become very
G
big, neutron impacts cause them to fission
EN
•Since we are dealing with an explosion, the flux of

neutrons stops suddenly
•The neutron-rich nuclides can now convert one n to
p+e- and move towards the band of stability
U
•Nuclides heavier than Bi emit alpha particles and

electrons to move towards band of stability (Pb) – for
long half-life isotopes, decay continues till today
Creating elements heavier than Fe:
Neutron capture
23
20
•Supernova explosions are not the only way
of adding free neutrons to nuclei
•During last few million years of a Red Giant’s
3_
life, nuclear reactions can release free
neutrons
10
G
•Capture of these neutrons is a slow (“s”) process
EN
•n-rich nuclides have enough time for beta decay

•s-process path climbs in very small steps
•Can build light elements into heavier elements up
U
to Pb, Tl
Neutron capture
Neutron capture cross section (nccs) – how readily a nuclide can absorb neutrons
23
20
3_
10
G
EN
U
•Nuclides with N = 50, 82, 126, 184 have very small •Why does the r-process path have less zig-zags?
NCCS – magic neutron numbers •How do nuclides climb up the r-process path at magic numbers?
•This results in local abundance peaks at masses (A) 90, •r-process nuclides have lower (8-12) particles than s-process
138, 208 nuclides
23
20
3_
10
G
EN
•Some nuclides can be produced by both r, s processes

•Shielding
•Radioactive decay
U
•p-process – r- and s- process nuclei are bombarded with protons at very

high T (> 2 x 109K) – probably in the outer envelope of a supernova
23
Intermediate stars Massive stars (SN II) Binary stars (SN Ia)
•Most time spent in the •Increased core P and •Half of all stars in
20
main sequence during higher core T our galaxy are binary
H-burning •C, Ne, O, Si burning stars
•After H-He burning, all possible •Can end as white
3_
stars have a C-O rich •Collapse of Fe-core dwarf, neutron star
core •Type II supernova and or black hole
10
•T not high enough for C formation of neutron star •Accretion onto C-O
burning or black hole remnant white dwarfs allow
•Lots of elements •SN-II is the major source growth of the core to
G
produced during AGB of elements heavier than the Chandrasekhar
stage H, He limit (1.44 M0) –
EN
•Mass loss – evolution thermonuclear

to white dwarfs runaway leads to a
SN 1a
U
23
20
3_
10
G
EN
U
Alpha-particle nuclides – made of multiples of He atoms

Nucleosynthesis
•Nucleosynthesis is the study of the nuclear processes responsible for the formation of elements which
23
constitute the baryonic matter of the Universe
•Production of nuclides (elements/isotopes or groups of elements) are associated with specific

astrophysical settings: (i) cosmological Big Bang, (ii) stars, and (iii) supernovae
20
•Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced the lightest elements: 1H, 2H, 3He, 4He and 7Li – primordial
composition of both galaxies and the stars formed therein
3_
•If nucleosynthesis of heavy elements had occurred in the Big Bang then the element distribution would be
uniform – which is not the case
10
•Elements from C to U are all synthesized in stars and supernovae; supernovae also return heavy element
enriched matter to the interstellar gas from which new stars are formed
•Heavy elements comprise ~1.8% of the mass of our Solar System; stars forming today in our galaxy can be
G
enriched 2-3 times in heavier elements
EN
•3 dominant sites of nucleosynthesis of heavy elements: (i) intermediate mass stars (M/M0 = 1-10), (ii)
massive stars (M/M0 > 10) and associated type II supernovae, and (iii) type Ia supernovae
•Stars of different ages have different compositions which can be detected spectroscopically; stellar
nucleosynthesis is linked to different stages of stellar evolution and masses of stars
U
•Present day models of stellar nucleosynthesis are based heavily on a classic review paper by
23
Burbidge et al., 1957 in which 8 element building processes were identified (hydrogen
burning, He burning, alpha, e, s, r, x*, and p) to explain the abundance pattern of different
groups of elements
20
(i)Hydrogen burning – powers stars for 90% of their lifetimes
(ii)Helium burning – responsible for production of the two most abundant elements after H
3_
and He – 12C and 16O
(iii)alpha-process – combination of carbon, neon and oxygen burning
(iv)Equilibrium (e) process – silicon burning proceeds to the formation of a nuclear statistical
10
equilibrium abundance peak centered on A = 56 (Fe)
(v)Slow (s) and rapid (r) processes (neutron irradiation) – mechanisms of neutron capture for
synthesis of the heaviest elements (A > 60-70); in s-process, neutron addition is slow while in
G
r-process, neutron addition is rapid – compared to b-decay; r-process occurs only in
supernovae
EN
(vi)p-process – responsible for synthesis of a number of stable isotopes of nuclei on the

proton-rich side of the ‘valley of beta stability’ (along which nuclides do not undergo beta
decay)
U
Explosive nucleosynthesis
23
•In the minutes before explosion, when T > 3 x 109 K, very rapid nuclear
20
reactions occur
•Energetic equilibrium is established between nuclei and free protons and
3_
neutrons synthesizing elements life Fe by the so-called e process
10
•The supernovae explosion itself lasts only a few seconds but is characterized
by colossal neutron fluxes
G
•These very rapidly synthesize heavier elements, terminating a 254Cf, which
undergoes spontaneous fission
EN
•Products of the supernova explosions are distributed through space and later
incorporated in a new generation of stars
U

UENG 103 Introduction To Earth and Its Environment Feb 28 - 2023

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UENG 103 Introduction To Earth and Its Environment Feb 28 - 2023

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UENG 103

Introduction to Earth and its Environment

Tutorials mandatory (some exercises)

Min 80% attendance

Reading material will be provided

from the edge of our Solar System in 1989

from the edge of our Solar System in 1989

Homo sapiens appeared in the last 2 seconds!

Understanding the past is key to our future

al resources Mineral physics

Studies based on seismology

Research organizations in India: NIO, NGRI

• Age of the Earth? 10

• Is the Earth’s interior solid or liquid?

• What causes volcanism and earthquakes?

• Age of the Earth? 10

• Is the Earth’s interior solid or liquid?

• What causes volcanism and earthquakes?

Period is represented by a row (7)

Group is represented by a vertical column (18)

Atomic weight of an element?

Weighted average of isotope masses and their relative abundance

When is atomic weight equal to mass number?

•open square with dot = naturally occurring short-lived unstable nuclides

Neutron number (N)

Neutron number (N)

Neutron number (N)

238 U 206 Pb +  (4.5 Ga)

Neutron number (N)

stars when 84Be captured another alpha particle

Why is 126C stable?

Odd Even Odd 50

most ‘primitive’ meteorites, carbonaceous chondrites

10 •Exceptions are the volatile

•Abundance of Li, Be, B are anomalously low

• If Universe is infinite and at steady state, the night sky

• If there is dark matter in between, it would eventually heat up

• Every element has a unique line spectrum

Distance and recession velocity

Velocity = Distance/time -> Time = Distance/Velocity

Velocity = Distance/time -> Time = Distance/Velocity

= 1.45 x 1010 yrs

(i)cosmological Big Bang

Electroweak epoch (~10-12 sec ) -

temperature of the universe falls to

fundamental particles even smaller than neutrons -Big Bang nucleosynthesis – 3 to 30

n p + e- (half life of neutrons is 10.2 minutes)

•84Be is extremely unstable – dissociates

•Without 84Be, there would be no life on

ELECTROMAGNETIC 1/137 Infinite Everywhere

WEAK FORCE 10-5 10-17 m Nuclear particles

GRAVITY Infinite Well beyond the

•Electric force keeps protons apart (repulsive)

over very small distances

•Elements heavier than lithium* are all synthesized in stars

•Stars of different ages have different compositions which can be detected

•Elements from C to U are all synthesized in stars and supernovae; supernovae

•Stars form by the collapse of dense regions of molecular clouds

(vi)p-process – responsible for synthesis of a number of stable isotopes of nuclei on the

Multiply temperature by ~ 10 million to get temperature in degrees Kelvin.

•4 protons combine to form one 4He nucleus

p-p reaction is a fusion reaction that converts Hydrogen to Helium

After synthesis of 12C, He burning produces up to mass 24; intervening nuclides