Solution Manual for Understanding Our Universe 3rd

Edition, by Stacy Palen, Laura Kay, George

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Solution Manual for Understanding Our Universe 3rd Edition, by Stacy Palen, Laura Kay, Georg
CHAPTER 7
Atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars
INSTRUCTOR NOTES
Chapter 7 discusses atmospheres, with particular applica-
tion to the terrestrial planets. Major topics include:
▶▶ formation and loss or retention of primary and secondary
atmospheres.
▶▶ comparative studies of the atmospheres of Earth, Venus,
and Mars, including greenhouse effects.
▶▶ a detailed examination of the composition, structure,
and evolution of Earth’s atmosphere.
▶▶ the interaction of Earth’s atmosphere to its magnetic field
and occurrences of auroras.
▶▶ an overall comparison of the atmospheres of Venus and
Mars to Earth’s atmosphere.
▶▶ the greenhouse effect and anthropogenic global warming.
This chapter gives us an excellent opportunity to show how
science works because we have a very active area of ongoing
research on the effects humans are having on the climate.
The section on climate change covers the various sources of
data, the evidence through interpretive graphs, and a broad
historical context.
DISCUSSION POINTS
▶▶ Earth’s atmosphere is far from being primordial. What
does primordial mean for the students? What does it
mean for the atmospheres of the terrestrial planets?
What atmosphere does Earth currently have? (LG 1)
▶▶ How high does a passenger jet plane fly? What are
conditions like at that altitude? What happens when a
part of the pressurized cabin of a jet gets destroyed at
high altitude? (LG 2)
▶▶ Have students make timed lists of the characteristics
of the atmospheres of Venus and Mars. Students share
their lists and then separate them into “like-Earth” and
“unlike-Earth” categories. (LG 2 & 3)
▶▶ Our theory of stellar evolution tells us that billions of
years ago, the young Sun was about 70 percent less
luminous than it is currently. Using the information
given in Working It Out 7.1, calculate the equilibrium
temperature of Earth, Mars, and Venus when the Sun
was young. What amount of greenhouse warming would
46
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they have needed in order to have liquid water on their
surfaces? Discuss how plausible it is that Mars and Venus
once had liquid water on their surfaces. (LG 3)
▶▶ Does Mars offer conditions that make it a target for a
future visit by humans? Discuss the pros and cons of
sending humans to visit the red planet. (LG 3)
▶▶ Figure 7.5 summarizes the timescale for the evolution of
Earth’s atmosphere as a result of the presence and growth
of life-forms. The Sun and Earth are currently about 4.5
billion years old. Discuss the following scenarios: (LG 4)
▶▶ How soon after the Earth was formed did life first
appear? Is this a surprise for you?
▶▶ Stars that have more mass than the Sun have shorter
lifetimes. For example, the star Vega, with an estimated
mass of about 2.5 times that of the Sun, will live just
1 billion years fusing hydrogen to helium in its core
compared with the 10 billion years expected for the
Sun. If there were a planet orbiting in the habitable
zone around Vega, what does its star’s lifetime mean
for the possibility of life on the planet?
▶▶ Stars having masses less than that of the Sun live a
lot longer. What does this much longer lifetime
mean for the development of life on any planet in a
habitable zone?
▶▶ What “signature” should we be looking for to see if
there is life on an extrasolar planet? On what kinds of
stars should we be focusing our observations?
▶▶ By changing the composition of Earth’s atmosphere,
humans are carrying out a dangerous experiment
because our survival is linked to the outcome of the
atmospheric changes. Discuss what could be done to
keep this experiment under control so that we do not
create an inhospitable environment. (LG 5)
TEACHING CHAPTER-OPENING ACTIVE
LEARNING FIGURE
The Active Learning Figure for this chapter explores the
changes that even small amounts of living matter (yeast)
can make to its environment. A packet of yeast is fed
water and sugar, and the production of CO2 over time
is measured through the expanded circumference of a
balloon attached to a regular plastic water bottle.
 Chapter 7
Ask the students if yeast is, in fact, alive. (It is, of course.)
What does it mean to state that something is “alive”? We
wouldn’t want to use yeast to produce more CO2 in the
atmosphere. How do we use its production of CO2 in
expected ways?
ASTROTOUR ANIMATIONS
Atmospheres: Formation and Escape
This animation explores the formation of planetary atmo-
spheres, first from a planet’s original formation and then
from its volcanic processes. It shows how a planet can lose or
retain gas molecules depending on temperature and surface
gravity. It also discusses the differences in chemical compo-
sition of the planetary atmospheres of Earth and Jupiter.
Text reference: Section 7.1
Greenhouse Effect
This animation shows the mechanism and importance of
the greenhouse effect for Earth, as well as its effects on
Venus and Mars. It also includes a clear explanation of what
is meant by equilibrium temperature.
Text reference: Section 7.2
ASTRONOMY IN ACTION
Changing Equilibrium
Using an innovative stack of three containers of dyed
water, Stacy Palen demonstrates energy coming from a
star to a planet, and then from the planet back into space.
Equilibrium is reached initially, and the analogy to the tem-
perature of a planet is covered: The planet is returning as
much energy as it is receiving. Dr. Palen then restricts the
energy release from the planet, and we watch as the planet
“heats up” because equilibrium has been lost. The relation-
ship to our climate change is brought in at the end. (2:18)
Text reference: Section 7.2
Charged Particles and Magnetic Fields
The opening remarks are about the importance of charged
particles moving in magnetic fields to Earth’s having auro-
ras and understanding synchrotron radiation. Stacy Palen
uses a C-magnet and points out the direction of the field.
A wire is placed inside the magnet. When she closes the
switch and a current is generated (charges are moving), the
wire jumps out of the magnetic field. Dr. Palen has dramat-
ically demonstrated the “right-hand rule.” Using a copper
hoop and a pool ball, she demonstrates tangential motion
and a perpendicular centripetal force. (2:44)
Text reference: Section 7.3
Atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars ◆ 47
TEACHING READING ASTRONOMY NEWS
We have included an article covering the research of how
the use of different representations of clouds in the simula-
tions affect the predictions of global warming. This can be
used as an alternative to the Reading Astronomy News fea-
ture presented in the textbook chapter. This article and the
associated set of questions emphasize the application of the
scientific method in climate modeling.
Alternate News Story
“Cloud Study Predicts More Global Warming,” University
of Hawaii at Manoa, ScienceDaily, November 22, 2010.
Available at http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/
11/101122172010.htm.
Evaluating the News
1. What approach to the representation of clouds in
other climate models did the model in the article
change?
2. Were other climate models wrong?
3. Does the model in the article model clouds in one
specific location or worldwide?
4. What prediction does the improved model make? Is
this good news or bad news for people?
5. What further additions to the model can you think of
that would improve the accuracy of its predictions?
6. In general, why is it hard to predict the climate’s future
behavior?
Suggested Answers to Evaluating the News
1. Other models predicted that the mean cloud cover
would increase as the climate warmed. The increase
in cloud cover would then increase reflection of solar
radiation and create a limit to how much the world
would heat. The model addressed in this article pre-
dicted cloud cover would decrease.
2. We cannot state that the other climate models were
wrong unless we knew the assumptions made and if
any errors were made in the interpretation of the data
from the simulations.
3. The modeling is done for a limited region.
4. The newer model predicts greater warming of the
planet because the protective cloud cover would
decrease. This is certainly not good news.
5. Answers may vary. Students should be encouraged to
brainstorm and come up with many different ideas.
6. There are many parameters that go into the models,
and not all can be controlled. We also do not have any
past experience where climate change was accelerating
to the extent it is now.
48 ◆ Chapter 7 Atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars
LEARNING ASTRONOMY BY DOING
ASTRONOMY: Collaborative
Lecture Activities
None for this chapter.
SIMULATIONS
None for this chapter.
CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING
SOLUTIONS
7.1 (a) Given identical radii, a low-mass planet would have
a much lower surface gravity than a high-mass planet,
and thus, the escape velocity would be smaller as well.
7.2 (c) The more molecules of greenhouse gas present,
the stronger the greenhouse effect; c is perhaps the
best answer. The distinction is being made that even
if an atmosphere is 100% CO2, it could have very little
warming, if the overall number is small. This is a really
important point (and misconception) in discussions
with the public about climate change.
7.3 (c) From the text: “If energy becomes trapped in
the troposphere by greenhouse gases, less infrared
radiation escapes into the stratosphere, causing the
temperature of the upper stratosphere to drop.” More
greenhouse gases would mean more trapping by the
troposphere.
7.4 (c) Although Mars, Earth, and Venus are at different
distances from the Sun, their current temperatures
depend more on the strength of the greenhouse
effect, which is dominated by the kinds and numbers of
greenhouse gases that are present, or otherwise stated,
the thickness of the atmosphere. Students might argue,
however, that the other options could be correct. By
adding the word “current,” we show that “c” is the best
answer.
7.5 (d) Figure 7.18, “The temperature and CO2 levels are
very tightly correlated.”
END-OF-CHAPTER SOLUTIONS
Evaluating the News
1. This article discusses the secondary atmosphere. All
terrestrial planets quickly lost their primary atmo-
spheres shortly after forming.
2. Lighter particles travel faster at a given temperature
and are more likely to escape a planet’s gravity. The
AstroTour Animation, Atmospheres: Formation and
Escape, explains this visually.
3. The expected ratio of argon-36 to argon-38 is based
on observations of other bodies in the Solar System
(for example, the Sun’s atmosphere or that of Jupiter)
where particles have not been lost into space.
4. The correct process of science requires confirmation
of findings by repeating the same experiments or by
running others designed to verify or invalidate the
previous findings.
5. The Sun is in the way of communication between
Mars and Earth during a solar conjunction because the
alignment is Earth-Sun-Mars.
Questions and Problems
Test Your Understanding
1. False: Terrestrial planets with notable atmospheres
have lost their primary ones and have their secondary
or tertiary atmospheres.
2. True: We believe that comets and asteroid impacts
with the early Earth were at least partially responsible
in bringing water and other organic molecules to the
planet.
3. False: Weather happens in our troposphere, which is
where 90 percent of our atmosphere lies.
4. True: Albedo is a measure of the percentage of sunlight
that is reflected back into space. High albedo means the
planet absorbs less light and thus is warmed less.
5. True: Measures of global temperature show a fairly
consistent rise over the past century.
6. (b) Venus’s exceptionally thick atmosphere translates
into a very strong greenhouse effect.
7. (d) Dust storms cause an atmosphere to take on a
reddish hue, and because dust storms on Mars are
quite common, the atmosphere often takes on this
appearance.
8. (c) The troposphere contains about 90 percent of our
atmosphere and is both the air we breathe and the
location of weather on Earth.
9. (a) and (d) combined are correct. Auroras occur when
charged particles from the Sun, trapped in our planet’s
magnetic fields (fields that interact with Earth’s
atmosphere), collide with molecules in the upper
atmosphere.
10. (c) Ozone is a thin layer that protects Earth from
harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun.
11. (d) The rotation of Earth breaks global circulation
into zones.
12. (b) As shown in Figure 7.18, long-term climate
cycles tend to last about 100,000 to 150,000 years. We
technically cannot eliminate a as an answer, however,
because we do not have the data to state what went on
hundreds of millions or billions of years ago.
 Chapter 7
13. d-b-(f-c)-a-e Hydrogen and helium captured first
(d) and then lost (b). Statements (f) and (c) seem in-
terchangeable because they were probably happening
(volcanoes are still releasing CO2) simultaneously for
a long time. Plant life came first (a), and the oxygen
they released enabled new life-forms (e).
14. (c) Oxygen was created by plant life out of the
CO2-rich secondary atmosphere.
15. All are correct. We extract as much information from
our comparisons of Earth to other planets to under-
stand Earth better.
16. (b) The Coriolis effect causes objects near the equator
to move eastward faster than those near the poles.
17. (a), (b), (c) Mercury has a magnetosphere, but its
strength is not discussed in this text.
18. (b), (c), (d) Greenhouse gases are found on all terres-
trial planets except Mercury.
19. (d) As noted in Section 7.6, weather is small scale and
short term, whereas climate describes the average state
of an atmosphere.
20. (a) There are many ways by which the global climate
can be changed, both naturally occurring and produced
by human actions, and the interplay of these, and the
extent to which small changes here can lead to large
changes there, or vice versa, are not well understood.
Thinking About the Concepts
21. Hydrogen (~75 percent) and helium (~25 percent)
were by far the dominant elements in the solar nebula,
and both existed as gases in the region of space where
the terrestrial planets formed. Combined, all other
volatile compounds represented only a tiny fraction
(<1 percent) of a terrestrial planet’s gas content.
22. After the primary atmospheres were stripped from the
terrestrial planets, the planets outgassed volatile material
(gases) from their interiors. The gas expelled from plan-
etary interiors combined with those materials delivered
by comet impacts to produce secondary atmospheres.
23. Impacts from icy comets.
24. Molecules in a gas are constantly in motion. When
the speed of an individual molecule exceeds Earth’s
escape velocity, it behaves like any other mass and
escapes Earth’s gravitational hold entirely. If the
average speed is above about one-sixth of the escape
velocity, enough atoms will be moving at escape speed
and the atmosphere will be lost over time. According
to Newton’s second law of motion, lightweight gases
like hydrogen and helium are more easily accelerated
to escape speeds and thus are less likely to be held by
Earth’s gravity. Heavier gases like nitrogen, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide are much harder to accelerate to high
speeds, so Earth is much more likely to retain them.
Atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars ◆ 49
25. Mercury is very close to the Sun, so it receives a great
deal of solar energy. However, it has no atmosphere
to provide a greenhouse effect, and thus, the side fac-
ing away from the Sun loses most of that heat during
“night” time on the planet.
26. The fraction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere’s com-
position is not nearly as important as the total number
of carbon dioxide molecules. Mars has a very tenuous
atmosphere, providing very few greenhouse molecules;
thus, the effect is very small and Mars remains frigid.
Venus, in contrast, has an extremely dense atmosphere
creating an extremely efficient greenhouse effect, so
efficient in fact that Venus heats up to almost 900°F.
27. Plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
through photosynthesis and produce oxygen as a
waste product.
28. Uneven solar heating produces temperature differ-
ences at the surfaces of the terrestrial planets. Tem-
perature differences produce pressure gradients in the
atmosphere, creating regions of high and low pressure.
According to the second law of thermodynamics,
air flows from high pressure to low pressure, and we
detect this flow of air as wind. Steeper pressure gradi-
ents lead to higher wind speeds and stronger wind.
29. The solar wind is a stream of charged particles em-
anating from the Sun. It is actually the slow escape of
the Sun’s atmosphere to space. When charged particles
from the solar wind interact with Earth’s magnetic field,
they ionize the upper regions of the atmosphere and cre-
ate the ionosphere. The charged particles are funneled
along magnetic field lines to the polar regions, where
they interact with the molecules of the upper atmo-
sphere to produce auroras. In extreme cases, they can
generate powerful disturbances that knock out satellites,
trip power grids, and interfere with communications.
30. Venus has perpetual, opaque cloud cover because of its
runaway atmosphere.
31. First of all, the runaway greenhouse effect on Venus
means that the planet holds on to its heat extremely
efficiently, so whether the Sun is shining or not, the
planet stays warm through its very effective green-
house “blanket.” Venus’s slow rotation means that
there are not strong wind currents across the planet’s
longitude, only in latitude, so hot gas at the equator is
constantly mixed with cooler gas at the poles to make a
uniform temperature.
32. Venus’s surface experiences extreme temperatures
and pressures compared with what we see on Earth.
Our technology allows us to build underwater cam-
eras capable of surviving pressures higher than those
on Venus, so we can probably rule out pressure as the
culprit that destroyed the Venera cameras. Extreme
50 ◆ Chapter 7 Atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars
heat is another matter. It is difficult to build spacecraft
that are impervious to high temperatures. The surface
temperature of Venus is hot enough to melt lead, so in
all probability, the Venera spacecraft and their instru-
ments eventually succumbed to the tremendous heat.
33. Changes in temperature and pressure are what distin-
guishes one layer of Earth’s atmosphere from another.
34. The overall trend in Figure 7.19 is that the planet
has been heating fairly uniformly since 1980 and has
heated by about a degree in the past 100 years.
35. The latitude of England is about 52o N and that of
Maine about 45o N. England overall is 7o farther north.
The United Kingdom has more temperate weather
than Maine because of the moderation of the North
Atlantic circulation. If this circulation shuts down and
warmer water is not brought up from lower latitudes,
then the United Kingdom will probably suffer much
colder winters.
Applying the Concepts
36. Setup: The top chart shows how much CO2 is in the
air. The bottom shows the temperature change. If the
data are correlated, then on average they will both rise
and fall at the same time.
Solve: The earliest data are from 800,000 years ago.
This graph shows that there is a strong correlation
between the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and
the Antarctic temperature anomaly.
Review: Higher CO2 levels imply a more effective
greenhouse effect, which means the planet’s average
temperature would warm. This is, in fact, what we
observe in Figures 7.18 and 7.19.
37. Setup: N/A.
Solve: Examining the y-axis of Figure 7.5, we see that
the distance along this axis from 0 to 1 is larger than
that from 1 to 2, and the distance along this axis from
1 to 10 is very large compared with that from 90 to
100. Here are the rough values from the figure showing
the y-axis in a linear scale:
Percentage of present-day oxygen levels
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5
Billions of years ago
Review: Logarithmic axes allow us to see subtle
changes between data that are close together and allow
us to compare values that span a huge data range. In
this particular example, notice how in the logarithmic
graph, Figure 7.5, it seems that oxygen levels reached
100 percent considerably earlier than one would make
that claim with the linear graph shown here.
38. Setup: Follow the calculation as described in each part
of the problem.
Solve: (a) Continuing as explained in the text, I will
have N pennies on the Nth square, so at number
64 there will be 64 pennies. (b) Continuing as
explained in the text, I will have 2N – 1 pennies on
the Nth square, so at number 64 there will be 263 =
9.2  1018 pennies.
Review: We didn’t believe our calculators at first
and did a few additional checks to make sure that 263
was really as large as reported. As the authors say, the
number is absurdly large.
39. Setup: Remember that p% = 0.01  p, and
Added mass
Percent 5  100
Current mass
Solve: (a) The mass of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
is 0.06 percent of the total mass of the atmosphere, or
(0.06/100)  (5  1018 kg) = 3  1015 kg.
(b) The percentage increase in carbon dioxide is
3.0  1013 kg
Percentage increase 5  100
3  1015 kg
5 1%
Review: If the percentage increase of carbon dioxide
is 0.5 percent per year and continues at this pace, the
amount of CO2 will increase by some 40 to 50 percent
over our lifetimes.
40. Setup: Inspect Figure 7.18.
Solve: Inspection of the figure certainly shows that the
two graphs track each other fairly reasonably. Although
the actual percentage changes between the two graphs
are different, the overall trends are the same except for
the very last century. A trend such as that shown (that
temperature follows carbon dioxide levels) does not,
by itself, mean there is a cause-and-effect relationship.
Beyond looking at the relationship between global
temperature and the amount of carbon dioxide in our
atmosphere, other evidence for carbon dioxide driving
climate change includes the runaway greenhouse effect
present on Venus, where the planet has been heated far
in excess of the temperature it would have if there were
no atmosphere.
1 0.5 0 Review: It is important, as scientists, not to assume
that patterns indicate causality. A good scientist must
 Chapter 7 Atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars ◆ 51

consider many options and rule out alternatives as well Solve: If Vulcan’s orbit is one-fourth the distance of
as rule in their hypothesis. Mercury, we can ask how much T will change by chang-
41. Setup: Pressure is defined in a variety of units. Bars is ing d by one-fourth (this is proportional reasoning).
one unit, and pounds per square inch (psi) is another. 1
This problem essentially asks us to convert from bars We find T will change by a factor of T  5 2.
1d
to psi. There are 14.5 psi in 1 bar. Vulcan would be twice as hot as Mercury, or 2  450 =
14.5 psi 900°F.
Solve: 92 bar 
5 1,334 psi Review: Solving the problem above as a more direct
1 bar
ratio, we would write
Review: A quick check at http://oceanservice.noaa.
gov/facts/pressure.html tells us that ocean pressure TV d 1
increases 14.5 psi for every 10.06 meters of depth. 5 a Mb 5 a b52
TM C dV C 1/4
At 900 meters, the pressure would be 14.5  90 ≈
1,300 psi, consistent with our answer. as Vulcan’s distance is one-quarter that of Mercury.
42. Setup: Following Working It Out 7.1, the average This gives us the same result.
temperature of a planet can be written 44. Setup: We will use the average temperature for a
planet
L (1 2 a) 1/4
T5 c d L (1 2 a) 1/4
16d2 T5 c d
16d2
In this problem, we are given a temperature of 279 K
for an albedo a = 0 and asked how the temperature found in Working It Out 7.1. Remember that the
would change for differing values of a. We could solve Moon’s distance from the Sun is 1 astronomical unit
our equation for L/d2 and then plug that back in with (AU) or 1.5  1011 meters, L = 3.8  1026 W, and
different values of a or recognize that in comparing  = 5.67  10–8 W/m2K4.
one situation to another, we can construct a ratio. In Solve: (a) With a = 0.12, we insert the above val-
this problem, L and d do not change, so to compare the ues and find T = 269 K. The temperature in degrees
temperature T1 at albedo a1 to the temperature T2 at a2, Celsius is (269 – 273) = –4 C (~25oF). (b) Answers
we write will vary because students are expressing their expec-
tations for the answer.
L(1 2 a1) 1/4 Review: Problem 42 notes that the temperature would
c d be 279 K if the albedo were zero. The albedo of the
T1 16d2 (1 2 a1)1/4
5 5 Moon is slightly above zero, and indeed the answers
T2 L(1 2 a2) 1/4 (1 2 a2)1/4
c d are very similar.
16d2 45. Setup: We will use the average temperature for a
Solve: In this problem, we set our “reference” temper- planet found in Working It Out 7.1:
ature T2 = Tref for an albedo of a2 = 0, which means
L (1 2 a) 1/4
T = Tref (1 2 a)1/4. T5 c d
(a) If a = 0.1 and Tref = 279 K, then T = 279 K 16d2
(1  0.1)1/4 = 272 K. Eris’s maximum distance from the Sun is 97.7 AU.
(b) If a = 0.9, then T = 279 K (1  0.9)1/4 = 157 K. Of course, we have to convert 97.7 AU (1.5  1011
Review: Note that as albedo increases, more light m/AU) = 1.5  1013 m, L = 3.8  1026 W, and
is reflected away from the planet, so it absorbs less  = 5.67  10–8 W/m2K4.
energy and cools down. Solve: With a = 0.8, we find T = 18.6 K.
43. Setup: From Working It Out 7.1, the average tempera- Review: This is just 18.6 K above absolute zero. No
ture of a planet can be written wonder in previous chapters we spoke of the outermost
regions of the forming Solar System as being frigid.
L (1 2 a) 1/4
T5 c d
16d2 EXPLORATION
If all else remains the same, this yields the relationship This exploration involves actual experimentation and mea-
1 . suring of results. The experiments start with floating ice in a
T 
1d transparent cup and measurement of the water level as the
Solution Manual for Understanding Our Universe 3rd Edition, by Stacy Palen, Laura Kay, Georg
52 ◆ Chapter 7 Atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars
ice melts. The second experiment reconfigures the setup to
put a paper bowl (a hole punched in the bottom) containing
ice cubes over a cup half full of water. Measurement of the
water level follows. The third part is an analysis of what would
happen to coastal areas if sea levels rose. If done in class, the
experiment should be started at the start and measurements
made at the end, because it does take time for ice to melt.
Exploration Solutions
1. Answers will vary. As the ice melts, a common prediction
would be that the water level in the cup will rise, although
there may be predictions of water level dropping.
2. When we conducted the experiment, the water level
did not change.
3. Based on this experiment, the ocean levels will not rise
if ice that is already floating on the ocean melts.
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4. As the ice melts from the bowl into the cup, the melted
water will cause the water level in the cup to rise.
5. The water level changed as predicted.
6. Based on this, if ice that is on land melts, the ocean
levels will rise.
7. As ocean temperatures continue to rise, expansion of
ocean water will lead to larger rises in sea levels than
what would be expected due to the melting of ice on
land alone.
8. Based on the Earth at night picture, many of the largest
population centers are on the coasts of continents.
9. If the ocean levels rose 2 meters (about 6.6 feet),
then many of the coastal regions that are now heavily
populated would become completely flooded.