00-35, DeF-STAN, Environmental Handbook For Defence Materiel, Part 5 Induced Mechanical Environments

Ministry of Defence
Defence Standard 00-35
Issue 4 Publication Date 18 Sept 2006
Environmental Handbook for Defence Materiel

Part 5
Induced Mechanical Environments
DEF STAN 00-35 Part 5 Issue 4
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Contents
SECTION 1 - GENERAL
Chapter 1-01 General
SECTION 2 - TRANSPORTATION
Chapter 2-01 Mechanical Aspects of Road Transportation up to Forward Base
Chapter 2-02 Mechanical Aspects of Rail Transportation up to Forward Base
Chapter 2-03 Mechanical Aspects of Air Transportation up to Forward Base
Chapter 2-04 Mechanical Aspects of Sea Transportation up to Forward Base
Chapter 2-05 Mechanical Aspects of Transportation Beyond Forward Base
Chapter 2-06 This chapter is currently unallocated
SECTION 3 - HANDLING AND STORAGE

Chapter 3-01 Mechanical Aspects of Handling
Chapter 3-02 Mechanical Aspects of Storage
SECTION 4 - MAN MOUNTED AND PORTABLE

Chapter 4-01 Mechanical Aspects of Man Mounted and Portable Materiel
SECTION 5 - NON-MOBILE AND FIXED INSTALLATIONS

Chapter 5-01 Mechanical Aspects of Non-Mobile and Fixed Installations
SECTION 6 - DEPLOYMENT ON LAND VEHICLES

Chapter 6-01 Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Tracked Vehicles
Chapter 6-02 Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Wheeled Vehicles
SECTION 7 - DEPLOYMENT ON FIXED WING AIRCRAFT

Chapter 7-01 Mechanical Aspects of Materiel Installed in Jet Aircraft
Chapter 7-02 Mechanical Aspects of Stores Carried Externally on Jet Aircraft
Chapter 7-03 Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Propeller Aircraft
SECTION 8 - DEPLOYMENT ON ROTARY WING AIRCRAFT

Chapter 8-01 Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Rotary Wing Aircraft
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SECTION 9 - DEPLOYMENT ON SHIPS

Chapter 9-01 Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Surface Ships
Chapter 9-02 Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Submarines
SECTION 10 - WEAPONS
Chapter 10-01 Mechanical Aspects of Air and Surface Weapons
Chapter 10-02 Mechanical Aspects of Underwater Weapons
SECTION 11 - MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT

Chapter 11-01 Measurement and Assessment of Induced Mechanical Environments
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Foreword
AMENDMENT RECORD
Amd No Date Text Affected Signature and Date
REVISION NOTE
This standard is raised to Issue 4 to update its content.
HISTORICAL RECORD
This standard supersedes the following:
AvP35 - Environmental Handbook for Guided Weapons - 1966 to 1974
DEF 133 - Climatic, Shock and Vibration Testing of Service Equipment - 1963
DEF STAN 00-1 - 1969
DEF STAN 07-55 - Environmental Testing of Service Materiel - 1975
STANAG 2831 - 1977
Defence Standard 00-35 Issue 3
a) This standard provides requirements for the environmental conditions experienced by defence materiel
in service.
b) This standard has been produced on behalf of the Defence Material Standardization Committee (DMSC)
by the Joint Technical Requirements Committee (JTRC). The JTRC is composed of representatives
from the Ministry of Defence and industry. The principal technical contributors to the Environmental Sub-
Committee team were experts from the following organisations: British Aerospace Systems, CAe SST,
Defence Ordnance Safety Group (DOSG), INSYS (Lockheed Martin UK), Kent Engineering Services
(KES), MBDA (Stevenage), The Environmental Test Centre (QinetiQ), The MET Office, OB, DefPkg
(DLO) and SDE. A number of other individuals not represented by the principal companies have also
been involved and their work is also appreciated. The principal authors were DOSG, CAe SST, ETC,
INSYS and KES and the Met Office. Significant assistance was also provided by DStan to aid
publication of this substantial volume.
c) This standard has been agreed by the authorities concerned with its use and is intended to be used
whenever relevant in all future designs, contracts, orders etc. and whenever practicable by amendment
to those already in existence. If any difficulty arises which prevents application of the Defence Standard,
UK Defence Standardization (DStan) shall be informed so that a remedy may be sought.
d) Any enquiries regarding this standard in relation to an invitation to tender or a contract in which it is
incorporated are to be addressed to the responsible technical or supervising authority named in the
invitation to tender or contract.
e) Compliance with this Defence Standard shall not in itself relieve any person from any legal obligations
imposed upon them.
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f) This standard has been devised solely for the use of the Ministry of Defence (MOD) and its contractors
in the execution of contracts for the MOD. To the extent permitted by law, the MOD hereby excludes all
liability whatsoever and howsoever arising (including, but without limitation, liability resulting from
negligence) for any loss or damage however caused when the standard is used for any other purpose.
Users of this Standard are reminded that it is their responsibility to ensure the safety of personnel and
equipment when using procedures or severities defined in this standard.
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Introduction
This Defence Standard contains environmental descriptions, a range of tests procedures and default test
severities representing conditions which may be encountered during the life of defence materiel. The
environmental descriptions can be used to aid the selection of test methods and test severities to simulate
the service, storage and transportation environments for the materiel. The results of trials incorporating
appropriate test from this standard will provide supporting evidence to be used in the assessment of the
ability of Defence materiel to meet the specified environmental requirements.
Defence Standard 00-35 is in six parts. More than one part may apply to the environmental requirement and
may cross reference to other parts of the Defence Standard. It is essential that all parts be considered and
used where appropriate. A brief description of the six parts to this standard is presented in Part 1
Chapter 1-01. The principal changes from the previous edition are as follows:
Part 1 has been updated to account for new procurement procedures implemented since the previous issue.
Some simplification and improved guidance on the remainder of the Standard has also been undertaken.
Part 2 is completely new and provides guidance on the derivation of environmental trials programmes to be
used in materiel type approval tests or assessment campaigns. It also presents a series of idealised generic
usage profiles to aid in the definition of user requirement documents and system requirement documents.
Part 3 now includes all mechanical and climatic test severities, including those previously presented in
Part 5 of this Standard. It has also been substantially updated and has a number of new test procedures.
Additional guidance has been added on jigs, fixtures vibration & shock control and failure modes, and a
glossary of terms has been included.
Part 4 has been modified to include updated climatic maps.
Part 5 has been simplified by the removal of test severities and updated to reflect new information and test
tailoring and assessment techniques.
Part 6 has not been amended at this time.
In accordance with HM Government policy the maximum use has been made in this Standard of information
published in British Standards and internationally agreed standards. Where these standards are suitable
they are invoked in this Standard. Many of the test methods contained in this standard are directly related to
those in CENELEC standard EN 60068 (IEC 68 series) via: BS EN 60068 (converted from BS 2011), which
are technically identical, or from STANAG 4370 and it’s associated AECTPs.
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Chapter 1-01
Environmental Handbook for Defence Materiel - Part 5 -

Induced Mechanical Environments
SECTION 1 - GENERAL
Chapter 1-01
General
1 Scope
1.1 The total environment experienced by defence materiel is a combination of natural environments and
induced environments.
a) Natural environments consist of those conditions of temperature, pressure, humidity, etc, that the
materiel experiences at its physical global location. Natural environmental conditions are those
conditions that a static inoperative item of materiel experiences at its external surfaces.
b) Induced environments consist of those conditions of vibration, temperature, chemical contamination, etc,
that occur because of the operation, configuration, construction or use of the materiel.
1.2 This Part describes the range of induced mechanical environments likely to be encountered by
materiel. Natural environments are covered in Part 4. Induced climatic environments are covered in Part 6.
1.3 This Part describes and enumerates a wide range of induced mechanical environments
encompassing most types of materiel. Excluded are the deployment platforms themselves, eg: ship and
aircraft structures, propulsion units, land vehicles, and buildings; excepting where the environmental
response of a deployment platform forms a significant input to the materiel under consideration.
1.4 Only environmental conditions associated with normal Service are addressed in this Part. Generally,
the information provided does not cover hostile, deliberate attack or live fire conditions, caused by shell fire
or nearby bomb explosions. These conditions should be covered by project specific documentation.
1.5 The environments arising from the effects of nuclear explosions are addressed in Def Stan 08-4.
1.6 The characteristics and amplitudes of the induced mechanical environments encountered by materiel
are identified in this Part by the phase in the logistical and operational sequence from its place of
manufacture to its final intended use or disposal. Moreover, this Part has been rigorously structured to allow
easy extraction of the information pertaining to each phase and type of deployment platform.
1.7 The information contained in this Part aids the selection of test methods and associated test severities
for many induced environments, ranging from those for general application to those specific to a particular
project. The test methods and default severities are specified in Part 3 of this Standard; the examples
provided in this Part (Part 5) MUST NOT be used to derive test specifications.
1.8 The individual physical characteristics of materiel occasionally prevent the estimation of induced
mechanical environments from past experience. Consequently, the measurement of actual conditions
expected to arise is often necessary. Advice is given as appropriate in this Part on the derivation of test
severities from measured data.
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Chapter 1-01
2 Warning
The Ministry of Defence (MOD), like its contractors, is subject to both United Kingdom and European laws
regarding Health and Safety at Work. All Defence Standards either directly or indirectly invoke the use of
processes and procedures that could be injurious to health if adequate precautions are not taken. Defence
Standards or their use in no way absolves users from complying with statutory and legal requirements
relating to Health and Safety at Work.
3 Use of this Part

Part 1 of this Standard applies whenever this Part is invoked.
4 Definitions
4.1 The definitions given in BS EN 60068 (converted from BS 2011) apply to this Part, subject to the
exceptions given in Part 1 Chapter 1-01 of this Standard as follows:
a) Environment: The aggregate of all conditions and influences to which materiel is subjected.
b) Natural environment: Those environmental conditions which are generated by the forces of nature.
c) Induced environment: Those environmental conditions that occur because of the materiel’s operation,
configuration, construction and installed equipment, its carriage platforms, and its modes of
transportation, storage and handling.
4.2 All numerical values in this Part are expressed in SI units unless otherwise stated. In some instances,
approximate equivalents in non-SI units are also provided and enclosed in brackets ( ). In all cases those
values not so enclosed by brackets shall take precedence.
5 Structure of Information
5.1 The information contained in this Part is structured to follow the logistical and operational sequence of
an item of materiel from its place of manufacture to its final intended use or disposal.
5.2 The environmental descriptions are divided into the following sections:
a) Transportation,
b) Handling and storage,
c) A section for the deployment or installation of materiel on each type of host carrier or deployment
platform, including fixed installations,
d) Munition delivery from the deployment platform to the target.
5.3 Within each of the above sections, the information is divided into separate chapters covering, for
example, specific categories of transportation or deployment platform.
5.4 Each chapter addresses the characteristics of the environment, including, where appropriate, potential
damaging effects, and the selection of test methods and associated test severities.
5.5 Information is provided, where appropriate, to allow the test specifier to vary the extent to which the
test selected represents in detail the actual environmental conditions, and thereby to attain the required
flexibility of use and deployment of the materiel.
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Chapter 1-01
5.6 In addition, a section is provided dealing with general aspects of measurement and subsequent
analysis of induced mechanical environments.
6 Level of Detail
6.1 It is not practicable to provide detailed descriptions to cover all circumstances, but this Part does
include the most relevant induced mechanical environments.
6.2 Where an environment description is not given in this Part, references are provided, where available,
for further guidance.
7 Related Documents
7.1 The documents and publications directly referenced in this Part are identified at the end of each
relevant chapter as a list of references.
7.2 In addition, where appropriate, a bibliography is given at the end of each chapter.
7.3 Where the source of supply of a reference is not given, it may be available on loan from the Defence
Research Information Centre, Kentigern House, 65 Brown Street, Glasgow, G2 8EX.
7.4 Reference in this Standard to any related document means in any invitation to tender or contract the
edition and all amendments current at the date of such tender or contract unless a specific edition is
indicated.
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Chapter 1-01
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Chapter 2-01
SECTION 2 - TRANSPORTATION
Chapter 2-01
Mechanical Aspects of Road Transportation up to Forward Base
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be experienced by materiel when
carried as payload during road transportation between manufacturing sites and forward storage bases. It
specifically includes vibration and shocks associated with road transportation, bounce arising from the
dynamic interactions between the transported materiel and the payload platform, and jostling arising from
collisions with other cargo. The sources of excitation and the characteristics of the mechanical environments
are described. Guidance is given on the selection of relevant test methods and test severities. A discussion
on the derivation of test severities from measured data is contained in Annex A. References and
bibliography are included as Annex B.
1.2 Transportation beyond the forward base, when environments associated with off-road and combat
conditions may be experienced, is the subject of Chapter 2-05. Handling conditions relevant to the loading
and unloading of road vehicles, such as hoisting and the use of forklifts, are described in Chapter 3-01.
1.3 For the purpose of this chapter, materiel exposed to the road transportation environment may be
unprotected or carried within some form of protection, package or container. A payload may consist of one or
more items of materiel. Unless otherwise stated the environment descriptions and default severities relate to
the interface between the road vehicle load-bed and the payload. All axes relate to vehicle axes, with the
positive longitudinal axis coinciding with the direction of normal motion, i.e.: forward.
2 The Mechanical Environments
2.1 General
2.1.1 When a wheeled vehicle moves along a road, excitations are produced by the interaction of the
vehicle’s road wheels with the road surface. The mechanisms producing this excitation depend upon the
vehicle’s speed, the quality of the road surface, the vehicle’s suspension characteristics and axle
configuration, and the position of the payload on the vehicle. As a result, the dynamic response
characteristics of a payload sited on the vehicle’s load-bed consist of a complicated mixture of continuous
(vibration) and transient (shock) motions which can be difficult to separate.
2.1.2 The character of vibration experienced by road vehicle load-beds can be described as broad band
random. Although vibration excitation can exist up to 2,000 Hz, often transported items will only experience
significant vibration up to 500 Hz, as illustrated in Figure 1. In this example responses were measured on
the vehicle's load-bed over the rear axle. Although the vibration is of random character, it does not usually
conform to a gaussian distribution of amplitudes. This is illustrated in Figure 2, where measured amplitude
probability density data are compared with similar data for a gaussian distribution having the same g rms
value. From this figure it can be seen that the measured data represent a greater damage potential than
gaussian data because of their higher probability of high amplitudes. This non-equivalence can cause
difficulties for laboratory testing because test houses utilise gaussian random signal generators.
2.1.2.1 Moreover, laboratory equipment is usually set to limit the amplitude distribution generated to three
sigma peaks, i.e.: peak amplitudes are limited to three times the signal’s rms value. It can be seen from
Figure 2 that if the gaussian distribution were limited to three sigma, the maximum levels generated would
be less than 1.2 gpk, which compares unfavourably with the 1.7 g pk seen in the measured data. These
difficulties can be overcome by adjusting the ratio of instantaneous peaks to rms levels on the vibrator
system or by increasing the test rms level to accommodate the effects of non-equivalence, or the low
probability high amplitude events can be regarded as shocks and treated accordingly.
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Chapter 2-01
2.1.3 For some materiel, the vibration environment arising from carriage as payload during road
transportation may be the most severe which it is likely to experience. However, as materiel is usually
packaged during transportation, a reasonable degree of protection will probably exist. Even so, this
protection is often designed to protect the materiel from shocks rather than vibration. As a result, significant
amplification of the excitations can occur at certain modes of vibration. As the frequencies of these modes
are usually relatively low, e.g.: 8-25 Hz, significant displacement amplitudes can arise with the possibility of
secondary impacts of the materiel with the inside of its package. Such motions can be further amplified by
coupling with the vehicle suspension modes.
2.1.4 The shocks experienced by a payload arise from a vehicle traversing pot-holes, kerbs and general
irregularities in the road surface. The amplitude and profile of a shock will be dependent upon the
topography of the irregularity, the characteristics of the vehicle’s suspension system, and the vehicle’s all-up-
mass and speed. The characteristic of such a shock is usually of an initial pulse followed by a rapid
exponential sinusoidal decay. Even for severe shocks the vehicle’s dampers ensure that the amplitude of the
response decays to insignificance within a few cycles. In most cases the dominant frequency component of
the shocks experienced by the payload is that of the vehicle’s heave and pitch suspension modes. Examples
of road surface induced shock responses are shown in Figure 3 and their associated shock response
spectra in Figure 4.
2.1.5 Although the amplitude of shocks arising from road transportation may not be particularly severe, the
majority of the energy could be below the frequency range where the anti-shock mounts of the payload are
effective. Consequently the materiel may experience these shocks without any effective protection.
2.1.6 Accelerations arising from vehicle operations, such as braking and cornering, will be experienced by
the transported payload. Compared to the amplitudes experienced by materiel during other in-Service
conditions these accelerations are usually relatively low. Typical values associated with restraint loads [6] [7]
are listed below. Because of their nature, these accelerations may be treated as “quasi static” conditions.
Forward 1.0 g pk
Aft 0.5 g pk
Upwards 0.5 g pk (excluding gravity)
Downward 0.5 g pk (excluding gravity)

Transverse 0.5 g pk
2.1.7 The above general comments on payload responses assume that the payload is firmly attached to
the vehicle load-bed. In practice the payload may be subjected to restraint arrangements ranging from firmly
attached or restrained cargo to loose or unrestrained cargo. When the materiel is firmly attached, it will
experience a vibration and shock environment essentially identical to that of the vehicle’s load-bed.
However, unrestrained materiel can experience severe shocks as it “bounces” on the vehicle’s load-bed and
“jostles” with adjacent items of cargo or the sides of the vehicle.
2.1.8 Many transported payloads are restrained by straps or ropes which are insufficient to prevent some
bounce and jostle from occurring. For payloads transported with such limited restraint systems, or when the
restraint system in unknown, it is prudent to assume that the payload is both sufficiently well attached to the
vehicle to induce some vibration and shock responses, but insufficiently attached to prevent the occurrence
of some bounce and jostle.
2.1.9 Because the following paragraphs focus on payload dynamic responses, the remainder of
Paragraph 2 is divided into those aspects which deal with restrained cargo and those with loose cargo.
2.2 Restrained Cargo
2.2.1 As an illustration of restrained payload dynamic responses, the amplitude and its variation in terms
of g rms values, measured on the payload of a vehicle travelling over both major (A) and minor (B) roads and
at various speeds on the UK road network are depicted in Figure 5. The vehicle was a four-wheel drive
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Chapter 2-01
(4 x 4) truck loaded to approximately 50% capacity (by mass). The payload was firmly attached such that no
significant bouncing was permitted. Also included in Figure 5 is a plot of the truck’s speed throughout the
journey.
2.2.2 The amplitude and characteristics of a payload’s dynamic response during road transportation as
restrained cargo can depend upon the following factors:
a) Vehicle speed: An impression can be gained from Figure 5 that vehicle vibration severity is related to
vehicle speed [1]. This relationship can be seen more clearly in Figure 6 and Figure 7 where vibration
levels (g rms and g pk respectively) are plotted against speed. In this example, it can be seen that
vibration severity remains fairly constant up to around 60 kph, and then increase, particularly in the
vehicle’s vertical axis. Whilst the overall vibration severity is related to the speed of the vehicle, spectral
characteristics tend to be unaffected by speed, as illustrated in Figure 8. Vibration can be induced from
aerodynamic sources, but it is unlikely that these sources will produce any appreciable payload
responses because of the relatively slow speeds involved.
b) Road type: Roads in the UK are classified as M, A, B and C. M class roads tend to be relatively straight,
wide and well maintained. The other classes of road tend to include more bends, are narrower, may be
less well maintained and may include railway level crossings or cattle grids. Consequently, vehicle
speeds tend to be highest on M class roads and slowest on C class roads. Measurements indicate that
the amplitude of vibration and the distribution of amplitude is a function of road type. Moreover,
observations from continuous measurements taken over several hours on public roads suggest that
dynamic responses may be higher on B and C class roads because they are relatively narrow and
therefore vehicles are more likely to encounter irregularities such as kerbs and drain covers. These
effects are evident in Figure 9 where amplitude probability distributions for a truck moving along A and
B class roads are compared with similar data obtained from a motorway. It can be seen here that for
most of the time, vibration severity is somewhat greater on the motorway, probably because of the
higher average speed which was attained. However, the maximum amplitudes were encountered on the
A and B class roads and were about twice as severe as anything seen on the motorway.
c) Vehicle suspension: The dynamic responses experienced by the payload are influenced by the natural
frequencies of the vehicle’s suspension system. The modification usually acts to attenuate the higher
frequency (>20 Hz) excitations and amplify in a non-linear fashion those at lower frequencies (typically 2
to 10 Hz).
d) Vehicle loading: The mass of a vehicle’s total payload will affect its dynamic responses. In general, the
lower the total payload mass, the greater the amplitude of responses. This effect is accentuated by the
non-linear nature of most vehicle suspension systems. Consequently, the worst case vibration and
shock severities are likely to occur on a lightly loaded vehicle. Further information on the effects of
vehicle loading is given in Chapter 6-02, sub-paragraph 2.3 and associated figures.
e) Position on vehicle: A payload’s dynamic response will depend upon its location on the vehicle. For a
single chassis vehicle, the worst case vertical motions are usually over the rear axles. For an articulated
vehicle vertical motions may be particularly significant both above the rear trailer axles and above the
trailer attachment pivot. If air suspension is fitted to the trailer the latter may prove to be the worst case
location. Further information on the effects of vehicle load-bed position is given in Chapter 6-02,
sub-paragraph 2.3 and associated figures.
f) Axle configuration: The excitation induced by a rolling wheel as it interacts with an irregularity in the road
surface can be highly correlated with that induced at other wheels, with different degrees of correlation
occurring at each wheel. The effects of the correlation will depend upon the location and number of road
wheels. Consequently, the amplitude of the dynamic response can depend upon the vehicle’s axle
configuration, and could be particularly relevant for payloads with large base areas in proportion to the
size of the vehicle.
2.2.3 Vibration amplitudes, particularly at frequencies of the vehicle’s suspension modes, can induce
significant payload displacements. Moreover, rotational motions cannot always be ignored, particularly the
pitching and perhaps the rolling motions. If a payload is located close to the vehicle’s engine/transmission
system it may also experience some mild periodic excitation. The frequency of these periodic components
will vary with engine speed.
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Chapter 2-01
2.3 Loose Cargo
2.3.1 For unrestrained or loose cargo, bounce and jostle can be the most significant of all transportation
environments. In general, only small and light payloads are carried in an unrestrained manner. Large or
heavy payloads are usually well restrained for safety reasons and so do not experience bounce or jostle.
Moreover, smaller delicate items may also be well restrained to prevent damage during transit.
2.3.2 A package subjected to bounce and jostle will experience shocks whose characteristics depend
upon the structural stiffness of the impacting face of the package, the load-bed and adjacent packages. The
stiffer the two impacting faces are, the shorter the duration of the shock and the higher its amplitude. The
durations of these shocks are likely to be markedly shorter than those occurring directly from the road
surface, which have a duration related mainly to the vehicle suspension frequency. Typically, wooden
packages impacting a wooden load-bed induce accelerations of around 40 g pk during carriage over rough
roads. The rate of occurrence of the shocks will depend upon the quality of the road surface and the speed
of the vehicle.
2.3.3 As large vertical motions of the load platform are usually accompanied by large pitching motions, the
payload is also likely to experience rotational motions, which in turn result in different impact orientations and
severities. Even where no vehicle pitch occurs, any asymmetry of the package centre of gravity is likely to
result in rotational motions of the package prior to impact.
2.3.4 For a loose or lightly restrained payload a well designed protection system (or container) should
significantly attenuate the majority of the effects of the shocks arising from bounce and jostle. Moreover, in
general, the amplitude of the shocks will be less severe than those likely to occur as the result of any
mishandling, i.e.: from being dropped. However, the payload may experience a large number of shocks
which could give rise to fatigue failure conditions.
3 Test Method and Severities Selection
3.1 General
3.1.1 Options: Three approaches of simulating the road transport environment are generally available,
i.e.: in the test laboratory using suitable vibration and shock test facilities, in the field using suitable test
tracks, or on real road surfaces under real transportation conditions. Simulation using a test track or real
road conditions may be more convenient for large and awkward payloads, and may be essential where the
payload interacts significantly with the dynamics of the carriage vehicle.
3.1.2 Laboratory testing: This approach has the advantage of permitting the simulation of the
environment to be undertaken in defined and controlled conditions, including temperature. Moreover,
laboratory testing allows reduced test times, and usually reduced costs (especially as vehicle operations are
eliminated), and increased safety standards (particularly for munition testing). Laboratory testing is usually
viable for all but the largest payloads.
a) For testing purposes the road transport dynamic environment, as experienced by a payload, is
considered to consist of three distinct aspects, i.e.: the continuous (vibration) responses, the discrete
(transient or shock) responses arising from the vehicle and the discrete excitations due to the payload
“bouncing and jostling”. These aspects facilitate the use of vibration, shock and bounce testing, which
are addressed in sub-paragraphs 3.2 and 3.3.
b) When testing payloads complete with their anti-shock mounts, care needs to be exercised when
undertaking vibration and shock testing, because the rate of occurrence of the shocks during testing is
many times greater than the in-Service occurrence rate. In some instances this increased rate can result
in excessive heat being generated which can cause unrealistic degradation of the mounts or foam
supports. When such overheating could be expected to occur, the test should be suspended at
appropriate intervals to allow the test specimen to cool down.
3.1.3 Test tracks: Due to the difficulties of establishing “worst case” road conditions, use is often made of
standardised test tracks. A wide range of test tracks is available, not all of which are designed to simulate
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Chapter 2-01
road transportation; some are designed to investigate aspects of vehicle handling and reliability. Therefore,
care is needed when selecting test track surfaces to ensure that representative payload responses result.
High amplitude bounce and jostle can be induced during test track testing at a rate of occurrence many
orders greater than that experienced in-Service which for some payloads may induce unrepresentative
modes of failure.
3.1.4 Road trials: Trials conducted over public roads have the advantage that they are representative of
real conditions. A difficulty of using real road conditions is that vehicle speed and manoeuvring are
influenced by the prevailing traffic conditions and therefore the specified “worst case” trial conditions may be
difficult to achieve.
3.2 Materiel Carried as Restrained Cargo
3.2.1 Laboratory vibration testing: When a vibration test is required specifically to simulate road
transportation vibration, a broad band random vibration test is preferred. The test method should be that of
Part 3 Chapter 2-01 Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test and the associated default severity is
defined in Test M1 Annex A, Figure A1.
3.2.2 Laboratory shock testing: Shock testing is undertaken to reproduce structurally transmitted
transients. It is not usually necessary to conduct both shock and bounce testing for these conditions; the
selection will depend upon the tie-down configuration and the characteristics of the materiel/package
assembly. Shock testing is often applicable for large and/or heavy payloads when the payload is sufficiently
constrained to prevent bounce and jostle occurring. Two test methods are appropriate:
a) Basic pulse test: For payloads this shock environment is usually satisfactorily covered by ruggedness
testing such as that specified in Part 3, Chapter 2-03, Test M3 - Classical & Sine Waveform Shock,
or occasionally by the use of Part 3, Chapter 2-12, Test M12 - Bump. The default severities are shown
in Test M3, Table 2.
b) Operational shock test: An alternative shock test is available in Part 3 Chapter 2-06 Test
M6 - Operational Shock Simulation Test. The main advantage of the operational shock test is that it
permits the use of more complicated waveforms than those specified in Test M3. For example, it is
possible to replicate transportation shocks expressed in shock response spectra format. This alternative
method can also offer cost savings from a reduced number of test rigging configurations. However, the
use of Test M6 may not be cost effective for less sophisticated materiel.
3.2.3 Inertial accelerations arising from vehicle operation are experienced by the payload during
transportation. Values are relatively low when compared to the quasi-static accelerations experienced by the
materiel during other phases of deployment. Testing by the application of quasi-static loadings for these
transportation accelerations is not normally necessary because the adequacy of the materiel can usually be
demonstrated by assessment. However, when this is not the case a tailored test should be derived from
measured data.
3.3 Materiel Carried as Loose Cargo
3.3.1 The severity and characteristics of the motions of an unrestrained package bouncing on a cargo
deck and jostling with its neighbouring packages are significantly different to those of a package which is
firmly fixed to a vehicle’s load-bed. Bouncing and jostling motions are therefore considered separately for
test purposes.
3.3.2 The motions experienced by loose cargo are covered by the ruggedness test specified in Part 3,
Chapter 2-11, Test M11 – Wheeled Vehicle Transportation Bounce Test, also known as the Loose Cargo
Test. The mechanical limitations of the Bounce Test facility seriously restrict the scope for “tailoring” the
severities to the in-Service environmental conditions. The severities are controlled mainly by adjusting the
duration of exposure. Although some variation in materiel responses can be achieved through the selection
of one of the available test table motions, only the circular synchronous motion option is recommended on
the basis that only this motion appears to provide consistent test results [3].
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Chapter 2-01
3.3.3 Due to the limitations previously discussed, bounce testing should not replace vibration testing for
road transport. If bounce testing is required, it should be conducted in addition to any vibration and shock
testing. Further guidance on test selection is provided in Part 2 of this standard.
0.01
Power Spectral Density (g²/Hz)
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
Vertical (0.320 g rms)

0.000001
Lateral (0.128 g rms)
Longitudinal (0.091 g rms)
0.0000001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 1 Example Vibration Spectra from a Bedford Truck on A and B Class Roads
10
Chapter 2-01
10
In this graph, amplitude probability Measured
density, p(x), is plotted against amplitude
squared, or actually x.modulus to Gaussian Distribution
preserve sign. For a stationary gaussian
process, such a plot is of triangular form
1 because p(x) is proportional to x².
Probability Density
0.1
0.01
0.001
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
2
Amplitude x|x| (g )
Figure 2 Comparison of Typical Measured Amplitude Probability Density Data with Equivalent
Gaussian Data of the Same g rms Value
11
Chapter 2-01
4
3 Vertical
Vibration (g pk)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Time (secs)
4
3 Lateral
Vibration (g pk)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Time (secs)
4
3 Longitudinal
Vibration (g pk)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Time (secs)
Figure 3 Example Shock Responses Experienced by a Bedford Truck on an A Class Road
12
Chapter 2-01
Shock Response Spectrum

Maxi-Max Inertial Acceleration 3% Damping
100
Vertical
Lateral
Longitudinal
10
Amplitude (g pk)
0
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 4 Example Shock Response Spectra of a Shock Experienced by Bedford Truck on an A

Class Road
13
Chapter 2-01
0.75
Vibration (g rms) Vertical
0.50
0.25
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time (minutes)
0.75
Lateral
Vibration (g rms)
0.50
0.25
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time (minutes)
0.75
Longitudinal
Vibration (g rms)
0.50
0.25
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time (minutes)
100
80
Speed (kph)
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time (minutes)
Figure 5 Example Vibration and Speed Data for a Bedford Truck on A & B Class Roads
14
Chapter 2-01
0.7
Vertical
0.6 Lateral
Longitudinal
0.5
Vibration (g rms)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Speed (km/hr)
Figure 6 Typical Effect of Road Speed on Block rms Amplitudes from a Bedford Truck on A & B
Class Roads
4
Vertical
3 Lateral
Longitudinal
2
Vibration (g pk)
-1
-2
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Speed (km/hr)
Figure 7 Typical Effect of Road Speed on Block Peak Amplitudes Values from a Bedford Truck on
A & B Class Roads
15
Chapter 2-01
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001 M class road at 75 kph

A & B class roads 0 to 83 kph
0.0000001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 8 Comparison of Typical Spectral Characteristics from a Bedford Truck on Truck on A & B
Class Roads and a M Class Road
A&B Roads at 0 to 83 kph (0.320 g rms) M Road at 75 kph (0.388 g rms)

100
Amplitude Probability Distribution P(x)
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Amplitude (g pk)
Figure 9 Comparison of Typical Amplitude Probability Distributions from a Bedford Truck on A &
B Class Roads and a M Class Road
16
Chapter 2-01
Annex A
Annex A
Discussion on the Derivation of Test Severities from Measured Data
A.1 Materiel Carried as Restrained Cargo
A.1.1 A considerable range of opinion exists [4] [5] [6] as to the most appropriate method for processing
measured data from the road transportation environment into environmental and test descriptions. A number
of methods exist for several reasons, some historical, some technical. The methods address particular
aspects of non-stationary and the transitory nature of the dynamic responses. No single method has general
acceptability, although the methods can give significantly different results. A number of commonly used
approaches are discussed in the following sub-paragraphs, although the list is not exhaustive.
a) The road transportation test severities presented for composite wheeled vehicles in Mil Std 810D were
derived from environment descriptions compiled by Foley [9]. The method used to determine the
environmental conditions involved the selection of the worst 10% of the measured records from several
vehicles, locations, configurations and road surfaces. For a specific vehicle/location the root mean
square values in each of several frequency bands (of different bandwidth) were observed. The most
severe value for different vehicle/locations in each band are those used as the environmental
description. The conversion to test severities in terms of acceleration PSD values involved enveloping
the three standard deviation values. This approach has the advantage that it accommodates any non-
stationary of the data as well as the variation in response spectra between different vehicles. The
relatively wide bandwidths do however remove much of the effects of transients in a not particularly
definable manner although it was originally intended that the vibration levels should be augmented by
“shock” testing. The conversion of the environmental descriptions to test levels involves significant
judgement.
b) The vehicle transportation test severities presented in Mil Std 810E were derived from a method [7]
significantly different from the method discussed in the preceding Sub paragraph. For this alternative
approach the “mean” acceleration power spectral density values (using a 1Hz bandwidth) were
computed along with the variance in each band. The measured data were acquired from a selected
range of locations, road surfaces (specific test track types) and speeds. For each band the mean plus
one standard deviation value is computed. The test severities are based on an envelope of all the mean
plus one standard deviation spectral values. When several vehicles are considered, the computation of
mean plus one standard deviation is repeated for the complete data ensemble. The method has the
advantage that it can easily be implemented on a computer. However, the relatively narrow bandwidth
means that the more locations/vehicles considered, the more likely are the spectral peaks to be
“averaged out”.
c) A simple method [8] uses only narrow band acceleration power spectral densities. Meaningful results are
achieved provided that considerable control over the data gathering parameters is imposed, such as
testing at specific constant speeds, over specific road surfaces, at specific locations and vehicle
configurations, etc. This control is essential to eliminate non-stationaries. Whilst the approach requires
only modest data analysis methods, it does not allow the effect of transients to be fully evaluated. It is at
its most useful when the vehicle under investigation is traversing test tracks at constant speed.
d) A development of the method described in (c) is to derive “peak hold” acceleration power spectral
density values (either instead of, or in addition to, “mean” PSDs). This approach does allow the effects
of transients to be partly evaluated. However, when considering the real transportation environment the
spread between “mean” PSD values and the peak hold values may be quite considerable. The use of
the peak hold PSD values, alone, as a basis for setting test severities can result in highly conservative
test levels, because the peak value might occur for only a small fraction of a second over a
measurement period comprising several hours. Clearly such occurrences should not be considered as
vibration. It should also be noted that test severities are usually defined as “mean” PSD values with
17
Chapter 2-01
Annex A
peaks limited to three standard deviations, due allowance of this difference needs to be accommodated
when setting test levels.
e) Another method [1] [2] utilises both acceleration PSD values along with the appropriate probability density
functions. This approach has the advantage that it allows both non-stationary and transitory data to be
accommodated. It also permits some separation of “vibration” and “shock” events, but like all the
proceeding methods, it does not readily permit identification of specific shock events or form a means of
deriving “shock” test levels.
A.1.2 As already observed, methods for deriving test severities from measured data do not have universal
acceptance. Moreover, the methods can produce significantly different results, which should be noted when
comparing test severities derived by different means. The choice of method will depend upon which aspect
of the dynamic responses is of particular concern i.e.: “shocks” or “vibrations” and the type of data available
i.e.: from test tracks, constant speed, variable speed, etc. For further information on the extraction of test
severities from measured data reference should be made to Chapter 11-01.
A.2 Materiel Carried as Loose Cargo

As the test severities for the bounce and jostle test cannot be tailored, the scope for utilising test severities
from measured data is limited. The most usual approach is to undertake some form of comparison with the
severities of the bounce test with the high amplitude severities experienced during in-Service transportation.
However, special test tracks are often used to represent in-Service environments, which may not always give
representative results. The traditional method of comparison is to utilise level crossing or peak occurrence
analysis. These methods work well for straight comparisons of severity distribution between operational use
and during test, but they are not appropriate as a basis for deriving test durations to represent specific
transportation scenarios, because neither accommodate the effective duration and character of the
transients resulting from bounce and jostle. For such applications, methodologies which accommodate likely
fatigue and peak occurrence damage criteria may be more appropriate.
18
Chapter 2-01
Annex B
Annex B
References and Bibliography
B.1 References
1 Derivation of Environmental Descriptions and Test Severities from Measured D Charles

Road Transportation Data, i.e.S Proceedings 1992, P276-282.
2 Analysis of Dynamic Response Data from the Road Transportation Environment, D Charles
SEES/CEEES European Conference 1992, COA-EAS-077.
3 Loose Cargo Test Options, Cranfield University Report, COA-EAS-096, March M P Neale and D Charles
1994.
4 A Review of Analysis and Assessment Methodologies for Road Transportation D P Richards
Vibration and Shock Data, Environmental Engineering Vol 3 No 4 December
1990.
5 Report on the European Transportation Vibration and Shock Data Survey, B E Hibbert
CEEES Report ref 90/1, January 1990.
6 Interim Report on the CEEES Road Transportation Round Robin Exercise, D P Richards
Hunting Engineering Report HE/CEEES/SDG/317, December 1991.
7 Testing to Measured Data Versus Standardised Profiles with Emphasis on W H Connon lll
Vibration, US Army Combat Systems Test Activity, Aberdeen Proving Ground,
USA.
8 Military Vehicle Vibration Data Manual, HSD-VR-1148, January 1977. -
9 Transportation Dynamic Environment Summary, Sandia Laboratories Report No J T Foley
EDB 1354 (also SC-M-72 0076), 1976.
B.2 Bibliography
A Method of Deriving Damage Equivalent Power Spectra for the Land Transportation G E Johnson
Environments, Cambridge Consultants Ltd, Report No C128A, MOD (PE) No
GR/85/024-01, 1972.
An Indirect Approach to the Problem of Specifying Shock and Vibration Tests to Cover G E Johnson
Transportation over Public Roads, Cambridge Consultants Ltd, Report No M202, MOD
(PE) No GR/85/024-01, 1973.
A Study of the Transportation Shock Environment and its Simulation, Cambridge G E Johnson
Consultants Ltd, Report No M208, MOD(PE) No DX101/07-01, July 1976.
The Shock and Vibration Environment of Packages Carried on a 3 Ton General Purpose G E Johnson
Truck, SEE Symposium, February 1971.
Vibration on Platforms of Various Utility Public Transport Vehicles and on Containers W Hoppe and J Gerok
During Loading and Unloading in Port, Journal of the Society of Environmental
Engineers.
Freight Transport Environment, ASCE-ADME Transportation Eng Mtg, Reprint 1500, -
July 1971.
An Update of Spacecraft Dynamic Environments Induced by Ground Transportation, M R O’Connell
Shock and Vibration Bulletin No 55, Part 2, P77-86, June 1985.
19
Chapter 2-01
Annex B
A Technical Summary of the Intermodal Environmental Study, Association of American -

Railroads - Operations and Maintenance Dept, Report DP 3-91, April 1991.
Freight Transportation Environments and its Characterisation, Swedish National Testing T Andersson, G Kjell,
Institute, TFB Report 1991:35. T Pettersson,
H Torstensson & T Trost
Simulation of the Road Transport Environment, EPS Logistics Technology report No RM A T Smith
692, 1991
20
Chapter 2-02
Chapter 2-02
Mechanical Aspects of Rail Transportation up to Forward Base
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be experienced by materiel carried as
payload during rail transportation between manufacturing sites and forward storage bases. The sources of
excitation and the characteristics of the mechanical environments are described. Guidance is given on the
selection of relevant test methods and test severities. References and Bibliography are included as
Annex A.
1.2 The information contained in this chapter relates mainly to payloads transported on UK and mainland
Europe rail networks. The response characteristics of payloads transported by rail in other regions of the
world, including North America, could be expected to be a little more severe, but are believed to be
encompassed by those for the obsolescent simple loose coupled wagon referred to in this chapter.
1.3 Handling conditions relevant to the loading and unloading of rail wagons, e.g.: hoisting, the use of
forklifts, etc, are described in Chapter 3-01.
1.4 For the purpose of this chapter, materiel exposed to the rail transportation environment may be
more items of materiel. Unless otherwise stated, the environment descriptions and default severities relate to
the interface between the wagon and the payload. All axes relate to wagon axes with the positive longitudinal
axis coinciding with the direction of normal motion, i.e.: forward.
2.1 General
2.1.1 With the exception of shunting shocks on loose coupled trains, the dynamic responses of the
payload arising from rail transportation are relatively benign and generally less severe than those for road
transportation.
2.1.2 Materiel is most likely to be transported as payload on “block” or “company” tight coupled trains.
These trains are not normally re-configured at intermediate points between their departure and intended
destination points. Moreover, when loaded, such trains are not normally subjected to shunting operations in
marshalling yards. Consequently, coupling or shunting shocks experienced by payloads are minimal.
2.1.3 The bogie vehicles associated with block trains offer good ride performance along with the ability to
carry relatively long and heavy payloads. To meet the need for very low vibration levels at higher speeds,
vehicles may be available with superior ride qualities.
2.1.4 As a worst case for these relatively benign conditions, for example, where materiel might be
transported by rail in many regions of the world, it could be assumed that the payload is subjected to
conditions equivalent to those of the obsolescent four wheeled simple loose coupled wagon. These wagons
comprise two axles, a simple spring suspension and a wheel base of around 3 m. Their speed is limited to
around 72 km/h (45 mph). Longer wheelbase four wheeled wagons usually have improved suspensions
which allow higher speeds (see tables below).
2.1.5 The dynamic environment experienced by a payload transported by rail can be considered to consist
of the continuous excitations which arise during motion along the track, and the transient excitations which
mainly arise during shunting and marshalling operations [1] [2] [3]. Example severities for an ISO container
undergoing rail transportation are given in Figure 2.
21
Chapter 2-02
2.2 Motion Along the Track
2.2.1 The major factors influencing the severity and characteristics of the vibration environment
experienced by a payload transported by rail are track condition, vehicle speed, vehicle loading condition
and vehicle type (running gear, suspension, wheelbase etc). The vehicle response to track imperfections is
broadly of a random nature. An important spectral peak is caused by wagons passing over sleepers, which
when spaced at 0.7 m intervals results in frequencies of around 40 Hz at a wagon speed of 100 km/h
(62 mph). The fundamental body modes of the wagon and its suspension system may also be apparent in
the spectral data. Vehicles in a worn condition tend to generate the highest vibration levels. Response
amplitudes for the vertical and lateral axes of rail vehicles in a worn condition are given in the following
tables. Vibration in the longitudinal axis is usually insignificant as values are less than 0.15 g peak.
a) Vibration in the Vertical Axis:
Vehicle Vibration g peak

Speed
Type Mean Max
km/hr & (mile/hr)
Bogie vehicle (75)
4 Wheel-long wheelbase 120 (75) 0.15 0.75
4 Wheel-simple 72 (45) 0.45 1.60
b) Vibration in the Lateral Axis:
Vehicle Vibration g peak

Speed
Type Mean Max
km/h & (mile/hr)
Bogie vehicle (75)
4 Wheel-long wheelbase 120 (75) 0.10 0.50
4 Wheel- simple 72 (45) 0.25 1.00
2.2.2 During transportation minor shocks can occur due to traction, braking and gradient effects. In such
cases the shock magnitude is largely influenced by train coupling arrangements. Wagons are normally tight
coupled, which ensures that buffers are in contact and that longitudinal movement is limited. Loose coupled
wagons, which are no longer in general use, leave a gap and permit longitudinal movement. Wagons are
normally fully braked, but older rolling stock in some countries may not be, or may be only partially braked.
Lightly loaded vehicles may experience accelerations approximately twice those of fully loaded vehicles.
Typical maximum longitudinal peak accelerations are:
Tight coupled, fully braked train 0.2 g

Loose coupled, fully braked train 0.5 g
Loose coupled, unbraked or partially 2.0 g
braked train
2.2.3 Inertial acceleration loadings for the rail transportation environment, such as those which arise from
the train accelerating and braking, are considered to be insignificant compared to those from other modes of
transport and handling. The loadings specified in Def Stan 00-3 [4] [5] for materiel restraints are shown below.
22
Chapter 2-02
Upwards 1 g (excluding gravity)

Downwards 1 g (excluding gravity)
Lateral 1g
Forward 2g
Aft 2g
2.2.4 As the dynamic environment experienced by a payload during motion along the track is relatively
benign and because transportation by rail is rarely the sole method of transportation for a particular item of
materiel, any potential damaging effects of rail transportation can usually be ignored.
2.3 Shunting and Marshalling
2.3.1 It is unlikely that materiel would be subjected to shunting and marshalling conditions, or that materiel
would be transported in wagons other than those which are tight coupled and equipped with hydraulic
buffers. Nevertheless, materiel may be subjected to more severe rail conditions when transported in less
developed countries. In such cases the following information may well be relevant.
a) Impact speeds: The distribution of impact speeds in a typical marshalling yard is shown in Figure 1. As
would be expected, the most severe shocks occur in the longitudinal axis of the wagon. The shock
magnitude arising from shunting operations in marshalling yards is dependent upon the impact speed,
the total mass of the wagons and buffering equipment characteristics. The effects on payloads of the
impacts may be only partly mitigated by the buffering gear.
b) Hydraulic buffers: Hydraulic buffers are fitted to wagons to minimise impact shocks. They are designed
to give a constant retardation over their entire travel when the wagon is fully loaded. Decelerations of
around 2 g for an 8 km/h (5 mph) impact velocity are typical, but this rises to 4 g at 15 km/h (9.3 mph) a
velocity reached in 5% of all impacts.
c) Spring buffers: Spring buffering equipment provides only minimal protection for wagons and their
contents at impact velocities commonly found in marshalling yards. Typically, with fully laden wagons, at
impact velocities between 8 km/h (5 mph) and 15 km/h (9.3 mph), spring buffers will close solid and the
effect is then of two solid bodies colliding. In addition, energy is stored in the buffers which can result in
“shuttling” of wagons as the energy is released. Longitudinal decelerations while the buffers are being
compressed are not particularly high, around 1.5 g for a heavily loaded wagon and 3 g for a lightly
loaded one, but once the buffers are fully compressed, shocks up to 15 g result on traditional loose
coupled wagons. Over 70% of impacts in marshalling yards occur at speeds greater than 8 km/h
(5 mph).
2.3.2 The position of the wagon centre of gravity may be above the buffer height. In such cases an
analysis should evaluate the resulting vertical component of the shunting shock which could be induced in
the payload.
2.3.3 Although shunting shocks are the most significant mechanical rail environment, rail operational
procedures minimise their occurrence and severity. In most cases shunting shocks are eliminated altogether.
Nevertheless, when shunting shocks do occur, they can generate unique loadings on the payload because,
although the amplitude of the transient may not be particularly high, the long durations involved (0.25 to
1.00 seconds) may induce significant displacements in the payload. These loadings can cause permanent
deformation and failure of materiel attachments, or the “bottoming out” of anti-shock mounts.
2.3.4 If shunting and marshalling testing is required, test severities should be derived from measured data.
23
Chapter 2-02
2.4 Bounce and Jostle
2.4.1 Generally the bounce and jostle originating from rail transportation is less severe than that from road
transportation. However, the excitation mechanisms producing the motions are similar to those generated by
road transportation.
Chapter 2-11, Test M11 - Wheeled Vehicle Transportation Bounce Test, also known as the Loose Cargo
2.4.3 Due to the limitations previously discussed, bounce testing should not replace vibration testing for
road transport. If bounce testing is required, it should be conducted in addition to any vibration and shock.
3.1 General
3.1.1 If a separate rail test is considered necessary the options available for simulating the effects of the
rail transport environment are laboratory or field trials. The simulation of the effects in the laboratory is
usually viable for all but the largest payloads, and useful as it allows the simulation to be undertaken in
defined and controlled conditions.
3.1.2 The use of field trials is rarely a realistic option for rail transportation, but it may be satisfactory for
large and awkward payloads and/or where the payload could interact significantly with the dynamics of the
wagon. Trials conducted over the rail network have the advantage that they are representative of real
conditions. A concern when using real rail conditions is that vehicle speed may be difficult to control.
Moreover, it may be difficult to establish that the materiel has been subjected to worst case conditions.
3.2 Motion Along the Track

[6]
3.2.1 Vibration: The appropriate test method and default severity are given in Part 3, Chapter 2-01,
Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test, Annex A, Figure A2.
3.2.2 Traction and Inertial Accelerations: Usually a specific test is not required to encompass the traction
and inertial accelerations as they are either encompassed by testing for other phases of deployment or the
adequacy of the materiel can be demonstrated by assessment. However, when this is not the case a tailored
test should be derived from measured data.
4 Derivation of Test Severities from Measured Data

The derivation of rail transportation test severities from measured data follows a process similar to that for
deployment on wheeled vehicles (see Chapter 6-02). In general, the primary response frequencies will be
lower than those arising from wheeled vehicles. Typically the spectral peak due to the wagon passing over
sleepers, spaced at 0.7 m apart, will occur around 40 Hz. Should loose shunting occur, the shock transients
arising from shunting will almost certainly encompass those occurring during normal rail transportation and
will require processing in shock spectra format. Where loose shunting is not relevant, i.e.: the general case,
then a methodology suitable for identifying transients from within the continuous vibrations needs to be
adopted, again, similar to that used for wheeled vehicles.
24
Chapter 2-02
14
Total number of impacts = 2246
Mean impact velocity = 5.9 mph
12
Number of Impacts (%)
10
0
10.6
11.3
11.9
12.6
13.3
14.0
14.7
0.3
1.0
1.7
2.4
3.1
3.8
4.4
5.1
5.8
6.5
7.2
7.8
8.5
9.2
9.9
Mean Impact Velocity in Band (mph)
Figure 1 Typical Distribution of Wagon Impact Speeds in a Marshalling Yard
25
Chapter 2-02
0.1
Freq (Hz) PSD (g2/Hz)

0.01 5 0.006
10 0.001
100 0.001
500 0.0001
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
PSD (g2/Hz)
0.000001
0.0000001
5 kph Steady Speed

0.00000001 8 kph Steady Speed
23 kph Steady Speed
39 kph Steady Speed
90 kph Steady Speed
0.000000001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
NOTE Data from ISO Container Bed Port Corner Front (shown as bold) and Starboard Corner Rear locations.
Figure 2 Example Rail Vibration Severity (ISO Container Vertical)
26
Chapter 2-02
Annex A
Annex A
A.1 References
1 Rail Freight Shock and Vibration Environment, British Rail Technical Report TR K Poole
FT4, August 1980.
2 Personnel Communication to W J Inman (British Aerospace), Ref TBS. 1720-320- K Taylor (British Rail)
2.JAH, December 1981.
3 Measurement and Analysis of the Lengthwise Rail Shock, Association of American T E Feltault.
Railroads, Report DP 395, July 1995
4 Design Guidance for the Transportability of Equipment, Defence Standard 00-3, -
Issue 3, 27 May 1985.
5 Information Relating to Load Restraint Requirements for Surface Transport, EPS A T Smith
Logistical Technology Report No CP/8/34-114, March 1989.
6 Requirements for Vibration and Shock Testing of Equipment for Railway Vehicles, -
Railway Industry Association, BRB/LU Ltd/RIA Tech Spec No 20: 1988.
A.2 Bibliography
During Loading and Unloading in Port, J Soc Env Engnrs, Vol 14-4 (Issue 71), December
1976.
The Rail Transport Environment, Journal of Environmental Sciences, P 14-21, July/Aug M G Gens
1970.
Freight Transport Environment, ASCE-ADME Transportation Eng Mtg, Reprint 1500, -
July 1971.
A Technical Study of the Intermodal Environmental Study, Association of American -
Railroads - Operations and Maintenance Dept, Report DP 3-91, April 1991.
Freight Transportation Environments and its Characterisation, Swedish National Testing T Andersson, G Kjell,
Institute, TFB Report 1991:35. T Pettersson,
H Torstensson and T Trost
General Specification for Electronic Equipment used on Traction and Rolling Stock, -
Railway Industry Association, BRB/RIA Tech Spec No 13: 1987.
27
Chapter 2-02
Intentionally Blank
28
Chapter 2-03
Chapter 2-03
Mechanical Aspects of Air Transportation up to Forward Base
1 Scope
payload during air transportation between manufacturing sites and forward storage bases. The sources of
excitation and characteristics of the mechanical environments are described. Guidance is given on the
selection of the appropriate test methods and test severities. References and bibliography are included in
Annex A.
1.2 The chapter considers air transportation by fixed wing jet aircraft, fixed wing propeller aircraft and
rotary wing aircraft. In general the payloads are considered to be carried internally within the aircraft.
However, helicopter underslung loads and air dropped payloads (which are often associated with
transportation beyond the forward base) are also included for expedience. The aircraft considered are those
normally used for transportation purposes i.e.: transport aircraft. In practice the characteristics of most types
of propeller aircraft and helicopters are likely to be encompassed, although transportation in high
performance jet aircraft is not.
1.3 Handling conditions relevant to the loading and unloading of aircraft, i.e.: hoisting, the use of forklifts,
etc, are addressed in Chapter 3-01.
1.4 For the purpose of this chapter, materiel exposed to the air transportation environment may be
more items of materiel. Unless stated otherwise the environment descriptions and default severities relate to
the interface between the aircraft cargo floor and the payload. Also, that all axes relate to aircraft axes, with
the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with the direction of normal flight, i.e.: forward.
2.1 General
2.1.1 The characteristics of the vibration environment experienced by materiel when carried as payload
within a transport aircraft are dependent upon aircraft type. The characteristics for three aircraft types, i.e.:
fixed wing jet aircraft, fixed wing propeller aircraft and rotary wing aircraft are discussed below. Also
addressed are the conditions experienced by payloads when underslung from helicopters, when air dropped
using parachutes and when subjected to aircraft flight manoeuvres.
2.2 Fixed wing jet aircraft
2.2.1 The mechanical conditions associated with the transportation of materiel carried internally as
payload in fixed wing jet aircraft are benign. A full description of the sources of excitation affecting fixed wing
jet aircraft is given in Def Stan 00-970 Volume 1 Leaflet 501/2 [1]. That description is summarised in
Chapter 7-01. In short, the excitations affecting materiel carried internally as payload within fixed wing jet
aircraft arise predominantly from aerodynamic and power plant sources.
2.2.2 The responses experienced by payloads carried within fixed wing jet aircraft are generally
characterised as Gaussian broad band random motions with superimposed periodic components possibly
just discernible. The broad band random element arises from both aerodynamic and power plant sources.
The periodic elements are generated by the rotating components within the engines’ turbines and
transmitted mechanically through the aircraft structure.
2.2.3 The extent to which excitations may be generated by the above sources depends upon the flight
conditions. Four flight conditions are considered, namely: take-off, climb, cruise and landing. Examples of
vibration severities for these conditions, using the rear engined VC 10 aircraft for illustration, are shown in
power spectral density format in Figure 1. Corresponding g rms values are shown in Figure 2.
29
Chapter 2-03
a) Take-off: Significant vibration levels occur during take-off, but only for short durations, e.g.: 25 seconds.
Taxiing generates low level vibration, which is normally encompassed by that from take-off.
b) Climb: Significant vibration may be apparent during climb when high demand is placed upon the power
plant. However, levels are unlikely to exceed those of take-off.
c) Cruise: Vibration levels associated with cruise conditions are of low level mainly because the flight
dynamic pressures are relatively low. Also, the effects of aircraft manoeuvres, such as turns do not
produce significant vibration responses of the payload, although they may produce the largest loadings
on restraint systems. Descent generally produces negligible levels, although if spoilers or flaps are used
to provide air-braking, low frequency vibration can be experienced.
d) Landing: Two distinct excitations can be produced during landing, i.e.: touch down, producing a transient
excitation, and reverse thrust, producing a vibration excitation. Transient amplitudes levels can attain 1g
pk and can be characterised by a decaying sinusoid. However, in some cases the transient is so low
that it cannot be distinguished from the vibration amplitudes. Vibration during reverse thrust can exceed
the levels associated with take-off, although for shorter periods.
2.2.4 In terms of the overall g rms (5 to 2,000 Hz) of measured vibration responses, it is expected that the
vertical and lateral axes will be of similar severity and often, but not necessarily, around 50% greater than
that experienced in the longitudinal axis.
2.2.5 There are no potential damaging effects that are likely to require special consideration.
2.3 Fixed Wing Propeller Aircraft
2.3.1 A full description of the sources of excitation associated with fixed wing propeller aircraft is given in
Def Stan 00-970 Volume 1 Leaflet 501/6[2]. That description is summarised in Chapter 7-03. In short, the
excitations affecting materiel carried internally as payload within fixed wing propeller aircraft arise from the
action of the propellers. The rotating propellers generate vibration that is transmitted directly through the
aircraft structure. Noise is also generated by the propellers, which, on impinging the aircraft structure,
produces vibration. The maximum vibration severities within the cargo bay are experienced by payloads
sited in the plane of the propellers. The relative g rms vibration severities along the length of the fuselage are
shown in Figure 3.
2.3.2 As the dominant source of vibration arises from the aircraft's propellers, the spectral characteristics
of the environment is dominated by peaks corresponding to the propeller blade passing frequency and its
subsequent harmonics. Generally the vibration amplitudes at blade passing frequencies are more significant
than those at propeller shaft frequencies. However, the latter can be important because of the low
frequencies involved. These periodic motions are superimposed upon a background of broad band random
vibration of relatively low amplitude.
2.3.3 The extent to which excitations may be generated depends upon the flight conditions. Four flight
conditions are considered here, namely: take-off, climb, cruise and landing. Examples of vibration severities
for these four conditions, using the four engined, four bladed, Hercules C130K propeller aircraft for
illustration, are shown in power spectral density format in Figure 4. It should be noted that the amplitude
(g2/Hz) of sine-like components in PSD plots is dependent upon the analyser’s resolution and therefore
should only be interpreted in a qualitative manner. Root mean square values for these and other conditions
are shown in Figure 5, which also should only be interpreted in a qualitative manner.
a) Take-off: The highest vibration levels generally occur during take-off.
b) Climb: Significant vibration levels are generated during climb, although these are generally enveloped by
those of take-off.
c) Cruise: Vibration during cruise is lower than that at take-off and during climb, even if the aircraft's
engines are allowed to operate out of synchronisation with one another. Aircraft manoeuvres, such as
turns, do not significantly increase vibration levels within the aircraft. Descent generally produces
negligible levels.
30
Chapter 2-03
d) Landing: Vibration during reverse thrust can equal the levels associated with take-off, although for
shorter periods. A typical landing transient response is shown in Figure 6, in amplitude versus time and
in shock response spectrum formats.
2.3.4 As for transport in jet aircraft, it is to be expected that vibration severity (overall g rms between 5 and
2,000 Hz) in the vertical and lateral axes will be similar and often, but not necessarily, around 50% greater
than that experienced in the longitudinal axis.
2.3.5 The vibration amplitude occurring at the blade passing frequency is often the most significant, but
the second or third harmonic of blade passing frequency may be the highest amplitude in some
circumstances.
2.4 Rotary Wing Aircraft
2.4.1 A full description of the sources of excitation affecting rotary wing aircraft is given in Def Stan 00-970
Volume 2 Leaflet 501/2 [3]. That description is summarised in Chapter 8-01. In short, the excitations affecting
materiel carried internally as payload within rotary wing aircraft arise mainly from the action of the
helicopter's main rotor blades. Consequently a typical helicopter vibration spectrum is dominated by peaks at
the main rotor blade passing frequency and its subsequent harmonics. For single rotor helicopters,
components at frequencies associated with the tail rotor may be also be noted. For dual rotor helicopters,
significant responses occur at twice the blade passing frequency due to the interaction between the two sets
of blades. In all cases these peaks in response spectra are superimposed against a background of broad
band random vibration which includes the effects of gearboxes and related transmission excitations.
2.4.2 The extent to which excitations may be generated by the above sources depends upon the flight
conditions. Examples of vibration severities for four conditions, using the Chinook dual rotor helicopter for
illustration, are shown in power spectral density format in Figure 7. As noted above, the amplitude (g2/Hz) of
sine-like components in PSD plots is dependent upon the analyser’s resolution and therefore should only be
interpreted in a qualitative manner. Root mean square values for these and other conditions in the three
orthogonal measurement axes are shown in Figure 8, which also should only be interpreted in a qualitative
manner.
a) Take-off and hover: Vibration severity during take-off and hover (Figure 7b) is low and almost always
encompassed by the levels encountered during flight. Vibration during taxi, when applicable, is also low,
but may contain low frequency components associated with the dynamic characteristics of the
undercarriage.
b) Straight and level flight: Under these conditions vibration severity is mainly dependent upon forward
speed, although not linearly related to it. An example of acceleration spectral density for straight and
level flight is shown in Figure 7d where the contributions at the shaft and the blade passing frequencies
are discernible.
c) Transient conditions: Short duration conditions, such as transition to hover (Figure 7a) and recovery
from auto-rotation (Figure 7c) are likely to generate high vibration levels, but for only a few seconds.
Maximum power climbs can also generate relatively high vibration level over several minutes.
2.4.3 The variation of vibration severity along the fuselage of a Chinook helicopter is indicated in Figure 9.
It should be noted that for a particular helicopter airframe, considerable variations can be observed in
vibration amplitude measured at the same location and axis, but at different times. Moreover, even greater
variations in vibration amplitude can be observed between measurements at the same location and axis on
different helicopters within the same helicopter type (see Chapter 8-01 of Part 5) Consequently, it is not
possible to give further advice on these aspects.
2.4.4 It should be noted that because the blade passing frequency may be less than the internal mounting
frequency of the materiel within its container, the mounting arrangement may offer little or no protection
against the vibration environment.
31
Chapter 2-03
2.5 Underslung Payloads
2.5.1 Materiel may be underslung from helicopters, either directly in nets or within containers. In either
case, the dynamic environment experienced by the payload is largely independent of that of the carriage
helicopter. Vibration responses tend to be broad band in character and of very low amplitude. Excitation is
mainly due to aerodynamic forces including atmospheric turbulence.
2.5.2 The pick-up of materiel can give rise to transients of a decaying sinusoid nature. Response
amplitudes are generally enveloped by those of set-down and have been seen to attain an amplitude of
4 g pk. Peak amplitudes will depend on package construction and the set-down surface. Measured data
indicate that impact velocities approaching 2 m/s are possible. Typical shock responses during set-down are
shown in Figure 10.
2.5.3 Any potential damaging effects associated with carriage as an underslung payload arise mainly from
impact on set-down. With the exception of the relatively severe VERTREP (replenishment of naval vessels at
sea) conditions, for which measured data or other definitive information have not been made available for
inclusion in this Standard, the loadings are similar to those for general handling conditions. Only for large
items of materiel are shock loadings on set-down likely to exceed those for handling. The most likely damage
mechanism is that of materiel moving excessively within its packaging, such that the capabilities of the
cushioning material are exceeded.
2.5.4 For some suspension arrangements, usually multi-cable suspension systems, rigid body dynamic
interaction between the helicopter and payload can occur which can produce high loads in the attachment
cables and consequently on the container if connected directly.
2.6 Air Dropped Payloads
2.6.1 The concept of air dropped payloads is usually associated with transportation beyond the forward
storage base, but is included in this air transportation chapter for expedience.
2.6.2 Information on severities for air dropped payloads has not been made available for inclusion in this
Standard. Def Stan 00-3 [4] indicates that air dropped payloads should be capable of withstanding impact
velocities up to 9 m/s (30 ft/s). Such payloads also experience additional transients arising from parachute
deployment. Typical values are set out below for payload restraint loads. These values were extracted from
Def Stan 00-3 [4].
Direction Acceleration Values

Upwards 5.0 g (excluding gravity)
Downwards 4.0 g (excluding gravity)
Starboard 3.0 g
Port 3.0 g
Forward 4.0 g
Aft 3.0 g
2.6.3 Payloads subjected to transients arising from air drop are usually configured and packaged to
reduce peak acceleration amplitudes. Consequently the duration of the transient is increased so that for
most materiel the transient can be treated as a quasi-static acceleration. A significant potential damaging
effect is that the impact can give rise to large relative displacements, which may prove to be a problem for
large mass items held in flexible restraints, eg: vehicle engines.
2.7 Flight Manoeuvres
Aircraft manoeuvres during flight generate low level inertial accelerations on transported materiel. Typical
values are set out below for payload restraint loads. These values were extracted from Def Stan 00-3 [4].
32
Chapter 2-03
Direction Acceleration Values

Upwards 2.0 g (excluding gravity)
Downwards 4.0 g (excluding gravity)
Starboard 1.5 g
Port 1.5 g
Forward 3.0 g
Aft 1.5 g
3.1 General
3.1.1 Two approaches for simulating the air transport environment are generally available, i.e.: in the
laboratory or by the use of flight trials. Trials conducted using aircraft have the advantage that they are
representative of real air transportation conditions, if only on one particular aircraft. Moreover, the use of
flight trials may be more convenient for large and awkward payloads and could be considered essential if the
payload is predicted to interact significantly with the dynamics of the aircraft floor.
3.1.2 The simulation of the environment in the laboratory allows the simulation to be undertaken in defined
and controlled conditions and is usually viable for all but the largest payloads.
3.2 Fixed Wing Jet Aircraft
3.2.1 Vibration: The appropriate test method is a broadband random vibration test as given in Part 3,
Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test. Default severities are presented in Test M1,
Annex A Figure A5.
3.2.2 Shock: As the shock severities during transportation in jet aircraft are relatively benign, separate
shock testing is usually unnecessary. In the rare circumstances when a shock test is required, the approach
proposed for propeller aircraft is suggested.
3.3 Fixed Wing Propeller Aircraft
3.3.1 Vibration: The appropriate test method is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose
Vibration Test. With respect to default severity, the preferred format consists of narrow bands of random
vibration, superimposed on a background of shaped broad band random vibration. An alternative form, using
sinusoids superimposed on a background of random vibration is also acceptable. A procedure for computing
test severities, of either form, is shown in Test M1. It should be noted that this procedure produces test
severities that are aircraft specific. Test severities for specific aircraft are also provided in Test M1, Annex A
Figures A6 to A14.
3.3.2 Shock: The low transient acceleration amplitudes during aircraft landings do not normally warrant the
application of shock testing for transported materiel. However, should shock testing for this environment be
considered necessary, then the appropriate test method is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-03, Test M3 - Classical
& Sine Waveform Shock, Figure 4.
3.4 Rotary Wing Aircraft
Vibration Test. The effects of the vibration environment experienced by a payload carried in a helicopter is
best achieved by using either narrowband random vibration superimposed on a background of shaped broad
band random vibration, or sinusoidal vibration similarly superimposed. A procedure for computing the test
33
Chapter 2-03
severities, of either form, is shown in Test M1. It should be noted that this procedure produces test severities
which are helicopter specific. Default generic severities are given in Test M1, Annex A, Figure A15 and
platform specific default severities in Figures A16 and A17.
3.4.2 Shock: As the shock severities during transportation in rotary wing aircraft are relatively benign
separate shock testing is usually unnecessary. In the rare circumstances when a shock test is required the
approach proposed in this chapter for propeller aircraft is suggested.
3.5 Underslung Loads
Vibration Test. The recommended vibration default severities to reproduce the dynamic environment
experienced by an external underslung payload on a helicopter is shown in Test M1, Annex A, Figure A18.
3.5.2 Shock: The appropriate test method is given in Part 3, Chapter 2-05, Test M5 - Impact (Vertical
and Horizontal) Test.
3.6 Air Dropped Payloads
Shock: The appropriate test method for the transients arising from air drop conditions is given in Part 3,
Chapter 2-05, Test M5 - Impact (Vertical and Horizontal) Test. Further advice on packaging requirements
for testing for parachute delivery and should be sought from specialist agencies such as JATE.
Testing for flight manoeuvre accelerations associated with the air transportation environment is usually
unnecessary because the loadings are either encompassed by testing for other in-Service conditions or the
adequacy of the materiel is demonstrated by analysis or assessment. However, should a test be required,
then the appropriate test method is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-13, Test M13 - Steady State Acceleration
Test. The default severities are defined in Test M13, Tables 1 and 2.

4.1 The recommended procedures for the extraction of test severities from measured data for materiel
transported by air are, for all practical purposes, identical to the procedures used for materiel installed within
aircraft. Therefore, reference should be made to the appropriate chapter for guidance i.e.: Chapter 7-01 for
fixed wing jet aircraft, Chapter 7-03 for fixed wing propeller aircraft and Chapter 8-01 for rotary wing aircraft.
34
Chapter 2-03
0.1
Take-off Aircraft 400 Hz power
Climb supply pickup
0.01 Cruise
Landing
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
NOTE All data from the rear of the aircraft and in the vertical axis
Figure 1 Example Vibration Spectra from a VC10 Jet Transport Aircraft
Vertical Axis: Aft Fuselage Mid Fuselage
Take-off
Climb
Cruise
Landing (Reverse
Thrust)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Overall g rms (3.5 to 2000 Hz)
Figure 2 An Example of the Variation in Vibration Severity for Various Manoeuvres and at Two
Locations from a VC10 Jet Transport Aircraft
35
Chapter 2-03
1.0
Relative Severity 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
25 27 2931 33 35 37 39 41 4345 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
Frame Stations (inches)
NOTE All data measured in the vertical axis
Figure 3 An Example of the Variation in Vibration Severity Along the Fuselage of a C130K Aircraft
0.1
Take-off
Climb
0.01 Cruise
Landing
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
NOTE All data from the plane of the propellers and in the vertical axis
Figure 4 Example Vibration Spectra from a C130K Hercules Turbo-Prop Transport Aircraft
36
Chapter 2-03
Vertical Axis
Full Ground Power
Take-Off
Climb
8000 ft S&L Cruise
8000 ft 45 Deg Turn
2000 ft S&L Hi Speed
Landing Approach
Reverse Thrust
Hi Speed Taxi
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70

NOTE All data from the plane of the propellers
Figure 5 An Example of the Variation in Vibration Severity During Various Manoeuvres for a
Hercules C130K Turbo-Prop Aircraft
37
Chapter 2-03
1.5
1.0
Vibration (g pk)
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Time (s)
a. Transient Response History
Shock Response Spectrum

Maxi-Max
Q = 16.667
10
Amplitude (g pk)
0.1
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
b. Shock Response Spectrum
Figure 6 An Example of a Transient Response for a Propeller Transport Aircraft Tactical Landing
38
Chapter 2-03
1 1
Power Spectral Density (g²/Hz) Spectrum equivalent to 0.442 g rms Spectrum equivalent to 0.130 g rms

0.1 0.1
0.01 0.01
0.001 0.001
0.0001 0.0001
0.00001 0.00001
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
a. Transition to Hover b. Hover
1 1
Spectrum equivalent to 0.321 g rms Spectrum equivalent to 0.296 g rms
0.1 0.1
0.01 0.01
0.001 0.001
0.0001 0.0001
0.00001 0.00001
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
c. Recovery from Auto-Rotation d. 155 kts Straight and Level
NOTE All data measured in the vertical axis at Frame Number E160 (see Figure 9).
Figure 7 Example Vibration Responses from a Chinook HC Mk 2 Transport Helicopter during

Various Flight Conditions
39
Chapter 2-03
Vertical Lateral Axial
Take-off
Transition from Hover
40 kts S&L 1000 ft
60 kts S&L 1000 ft
80 kts S&L 1000 ft
100 kts S&L 1000 ft
120 kts S&L 1000 ft
140 kts S&L 1000 ft
140 kts Port Turn 1000 ft
140 kts Stbd Turn 1000 ft
155 kts S&L 1000 ft
Rapid Auto-Rotation
Hover 40 ft
Transition to Hover
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Overall g rms (2 to 500 Hz)
NOTE All data measured at Frame Number E160 (Stbd) at floor level (see Figure 9)
Figure 8 An Example of Variation in Vibration Severity During Various Flight Conditions for a
Chinook HC Mk 2 Helicopter
40
Chapter 2-03
Vertical Lateral Axial

0.5
Straight & Level

0.4 Flight at 160 kn
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.5
Auto-Rotation
0.4 (recovery)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
120
140
160
200
220
260
280
300
320
360
380
400
420
440
460
180
240
340
482
Frame Stations (inches)
Figure 9 An Example of Variation in Vibration Severity Along the Fuselage of a Chinook HC Mk 1

Helicopter
41
Chapter 2-03
Shock Response Spectrum Ground Impact Velocities

Maxi-Max
Q = 16.667 6 m/s 2 m/s 1 m/s
100
0.5 m/s
0.2 m/s
0.1 m/s
Amplitude (g pk)
10
0.05 m/s
Vertical Responses
From Within an
ISO Container
0.1
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 10 Typical Measured Shock Responses from the Set-Down of a Load Underslung from a
Chinook HC Mk 1 Helicopter
42
Chapter 2-03
Annex A
Annex A
A.1 References
1 Design Requirements for Aeroplanes, Def Stan 00-970, Volume 1, Leaflet -

501/2, Sources of Noise and Vibration.
501/6, Propeller Aeroplanes.
501/2, Sources of Noise and Vibration.
4 Design Guidance for the Transportability of Equipment, Defence Standard -
003, Issue 3, 27 May 1985.
A.2 Bibliography
Vibration Survey of Four Propeller Driven Aircraft, Cranfield University, Report -

COA-EAS-45, March 1989.
Aircraft Flight Vibration Data Survey for DEF STAN 00-970, Cranfield University -
Report COA-DA-1457, August 1988.
Transportation Dynamic Environment Summary, , Sandia Laboratories Report No J T Foley
DB 1354 (also SC-M-72 0076), 1972.
Advisory Material for the Application of the IAEA Transport Regulations, IAEA -
Vienna 1973.
Freight Transportation Environments and its Characterisation, Swedish National T Andersson, G Kjell,
Testing Institute, TFB Report 1991:35. T Petersson, H Torstensson
& T Trost,
Parametric Study Of Air Armament Stores Carried Externally On Helicopters, Ref D Charles
COA-DA-1373, August 1988
43
Chapter 2-03
Annex A
Intentionally Blank
44
Chapter 2-04
Chapter 2-04
Mechanical Aspects of Sea Transportation up to Forward Base
1 Scope
payload during sea transportation by surface ships between places of manufacture and storage bases. The
sources of excitation and the characteristics of the mechanical environments are described. Guidance is also
given, where applicable, on the selection of relevant test methods and default severities. References and
bibliography are included as Annex A.
1.2 The chapter considers sea transportation by either naval or commercial ships, such as Royal Fleet
Auxiliaries and Roll-on Roll-off ferries. For environmental conditions encountered when transported or
deployed on warships reference should be made to Chapter 9-01. In practice, the normal mechanical
environments within warships are unlikely to be significantly different from those addressed here. However,
for warships, some critical design load cases are set by certain hostile cases, rather than by normal
conditions.
1.3 Handling conditions relevant to the loading and unloading of ships, i.e.: hoisting, the use of forklifts,
etc, are described in Chapter 3-01.
1.4 For the purpose of this chapter, materiel exposed to the sea transportation environment may be
more items of materiel. Unless specifically stated otherwise the environment descriptions relate to the
interface between the vessel and the payload. All axes relate to ship axes, with the positive longitudinal axis
coinciding with the direction of normal motion, i.e.: forward.
2.1 Vibration Environments
2.1.1 General: The dynamic excitations experienced by a payload during transportation by ship is mostly
vibration generated by the action of the propulsion equipment and auxiliary machinery. In addition, some
responses occur because of sea motions. Payload responses are benign to the extent that it is often difficult
to determine accurate values for the various sources of excitation. Example severities from an ISO container
undergoing sea transportation are given in Figure 1.
2.1.2 Engine and Propulsion System: Measurements made on payloads, carried in holds and on deck,
usually indicate periodic vibration related to engine speed and propeller blade passing frequency. The
degree of contribution from each of these components is generally related to proximity of the payload to the
engine room or propellers.
2.1.3 Auxiliary equipment: The operation of auxiliary equipment contributes to the general level of
background vibration. This vibration is composed of periodic components, the severity of which is related to
the proximity of specific auxiliary systems. Although air conditioning and power generating equipment may
give rise to significant amplitudes, measured data or definitive information are not available for payloads in
close proximity to such equipment.
2.1.4 Sea state induced: The effects of sea condition are often difficult to discern at low sea states.
However, the severity of payload responses seem to increase at higher sea states. Very little evidence exists
to allow a relationship to be quantified, but a trend of increasing vibration severity with sea state can be
identified in Figure 2. The information presented is from the same measurement source as for Figure 1. The
severity of lateral responses seems to be influenced by the relative heading of the ship to the direction of
motion of the sea; specifically the higher vibration levels arise when the sea motion is transverse to the
heading of the ship [1].
45
Chapter 2-04
2.1.5 Potentially damaging effects: For materiel with low natural frequencies, the periodic nature of the
excitations arising from sea transportation coupled with the long duration of exposure can result in large
cycle fatigue damage. In addition the low frequency, and consequential relatively large displacement
motions, can result in damage to sensitive items, eg: VDU screens have been found to be particularly
sensitive to these motions.
2.2 Transient Environments
2.2.1 Green sea loading: Payloads carried as unprotected deck cargo may experience green sea frontal
loadings of 70 kPa acting over 350 ms with transient loadings of 140 kPa for 15 ms.
2.2.2 Slamming: Higher sea states can give rise to localised transients arising from waves impacting (or
slamming) the ship’s hull [3]. As the payload does not experience these excitations directly, but rather the
dynamic responses of the ship’s hull arising from these excitations, such loadings are unlikely to be
significant. Unfortunately, data are unavailable for the assessment of severity and occurrence rate of these
conditions at various categories of sea state.
2.2.3 A significant proportion of the transients experienced by a payload particularly at higher sea states,
occur at the lower flexible body modes of the ship. The frequencies of these modes are very low (typically
less than 5Hz) compared with the flexible modes of most payloads and consequently the payload
experiences mainly quasi-static loading effects.
2.3 Quasi-Static Environments
2.3.1 Inertial accelerations: During sea transportation inertial accelerations are experienced. However,
these accelerations are usually less than those experienced by materiel during other phases of deployment.
Typical values for general cargo [2] are set out below.
Upwards 2 g (excluding gravity)

Downwards 2 g (excluding gravity)
Lateral 0.8 g
Forward 2g
Aft 1g
2.3.2 Tilt: Payloads may be subjected to static tilt conditions of up to 30 degrees.
3.1 Vibration Environments
Where a sea transportation cargo test is required the appropriate test method is that of Part 3 Chapter 2-01
Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test. Default severities are defined in Test M1, Annex A, Figure A3.
3.2 Transient Environments
Green sea loading and slamming: No specific test for these loadings is identified. The materiel is normally
evaluated by calculation.
3.3 Quasi-Static Environments
3.3.1 Inertial accelerations: Testing is usually unnecessary because these loadings are either
encompassed by testing or calculation for other phases of deployment.
46
Chapter 2-04
3.3.2 Tilt: Testing for tilt conditions is not normally undertaken.

The recommended procedure for the derivation of test severities from measured data, for materiel
transported by sea, is identical to that used for materiel installed within surface ships. Reference should be
made to Chapter 9-01.
0.01
ISO Container Bed (Port Corner Front) Vert (0.025 g rms)
ISO Container Bed (Starboard Corner Rear) Vert (0.034 g rms)
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
PSD (g2/Hz)
0.000001
0.0000001
0.00000001
0.000000001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
NOTE Data from ISO container bed, 24 knots steady speed.
Figure 1 Vibration Severity with Respect to Position Within ISO Container, Vertical
47
Chapter 2-04
0.1
Vertical
0.08 Lateral
Longitudinal
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sea State
Figure 2 An Example of the Variation of Vibration Severity with Sea State for a Transport Ship
48
Chapter 2-04
Annex A
Annex A
A.1 References
1 Stresses During Transport Pt 3 Sea Transport, Swedish Packaging Research T Trost

Institute, Publication No 96, 1985.
2 Information Relating to Load Restraint Requirements for Surface Transport, A T Smith
EPS Logistic Technology Report No CP/8/34-114, March 1989.
3 Naval Engineering Standard 1004, Issue 1, January 1987. -
A.2 Bibliography
Vibration Survey in the Naval Armament Supply Vessel Kinterbury, BSRA Report No -
W1207, October 1984.
Hold Vibration Measurements on RMAS Kinterbury, BAe Report 20001, May 1989. -
Freight Transportation Environments and its Characterisation, Swedish National T Andersson, G Kjell, T
Testing Institute, TFB Report 1991:35. Pettersson, H Torstensson &
T Trost
Transportation Dynamic Environment Summary, Sandia Laboratories Report No EDB J T Foley
1354 (also SC-M-72 0076), 1972.
Tailoring Shipboard Environmental Specifications, Journal of the i.e.S, March/April/June R H Chalmers
and July/August 1992.
Vibration Environments and Test Spectra for Equipment Installed in Ships, COA-EAS- D Charles & M P Neale
118, March 1995.
49
Chapter 2-04
Annex A
Intentionally Blank
50
Chapter 2-05
Chapter 2-05
Mechanical Aspects of Transportation Beyond Forward Base
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be experienced by materiel during
transportation beyond forward storage bases. It specifically includes environmental conditions that may
occur during carriage by wheeled vehicles on degraded and off-road conditions. It also includes
transportation by tracked vehicles such as Armoured Personnel Carriers (APC's). The sources of excitation
and characteristics of the mechanical environments are described. Guidance is given on the selection of
relevant test methods and test severities. References and bibliography are included as Annex A.
1.2 This chapter considers only transportation over land because the mechanical environments
experienced by materiel when transported by air, sea and rail beyond the forward base are essentially
identical to those up to the forward base. One exception is air dropped payloads which for expedience are
addressed in Chapter 2-03. For specific information on the mechanical environments experienced by
payloads occurring up to the forward base, reference should be made to Chapter 2-01, Chapter 2-02,
Chapter 2-03 and Chapter 2-04 for road, rail, air and sea transportation respectively. This chapter does not
provide guidance on payload restraint loads.
1.3 For the purpose of this chapter, materiel exposed to the transportation environment may be
more items of materiel. Unless specifically stated otherwise the environment descriptions and default
severities relate to the interface between the carriage vehicle and the payload. All axes relate to vehicle
axes, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with the direction of normal motion, i.e.: forward.
2.1 General
2.1.1 Although some transportation beyond the forward base may utilise good quality roads, it is assumed
that transportation mainly occurs over poor quality or damaged road surfaces, unmade tracks or over cross
country routes. These poor quality surfaces are capable of producing relatively severe dynamic responses at
the payload. Moreover, vehicles may be utilised which are not ordinarily used for payload carriage, such as
tracked vehicles.
2.1.2 Procedural constraints will be minimal beyond the forward base and therefore motions arising as a
result of carriage as loose or netted cargo are most likely. Palletised payloads carried over poor quality
surfaces with limited restraint systems comprising straps or ropes are insufficient to prevent bounce and
jostle. For such payloads it is prudent to assume that the payload is both sufficiently coupled to the vehicle to
induce vibration responses and sufficiently uncoupled to allow bounce and jostle to occur.
2.2 Wheeled Vehicles
2.2.1 A description of the sources of excitation causing dynamic responses within wheeled vehicles is
given in Chapter 6-02 and at payloads transported by wheeled vehicles in Chapter 2-01.
2.2.2 Transportation over rough and degraded roads changes the relative contributions of the dynamic
responses arising from the various sources of excitation, compared to those occurring during transportation
on normal road surfaces. In particular, severely degraded road surfaces result in much larger displacement
motions at low (suspension) frequencies. In addition degraded road surface quality produces higher severity
transient responses. Figure 1 to 3 show the effects of carriage over rough road conditions, in this instance a
rough concrete track traversed at 24 km/hr, which was the highest speed the driver could be persuaded to
traverse the track using a four wheel drive (4x4) 10 tonne vehicle. These figures can be compared with those
in Chapter 2-01 for normal road use (which originates from the same vehicle with the same driver and
51
Chapter 2-05
payload). The particular points to note are the increase in severity at low frequency and the perturbations in
the probability density caused by the high amplitude/low occurrence rate transients.
2.2.3 Transportation over cross country conditions further increases the severity of the low frequency
responses. The number and amplitude of the transients also increases. Vehicle speed is likely to decrease
as a result of the extreme motion of the suspension system and consequently, the higher frequency
responses from vehicle dynamic characteristics, engine, and transmission decrease as a result.
2.2.4 The vehicles used beyond the forward base are usually smaller than those used for general
transportation. The increased dynamic motion of smaller vehicles traversing degraded roads and cross
country conditions can result in higher dynamic responses being induced in the transported payloads.
Obviously, the effects on loose and palletised cargo can be particularly severe under such conditions.
2.2.5 The vibration environment experienced by a payload arising from wheeled vehicle transportation
beyond the forward base may be very severe, even though the materiel may be packaged. Unfortunately the
packaging is usually designed to protect the materiel from shock rather than vibration. As a result,
amplification of the excitation can occur at certain low frequency modes of vibration (8-25 Hz), producing
significant displacements and velocity amplitudes. This may give rise to the possibility of the materiel
impacting the inside of its package. If any vibration modes of the materiel within its package occur below 20
Hz, the possibility of such modes interacting with the vehicle suspension modes should be investigated.
2.2.6 The characteristics of shocks arising from poor quality road surfaces and cross country conditions
are such that the majority of the transitory dynamic energy could well be below the frequency range where
the payload’s anti-shock mounts are effective. This situation arises because major excitation may occur at
the vehicle suspension frequencies. Consequently the materiel may experience the transients without any
effective protection.
2.2.7 For a loose or lightly restrained payload, an effective protection system should significantly attenuate
the majority of the dynamic effects arising from bounce and jostle. Moreover, in general, the amplitude of the
transients will be less severe than those likely to occur as a result of any mis-handling, i.e.: from being
dropped. However, the payload may experience a significant number of such transients which could possibly
give rise to fatigue failure conditions. Permanent deformation or damage to the package itself may arise after
repeated impacts, which in turn could result in higher loadings on the materiel.
2.2.8 The use of trailers beyond the forward base produces in most cases payload dynamic responses
similar to those occurring on the vehicle itself. Where trailers of relatively low mass and with less
sophisticated suspension systems are used, responses can become notably more severe than those on the
vehicle (and consequently, data acquisition field trials should be conducted to establish appropriate test
levels). Also coupling arrangements between the towing vehicle and relatively low mass trailers can generate
high shock levels.
2.2.9 Inertial acceleration levels experienced by payloads during wheeled vehicle manoeuvres beyond the
forward base are usually encompassed by those from other environments.
2.3 Tracked Vehicles
2.3.1 A description of the characteristics and excitation mechanisms causing dynamic responses within
tracked vehicles is given in Chapter 6-01 [1] [2]. A major source of vibration for transported materiel is track
patter, i.e.: the effect of successive track plates impacting on hard road surfaces.
2.3.2 During transportation over rough and degraded roads the effects of the track patter on payload
responses become less pronounced than on hard road surfaces. However, the low frequency displacements
and the higher severity transient responses increase. These increases can be greater than those on wheeled
vehicles and are a function of the design characteristics of the suspension systems of tracked vehicles and
the greater speed capability of tracked vehicles on such surfaces.
2.3.3 During transportation over cross country routes the effects of track patter can reduce, although both
the low frequency displacements and transient responses increase. The latter can become very severe
52
Chapter 2-05
especially when the suspension system “bottoms out”. The ability for a tracked vehicle to move at speed
when using off road and cross country routes increases these responses.
2.3.4 The potential damaging effects of bounce and jostle during transportation by tracked vehicle are
similar to those occurring during transportation by wheeled vehicles (see sub-paragraph 2.2.7).
2.3.5 The observations regarding transportation of materiel by tracked trailers are similar to those for
wheeled vehicles (see sub-paragraph 2.2.8).
2.3.6 The inertial acceleration levels experienced by payloads during tracked vehicle manoeuvres beyond
the forward base are usually encompassed by those from other environments.
3.1 General
3.1.1 Options: Three approaches for simulating the effects of transportation beyond the forward base are
generally available, i.e.: in the test laboratory using suitable vibration, shock and bounce test facilities, in the
field using suitable test tracks, or on real terrain under actual conditions. The simulation of the environment
in the laboratory has the advantage that it allows the simulation to be undertaken in defined and controlled
conditions. Moreover, laboratory testing permits reduced test times and increased safety standards
(particularly for munition testing). The simulation using a test track or actual conditions may be more
convenient for large and awkward payloads, and is essential where the payload interacts significantly with
the dynamics of the carriage vehicle.
3.1.2 Laboratory testing: The simulation of the environment in the laboratory is usually viable for all but the
largest payloads. For payloads using anti-shock mounts, care needs to be taken when undertaking vibration
and shock testing because the rate of occurrence of the shocks during testing is many times greater than the
in-Service occurrence rate. In some instances this increased rate can result in excessive heat being
generated which can cause unrealistic degradation of the mounts or foam supports. Where such overheating
could be expected to occur, the test should be suspended at appropriate intervals to allow the test specimen
to cool down.
3.1.3 Test tracks: Because of the difficulties of establishing repeatable “worst case” terrain conditions, use
is often made of purpose designed test tracks. A wide range of test tracks is available representing cross
country conditions and degraded roads. However, not all test tracks are designed to simulate transportation
effects. Some are designed to investigate aspects of structural integrity, vehicle handling and reliability.
Therefore, care is needed when selecting suitable surfaces to ensure representative payload responses are
achieved. Moreover, high amplitude bounce and jostle can be induced at a rate of occurrence many orders
higher than that experienced in-Service, which may induce modes of failure that are unlikely to occur in
practice.
3.1.4 Real conditions trials: Trials conducted over degraded roads and cross country terrain have the
advantage that they are representative of real conditions. Some difficulties that arise when using real terrain
are that worst case conditions may not be attained and the repeatability of test conditions may not be
acceptable.
3.2 Wheeled Vehicles
3.2.1 Vibration test: When a test is required specifically to simulate the effects of wheeled vehicle vibration
during transportation beyond the forward base, a broad band random vibration test is recommended. The
test method to be adopted should be that specified in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose
Vibration Test. This test is to be carried out in sequence and in addition to that for road transportation up to
forward base. Default severities are defined in Test M1, Annex A, Figure A1, which covers vehicle use over
rough tracks, degraded roads, off-road and cross country routes.
53
Chapter 2-05
Chapter 2-11, Test M11 – Wheeled Vehicle Transportation Bounce Test, also known as the Loose Cargo
NOTE Due to the limitations previously discussed, bounce testing should not replace vibration testing for road
transport. If bounce testing is required, it should be conducted in addition to any vibration and shock.
3.2.3 Shock test: A shock test needs to be undertaken in addition to the vibration test and bounce test (if
applicable). Two test methods are appropriate.
a) Basic pulse test: For payloads, this shock environment is usually satisfactorily covered by ruggedness
testing such as that specified in Part 3 Chapter 2-03 Test M3 - Classical & Sine Waveform Shock (or
in some cases by the use of Part 3 Chapter 2-12 Test M12 – Bump Test). The default severities are
shown in Test M3, Table 2.
b) Operational shock test: An alternative shock test is available in Part 3 Chapter 2-06 Test M6 -
Operational Shock Simulation Test. The main advantage of the operational shock test is that it
permits the use of more realistic oscillatory waveforms. For example, it is possible to replicate
transportation shocks expressed in shock response spectra format. This alternative method can also
offer cost savings from a reduced number of test rigging configurations. However, the use of Test M6
may not be cost effective for less sophisticated materiel.
3.2.4 Acceleration test: Testing by applying quasi-static acceleration loadings for such transportation
environments is normally unnecessary, because the adequacy of the materiel can usually be demonstrated
by assessment. However, when this is not the case a tailored test should be derived from measured data.
3.3 Tracked Vehicles
3.3.1 Vibration test: This vibration test is intended to cover the transportation of payloads within tracked
vehicles. The test method adopted should be that specified in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General
Purpose Vibration Test. The default severities are presented in Test M1, Annex A, Figures A20 to A27,
and cover well maintained and rough and degraded road surfaces, off-road and cross country routes. Two
possible test types are permissible, i.e.: swept narrow band random on broad band random, or swept sine on
broad band random. The swept narrow band random or swept sine components are intended to replicate the
effects of track patter and are swept up and down the specified frequency range to represent variations in
vehicle speed. Further information on the implementation of these default severities in the laboratory can be
found in AOP-34 [3], covered by STANAG 4242 [4].
3.3.2 Bounce Test: For small items transported as loose cargo, it may be necessary to perform a bounce
test in addition to the vibration test discussed above. The test method to be adopted is that specified in
Part 3, Chapter 2-11, Test M11 - Wheeled Vehicle Transportation Bounce Test, also known as the
“Loose Cargo Test”.
Bounce testing should not replace vibration testing for tracked vehicle transportation. If bounce testing is
required, it should be conducted in addition to any vibration and shock testing. Further guidance on test
selection is provided in Part 2 of this standard.
3.3.3 Shock test: A shock test needs to be undertaken in addition to the vibration test and bounce test (if
applicable). Two test methods are appropriate.
a) Basic pulse test: For payloads, this shock environment is usually satisfactorily covered by ruggedness
testing such as that specified in Part 3 Chapter 2-03 Test M3 Classical & Sine Waveform Shock (or
in some cases by the use of Part 3 Chapter 2-12 Test M12 – Bump Test). The default severities are
shown in Test M3, Table 2.
54
Chapter 2-05
b) Operational shock test: An alternative shock test is available in Part 3 Chapter 2-06 Test M6 -
Operational Shock Simulation Test. The main advantage of the operational shock test is that it
permits the use of more realistic oscillatory waveforms. For example, it is possible to replicate
transportation shocks expressed in shock response spectra format. This alternative method can also
offer cost savings from a reduced number of test rigging configurations. However, the use of Test M6
may not be cost effective for less sophisticated materiel.
3.3.4 Acceleration test: Testing by applying quasi-static acceleration loadings for such transportation
environments is normally unnecessary, because the adequacy of the materiel can usually be demonstrated
by assessment. However, when this is not the case a tailored test should be derived from measured data.
4.1 Vibration, shock and transients: A considerable range of opinion exists as to the most appropriate
methods for the processing of measured vibration data from the both wheeled and tracked vehicles.
Information on the derivation of test severities from measured data for wheeled and tracked vehicles is given
in Chapter 7-02 and Chapter 7-01 respectively.
4.2 Bounce: it is inappropriate to derive test severities from measured data. The mechanical limitations of
the Bounce Test facility seriously restrict the scope for “tailoring” the test severities to the in-Service
environmental conditions. The severities are controlled mainly by adjusting the duration of exposure.
Although some variation in materiel responses can be achieved through the selection of one of the available
test table motions, only the circular synchronous motion option is recommended on the basis that only this
motion appears to provide consistent test results [3].
55
Chapter 2-05
0.1

0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
a. Vibration Spectrum
100
Probability Distribution (%)
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Amplitude (g pk)
b. Amplitude Probability Distribution
2.0
Vibration (g pk)
1.0
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (s)
c. Transient Response
Figure 1 Examples of Vibration Responses in the Vertical Axis Measured During Transportation on
a Rough Road
56
Chapter 2-05
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Amplitude (g pk)
2.0
Vibration (g pk)
1.0
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (s)
Figure 2 Examples of Vibration Responses in the Transverse Axis Measured During

Transportation on a Rough Road
57
Chapter 2-05
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Amplitude (g pk)
2.0
Vibration (g pk)
1.0
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (s)
Figure 3 Examples of Vibration Responses in the Longitudinal Axis Measured During

Transportation on a Rough Road
58
Chapter 2-05
Annex A
Annex A
A.1 References
1 Tracklayers: A Complex Vibration Environment, Proceedings of 2990 i.e.S B Colin

Technical Meeting.
2 Acceleration Measurements on Special Tracks and on Road/Cross Country - A M B Dumelin and F Kohler
Comparison, Proceedings of 1990 i.e.S Technical Meeting.
3 AOP-34, Allied Ordnance Publication, Vibration Test Method and Severities for -
Munitions Carried in Tracked Vehicles.
4 STANAG 4242, NATO Standardisation Agreement 4242, Vibration Tests for -
Munitions Carried in Tracked Vehicles.
A.2 Bibliography
A Method of Deriving Damage Equivalent Power spectra for the Land Transportation G E Johnson
Environments, Cambridge Consultants Ltd Report No C128A, MOD(PE) No
GR/85/021-01, 1972.
An Indirect Approach to the Problem of specifying Shock and Vibration Tests to Cover G E Johnson
Transportation over Public roads, Cambridge Consultants Ltd Report No M202,
MOD(PE) No GR/85/024-01, 1973.
A Study of the Transportation Shock Environment and its Simulation, Cambridge G E Johnson
Consultants Ltd Report No M208, MOD(PE) No DX101/07-01, July 1976.
The Shock and Vibration Environment of Packages Carried on a 3 Ton General G E Johnson
Purpose Truck, SEE Symposium, February 1971.
Engineers, Vol 14-4 (Issue 71) December 1976.
Freight Transport Environment, ASCE-ADME Transportation Eng Mtg, Reprint 1500,
July 1971.
Road Surface Description and Vehicle Response, Int J of Vehicle Design, Vol 1 No 1 J D Robson
1979.
The Description of Road Surface Roughness, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 31(2), C J Dodds and J D Robson
P175-183, 1973.
Response of an Acceleration Vehicle to Random Road Undulation, Journal of Sound V J Virchis and J D Robson
and Vibration, 18(3), P423-427, 1971.
Trials Assessment Report on the Vibration Measurement during Transportation of S T Burnage
BL755 in an ACA 805 Container, Hunting Engineering Report TP28612/1, June 1987.
An Update of Spacecraft Dynamic Environments Induced by Ground Transportation, M R O’Connell
Shock and Vibration Bulletin No 55, Part 2,P77-86, June 1985.
Transportation Dynamic Environment Summary, Sandia Laboratories Report No EDB J T Foley
1354 (also SC-M-72 0076), 1972.
Information Relating to Load Restraint Requirements for Surface Transport, EPS A T Smith
Logistic Technology Report No CP/8/34-114, March 1989.
59
Chapter 2-05
Annex A
Intentionally Blank
60
Chapter 2-06
Chapter 2-06
This chapter is currently unallocated
61
Chapter 2-06
Intentionally Blank
62
Chapter 3-01
SECTION 3 - HANDLING AND STORAGE

Chapter 3-01
Mechanical Aspects of Handling
1 Scope
handling. It includes handling and servicing conditions associated with transportation and related logistical
movements, and also those associated with deployment and operational use. During transportation materiel
is usually packaged, whereas during deployment materiel may be in its unpackaged state and as such may
be relatively vulnerable. Guidance is given on the selection of the appropriate test methods and test
severities. References and bibliography are included as Annex A.
1.2 For the purpose of this chapter, materiel exposed to handling conditions may be unprotected or
carried within some form of protection, package or container. A payload may consist of a single or several
items of materiel. Unless otherwise stated the environmental descriptions relate to the payload. All axes
relate to payload axes, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with the direction of normal motion, i.e.:
forward.
2.1 General
2.1.1 Although for most materiel the mechanical environments experienced during handling are relatively
benign, for sensitive equipment to be used, for example, in fixed installations these environments could be
the most severe it is likely to experience. However, the severities of mechanical environments experienced
by sensitive materiel during handling and servicing are often constrained by logistical procedures, or the use
of special handling equipment or protective devices.
2.1.2 The most severe mechanical aspects of handling are usually associated with the shocks and
transients arising from rough handling, and particularly from the materiel being dropped. Such events may
cause local structural damage and internal fractures. However if the package or equipment, at the impact
face, is very stiff then failure of internal equipment or structure may be induced as a result of acceleration
loadings. During drop events significant displacements of the materiel can arise which may cause the
materiel to impact with the inside of its package.
2.1.3 For most payloads the vibration environment arising from handling is less severe than that it is likely
to experience during transportation. However, it is likely that any packaging will be designed to protect the
materiel from shocks rather than vibration. As a result, in some designs of package, significant amplification
of the excitations may occur at low frequencies (10-50Hz) which may give rise to the materiel impacting with
the inside of its package.
2.1.4 It is impractical to address the wide range of handling operations that could be applied to materiel.
Therefore the following information relates only to the more commonly encountered modes of handling.
2.2 Forklift Vehicles
2.2.1 Materiel may experience several types of dynamic response when subjected to handling operations
by forklift vehicles. These operations will induce shocks during lift up and set down, and vibration during the
vertical movement of the forklift platform. In general, the induced responses are benign.
2.2.2 The most significant responses are generated when the forklift vehicle traverses irregular surfaces [1]
[2]
and arise from the small diameter wheels and the rudimentary suspension systems with which most forklift
vehicles are equipped. Moreover the resulting responses are essentially of a non-gaussian distribution.
63
Chapter 3-01
Although procedures can specify the maximum speed of forklift vehicle operations, in practice such
procedures are difficult to enforce.
2.2.3 Examples of shock response spectra in three axes for four different (US) forklift vehicles are shown
in Figure 1. Although the type and size of the forklift vehicle, and the payload mass appear to have some
influence on transient responses, their effects are not profoundly significant.
2.3 Hoisting and Lifting
During hoisting, acceleration and deceleration levels of around 2g can be induced in the materiel. In most
cases these conditions can be treated as quasi-static loadings.
2.4 Intra-Facility Transport
Transportation within a facility may utilise wheeled vehicles or trailers. Usually such transportation is
undertaken with restricted speeds and over good surfaces, and therefore the materiel responses are usually
benign. Higher levels are to be expected at airports [3] where intra-facility transportation speeds are relatively
fast, but nevertheless, response levels are generally below those which arise from road transportation.
2.5 Special Purpose Handling Equipment
2.5.1 Special purpose handling equipment in the form of materiel packaging is designed with the prime
aim of protecting the materiel against the handling environment. This type of handling equipment is not
considered in this chapter. Other special purpose handling equipments, such as trolleys, are used for
logistics and transportation purposes and induce dynamic responses in the materiel.
2.5.2 Transient responses from a UK S-trolley, used to move stores around airfields, are shown in
Figure 2 and Figure 3. These figures show responses arising from traversing typical airfield obstacles such
as landing lights at 5 and 10 mph, and also the effects of snatch starts and emergency stops by the towing
vehicle.
2.5.3 Trolleys can induce, in some circumstances, severe vibration and shock conditions in the
transported materiel. The problem is exacerbated because of the height constraint imposed on trolleys, such
as those used to load torpedoes under helicopters, which allow only simple suspension systems to be
employed. As a consequence, movement of these trolleys over deck discontinuities and poor surfaces can
result in severe induced shocks and vibration.
2.6 Rough Handling
2.6.1 The logistical operations involved in preparing materiel for operational use, and during operational
use itself, allow considerable potential for rough handling. At this stage materiel is often unprotected and is
most vulnerable to such treatment. Potential incidences of rough handling should be identified and quantified
through detailed examination of the relevant sections of the Manufacture to Target/Disposal Sequence.
2.6.2 A severe condition usually adopted is to assume that materiel could be dropped from a bench or
while being man carried (0.7 to 1m). However, most materiel is unlikely to survive such a drop without
serious (and obvious) damage. Moreover, only small items can be dropped in such a manner and it is
usually difficult to subject large or heavy items to rough handling to this extent.
2.6.3 One method of establishing a rough handling severity is to determine the drop height which will just
produce visible external damage. The rationale is that operational procedures will ensure that any visible
external damage instigates a full performance check before the materiel is released for operational use.
64
Chapter 3-01
3.1 General
3.1.1 The selection of test methods and test severities specifically to reproduce the dynamic responses
likely to be experienced by materiel during handling and servicing operations should be undertaken with
knowledge of any procedural constraints which may be imposed. For most handling and servicing
operations, the appropriate test procedures are specified in Part 3, Chapter 2-04, Test M4 - Drop, Topple
and Roll Test, and Chapter 2-05, Test M5 – Impact (Vertical and Horizontal) Test.
3.1.2 When no procedural constraints exist, care should be taken to establish likely handling logistics. In
general, compounding several worst conceivable conditions, which would be extremely unlikely to occur
simultaneously, should be avoided.
3.2 Forklift Handling
Guidance on the recommended test method for forklift handling conditions is given in the handling section of
Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test.
3.3 Hoisting and Lifting
Testing materiel specifically for hoisting and lifting conditions is rarely required. Normally quasi-static
acceleration loadings to replicate the hoisting loadings are encompassed by testing for other phases of
deployment or the adequacy of the materiel is demonstrated by assessment. Nevertheless, testing is
required to demonstrate that materiel lifting arrangements meet their performance and safety requirements.
The test procedure is that specified in Part 3, Chapter 2-15, Test M15 - Lifting Test.
3.4 Intra-Facility Transport
Because intra-facility transportation occurs in a relatively controlled manner, it is usually considered to be

encompassed by road transportation and handling. One exception is airfield trolley testing for airborne
stores, which is often undertaken using specific test surfaces and replicated airfield movements to evaluate
the stability, tie down and structural integrity of store/trolley assemblies.
3.5 Special Purpose Handling Equipment
If testing may be required to reproduce the dynamic responses of materiel arising from the use of special
purpose handling equipment then it is recommended that the test severities are derived from measured data.
3.6 Rough Handling
Testing of materiel to determine damage arising as a consequence of rough handling involves dropping the
test item in specified orientations. The appropriate test procedures are specified in Part 3, Chapter 2-05,
Test M5 - Impact (Vertical and Horizontal) Test.

Specific procedures do not exist for determining test severities from measured data for the handling
environment. However, the general guide-lines set out in Chapter 11-01 are applicable.
65
Chapter 3-01
Vertical Lateral Longitudinal
100 100
10 10
Amplitude (g pk)
Amplitude (g pk)
1 1
0.1 0.1
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
a. Tonne Capacity Fork Lift Truck b. 1.5 Tonne Capacity Fork Lift Truck
100 100
10 10
Amplitude (g pk)
Amplitude (g pk)
1 1
0.1 0.1
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
c. 2 Tonne Capacity Fork Lift Truck d. 3.5 Tonne Capacity Fork Lift Truck
NOTE All SRS are maxi-max and computed using Q = 16.667
Figure 1 Examples of Shock Response Spectra for Transients Measured on Four Forklift Trucks
66
Chapter 3-01
Test Track 5 mph

2
Vibration (g pk)
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Test Track 10 mph

2
Vibration (g pk)
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Snatch Start
2
Vibration (g pk)
-1
-2
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Time (s)
Emergency Stop
3
Vibration (g pk)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Time (s)
Figure 2 Examples of Vertical Responses from an Airfield S-Trolley Measured Above Rear Axle
67
Chapter 3-01
Test Track 5 mph

2
Vibration (g pk)
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Test Track 10 mph

2
Vibration (g pk)
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Snatch Start
3
Vibration (g pk)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Time (s)
Emergency Stop
3
Vibration (g pk)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Time (s)
Figure 3 Examples of Longitudinal Responses from an Airfield S-Trolley Measured Above Rear
Axle
68
Chapter 3-01
Annex A
Annex A
A.1 References
1 The Dynamic Environment Associated with Bomb Transport by Forklift Truck, M B Gens
Sandia Laboratories Report No:SAND74-0443, May 1975.
2 The Dynamic Environment of Four Industrial Forklift Trucks, The Shock and M B Gens
Vibration Bulletin No:45, P59-67, June 1975.
3 Ground Operations During Air Cargo Transport, Packforsk Publication No.107, Thomas Trost
1986.
A.2 Bibliography
Trials Assessment Report on The Vibration Measurement During Transportation of S T Burnage

BL755 in an ACA 805 Container, Hunting Engineering Report TP28612/1, June 1987.
Transportation Dynamic Environment Summary, Sandia Laboratories Report No: EDB J T Foley
1354 (also SC-M-72 0076), 1972.
Engineers, Vol 14-4 (Issue 71), December 1976.
69
Chapter 3-01
Annex A
Intentionally Blank
70
Chapter 3-02
Chapter 3-02
Mechanical Aspects of Storage
1 Scope
storage at a facility such as its place of manufacture, a forward base, a shelter, a transit site, etc. It also
encompasses storage conditions beyond such facilities, when environments normally associated with
deployment (including combat conditions) may be experienced. The sources of mechanical loadings are
described and relevant test methods identified.
1.2 For the purpose of this chapter materiel exposed to storage conditions may be unprotected or carried
within some form of protection, package or container.
2.1 Mechanical loadings can be induced during storage arising from:
a) the mass and stiffness distributions of the materiel,
b) the permitted stacking configurations for the materiel,
c) uneven floors, racking levels or ground support strengths on which the materiel is stored.
These loadings can be treated using quasi-static analyses and test methods.
2.2 Although no specific dynamic mechanical environments have been identified that are unique to
storage conditions, the relevance of the following aspects should be considered:
a) Materiel is likely to be handled during storage. The associated dynamic characteristics and treatments
are addressed in Chapter 3-01.
b) Materiel could be stored adjacent to air conditioning plants. The associated dynamic characteristics and
treatments are addressed in Chapter 5-01.
c) Materiel could be stored for significant periods on road vehicles, trains, aircraft or ships. The associated
dynamic characteristics and treatments are addressed in the relevant transportation chapters.
d) Materiel could be subjected to snow loadings. The associated characteristics and treatments are
addressed in Chapter 5-01.
2.3 Ageing during storage can cause mechanical defects in materiel, such as permanent deformation in
seals and drive belts, but it is not in itself a mechanical induced environment.
2.4 Potential damaging effects that could occur when materiel, with or without its container, is subjected to
the quasi-static mechanical loadings arising from the storage are:
a) failure or displacement of structural elements,
b) loosening of screws, rivets, fasteners,
c) unacceptable deflection of cushioning elements,
d) deterioration of climatic protection,
e) damage to protective coatings.
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Chapter 3-02
3.1 A series of three test methods has been included in Part 3 Section 2 of this Standard to accommodate
the mechanical loadings experienced by materiel during storage. They are:
a) Chapter 2-16 - Stacking Static Load Test
b) Chapter 2-17 - Bending Test
c) Chapter 2-18 - Racking Test
3.2 Default severities for these test methods are embedded within the detailed test procedures, and reflect
values that have proved to be satisfactory in the past.
3.3 If any potential storage conditions are identified that may exceed those covered by the above three
test methods, then field measurements should be acquired from which environmental descriptions and test
severities can be determined.
3.4 If the materiel to be tested is believed to be sensitive to adverse climatic conditions involving
temperature and/or humidity, then it is important that these tests are conducted as a series of combined
environments tests incorporating the relevant climatic conditions. Suitable climatic test methods are
contained in Part 3 Section 3 of this Standard.
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Chapter 4-01
SECTION 4 - MAN MOUNTED AND PORTABLE

Chapter 4-01
Mechanical Aspects of Man Mounted and Portable Materiel
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be experienced by man mounted and
portable materiel; i.e.: materiel deployed on or carried by personnel. The conditions encompassed are those
that may arise beyond the forward storage base. The sources of excitation and the characteristics of the
mechanical environments are described. Where appropriate, guidance is given on the selection of test
methods and default severities.
1.2 The mechanical environments experienced by man portable materiel during tactical transportation
include those that may arise from wheeled vehicles under both on-road and off-road conditions, and those
that may occur in tracked vehicles such as Armoured Personnel Carriers (APCs). Tactical air transportation
in fixed and rotary wing aircraft is also included.
1.3 For the purposes of this chapter, materiel is considered to be unprotected by its normal transportation
package or container. It may be protected by secondary systems or “battlefield” protection devices. Unless
otherwise stated, environmental descriptions relate to the man/materiel interface, or to the external surface
for man portable materiel.
2.1 General
The mechanical environmental conditions experienced by man mounted materiel are mostly
indistinguishable from those of man portable materiel. Moreover, in the specific instances where they are
not, the environmental conditions when man mounted will be less severe than those for man portable
materiel.
2.2 Tactical Ground Transportation
2.2.1 The environmental conditions occurring during tactical transportation of man portable and mounted
materiel are in many respects similar to those occurring during transportation beyond the forward base
(addressed in Chapter 2-05). However, during tactical transportation, in addition to being essentially
unprotected, the materiel is probably not securely restrained within the carriage vehicle. Any restraint that
exists is unlikely to be sufficient to prevent bounce and jostle of the materiel occurring and consequently, any
resulting motions could generate significant dynamic responses in the materiel.
2.2.2 While tactical transportation may utilise good quality made up roads, it must be assumed that
transportation can also occur over poor quality or damaged road surfaces, unmade tracks and even over
cross country routes. These inferior conditions are capable of producing significantly higher dynamic
responses. Moreover, certain types of vehicles may be utilised which are not ordinarily used for normal
transportation, eg: APCs.
2.2.3 For unrestrained cargo the most damaging environmental conditions are those producing relatively
large displacements and velocities at low frequencies. Increasingly rough surfaces and cross country
conditions produce increasingly more severe dynamic responses. However, these conditions also reduce
vehicle speeds and act to some extent to limit response amplitudes.
a) Wheeled vehicles: The conditions causing dynamic responses in materiel during transportation beyond
the forward base in wheeled vehicles are described in Chapter 2-05. The characteristics of the
environments described in that Chapter are very similar to those likely to be experienced by man
portable materiel during tactical transportation.
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Chapter 4-01
b) Tracked vehicles: The conditions causing the dynamic responses in materiel during transportation
beyond the forward base in tracked vehicles are also described in Chapter 2-05. The characteristics of
the environments described in that Chapter are very similar to those likely to be experienced by man
portable materiel during tactical transportation.
2.3 Tactical Air Transportation
The characteristics of the environments arising from tactical transportation in fixed and rotary wing aircraft
are unlikely to be sufficient to generate any significant bounce and jostle. As such the circumstances causing
the mechanical environmental conditions experienced by man portable materiel will be essentially identical to
those set out for normal air transportation in Chapter 2-03.
2.4 Man Portable
2.4.1 Man portable materiel may be picked up, put down, dropped, moved or even thrown. The exact type
and severity of environments arising from such handling will depend upon the size, mass and operational
use of the materiel in question. In the majority of cases the most significant dynamic environments will arise
from impact conditions. Such impacts can occur against a wide range of surfaces from soft mud to concrete.
In addition the geometry of the surface may be flat or exhibit a high degree of irregularity.
2.4.2 The range of possible impact scenarios should be considered so that the worst case dynamic
deceleration loads, penetration and bending likely to occur during battlefield handling conditions can be
established.
a) Impact: The materiel may be assumed to impact, at any conceivable angle, a hard rigid surface. The
impact velocity is unlikely to exceed 3 m/s. This velocity should generate the limit deceleration
conditions.
b) Spigot intrusion: The materiel may be assumed to impact, at any conceivable angle, a spigot. Again the
impact velocity is unlikely to exceed 3 m/s. This velocity should generate the limit penetration conditions.
The dimensions of the spigot will depend upon the operational scenarios.
c) Bending: Impact of the materiel over a trench, whose dimensions are such as to prevent the materiel
falling into it, will generate the limit dynamic bending conditions. Again, the impact velocity is unlikely to
exceed 3 m/s. In some cases the limit bending condition may be caused by the weight of a man acting
at the centre of the materiel when deployed over a trench.
2.4.3 The previous paragraph indicates maximum potential impact velocities. However, these are
considered to be upper limits for “one man” portable materiel in tactical operational environments. For larger
or heavier and bulky materiel these values may be reduced significantly.
2.4.4 One method of establishing the limit impact velocity condition is to determine the impact velocity that
will just produce visible external damage. The rationale is that operational procedures will ensure that any
visible external damage invokes a stop on the materiel for operational use.
2.5 Man Mounted
The conditions experienced by man mounted materiel are in general similar to those for man portable
materiel. Where differences do occur it is because the materiel is only deployed when attached to the man.
In some circumstances man survival limits may drive the degree of materiel protection. However, in most
cases the necessary degree of robustness will be set to similar levels as for man portable materiel. Important
exceptions may be aircrew helmet mounted materiel such as gun and night sights.
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Chapter 4-01
3.1 Tactical Transportation
The test methods and default severities for wheeled and tracked vehicle tactical transportation are identical
to those stated in Chapter 2-05 for transportation beyond the forward base. The test methods and default
severities for tactical air transportation are identical to those stated in Chapter 2-03 for air transportation to
the forward base.
3.2 Man Portable and Man Mounted
3.2.1 Impact: The test method to be used is that set out in Part 3, Chapter 2-05, Test M5 – Impact
(Vertical and Horizontal) Test
3.2.2 Bending: The materiel should be subjected to an impact against two hard rigid surfaces arranged
such that conditions of greatest bending are induced. A standardised test method has not been identified.

Specific procedures do not exist for establishing test severities for the handling environment from measured
data, but the guide lines set out in Chapter 11-01 are generally applicable.
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Intentionally Blank
76
Chapter 5-01
SECTION 5 - NON-MOBILE AND FIXED INSTALLATIONS

Chapter 5-01
Mechanical Aspects of Non-Mobile and Fixed Installations
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be induced in materiel sited in non-
mobile and fixed installations ranging from conventional multi-storey buildings to temporary buildings, such
as prefabricated huts or stationary caravans. The sources of excitation and characteristics of the mechanical
conditions are described. Advice is given, where relevant, on the selection of test methods and test
severities.
1.2 Mechanical loadings arising from storage is the subject of Chapter 3-02.
2.1 General
Most non-mobile and fixed installations are unlikely to experience any significant induced dynamic
mechanical conditions. However, others may be subjected to any of the conditions described below.
2.2 Utility Services
Utility services such as air conditioning plants that include motors and pumps can produce significant
vibratory loads, particularly if the plant is incorrectly commissioned or maintained. The characteristics of any
vibration responses induced in the materiel will be mainly sinusoidal and dominated by the relevant
harmonics.
2.3 Externally Mounted Dynamic Assemblies
Externally mounted dynamic assemblies, such as radar antennae or wind powered generators, induce only
static loads in the installation structure, provided that they are dynamically balanced. Consequently, these
loads are not usually transferred to materiel situated within the installation. However, should a significant out-
of-balance dynamic condition be identified and transmitted to sensitive equipment, then the sinusoidal
characteristics referred to in Sub-paragraph 2.2 would also be applicable for these conditions.
2.4 Remote Dynamic Loading Sources
Dynamic loading sources remote from the installation, such as sonic booms, aircraft noise, rail and road
vehicle vibrations, may affect the performance of certain sensitive materiel situated within the installation.
Where these circumstances could apply, measured data should be acquired and its characteristics evaluated
to establish the need, or otherwise, for tests.
2.5 Static Loads
Static loads arising from snow, or stacked items on roof elements, are not usually transferred to materiel
situated within the installations. Moreover, such loadings are usually dealt with by analysis rather than by
test.
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3.1 Dynamic Tests
Should the vibration levels for any of the dynamic conditions referred to in Paragraph 2 be such that a test is
warranted, then the test procedures defined in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration
Test are appropriate. Test severities should be derived from measured data. No specific procedures exist for
establishing test severities from measured data acquired for these conditions but the guidelines set out in
Chapter 11-01 are generally applicable.
3.2 Static Tests
Should particular conditions warrant a test to cover, for example, snow loading then the appropriate test
procedure specified in Part 3 should be used (e.g. Chapter 3-22 - Snow Load).
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Chapter 6-01
SECTION 6 - DEPLOYMENT ON LAND VEHICLES

Chapter 6-01
Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Tracked Vehicles
1 General
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be encountered by materiel when
deployed on or installed in tracked vehicles. The following categories of tracked vehicles are considered:
main battle tanks, armoured fighting vehicles (including armoured personnel carriers) and logistics vehicles.
The use of these vehicles in both on and off-road situations is addressed.
1.2 The sources and characteristics of the mechanical environments are presented and where
appropriate, information is given on potential damaging effects. Advice is given on the selection of the
appropriate Test Methods. Guidance is given in Annex A on the compilation of environment descriptions and
test severities from measured data.
1.3 Some critical design loadings arise from the effects of hostile action such as blast, or the use of
explosive reactive armour. Such hostile environments are not addressed in this chapter.
1.4 When a tracked vehicle moves across a terrain, interactions between the vehicle's tracks and the
terrain result in vibration excitation being transmitted to the vehicle's installed materiel via the suspension
system and hull structure. Vibration is also generated by the action of the tracks moving over their wheels,
sprockets and rollers (see Figure 1) which can pass directly into the vehicle's hull. In addition, materiel will
experience inertial loadings arising from the vehicle's acceleration, e.g.: when increasing speed, braking,
cornering, etc.
1.5 The action of the vehicle's engine, transmission, pumps, etc, can also give rise to vibration, which is
likely to be most significant at discrete frequencies associated with rotating shafts, gear meshing, etc. The
significance of these excitations is strongly dependent on the position of the materiel relative to these
sources.
1.6 Vibration spectra acquired from the measurements on tracked vehicles comprise a wide band random
spectrum upon which is superimposed a number of relatively low frequency narrow band peaks. An example
of such a spectrum is shown in Figure 2. The impact of successive track plates on the ground is perceived
within the vehicle as narrow band spectral components, which can be severe. These narrow band
components are speed dependent and relate to the fundamental track patter frequency and usually several
higher harmonics. The wide band component is generated by the combined effects of the rolling of the
wheels on the tracks, interactions between the track links and the various other sources including engine,
gearbox, generators, etc. Peaks in response frequencies corresponding to the vehicle's suspension system
can be expected to be low, eg: <3 Hz. Relatively broad band peaks in frequencies may also be evident
corresponding to structural dynamic modes of the vehicle itself and racking.
1.7 The dynamic responses of materiel deployed on tracked vehicles depend on the factors discussed
below.
2 Characteristics of the Environment
2.1 Terrain Type
The nature of terrain experienced by a tracked vehicle will significantly influence the response of the
materiel. Terrain which may need to be considered depends upon the vehicle's role, and could include
classified roads, rough roads, Belgium Block (Pavé), etc, in addition to cross-country. As noted above, the
action of the track plates impacting on the ground will be a major source of vibration. Therefore hard
surfaces, including classified roads, are likely to provide a more severe environment than softer terrain such
as cross country, which tends to cushion the impact of track pads on contact with the ground. This is in
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Chapter 6-01
contrast to the trend associated with wheeled vehicles, which produce relatively benign vibration loadings on
classified roads. An example for a tracked vehicle of how vibration responses, expressed as overall g rms,
vary with respect to terrain type is shown in Figure 3. Whilst Pavé like surfaces are not encountered very
often this surface produces large displacements and a more general broadband vibration characteristic,
which are useful to include in the vibration test specification for design purposes.
2.2 Vehicle Characteristics
2.2.1 The vibration environment associated with armoured tracked vehicles is particularly severe. The
contributing factors are the stiffness of their suspension systems, their overall structural rigidity and lack of
damping, their powerful engines and track systems.
2.2.2 Logistics vehicles are often not armoured and can be based on standard chassis designs. The
vibration severity of these vehicles is likely to reflect the design aims of their chassis, which may be to meet
either commercial or military requirements. The vibration environment for logistics vehicles built on military
chassis may be more severe than those built on commercial chassis because of their relatively high
suspension system stiffness and structural rigidity.
2.2.3 The type of track plates fitted to a tracked vehicle is a major influence on the vibration environment
within the vehicle. Two principal aspects of plate design can influence vibration severity.
a) Plate Connections: There are a number of different designs used to connect the plates together. Hull
vibration in terms of the overall g rms (0 to 1000 Hz) associated with a dry pin design of track can be at
least 2 times as severe as that associated with end connector track. See illustrations at Figure 4 and
Figure 5.
b) Plate Facings: The type of facing fitted to the metal track plates should reflect the type of terrain that a
vehicle may be expected to encounter. For example, rubber facings are often used when a vehicle is to
spend a high proportion of its time on classified roads. Whilst these are fitted to avoid damage to the
road surface by the track, a secondary effect is to reduce significantly the severity of track patter
vibration.
c) Band track vehicles have recently been introduced to service and at present only limited data is
available. The nature of the vibration remains the same as that associated with traditional tracks.
2.2.4 The agility of a vehicle is related to its power to weight ratio. Modern armoured fighting vehicles
(AFVs) tend to have high power to weight ratios and are therefore capable of high speeds, e.g; greater than
60 km/hr. As vibration severity tends to increase with speed, there is reason to expect that high power to
weight ratio vehicles will produce an increase in the severity of the dynamic environments. Higher speeds will
also extend the frequencies of the track patter harmonics.
2.3 Vehicle Operation
2.3.1 In general, vehicle structural vibration severity can be expected to increase as vehicle speed
increases but g rms levels do not increase linearly with speed.
2.3.2 If resonances are excited, the maximum vibration responses of installed materiel do not necessarily
occur at the vehicle's maximum speed. Such resonances could be associated with the vehicle's structure,
the particular item of materiel or its mounting arrangements.
2.3.3 For AFVs, vibration during cornering is often considerably more severe than when travelling in a
straight line, e.g.: by up to 2 times for the hull and up to 2.5 times in the turret in terms of the overall g rms (0
to 1000 Hz).
2.3.4 Some materiel might be susceptible to vehicle tilt, which may become significant in off-road
conditions. In such circumstances, severe tilt angles may be encountered.
2.3.5 The addition of armour can significantly increase the mass of the vehicle and reduce the vibration
levels.
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Chapter 6-01
2.3.6 Steady-state accelerations will be experienced by the vehicle when increasing speed, braking or
cornering. Such levels are unlikely to exceed 1 g during use on classified roads. During off-road use,
accelerations arising from jolts when uneven terrain is traversed may exceed 1 g.
2.4 Materiel Position and Mounting
The severity of the environment seen by materiel installed in a vehicle depends on where the materiel is
mounted. Evidence suggests that hull vibration, expressed as the overall g rms (0 to 1000 Hz), can be
significantly more severe than in the turret, depending on vehicle type and measurement axis. With respect
to the relative severity of axes, vibration in the vertical axis in the hull or turret has often been seen to be
more severe than that in the transverse or longitudinal axes. The mass and mounting arrangements of the
materiel can also influence its response.
2.5 Gunfire and Launch of Weapons
The launch of weapons and the firing of guns can subject the vehicle to high levels of shock, vibration and
blast pressure. These conditions are highly specific to particular installations and therefore generalised
guidance on their characteristics is inappropriate.
3 Potential Damaging Effects
3.1 Failure Modes
3.1.1 Materiel may be susceptible to a range of failure modes associated with displacement, velocity and
acceleration. Displacement related failures in materiel can arise through collisions between materiel after
relative movement; tension failures after relative movement; connectors becoming loose leading to a break
in electrical continuity etc. Acceleration related failures may arise through the action of inertial loadings.
These may be applied once, to produce a threshold exceedance failure, or repeatedly to induce a fatigue
failure. Velocity related failures can be associated with wear and fretting etc. Velocity loadings on some
electrical equipment, including sensors, could also induce spurious voltages, which in turn could lead to
functional failure.
3.1.2 General examples of specific failure modes associated with materiel carried on tracked vehicles are
considered below:
⎯ Degradation of Laser Range Finding, Night Vision, Electronic Targeting Projection Display, Fusing, and
Computing etc.
⎯ Optic equipment misalignment, loosening, and fogging. Generally, looseness in optics is due to shock
from firing, transport, and dropping.
⎯ Physical fasteners (usually torque devises, mostly threaded screws, studs, and bolts) are a continuing
source of mechanical failures.
⎯ For items that are not securely fastened, additional problems can arise through the action of rattling,
e.g.: scuffing, fretting and brinelling.
⎯ Degradation of Electrical Connectors, Switches and Batteries.
⎯ Damage to Explosive and primer compounds etc.
3.1.3 When considering vibration both the amplitude and characteristics of the vibrations occurring as a
result of track patter are distinctly different to those of the vibrations occurring during transportation by
wheeled vehicle. The frequency range over which the main responses occur encompasses the modes of
vibration of many packages, equipment, munitions and racking. As such the potential exists for these to be
excited at one of their modes of vibration sufficiently to generate significant materiel responses.
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Chapter 6-01
3.1.4 The potential damage effects of shocks occurring during transportation by tracked vehicle are similar
to those occurring during transportation by wheeled vehicles. Therefore, it is not necessary to consider
special shock testing other than would generally be used for wheeled vehicles.
3.1.5 The potential damage effects of loose cargo transportation by tracked vehicles are similar to those
occurring during transportation by wheeled vehicles. Therefore, it is not necessary to consider special loose
cargo testing other than would generally be used for wheeled vehicles.
Tracked vehicle operations can induce high levels of vibration in deployed materiel. An area of concern is of
possible coupling between vehicle excitation at track patter frequencies and the response of equipment, i.e.:
associated with the equipment itself or its mounting arrangement. As the fundamental track patter frequency
varies, according to vehicle speed, up to approximately 200 Hz depending on vehicle type, it is difficult to
avoid significant coincidences at all times. This problem is exacerbated by the presence of significant
harmonics of track patter fundamental frequencies.
4 Test Selection
4.1 Testing Options
Three approaches of simulating the tracked vehicle environment are generally available, i.e.: in the test
laboratory using vibrators and other facilities as necessary, in the field using suitable test tracks, or in the
field using road and terrain surfaces under real conditions. The simulation of the environment in the
laboratory has the advantage that it allows the simulation to be undertaken in defined and controlled
conditions. Moreover, laboratory testing permits reduced test times, reduced costs as vehicle operations are
eliminated, and increased safety standards (particularly for munition testing). An advantage of field trials are
that all units are in their correct relative positions and all mechanical impedances are realistic; consequently,
field trials can be expected to expose materiel to all relevant failure mechanisms. Field trials may be
necessary if inadequate data are available from which to base laboratory test severities. A simulation using
field trials may be more convenient for large and awkward payloads, and is essential where the payload
interacts significantly with the dynamics of the carriage vehicle. The disadvantage of field trials is that it
cannot be readily applied to live munitions.
4.2 Laboratory Vibration Testing
The simulation of the environment in the laboratory is usually viable for all but the largest items of materiel.
When a vibration test is required the test procedure used should be that of Part 3, Test M1 of this standard.
4.3 Laboratory Shock Testing
In some cases it may be necessary to undertake shock or transient testing to reproduce the structurally
transmitted transients arising from the vehicle. The test procedure used should be that of Part 3, Test M3 of
this standard. The basic pulse procedure should suffice for most applications, but where a closer simulation
is required AECTP 400, Method 417 is recommended.
4.4 Test Track Trials
Due to the difficulties of establishing 'worst case' road conditions, use is often made of standard test tracks.
A wide range of test tracks is available. Not all of these are designed to simulate tracked vehicle
environments; some are designed to investigate aspects of vehicle handling, and reliability. Therefore, care
is needed when selecting suitable surfaces to ensure representative materiel responses. High amplitude
responses can be induced at a rate of occurrence many orders greater than that experienced in-Service,
which for some materiel may induce modes of failure that are unlikely to occur in practice. The test
procedure used should be that of AECTP 400 Method 408 -Large Assembly Transport.
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Chapter 6-01
4.5 Road and Terrain Trials
Trials conducted over representative roads and terrain for representative durations are the most realistic.
Such trials are only valid when detailed knowledge is available of the materiel's installation and the intended
use of the tracked vehicle. Even when conducting these trials, it may be desirable to include some test track
trials as a convenient way of incorporating limit conditions. The test procedure used should be that of AECTP
400 Method 408 - Large Assembly Transport.
4.6 Acceleration Testing
Testing by the application of quasi-static loadings to simulate vehicle accelerations is usually unnecessary,
because the loadings are either encompassed by testing for other in-Service environments or the adequacy
of the materiel is demonstrated by assessment.
Figure 1 Equipment Mounting Zones and Track Features for a Main Battle Tank
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Chapter 6-01
1
Track patter harmonics
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
NOTE 1 Data from the hull of an armoured fighting vehicle running on a Tarmacadam surface at 50 km/h
NOTE 2 Spectrum is equivalent to 3.25 g rms (vertical axis)
Figure 2 Vibration Spectrum for a Tracked Vehicle (Armoured Personnel Carrier)
1.2
Vertical
1.0 Transverse
Longitudinal
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Classified Road Rough Road Cross Country
Terrain Type
Figure 3 Example Showing Relative Severity of Terrain for the Hull of a Tracked Vehicle (Armoured
Personnel Carrier)
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Chapter 6-01
Key
1 Circlip
2 Retaining bolt
3 Rubber pad
4 Link grouser
5 Lock washer
6 Nut
7 Circlip
8 Track pin
9 Track pin lugs
10 Horn
Figure 4 Dry Pin Track Type (Main Battle Tanks and Armoured Fighting Vehicles)
Key
1 Track pad
2 Track link
3 Track pin
4 Centre connector
5 Screw
6 Rubber insert moulding
7 End Connector
8 Screw
9 Horn
10 Projection
Figure 5 End Connector Track Type (Main Battle Tanks and Armoured Fighting Vehicles)
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Chapter 6-01
Figure 6 Band Track Type Rubber Track (Amphibious Logistic Vehicles e.g. BV206)
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Chapter 6-01
Annex A
Annex A
Derivation of Severities from Measured Data
A.1 Derivation of an Environment Description
A.1.1 Requirements: It is first necessary to establish from the relevant requirements the type of tracked
vehicle in which the materiel is to be installed, the role of the vehicle and the terrain over which it will travel,
the vehicle's operating speeds, and the location of the materiel in the vehicle. Having established the
requirements, relevant vibration data may be acquired from relevant databases or from field measurement
trials.
A.1.2 Environment Descriptions: An environment description for materiel installed in a tracked vehicle
should generally include frequency response characteristics, amplitude probability plots, and time histories of
any transients for each relevant terrain over the range of operating speeds. This information will be used to
examine trends, such as how severity is influenced by terrain and vehicle speed etc. The flow diagram
outlined in Figure A1 points out the steps to be adopted to derive an environment description from
measured data. This diagram enables frequency response characteristics and dynamic response amplitudes
to be quantified for all the relevant test conditions. A process for using these components of the environment
description to produce test spectra and durations is discussed below.
A.2 Derivation of Vibration Test Severities
A.2.1 General
Test severities are defined in terms of the characteristics and amplitudes of the broad band background
vibration, narrow band components associated with track patter, and durations.
A.2.2 Broad Band Component
a) Characteristics: It is often assumed that the broad band spectral characteristics, i.e.: the shape of auto
spectral density (PSD) plots, will be stable with respect to many parameters, including vehicle speed
and terrain type etc. However, this assumption does not fully represent the entire service environment
because it is often apparent that the broadband frequency content increases with speed. This
inconsistency must be taken into account when defining a test specification.
b) Amplitude: The severity of the test spectrum may not in general be obtained directly from PSDs
because, for tracked vehicles, they are unlikely to be an adequate description of the environment. This
is a consequence of the character of this type of data; it can be non-stationary resulting in relatively high
peak to rms ratios. It is therefore also non-Gaussian. These properties of non-stationality and being non-
Gaussian are in contrast to the character of vibration generated in test laboratories. Consequently,
action may be required to avoid under testing in the laboratory. In some cases sufficient conservatism
can be incorporated into the test spectrum by the technique of enveloping and factoring. An alternative
approach is to use amplitude probability distributions (APD) as the basic measure of severity and to
derive appropriate factors which can then be applied to mean spectra. This approach is preferred for
tracked vehicles and an example of its use is given in Paragraph 3.
A.2.3 Narrow Band Components
a) Characteristics: The frequency of the narrow band components at a given speed can be calculated from
knowledge of the track pitch dimension, and can be expected to be easily recognisable in measured
data, at least for hard terrain and under constant speed conditions. To accommodate these effects in a
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Annex A
test spectrum, i.e.: that the frequency of these components are speed dependent, the narrow bands
should be swept over an appropriate frequency range.
b) Amplitudes: Establishing the amplitudes of these components can be a problem because of their
changing frequency with vehicle speed. This can lead to an under-estimation of severity because of
averaging effects implicit in the PSD analysis. One solution is to gather data at a number of constant
speeds which can then be analysed separately. Alternatively, if the speed is not constant throughout a
record, evolutionary spectra (waterfall plots) can be used. In either case, the severity, expressed in
either PSD or RMS form, should be associated with the resolution bandwidth to make the definition
unambiguous. Care should be taken using this technique to avoid areas within the response spectrum
where insufficient data exists to allow adequate analysis definition.
A.2.4 Test Duration
a) Test durations should be based upon the required life of materiel and the usage profile of the relevant
tracked vehicle. In order to avoid impracticably long test durations, it is general practice to invoke
equivalent fatigue damage laws such as Miner's Rule to normalise all the test levels to the highest
measured severity. One method of achieving this requirement is shown below as follows:
t
2
(
1 1 2
)
= t S /S n
where:
t1 = the actual duration in the requirements characterised by the measured level,
t2 = the equivalent duration at the test level,
n = the damage equivalence exponent.
For rms level:
S1 = the rms level of the measured spectrum,
S2 = the rms level of the test spectrum,
n = b = the damage equivalence exponent; values between 5 and 8 are typically used.
For PSD level:
S1 = the PSD level of the measured spectrum,
S2 = the PSD level of the test spectrum,
n = b/2 = the damage equivalence exponent; values between 2.5 and 4 are typically used.
⎯ The value of ‘b’ corresponds to the slope of the fatigue (S/N) curve for the appropriate material. A value
of ‘b’ equal to 8 is adequate to describe the behaviour of metallic structures such as steels and
aluminium alloys which possess an essentially linear stress-strain relationship. This expression is used
with less confidence with non-linear materials and composites. For electronic equipment and non-
metallic materials, elastomers, composites, plastics, explosives, a value of 'b' equal to 5 is
recommended.
⎯ Although the expression has been shown to have some merits when applied to materiel, it should be
used with caution if unrepresentative failures are to be avoided. It is inadvisable for test levels to be
increased beyond the maximum measured levels that equipment may experience during in-service life,
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Annex A
with a statistically based test factor applied. Furthermore, where there is evidence that the materiel is not
fully secured to the vehicle, Miner's Rule is invalid.
⎯ In the calculation of test time it is necessary to take account of the derived test times from the
narrowband and broadband components and then equalise the test times so that a single test time is
applied to the test specification of swept narrowbands on a broadband random vibration.
⎯ Narrowband test times are calculated for the 3 axes. The narrowband test times are calculated from the
highest 1st order Track Patter Frequency (TPF) Maxima level for each of the road speeds in the data
sets (using Miner’s Rule with an index of 2.5) compared to the single highest 1st order TPF level in the
data set being considered.
⎯ Broadband test times are calculated for the 3 axes. The broadband test times are calculated from the
broadband Maxima level for each of the road speeds contained in the data sets (using Miner’s Rule with
an index of 2.5) compared to the highest broadband Maxima level in the data set being considered.
⎯ In order to align the broadband test times with the narrowband test times the vibration test specification
broadband level are adjusted where possible. This is carried out in cases where the calculated
broadband test time is greater than that calculated for narrowband. In order to reduce the broadband
test time to that of the narrowband, the broadband level has to be increased (via Miner’s Rule).
However, in cases where the broadband time is less than the narrowband, an alignment of the test
times, via Miner’s Rule, would result in a reduction of the broadband level. As this is deemed to be
unacceptable it is necessary to concede an overtest in this case (in terms of test duration) by keeping to
the original broadband level and using the narrowband test time for the combined swept narrowbands
on a broadband random vibration test specification. It is not permissible to modify the level of the
narrowbands in order to equalise the test times.
A.2.4.8 A simplified example of the derivation of a test duration using Miner's Law is given in Table A1
below.
Table A1 Simplified Example of the Application of Miner Rule to Materiel

Terrain Speed Severity Duration Time (min)
(mph) Index % Actual Equivalent
t1 t2
Pavé 25 1.0 5.0 3 3.00
Pavé 20 0.7 6.7 4 0.67
Rough road 15 0.6 13.3 8 0.62
Cross country 35 0.5 16.7 10 0.31
Main road 45 0.4 30.0 18 0.18
Main road 35 0.3 20.0 12 0.03
Main road <20 0.2 8.3 5 <0.01
Totals: 100.0 60 4.82
NOTE 1 4.82 minutes test is equivalent to 60 minutes real time vehicle vibration.
NOTE 2 The "Severity Index" for a terrain is the overall g rms normalised with respect to the maximum measured
overall g rms (associated with pavé in this example). It is important to check that the PSD spectrum profile associated
with the reference level (again, pavé in this example) either reflects, or is modified to reflect, the maximum amplitudes
observed over the total frequency range.
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A.3 Comparing Measured Data With Test Specifications
A.3.1 When comparing measured spectra from a vehicle trial with that contained in a test specification or
generated by test house equipment, care must be taken to avoid an under-estimation of the severity of the
measured data. This is because of the different amplitude distributions and peak to rms ratios of these types
of data. These differences can be compensated for as shown
Measured peak APD level

9g
(At the 1 in 500 occurrence level, ie: 2.88 sigma)
Equivalent gaussian rms
3.1g rms
(Measured peak divided by 1 in 500 occurrence level)
Measured non-gaussian rms 1.4g rms
Factor on measured g rms
2.2
(Equivalent gaussian divided by measured non-gaussian)
Factor on measured PSD
4.8
(Measured g factor squared)
NOTE Whilst this analysis indicates that in this instance a factor of 4.8 should be applied to the measured PSD
levels, these higher levels would be appropriate for a relatively short duration.
A.4 Test Level Derivation
A.4.1 General
A.4.1.1 Three alternative test level derivation approaches are presented, taking into account with
increasing complexity the nature of the track vehicle environment.
The vibration of tracked vehicles includes excitation at discrete frequencies which change with vehicle
speed. These narrowband frequency components are known to be track patter fundamental frequency and
its harmonics. Knowing the track pitch, for a given speed, the frequency at which successive track plates
impact the ground can be calculated, e.g. at 40 kph the frequencies of the fundamental and first and second
harmonics could be 72 Hz, 142 Hz and 215 Hz, respectively.
A.4.1.2 The flow diagram outlined in Figure A1 illustrates the steps to be adopted to derive an
environmental description from measured data. This diagram enables frequency response characteristics
and dynamic response amplitudes to be quantified for all the relevant operating conditions.
A.4.1.3 To further quantify the effects of track patter at speed, a Waterfall type analysis can be carried out,
which enables structural resonances and track patter forcing frequencies to be identified, distinguished and
quantified. An example of this analysis is shown in Figure A2, where the track patter frequencies are clearly
visible, tracing diagonal lines radiating from the origin, whilst structural resonances appear as horizontal
lines. This analysis is used to identify the speed related frequency components (f1, f2 and f3 etc).
A.4.1.4 Different vibration test houses have different capabilities with respect to vibration control.
Consequently, tailored tests can be compiled in three alternative formats, with varying degrees of complexity:
a) Swept narrow bands on broadband random vibration - This is the traditional test format for this
environment but has been problematic to implement because of the requirement for large amplitudes at
low frequencies.
b) A two tier, high and low level test utilising swept narrowbands on broadband - This test is designed to
alleviate the high amplitude low frequency problems mentioned in A.4.1.4a). The alleviation is due to the
fact that in the case of most tracked vehicles, vibration is relatively benign at low speeds.
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c) Ramped and swept narrow bands on broadband random vibration - This test format is the most
representative simulation of this environment. However, some test house vibration control software may
not be able to implement such a test.
A.4.1.5 Of these three alternatives, A.4.1.4c) is to be preferred as it is most representative of the in-
service environment. The following figures further illustrate that if the test house has the ability to implement
A.4.1.4c) this is the most representative of the environment, whilst the other Options lead to an over test at
lower frequencies.
A.4.1.6 Typically the track patter harmonics associated with tracked vehicles drive the severity of the
vibration environment. In comparison to the narrowband components the broadband random is relatively
benign for each respective axis. When determining exactly what the broadband component should be, care
must be taken not to include track patter effects, as these are treated separately and included as swept
narrow bands or sinusoids. An example of the broadband and narrowband component can be seen in
Figure A3.
A.4.1.7 The following procedure indicates how broadband vibration test severities may be derived from
measured data. This procedure has been found to be satisfactory in a number of situations; however, no
specific approach can be expected to be universally successful. Nevertheless, the underlying logic of the
procedure can be considered to be generally applicable to all materiel deployed on tracked vehicles.
⎯ Step 1: Produce power spectral density (PSD) plots of vibration amplitude (g2/Hz) verses frequency for
each measured speed within the vehicle speed range of interest
⎯ Step 2: For each speed PSD, identify the principal narrowband components to be dealt with separately.
⎯ Step 3: Produce an envelope PSD of the measured data by closely following the broadband component
and ignoring any narrowband components.
⎯ Step 4: Simplify the envelope PSD by reducing the number of breakpoints. Between 10 and 50
breakpoints are typically appropriate. In selecting the number of breakpoints the target should be not to
increase the broadband grms value by more than about 10% by moving from the envelope produced in
step 3 and the final selected number of breakpoints.
⎯ Step 5: Produce an overlay plot of the all the enveloped PSDs.
⎯ Step 6: Produce an envelope of the overlayed PSDs from Step 5.
⎯ Step 7: Factoring of the envelope to account for statistical variation in the field will be required. Where
possible this factoring should be based upon knowledge of the variation in service on different vehicles.
When this is not possible 3dB is typically added.
A.4.1.8 The narrow bands or sinusoids included to represent the track patter components are intended to
be implemented as linear sweeps; a logarithmic sweep would place undue emphasis on the lower end of
each frequency range, which is not appropriate for this environment.
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Gather data
Data
Verification
PSD Amplitude Vibrations (rms and peak)

Analysis Probability and speed version time
Analysis histograms
Characterise
track patter
components Check Identify and
normality Check data capture g-t
of data stationarity for transients
Establish Establish pk Identify Compute

background spectral to mean ratio any critical Shock Response
shapes and long and 1 in 500 case speeds Spectra
term rms values amplitude
Environment
Description
NOTE The steps outlined above would normally be carried out for each terrain and for all relevant
installations
Figure A1 Derivation of an Environment Description From Measured Data
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Figure A2 Example of Waterfall Analysis on Tracked Vehicle Data
0.1
Track Patter
Track Patter
f 1 at 72 Hz f2 at 142 Hz
Track Patter
Possible Structural
f3 at 215 Hz
Resonance at 1375
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A3 Tracked Vehicle Broadband and Narrowband Component Data
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A.4.2 Test Option A: Swept Narrow Bands on Broadband Random
A.4.2.1 A methodology to develop the broadband spectrum has been outlined above.
A.4.2.2 The amplitudes of the track patter components are derived from spectral analysis at a range of
constant speed conditions. This analysis provides a measure of the maximum amplitude (g pk) as a function
of speed for each terrain and for each significant component, i.e. fundamental, first and second harmonics.
For testing purposes, the amplitude of these components is usually increased to provide a confidence
margin. These components can be implemented as either swept sinusoids or swept narrow bands and an
example of each is shown in Table A2. As these narrow bands are implemented simultaneously with the
broadband the overall g rms of the test is also included in the definition.
A.4.2.3 The amplitude of the track patter components is calculated as g pk. To convert this to a g2/Hz for
application as a narrow band random component, the following equation can been used:
2
g2 ⎡ g pk ⎤ 1
= ⎢ ⎥ ×
Hz ⎣ 2 ⎦ B
where: g pk is the measured amplitude and
B is the bandwidth of the narrow band (either 5, 10 or 15 Hz, depending on order).
A.4.2.4 The process for obtaining the test time is based upon the fundamental track patter component.
The broadband random level is then adjusted upward (never downward) to match the test time. If the
random level is already high then it is necessary to live with an overtest based upon the broadband random.
A.4.3 Test Option B: Two Tier Swept Narrow Bands on Broadband Random
A.4.3.1 The methodology to develop the broadband spectrum has been outlined above.
A.4.3.2 This test format recognises that track patter vibration severity depends upon vehicle speed, or
frequency. This relationship has been quantified by trial for different measurement positions, axes and the
significant track patter components, i.e. the fundamental frequency and first two harmonics. These
relationships have been seen to be complicated in some cases but can be idealised for the purpose of
specifying a test. Based upon the trial’s data and the overall g rms amplitudes measured on each terrain and
at each speed, a speed break point can be identified. It is noted that the actual speed chosen to divide the
two testing regimes determines not only the test amplitudes but also the test duration. The methodology
used to determine the test duration described in Method A is also used for Method B for both the high and
low vibration test levels.
A.4.3.3 An example of the implementation of the track patter components in a two-tier test as swept
sinusoids is shown in Table A3. These sinusoids could be implemented as swept narrow bands, if desired,
using the equation above. Again, the overall g rms of the test is included. For the high level test, the
severities are identical for those of test Option A but for the low level test, the severities are considerably
lower, as desired.
A.4.4 Test Option C: Ramped and Swept Narrow Bands on Broadband Random
A.4.4.1 A methodology to develop the broadband spectrum has been outlined above.
A.4.4.2 The Waterfall analysis is used to quantify the relationship between speed (or frequency). The
spectral analysis under constant speed conditions is used to derive the narrowband amplitude for each track
patter component. This information is idealised and factored to provide graphs of amplitude versus speed for
the f1, f2 and f3 components. These ramped data form the basis of the swept narrowband components within
the test specification. The amplitude of the track patter components is defined as sinusoids but these could
94
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also be implemented as narrowband random vibration using the equation in Test Option A above to calculate
the g2/Hz amplitudes.
A.4.4.3 The idealisation of the amplitude versus speed relationships for the track patter components
results in simple ramps defined by just two breakpoints (Table A4). A more sophisticated model could be
developed from the measured data, but it would need to be justified against considerations of basic
repeatability, spatial variations and accuracy of the frequency response data.
A.4.4.4 The overall narrowband severity of this test equals that of Option A at its maximum frequency i.e.
at the top of the sweep band. However, at the lower end of the sweep band the overall g rms will only
marginally exceed that of the broadband background vibration. Consequently, this test is more
representative of the service environment and least demanding in terms of shaker performance.
Table A2 Option A: Swept Narrowband or Sinusoid on Broadband Random

Narrow Band Random Overall
Sweep
Track Patter Sinusoid BBR Test
Range Bandwidth PSD
Order (g peak) (g rms) Severity
(Hz) (Hz) (g2/Hz) (g rms)
f1 10 to 140 5 2.80 5.25
f2 20 to 280 10 0.20 2.00 8.39 9.33
f3 30 to 420 15 0.05 1.25
Table A3 Option B: Two Tier Swept Sinusoids on Broadband Random
Sinusoid Overall Test Severity

Track Patter Sweep Range BBR (g rms)
Amplitude
Order (Hz) (g rms)
(g pk) High Level Low Level
10 to 70 2.7
f1
70 to 140 5.25
20 to 140 1.2
f2 8.39 9.33 8.67
140 to 280 2.00
30 to 210 0.9
f3
210 to 420 1.25
Table A4 Option C: Ramped Narrow Band on Broadband Random

Track Patter Frequency Amplitude
Order (Hz) (g pk)
10 0.50
f1
140 5.25
20 0.50
f2
280 2.00
30 0.50
f3
420 1.25
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EXAMPLE The worked example below demonstrates the use of the three test methods described above. Each
method uses the same measured data thus allowing direct comparison between them.
Table A5 Broadband Random Test Definition

Vertical Lateral Longitudinal
Frequency PSD Frequency PSD Frequency PSD

2 2 2
(Hz) (g /Hz) (Hz) (g /Hz) (Hz) (g /Hz)
10 0.0001 10 0.0001 10 0.0002

60 0.02 50 0.006 65 0.005
180 0.02 235 0.006 95 0.005
210 0.01 300 0.002 120 0.0015
465 0.025 450 0.002 200 0.001
525 0.015 550 0.001 355 0.0015
640 0.8 875 0.0125 510 0.004
700 0.025 1085 0.002 630 0.003
735 0.14 1360 0.025 701 0.015
920 0.002 1500 0.0025 735 0.0035
1000 0.01 1640 0.042 923 0.0015
1050 0.005 2000 0.001 1000 0.006
1100 0.03 1140 0.015
1150 0.0035 1340 0.01
1200 0.025 1415 0.0025
1295 0.003 1525 0.007
1600 0.04 1575 0.04
1700 0.04 1710 0.3
2000 0.004 1780 0.06
2000 0.03
Equivalent to 8.394 g rms Equivalent to 3.788 g rms Equivalent to 6.791 g rms
NOTE See Figure A4, Figure A5 and Figure A6 for graphical representation of these data.
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Table A6 Test Definition – Option A: Swept Narrow Band on Broadband Random
Narrow Band Definition - Swept

Axis Track Sweep range Narrow band random Sinusoid Overall test
patter BBR
Bandwidth PSD severity
order
2
(Hz) (Hz) (g /Hz) g pk (g rms) g rms
f1 10 to 140 5 2.76 5.25
Vertical f2 20 to 280 10 0.20 2.00 8.39 9.33
f3 30 to 420 15 0.05 1.25
f1 10 to 140 5 0.30 1.75
Lateral f2 20 to 280 10 0.05 1.00 3.79 4.08
f3 30 to 420 15 0.02 0.75
f1 10 to 140 5 0.10 1.00
Longitudinal f2 20 to 280 10 0.01 0.50 6.79 6.86
f3 30 to 420 15 0.01 0.75
Test duration:
Axis Test Time (hrs) for

1,000 km
Vertical 1.6
Lateral 2.9
Longitudinal 1.9
Total: 6.4
NOTE 1 See Table A9 for the derivation of the test durations.
NOTE 2 See Table A5 for the broadband random definition.
NOTE 3 Track patter components can be applied as either linear swept narrow bands or linear swept sinusoids.
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Table A7 Test Definition – Option B: Two Tier Swept Sinusoids on Broadband Random
Narrow Band Definition - Swept
Sinusoid Overall Test Severity

Track patter Sweep range BBR
Axis amplitude (g rms)
order (Hz) (g rms)
(g pk) High Level Low Level
10 to 70 2.70
f1
70 to 140 5.25
20 to 140 1.20
Vertical f2 8.39 9.33 8.67
140 to 280 2.00
30 to 210 0.90
f3
210 to 420 1.25
10 to 70 1.10
f1
70 to 140 1.75
20 to 140 0.80
Lateral f2 3.79 4.08 3.93
140 to 280 1.00
30 to 210 0.60
f3
210 to 420 0.75
10 to 70 0.80
f1
70 to 140 1.00
20 to 140 0.50
Longitudinal f2 6.79 6.86 6.84
140 to 280 0.50
30 to 210 0.60
f3
210 to 420 0.75
Test Duration:
Axis Test time (hrs) for 1,000 km

High level Low level Total
Vertical 2.0 3.9 5.9

Lateral 3.5 3.8 7.3
Longitudinal 2.7 3.6 6.3
Total: 19.5
NOTE 1 See Table A10 for the derivation of the test durations
NOTE 2 See Table A5 for the broadband random definition
NOTE 3 Track patter components can be applied as either linear swept narrow bands or linear swept sinusoids
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Table A8 Test Definition – Option C: Ramped Narrow Band on Broadband Random
Narrow Band Definition – Ramped and Swept

Amplitude
Axis Order Frequency (Hz)
(g pk)
10 0.50
f1
140 5.25
20 0.50
Vertical Z f2
280 2.0
30 0.50
f3
420 1.25
10 0.50
f1
140 1.75
20 0.50
Lateral Y f2
280 1.0
30 0.5
f3
420 0.75
10 0.5
f1
140 1.0
20 0.5
Longitudinal X f2
280 0.5
30 0.5
f3
420 0.75
Test duration:
Axis Test time (hrs) for 1,000 km

Vertical 1.6
Lateral 2.9
Longitudinal 1.9
Total: 6.4
NOTE 1 See Table A9 for the derivation of the test durations
NOTE 2 See Table A5 for the broadband random definition
NOTE 3 Track patter components can be applied as either linear swept narrow bands or linear swept sinusoids
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Table A9 Test Definition – Test Options A and C - Test Durations

Distance Severity (overall g rms) Equivalent time
Speed Time
Terrain per hr
(kph) (%) Vert (X) Lat (Y) Long (Z) Vert (X) Lat (Y) Long (Z)
(km)
RR 10 2% 0.2 0.424 0.189 0.278 0.00% 0.01% 0.00%
RR 20 3% 0.6 1.054 0.401 0.504 0.00% 0.04% 0.00%
RR 30 5% 1.5 1.808 0.666 0.967 0.00% 0.11% 0.01%
RR 40 8% 3.2 2.382 0.820 1.322 0.00% 0.22% 0.02%
RR 50 10% 5 4.077 1.349 1.694 0.00% 0.45% 0.03%
Up-armoured
SR 10 2% 0.2 0.435 0.239 0.373 0.00% 0.02% 0.00%

SR 20 3% 0.6 0.892 0.369 0.493 0.00% 0.04% 0.00%
SR 30 3% 0.9 1.889 0.751 0.910 0.00% 0.07% 0.00%
SR 40 5% 2 2.384 0.934 1.362 0.00% 0.16% 0.01%
SR 50 9% 4.5 2.815 1.056 1.537 0.00% 0.32% 0.02%
SR 60 10% 6 2.999 1.207 2.033 0.00% 0.40% 0.04%
SR 70 10% 7 3.843 1.528 2.645 0.00% 0.51% 0.05%
SR 75 5% 3.75 4.798 1.975 3.353 0.00% 0.33% 0.03%
XC 40 25% 10 1.768 0.681 0.953 0.01% 0.57% 0.04%
Max 4.798 1.975 3.353
Sum 100% 45.45 0.03% 3.23% 0.26%
ie: 1 hr ≡ 45.45 km Time (hrs) for 1000 km 0.01 0.71 0.06

so 1000 km ≡ 22.00 hrs Total test time (hrs) 0.78
RR 10 2% 0.2 0.649 0.249 0.342 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%

RR 20 3% 0.6 1.220 0.466 0.568 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
RR 30 5% 1.5 2.123 0.785 0.963 0.03% 0.05% 0.01%
RR 40 8% 3.2 2.770 1.056 1.486 0.16% 0.35% 0.10%
RR 50 10% 5 6.072 1.711 2.009 10.00% 4.87% 0.58%
SR 10 2% 0.2 0.451 0.181 0.237 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
De-armoured
SR 20 3% 0.6 1.081 0.430 0.516 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%

SR 30 3% 0.9 1.876 0.746 0.901 0.01% 0.02% 0.00%
SR 40 5% 2 2.139 1.007 1.332 0.03% 0.17% 0.04%
SR 50 9% 4.5 3.913 1.457 2.008 1.00% 1.97% 0.52%
SR 60 10% 6 3.433 1.358 2.189 0.58% 1.54% 0.88%
SR 70 15% 10.5 4.114 1.933 3.555 2.14% 13.46% 15.00%
XC 40 25% 10 2.491 0.905 1.229 0.29% 0.50% 0.12%
Max 6.072 1.933 3.555
Sum 100% 45.2 14.23% 22.94% 17.25%
ie: 1 hr ≡ 45.2 km Time (hrs) for 1000 km 3.15 5.08 3.82

so 1000 km ≡ 22.12 hrs Total test time (hrs) 12.05
Overall Test Durations Vehicle Config Usage Vert Lat Long

De-armoured RFU 50% 0.00 0.36 0.03
Up-armoured RFU 50% 1.57 2.54 1.91
Totals: 100% 1.58 2.89 1.94
Overall 6.41
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Table A10 Test Definition – Test Option B - Test Durations

De-armoured Vehicle
Mission Definition
Severity (overall g rms) Equivalent time (%)
Speed Time Distance
Terrain
(kph) (%) (per hour)
Vert (x) Lat (y) Long (z) Vert (x) Lat (y) Long (z)
SR 10 2 0.2 0.451 0.181 0.237 0.0 0.0 0.0
RR 10 2 0.2 0.649 0.249 0.342 0.0 0.0 0.0
SR 20 3 0.6 1.081 0.430 0.516 0.0 0.0 0.0
RR 20 3 0.6 1.220 0.466 0.568 0.0 0.1 0.0
Phase 1
SR 30 3 0.9 1.876 0.746 0.901 0.4 0.5 0.2

RR 30 5 1.5 2.123 0.785 0.963 1.3 1.1 0.6
SR 40 5 2 2.139 1.007 1.332 1.4 3.9 2.9
XC 40 25 10 2.491 0.905 1.229 14.7 11.6 9.7
RR 40 8 3.2 2.770 1.056 1.486 8.0 8.0 8.0
sum 56% 19.2 25.9% 25.2% 21.4%
max 2.770 1.056 1.486
SR 60 10 6 3.433 1.358 2.189 0.6 1.5 0.9

SR 50 9 4.5 3.913 1.457 2.008 1.0 2.0 0.5
Phase 2
SR 70 15 10.5 4.114 1.933 3.555 2.1 13.5 15.0

RR 50 10 5 6.072 1.711 2.009 10.0 4.9 0.6
Sum 44% 26 13.7% 21.8% 17.0%
max 6.072 1.933 3.555
i.e.: 1 hr ≡ 45.20 km Time (hrs) for Phase 1 5.73 5.58 4.74

so 1000 km ≡ 22.12 hrs 1000 km Phase 2 3.04 4.83 3.76
Up-armoured Vehicle
Mission Definition
Severity (overall g rms) Equivalent time (%)
Speed Time Distance
Terrain
(kph) (%) (per hour)
Vert (x) Lat (y) Long (z) Vert (x) Lat (y) Long (z)
RR 10 2 0.2 0.424 0.189 0.278 0.0 0.0 0.0
SR 10 2 0.2 0.435 0.239 0.373 0.0 0.0 0.0
SR 20 3 0.6 0.892 0.369 0.493 0.0 0.0 0.0
RR 20 3 0.6 1.054 0.401 0.504 0.0 0.0 0.0
Phase 1
XC 40 25 10 1.768 0.681 0.953 2.6 2.8 2.7

RR 30 5 1.5 1.808 0.666 0.967 0.6 0.5 0.6
SR 30 3 0.9 1.889 0.751 0.910 0.4 0.5 0.3
RR 40 8 3.2 2.382 0.820 1.322 3.8 2.3 4.5
SR 40 5 2.0 2.384 0.934 1.362 2.4 2.7 3.2
sum 56% 19.2% 9.8% 8.8% 11.3%
max 2.384 0.934 1.362
SR 50 9 4.5 2.815 1.056 1.537 0.2 0.4 0.1

SR 60 10 6.0 2.999 1.207 2.033 0.3 0.9 0.6
Phase 2
SR 70 10 7.0 3.843 1.528 2.645 1.0 2.8 2.3

RR 50 10 5.0 4.077 1.349 1.694 1.4 1.5 0.2
SR 75 5 3.75 4.798 1.975 3.353 1.5 5.0 3.7
Sum 44% 26.25 4.4% 10.5% 7.0%
max 4.798
i.e.: 1 hr ≡ 45.45 km Time (hrs) for Phase 1 2.16 1.94 2.48

so 1000 km ≡ 22.00 hrs 1000 km Phase 2 0.97 2.31 1.54
Test Phase Vert (X) Lat (Y) Long (Z)

Test durations (hrs) at low level (Phase 1) and 1 3.95 3.76 3.61
High level (Phase 2), based upon 50% de-
armoured & 50% up-armoured 2 2.00 3.57 2.65
Total 5.95 7.33 6.26
Overall: 19.54 hrs
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10
Rough Road
Cross Country
Smooth Road
Tailored broadband test - 8.394 grms
DEF STAN 07-55 - 6.928 grms
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
NOTE 1 Envelopes of all speeds on each terrain
NOTE 2 Measurement positions: Vehicle forward torsion bar cover
Vehicle rear torsion bar cover
Figure A4 Vibration, Vertical Axis
102
Chapter 6-01
Annex A
10
Rough Road
Cross Country
Smooth Road
Tailored boadband test - 3.788 grms
1 DEF STAN 07-55 - 6.928 grms
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A5 Vibration, Lateral Axis
103
Chapter 6-01
Annex A
10
Rough Road
Cross Country
Smooth Road
Tailored boadband test - 6.791 grms
1 DEF STAN 07-55 - 6.928 grms
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A6 Vibration, Longitudinal Axis
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Annex A
a) F1, Fundamental Track Patter Component
b) F2, Fundamental Track Patter Component
c) F3, Fundamental Track Patter Component
Figure A7 Idealised Amplitude vs Frequency Characteristics for Track Pattern Vibration
105
Chapter 6-01
Annex A
Intentionally Blank
106
Chapter 6-02
Chapter 6-02
Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Wheeled Vehicles
1 Scope
deployed on or installed in wheeled vehicles.
1.2 The vehicles considered in this chapter range from large conventional trucks to small four wheel drive
types, and may be armoured or unarmoured. Trailers are also considered but their test severities are not
addressed because many different types of trailers are in general use, some of which are custom built for
specific applications.
1.3 The application roles considered are the “Common Carrier” role which covers vehicle use on
predominantly classified roads and includes commercial transportation, and the “Mission/Field” role which
covers vehicle use involving off-road situations.
1.4 The sources and characteristics of the environments are presented and where applicable, information
is given on potential damaging effects. Guidance is given on the selection of relevant test methods and test
severities. The compilation of environment descriptions and test severities from measured data is addressed
in Annex A. References and bibliography are included as Annex B.
1.5 Unless otherwise stated, the environmental descriptions relate to the interface between the wheeled
vehicle and the installed materiel. All axes relate to the host vehicle with the positive longitudinal axis
coinciding with the direction of motion, i.e.: forward.
2.1 General
2.1.1 When a wheeled vehicle moves across a terrain, interactions between the vehicle's tyres and
irregularities in the terrain result in vibration excitation being transmitted to the vehicle's installed materiel via
the suspension system and chassis structure. In addition, materiel will experience inertial loadings arising
from the vehicle's acceleration, eg: when increasing speed and under braking and cornering conditions.
2.1.2 The action of the vehicle's engine, transmission, pumps, etc, can also give rise to vibration
excitation. Such excitation is likely to be most significant at discrete frequencies associated with rotating
shafts, gear meshing, etc. Out of balance wheels and tyre resonances can also be a source of excitation.
The significance of these excitations is strongly dependent on the position of the materiel relative to these
sources.
2.1.3 Vibration spectra acquired from measurements on wheeled vehicles and trailers tend to reflect the
characteristics of single degree of freedom systems, with peaks in the spectra at frequencies associated with
the vehicles’ mass and the compliance of its suspension system. Discrete peaks may also be evident in the
spectra at frequencies associated with rotating engine and transmission components.
2.1.4 Considering structurally transmitted shock, only moderate severities are expected in the Common
Carrier role, which involves medium mobility vehicles that spend a high proportion of their life on normal
paved roads. Conversely, higher shock levels can be expected in the Mission/Field role, which involves high
mobility vehicles that may operate in an off-road role, possibly in combat.
2.1.5 The dynamic responses of materiel deployed on wheeled vehicles depend on the factors discussed
below.
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2.2 Terrain Type
2.2.1 The nature of terrain experienced by a wheeled vehicle will significantly influence the response of
the materiel. Depending upon the role of the vehicle, terrain types which may need to be considered include
classified paved roads, rough roads, Belgium Block (pavé), and cross-country. As may be expected, hard
and rough terrains, such as broken concrete tracks, give rise to a more severe environment than classified
roads, as illustrated in Figure 1. Further examples of how vibration responses, expressed as overall g rms,
vary with respect to terrain type, are shown in Figure 2.
2.2.2 Even for a classified road with a nominally good surface, a whole range of surface irregularities
including pot-holes and railway crossings may be encountered in normal use. Consequently, the distinction
between vibration and shock is often obscure in measured dynamic responses from wheeled vehicles.
Evidence of this can often be seen in measured amplitude probability distributions, see Figure 3a. This
figure shows a characteristic of a smooth, continuous curve from the region of high probability low amplitude
to regions of lower probability higher amplitudes. It is further noted from Figure 3b that the flared character
of the corresponding probability density plot indicates that this data is not from a simple, stationary gaussian
process, which would result in a triangular characteristic [1].
2.2.3 From Figure 3 it can be seen that the measured data represent a greater damage potential than
gaussian data because of their higher probability of high amplitudes. This non-equivalence can cause
difficulties for laboratory testing because test houses utilise gaussian random signal generators. Moreover,
laboratory equipment is usually configured to limit the amplitude distribution generated to three sigma peaks,
i.e.: peak amplitudes are limited to three times the signal’s rms value. The extent of the difficulties can be
appreciated from Figure 3a; if the gaussian distribution shown were limited to three sigma, the maximum
levels generated would be less than 1.5 g pk, which compares unfavourably with the three sigma level of 5.2
g pk seen in the measured data. These difficulties can be overcome by adjusting the ratio of instantaneous
peaks to rms levels on the vibrator system or by increasing the test rms level to accommodate the effects of
non-equivalence, or the low probability high amplitude events can be regarded as shocks and treated
separately.
2.2.4 Regarding classified roads, the classification is likely to be indicative of minimum road width but not
necessarily of surface quality. Studies [2] have indicated that, for a given speed, least vibration is usually
associated with multi-lane roads and worst vibration with contra-flow lane roads. This is because it can be
expected that the reduced width of a contra-flow lane road will increase the likelihood of encountering shock
transients, caused by running over a recessed gutter drain cover or mounting a kerb.
2.2.5 On rough roads and pavé when shocks might be expected, the dynamic environment can be so
severe for so much of the time that it is usual to describe this environment as a continuous vibration
condition. In these cases, both the rms and peak response amplitudes can be high.
2.2.6 On cross country tracks, the general level of severity can be low but severe shocks can occur.
Consequently, rms amplitudes can be low but peak amplitudes relatively high.
2.3 Vehicle Characteristics
2.3.1 The vibration experienced by materiel will be significantly influenced by the vehicle's suspension
system and tyres. A vehicle with a soft suspension system with plenty of available travel, fitted with soft tyres,
can be expected to produce a benign environment. Conversely, vehicles with stiff suspension systems and
hard tyres, eg: armoured vehicles, can be expected to produce a relatively harsh environment, particularly
when negotiating rough hard surfaces such as broken concrete. Severe shocks can occur if all the available
suspension travel is expended and the bump stops are used.
2.3.2 The laden weight of a particular vehicle can also be expected to influence the vibration severity of
installed materiel. Evidence indicates that the vibration severity decreases as the vehicle load increases, as
illustrated in Figure 4. The position of materiel in a vehicle or trailer can influence its dynamic response. For
example, Figure 5 shows the pattern of vibration severity along the length of an articulated, multi-axle semi-
trailer. The mass and mounting arrangements of materiel can also influence its dynamic response,
particularly if anti-shock mounts are used.
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Chapter 6-02
2.3.3 Vibration experienced by materiel is the sum of excitation transmitted from each wheel, together with
any other sources associated with the engine or transmissions etc. It has been suggested that the excitation
at each wheel from the road surface is not independent but may be highly correlated. These effects are
unlikely to be significant for small installations, such as those with a small base area, but may need to be
taken into account when compiling test severities from measured data for large installations, particularly in
respect of the vehicle's rotational motions.
2.3.4 For trailers the severity of the dynamic environment is likely to be most severe for a small two
wheeled type. As the size of trailers increase, the environment would be expected to approach that of a
wheeled vehicle of similar load carrying capacity. As a general rule, if a trailer's laden weight exceeds 2
tonnes it is likely to behave as an equivalent wheeled vehicle. Lost motion in a vehicle/trailer coupling can
give rise to significant shocks both to the towing vehicle and trailer. In practice, most trailers benefit from
couplings incorporating longitudinal dampers.
2.4.1 The severity of a vehicle's structural dynamic response, described by the overall rms amplitude, can
be expected to increase as vehicle speed increases, as illustrated in Figure 6. The measurements were
taken on the load bed above the rear axle of a large articulated truck travelling over a variety of road
surfaces. If resonances are excited, the maximum vibration of particular installed materiel does not
necessarily occur at the vehicle's maximum speed, as shown in Figure 7. Such resonances could be
associated with the particular item of materiel or its mounting arrangements.
2.4.2 For heavy trucks (>35 tonnes) on good quality roads, g pk responses during snatch starts and
emergency stops are likely to be encompassed by those associated with normal road running. In addition, as
may be expected, relatively high levels can be experienced during these events in the vehicle's longitudinal
axis when compared to normal road running. In general steady-state accelerations experienced by the
vehicle are unlikely to exceed 1 g. Vibration during acceleration, braking and cornering is unlikely to be very
different from that during equivalent steady speed conditions.
2.4.3 Any wheeled vehicle running with one or more deflated tyres can be expected to experience a worse
dynamic environment than under normal circumstances with all tyres properly inflated. In terms of spectral
characteristics, the effects of deflated tyres may be limited to only a part of the spectrum. These effects are
illustrated in Figure 8 for a heavy truck, but could be considerably more significant for many types of
wheeled vehicles.
2.4.4 Vehicle tilt may be especially significant for sensitive materiel deployed in off-road vehicles in the
Mission/Field role.
2.4.5 With regard to potentially damaging effects, materiel installed using anti-vibration mounts could
experience relatively large displacements if the natural frequency of the materiel on its mounts coincides with
vehicle suspension frequencies. Also, should any resonant frequencies of the installed materiel correspond
to any of the rotational sources of vehicle vibration such as drive shaft speed, excessive vibration could
result. Both effects could be significant during convoy operations because of the relatively long durations at
constant speed.
The launch of weapons can subject the vehicle to high levels of shock, vibration and blast pressure. These
conditions are highly specific to particular installations and therefore their characteristics are not addressed
in this chapter. A suitable test procedure for gunfire shock is given in Part 3, Chapter 2-19, Test M19 –
General Time History Replication Test.
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Chapter 6-02
3.1 General
The following approaches for the simulation of the wheeled vehicle environment are generally available: in
the test laboratory using vibrators and other facilities as necessary, in the field using suitable test tracks, or in
the field using road and terrain surfaces under actual conditions. The simulation of the environment in the
laboratory has the advantage that it allows the simulation to be undertaken in defined and controlled
conditions. Moreover, laboratory testing permits reduced test times, reduced costs as vehicle operations are
eliminated, and increased safety standards (particularly for munition testing). An advantage of field trials are
that all units are in their correct relative positions and all mechanical interfaces are realistic; consequently,
field trials can be expected to expose materiel to all relevant failure mechanisms. Field trials may be
necessary if inadequate data are available from which to base laboratory default severities. A simulation
using field trials may be more convenient for large and awkward payloads, and is essential where the
payload interacts significantly with the dynamics of the carriage vehicle.
3.2 Laboratory Testing
3.2.1 Vibration: The simulation of the vibration environment in the laboratory is usually viable for all but the
largest items of materiel. When a vibration test is required the test method used should be that defined in
Part 3 Chapter 2-01 Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test. Default test severities are given in Test
M1, Annex A, Figure A19.
3.2.2 Shock: In some cases it may be necessary to undertake shock testing to reproduce the structurally
transmitted transients arising from the vehicle traversing the terrain. The Classical & Sine Waveform Shock
Test (Part 3, Chapter 2-03, Test M3) should be sufficient in most cases, but when a closer simulation is
required, the Operational Shock Simulation Test (Part 3, Chapter 2-06, Test M6) should be used.
3.2.3 Testing by the application of acceleration or quasi-static loadings to simulate vehicle accelerations is
usually unnecessary, because the loadings are either encompassed by testing for other in-service
environments or the adequacy of the materiel can be demonstrated by assessment.
3.3 Test Track Trials
Due to the difficulties of establishing “worst case” road conditions, use is often made of standard test tracks.
A wide range of test tracks is available. Not all of these are designed to simulate wheeled vehicle
environments, some are designed to investigate aspects of vehicle handling, and reliability. Therefore, care
is needed when selecting suitable surfaces to ensure representative materiel responses. High amplitude
responses can be induced at a rate of occurrence many orders greater than that experienced in-Service,
which for some materiel may induce modes of failure that are unlikely to occur in practice. The test method
used should be that of Part 3 Chapter 2-14 - Test Track Trial.
3.4 Road and Terrain Trials
Trials conducted over representative roads and terrains for representative durations are the most realistic.
Such trials are only valid when detailed knowledge is available of the materiel installation and the intended
use of the wheeled vehicle. Even when conducting these trials, it may be desirable to include some test track
trials as a convenient way of incorporating limit conditions.
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Chapter 6-02
0.1
Classified Road at 70 kph (0.07 g rms)
Rough Road at 40 kph (0.28 g rms)
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 1 Example Vibration Spectra (Vertical Axis) for Rough and Classified Roads - Load Bed
Above Rear Axle on a Small Four Wheel Drive Vehicle (Short Wheel Base Land Rover)
Figure 2 Example of the Effect of Terrain on Vibration - Load Bed Above Rear Axle on a Small Four
Wheel Drive Vehicle (Short Wheel Base Land Rover)
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Chapter 6-02
100
Measured
10 Equivalent
Probability Distribution P(x) %
0.1
Three sigma level

0.01
(see text para 2.2.3)
5.2 g pk 1.5 g pk
0.001
0.0001
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Amplitude (g pk)
a. Amplitude Probability Distribution
10
Measured
1 Equivalent
Probability Density p(x)
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
-50 -30 -10 10 30 50
Amplitude x mod (x) (g²)
b. Amplitude Probability Density
NOTE 1 Measured data are from the load bed (vertical axis) of a 4 t truck on a rough road
NOTE 2 Equivalent data are from a gaussian distribution of the same rms value as that measured
Figure 3 Example of Measured Amplitude Probability Functions
112
Chapter 6-02
Maximum Likely Vibration (g²/Hz) Ratio of actual:design load

1
6%
20% 10% 0%
50% 0%
0.1 7%
70%
0.01
30% 55% 57%
89%
90%
0.001
0.0001
Small 10 t 22 t 25 t 16 t 22 t 16 t
van truck truck semi- pull truck* pull
trailer trailer trailer*
Vehicle type
* These vehicles are equipped with air suspension systems
Figure 4 Example of the Effect of Laden Weight on Vehicle Vibration (Vertical Axis)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 5 Example of Articulated Trailer Vibration Amplitudes (Vertical Axis)
113
Chapter 6-02
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed (km/h)
Figure 6 Example of Vehicle Structural Vibration Versus Speed (Vertical Axis)
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed (km/h)
Figure 7 Example of Materiel Vibration Response Versus Speed (Vertical Axis)
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Chapter 6-02
0.001
Normal (0.036 g rms)
Run-Flat (0.044 g rms)
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
0.00000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 8 Example of the Effect of Deflated Tyres on Vehicle Vibration (Vertical Axis)
115
Chapter 6-02
Intentionally Blank
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Chapter 6-02
Annex A
Annex A
Derivation of Severities from Measured Data
A.1 Derivation of Vibration Test Amplitudes
A.1.1 This annex provides guidance on how vibration test severities may be derived from measured data.
Before attempting to derive vibration test amplitudes, it is important to know how vibration levels are
influenced by parameters such as vehicle speed. These parameters are discussed in Paragraph A.2 of this
Chapter.
A.1.2 It is then necessary to establish from the relevant requirements the type of wheeled vehicle in which
the materiel is to be installed, the role of the vehicle and the terrains over which it will travel, the vehicle's
operating speeds, and the location of the materiel in the vehicle. Having established the requirements,
relevant vibration data may be acquired from data banks, should the data exist, or from field measurement
trials.
A.1.3 The flow diagram outlined in Figure A1 points out the steps to be adopted to derive an environment
description from measured data. This diagram enables frequency response characteristics and dynamic
response amplitudes to be quantified for all the relevant operating conditions.
A.1.4 Test severities are defined in terms of the spectral characteristics, spectral amplitudes and
durations.
A.1.5 In general, it can be expected that the spectral characteristics, i.e.: the shape of PSD plots, will be
stable with respect to most parameters, including vehicle speed and terrain type. In these cases the spectral
characteristics can be based directly on measured PSDs.
A.1.6 The severity of the test spectrum may not in general be obtained directly from PSDs because, for
wheeled vehicles, they are unlikely to be an adequate description of the environment. This is a consequence
of the character of this type of data which can be non-stationary resulting in relatively high peak to rms ratios.
It is therefore also non-gaussian. These non-stationary and non-gaussian properties are in contrast to the
character of vibration generated in test laboratories. Consequently, special steps may need to be taken to
avoid undertesting in the laboratory. In some cases conservatism can be incorporated into the test spectrum
by the technique of enveloping to produce an adequate test severity [1]. An alternative approach is to use
amplitude probability distributions (APD) as the basic measure of severity [2] and to derive appropriate factors
which can then be applied to mean spectra. This approach is suitable for wheeled vehicles and an example
of its use is given in Paragraph A.3.
A.2 Derivation of Vibration Test Duration
A.2.1 Test durations should be based upon the required life of a materiel and the usage profile of the
relevant wheeled vehicle. In order to avoid impracticably long test durations, it is general practice to invoke
equivalent fatigue damage laws such as Miner's Rule. This rule is expressed as follows:
n
⎡ S1 ⎤
t 2 = t1 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ S2 ⎦
where t1 = the actual duration at the measured level

t2 = the equivalent duration at the test level
S1 = the rms level of the measured spectrum
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Chapter 6-02
Annex A
S2 = the rms level of the test spectrum

n = the slope of the fatigue (S/N) curve for the appropriate material.
(The preferred value is 5).
(If PSD levels are used in place of rms levels then the preferred value of n is 2.5.)
A.2.2 This expression is applicable to metallic materials such as steels and aluminium alloys which
possess an essentially linear stress-strain relationship. It is used with less confidence with non-linear
materials and composites. Although the expression has been shown to have some merits when applied to
materiel, it should be used with extreme caution if unrepresentative failures are to be avoided. On no
account should test levels be increased beyond the maximum levels that materiel may be expected to
experience during its service life. Furthermore, where there is evidence that the materiel is not fully secured
to the vehicle then Miner's Rule is totally invalid and should not be used. In such cases the Bounce Test
(Part 3 Chapter 2-11) should be considered as an alternative (addition).
A.2.3 A simplified example of the derivation of a test duration using Miner's Law is given below.
Time
Speed Severity Duration
Terrain Actual Equivalent
(mph) Index %
t1 t2
Pavé 25 1.0 5.0 3 3.00
Pavé 20 0.7 6.7 4 0.67
Rough road 15 0.6 13.3 8 0.62
Cross country 35 0.5 16.7 10 0.31
Main road 45 0.4 30.0 18 0.18
Main road 35 0.3 20.0 12 0.03
Main road <20 0.2 8.3 5 <0.01
Totals: 100.0 60 4.82
NOTE 1 4.8 hours test is equivalent to 60 hours real time vehicle vibration.
NOTE 2 The “Severity Index” for a terrain is the overall g rms normalised with respect to the maximum measured
overall g rms (associated with pavé in this example). The PSD spectrum profile associated with the reference level
(again, pavé in this example) must reflect, or be modified to reflect, the maximum amplitudes observed over the total
frequency range.
NOTE 3 This method of calculating test durations would normally be applied subject to a minimum of 1 hour per axis.
A.3 Comparing Measured Data with Test Specifications
A.3.1 When comparing measured spectra from a vehicle trial with that contained in a test specification or
generated by test house materiel, care must be taken to avoid an under-estimation of the severity of the
measured data. This is because of the different amplitude distributions and peak to rms ratios of these types
of data. These differences can be compensated for, as shown:
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Chapter 6-02
Annex A
Measured peak APD level

(at the 1 in 500 occurrence level, i.e.: 2.88 = 9.0 g
sigma)
9.00
Equivalent gaussian rms = = 3.1 g rms
2.88
Measured non-gaussian rms = 1.4 g rms
3.1
Factor on measured g rms = = 2. 2
1. 4
Factor on measured PSD = 2.22 = 4.8
A.3.2 While this analysis indicates that in this instance a factor of 4.8 should be applied to the measured
PSD levels, these higher levels would be appropriate for a relatively short duration.
A.3.3 Another approach is to use measured data in the form of peak-hold rather than mean spectra. This
may be acceptable in particular circumstances, but it is generally too pessimistic and therefore unsatisfactory
to compare a peak-hold (measured) with a mean (test house) spectrum.
A.4 Derivation of Shock Test Severities

Shock responses may be used as the basis for shock testing in two ways, i.e.: as a shock response
spectrum (SRS) analysis or as a half-sine pulse (see sub-paragraph A.3.3).
a) Shock response spectrum: This is the preferred method of compiling a shock test specification. To
generate a test in this format it is usual to compute SRS from a number of transients and to use the
envelope of these SRS as the test specification.
b) Half-sine pulse: As many shocks will be dominated by the frequencies of the vehicle’s suspension
frequencies, it is sometimes possible to determine a half-sine pulse duration and amplitude by simple
inspection of the relevant time-histories.
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Chapter 6-02
Annex A
Gather Data
Data
Verification
Amplitude Vibration (rms & pk)

PSD
Probability & speed vs time
Analysis
Analysis histograms
Check Identify &

Check data
normality capture g-t
stationarity
of data for transients
Establish Establish
Compute
spectral shapes pk to mean ratio Identify any
Shock Response
& long term & 1 in 500 case critical speeds
Spectra
rms values amplitudes
Environment
Description
Figure A1 Derivation of an Environment Description From Measured Data
120
Chapter 6-02
Annex B
Annex B
B.1 References
1 Random Data: Analysis and Measurement Procedures, Wiley, 1971. Bendat and Piersol
2 Derivation of Environment Descriptions and Test Severities from Measured Road D Charles
Transportation Data, i.e.S Annual Technical Meeting Proceedings, 1992.
B.2 Bibliography
(No items collated for this chapter)
121
Chapter 6-02
Annex B
Intentionally Blank
122
Chapter 7-01
SECTION 7 - DEPLOYMENT ON FIXED WING AIRCRAFT

Chapter 7-01
Mechanical Aspects of Materiel Installed in Jet Aircraft
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be experienced by materiel when
installed in fixed wing jet aircraft and particularly when installed in high performance jet aircraft. The sources
of excitation and characteristics of the mechanical environments are described. Guidance is given on the
selection of relevant test methods and test severities. Further information is contained in Annex A on
considerations for the assessment of flight data. References and bibliography are included as Annex B.
1.2 The following aspects are not included in this chapter:
a) Engines and associated equipment: For information on the self-induced environments experienced by an
engine and its associated equipment reference should be made to the engine manufacturer.
b) Airframe and other primary structure: For information on structural loading and environmental severities
relating to these structures, reference should be made to the aircraft manufacturer.
1.3 Unless otherwise stated, the environmental descriptions relate to the interface between the aircraft
and the installed materiel. All axes relate to the host aircraft, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with
the direction of flight, i.e.: forward.
2.1 Airfield Movements
2.1.1 Materiel can be expected to experience transient excitations and continuous vibration as a
consequence of aircraft movements about an airfield. The transient excitations are caused by the aircraft’s
wheels traversing the inevitable irregularities in the taxi-way surfaces. The amplitudes of these transients
and the continuous vibration will be influenced principally by aircraft speed, the size of the aircraft wheels
and the quality of the surfaces. Materiel responses are dominated by the low frequencies associated with the
dynamic characteristics of the undercarriage and the mass of the aircraft.
2.1.2 As airfield surfaces are normally of good quality and aircraft movements are controlled by
procedures, vibration amplitudes resulting from airfield movements are usually benign and overall,
significantly less severe than those occurring in-flight. However, this may not be the case when temporary or
repaired taxi-ways are used. In such cases it can be expected that a significant increase in the amplitudes of
the transients will occur, but they are unlikely to be more severe than those occurring during take-off and
landing on temporary or repaired runways.
2.1.3 During ground running and airfield movements the effects of engine noise are likely to be the main
cause of the higher frequency vibration environment and almost the entire acoustic environment. Generally
such conditions are less than those experienced during take-off.
2.1.4 Although the environment arising from airfield movements is considered to be benign, the low
amplitude responses experienced by materiel could cause damage through fretting fatigue mechanisms.
2.2 Take-Off and Landing
2.2.1 Normal conditions: During take-off and landing, short duration oscillatory transients may be induced
in installed materiel. These transients arise mainly from the aircraft traversing runway surface irregularities at
speed. Materiel responses are dominated by the low frequencies associated with the compliance of the
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Chapter 7-01
undercarriage and the mass of the aircraft, and again, can be considered to be benign. Typical transients
during landing are shown in Figure 1. Take-off and landing usually involves high levels of engine power,
which in turn may induce vibration and acoustic noise conditions. These related aspects are dealt with in
sub-paragraph 2.3. Typical take-off vibration severities are shown in Figure 2. Again, because materiel
responses arising from normal take-off and landing are largely dictated by the dynamic characteristics of the
undercarriage system, any potential damaging effects on installed materiel are likely to be associated with
displacements at low frequencies or fretting fatigue mechanisms.
2.2.2 Temporary or repaired runways: Response amplitudes are likely to be more severe when temporary
or repaired runways are used. Where necessary, advice on amplitudes should be sought from the aircraft
manufacturer. However, any test procedures used to simulate these conditions are likely to be similar to
those recommended for normal take-off and landing conditions.
2.2.3 Catapult launch and arrested landing: Oscillatory transients will be induced in materiel during a
catapult launch and/or arrested landing. In general, catapult launch generates two transient shock events
corresponding to initial load application and catapult separation from the aircraft. Responses to these events
have a distinct oscillatory nature, approximately sinusoidal, again at a relatively low frequency determined by
aircraft mass and undercarriage dynamic characteristics. Arrested landing conditions produce only a single
transient with similar characteristics to that of catapult launch. At installed materiel locations, the pulse
durations associated with catapult launch and arrested landing are relatively long and therefore these
transients are usually treated as quasi-static conditions. Where these conditions are relevant, advice on
amplitudes should be sought from the aircraft manufacturer.
2.2.4 Vertical take-off and landing: For VSTOL aircraft during vertical take-off and/or landing, efflux from
the engine nozzles may impinge on parts of the aircraft structure not subjected to such conditions during
normal flight. In addition, efflux reflected from the ground may impinge on the majority of the lower aircraft
surface and as a consequence significant acoustic and vibration conditions may be induced in installed
materiel. Where these conditions are relevant, advice on amplitudes should be sought from the aircraft
manufacturer.
2.2.5 Ski-jump assisted take-off: The dynamic environment induced in materiel during the use of ski-jump
assisted take-off is of very low frequency and is usually considered as a quasi-static, rather than as a
dynamic condition. Where these conditions are relevant, advice on amplitudes should be sought from the
aircraft manufacturer.
2.3 Flight Vibration
2.3.1 General: The mechanical environments experienced by materiel installed on fixed wing jet aircraft
arise from a wide range of sources. General rules cannot be set down to identify the dominant source for
each item of materiel, especially as some of the potential sources produce very intense but localised effects.
However, for most materiel the more severe vibration conditions arise from only one or perhaps two sources.
In addition, severe responses of a transitory nature can occur during conditions such as vortex impingement.
Although each application of these transitory conditions may occur for only a few seconds their cumulative
effect over the life of the aircraft can be significant. Some parameters that influence flight vibration levels are
addressed below.
2.3.2 Aerodynamic flow: The most common source of vibration for installed materiel is associated with the
turbulence in the airflow surrounding the aircraft. This airflow can be attached or detached; the two
conditions producing significantly different vibration excitations.
a) Attached flow: Where the airflow is attached to the aircraft surface a nominally classical boundary layer
type flow will exist, and pressure fluctuations within the flow will be small. Additionally the area over
which the pressures will have a coherent phase will be small meaning structural vibration can be
expected to be at a minimum. The magnitude of the excitation is broadly proportional to the dynamic
pressure (q) and the broad band random frequency spectrum is related through the Strouhal Number
with the boundary layer thickness and velocity [1].
b) Detached flow: Where detached flow exists, the intensity of the pressure fluctuations can rise to typically
five times those associated with attached flow. In addition, the area over which the fluctuations are
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Chapter 7-01
correlated increases by several orders, which results in a significant increase in structural response
compared to that associated with attached flow. The increased pressure fluctuations continue to relate
with dynamic pressure (q) but with a higher coefficient of efficiency and the frequency scaling continues
to relate with Strouhal Number, as a function of the characteristics of the detached flow.
As the vibration arising from aerodynamic flow is primarily broad band random, potential damaging
mechanisms are brinelling, fretting, and high cycle fatigue.
2.3.3 Vortex impingement: At certain conditions of angle of attack, side-slip and airspeed, it is possible for
vortices originating from parts of the aircraft to impinge on downstream structure. The characteristics of these
vortices are such that high amplitude structural vibrations of an almost periodic nature may arise [2]. The
nature of the excitation implies that the excitation will be transitory and rarely occurs for more than a few
seconds at any one time. However, during the life of an aircraft the total number of such occurrences may be
significant. The resulting vibration characteristics, severities and areas of airframe affected will be unique to
aircraft type. The potentially high levels of vibration could result in low to medium cycle fatigue.
2.3.4 Critical flow: In transonic conditions where local flow is just sonic, a weak shock may be set up which
oscillates. This can induce a high local structural response and can also be a source of intense acoustic
radiation. The structural responses from such excitation are almost periodic in nature, but usually a localised
phenomenon.
2.3.5 Buzz: This condition is sometimes categorised as a type of single degree of freedom flutter.
However, whereas conventional flutter is associated with the interaction of generalised aerodynamic flow
with the wing (or control surface), buzz is associated with the coupling of the motion of a shock wave with the
dynamic response of an aerodynamic surface. The induced structural oscillation from buzz is of a higher
frequency than occurs with conventional flutter. To an aircraft structure, the phenomenon will appear as a
good quality sine wave, with some amplitude modulation, at a frequency of typically 60Hz. A description of
the buzz phenomenon is given in Def Stan 00-970 Volume 1 Leaflet 500/3 [3].
2.3.6 Engine intake flow effects: Variable geometry intakes can have a geometry such that the main flow
into the intake can pass over a cavity used for ducting away excess air. Experience has shown that strong
acoustic discrete frequency resonances can occur in the duct which can in turn produce high strain levels in
the duct structure and any splitters or guide vanes in the duct. Vibration responses from this source have
been noted in wing structure and installed materiel. Neither the intensity nor the frequency of excitation can
be calculated accurately because of the difficulty in estimating the effective dimensions of the duct space.
2.3.7 Powerplant effects: Engines are designed to specific vibration standards and do not normally
transmit significant levels through the mountings to the aircraft structure. The low levels of vibration that do
occur are characterised by periodic vibrations occurring at rotor and blade passing frequencies and their
harmonics. Powerplant induced vibration in aircraft installed materiel is predominantly due to impingement of
jet noise on the aircraft structure, through mechanisms discussed below:
a) Jet noise: The noise created by the turbulent mixing of an issuing jet (jet noise) can be a prime source of
structural vibration. The noise levels behind an engine can approach 160 to 170 dB overall sound
pressure level (OASPL), typically occurring in the frequency range 300-600 Hz, with severities
decreasing at 3 or 4 dB per octave above and below this range. Potential damaging effects include
fatigue in cleats, corners of stringers, ribs and under rivets. In severe noise fields, over 160 dB, fatigue
can occur in more important structural locations, such as rib webs and at the centre of panels. At higher
levels still, over 170 dB, failures in prime structure can occur in conventional designs. In such cases
special features may need to be incorporated into the design. Methods for establishing vibration induced
in engine equipment from jet noise are contained in Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU) Data
Sheets on Acoustic Fatigue [4]. Typical overall sound pressure contours for a turbo-jet produced by these
methods are shown in Figure 3. During take-off, ground reflections can occur which could increase the
values shown by 3 dB.
b) Choked jets: In an under-expanded supersonic jet, shock cells exist which, relative to a subsonic jet,
result in an increase in the spectral density of the random pressure fluctuations over a relatively narrow
frequency spectrum. These particular frequencies are associated with the dimensions of the shock cells
which can change during flight if the jet pressure-ratio changes. There have been cases where the
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Chapter 7-01
frequency of a spectral peak has coincided with a modal frequency of structural panels and damage has
resulted. A method for calculating the peak frequency is detailed in Reference 5.
c) Jet attachment: A jet which is close, but nominally clear of a structure can attach itself to the structure by
a mechanism which is sometimes referred to as the Coanda effect. This effect occurs when, due to a
manoeuvre or a change in the jet dimensions, the boundary conditions required for the full mixing of the
jets are not met. This will occur for instance when the necessary full air-entrainment on one side of the
jet is restricted as the jet moves towards the fuselage. The jet will then move further towards the
fuselage so that the boundary-layer existing on the fuselage and the flow at the jet edges will merge
“sucking” the jet towards the fuselage so that it eventually sticks to it. This produces an upward and
sudden step in the level of vibration and noise, as well as producing a heating effect.
2.3.8 Cavities: A cavity, such as an aircraft weapons bay, exposed to a grazing airflow passing the aircraft
can be a significant source of both noise and vibration. The frequency spectrum of such disturbances can be
broadband and usually features sharp peaks over a broad range of frequencies. The main peaks arise from
the excitation of acoustic standing waves which are a direct function of the dimensions of the cavity and its
contents. The frequencies of the standing waves can be calculated with some confidence from standard
formulae [6] [7]. The majority of the less dominant standing waves are usually harmonics of the main waves
and can persist up to quite high orders. The amplitudes of the pressure fluctuations are less easily estimated
because they are affected by geometrical factors such as the sharpness of the edges of the cavity, the
direction of flow over the cavity and the contents of the cavity. The contents of the cavity can have the effect
of making the main resonant peaks less discernible whilst increasing the level of the background broad-band
“noise” which is always present. The high acoustic energy associated with the unsteady pressures can
induce significant responses in panels and installed materiel within a cavity. Panels have been known to fail
very rapidly under such conditions.
2.4 Manoeuvres and Gusts
2.4.1 Materiel will experience low frequency acceleration loadings due to flight manoeuvres and gusts.
These are normally considered as quasi-static loadings for design and test purposes. At a particular aircraft
location the loadings arise mainly from the vector sum of the six “rigid body” aircraft degrees motions, i.e.:
vertical, lateral, longitudinal, roll, pitch and yaw. In some cases these could be amplified by the dynamic
motions of the lower frequency aircraft modes.
2.4.2 Generally the flight accelerations are a specified design requirement for a particular aircraft type and
hence are well defined early in design. These accelerations are usually constrained by flight limits or the
aircraft control system, and form the basis for aircraft fatigue analyses. In some cases these loadings may
cause deflections of sufficient magnitude to prevent proper operation of mechanisms.
2.5 Gunfire
2.5.1 Significant dynamic responses, sometimes of a complicated periodic nature, can be induced in
aircraft structure and installed materiel from the operation of an aircraft’s guns which may be either internally
mounted or in external pods. Although the duration of these responses is relatively short, the amplitudes can
be several orders of magnitude greater than the vibrations arising during normal flight. Moreover, the
characteristics of the responses are likely to be significantly different to the vibrations occurring during
normal flight conditions and may induce different failure modes.
2.5.2 The effects of gunfire potentially induce responses from three different sources. These are blast
overpressure emanating from the gun muzzle, recoil of the gun on its mounts and motions of the ammunition
in its loading system. Usually the most significant of these on installed materiel is that due to blast
overpressure.
2.5.3 Gun blast overpressure is created by the sudden expansion of the propellant gas from the muzzle
after the projectile emerges. This gun blast propagates through the air and impinges on the surrounding
structure. The pressure wave may affect materiel directly or indirectly via the aircraft structure. The amplitude
of the pressure waves is dependent upon a number of factors such as altitude, airspeed, type of gun and
ammunition, distance from the muzzle and the incidence of the blast wave. These factors and a method for
computing the magnitude of the blast pressure wave impinging on the surrounding structure are addressed
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Chapter 7-01
in Def Stan 00-970, Volume 1, Leaflet 501/5 [8]. Typical peak overpressure blast levels derived from Def Stan
00-970 are shown in Figure 4.
2.5.4 The character of structural responses arising from gun blast will depend upon the location of the
structure or materiel with respect to the gun muzzle. These responses can be considered to have distinctly
different characteristics in each of the near, middle and far spatial fields.
a) Near field: The character of structural responses arising from gun blast near the gun muzzle, and so in
the near spatial field, is largely influenced by the impulse of the blast pressure wave. Structural and
materiel responses will appear as a sequence of distinct shock pulses. The near spatial field will include
the muzzle breakout point and structure in its immediate vicinity. In the absence of a spatial definition
the near field should be considered to be a circular area of 0.5 m2 extending around the gun muzzle in
the plane normal to the gun muzzle. When uncertainty exists as to whether materiel is located in the
near or middle fields, and particularly for materiel critical to aircraft safety, the near field should be
assumed. In the near field the amplitude of the blast pressure wave may be sufficient to cause structural
failure of panels and their supports. Materiel in close proximity to the muzzle, but protected from the
direct blast pressure wave, may fail due to the severity of the discrete and repetitive shock pulses.
b) Middle field: The response of structure and materiel more distant from the gun muzzle, i.e.: in the middle
spatial field, is largely influenced by the coupling of the pressure pulse with the dynamic characteristics
of the structure. The character of the response is dominated by the periodic motions arising from the
gunfire rate and its subsequent harmonics. If no better information is available, the middle spatial field
should be considered to extend beyond the near field up to 150 calibres from the muzzle. When doubt
exists materiel and structure should be considered to be located in the middle field in preference to the
far field. The most likely failure modes of materiel in the middle field are those associated with high
intensity, low frequency vibration.
c) Far field: For materiel and structure well away from the gun muzzle the vibrations arising from gunfire
overpressure may not be readily discernible within the normal flight vibration levels. The higher
harmonics of the gunfire rate tend to become less significant eventually leaving only the periodic
motions at the fundamental gunfire rate. In the far spatial field, because the amplitude of the responses
from gunfire are less than those form normal flight aerodynamic excitations, the difference in character is
unlikely to have a significant effect. The far field encompasses all the remaining zones of the aircraft not
considered as near or middle field.
2.5.5 Responses arising from gun recoil tend to be less severe than those from blast because the effects
of gun recoil tend to be filtered by the gun mass and mount stiffness effective at the gunfire frequency.
Consequently, gun recoil may only affect materiel installed close to the gun mounts. Responses arising from
ammunition loading systems are the least significant of the three potential sources and only affect materiel
installed very close to the loading system. However, this source is likely to be a significant source for the
ammunition itself.
2.6 Launch of Weapons
The launch or firing of weapons can, in certain circumstances, induce high levels of shock, vibration and
pressure blast in aircraft structure and installed materiel. However, because materiel responses are highly
dependent upon specific weapon and aircraft configurations, it is inappropriate to discuss particular dynamic
response characteristics.
3.1 General
3.1.1 The following paragraphs provide recommended treatments, in terms of test methods and
associated test severities, for the mechanical environments identified in Paragraph 2. Where relevant the
appropriate Part 3 Test Method is indicated.
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Chapter 7-01
3.1.2 It is emphasised that in all cases information on test severities based on measured data should be
sought from the aircraft manufacturers.
Materiel response amplitudes associated with these conditions are relatively low. Therefore, these conditions
are often considered in conjunction with other more severe conditions such as flight vibration. In cases
where testing is considered appropriate a broad band random vibration test should be used, adopting the
procedures of Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test.
3.3.1 Materiel response amplitudes arising from continuous vibration associated with these conditions are
considered to be encompassed by those of normal flight. However, in cases where testing is considered
appropriate, a broad band random vibration test should be used, adopting the procedures of Part 3, Chapter
2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test.
3.3.2 It is unusual to conduct tests that replicate landing transients. However when testing is required a
decaying sinusoidal wave form test would normally be used. A suitable test method is that given in Part 3,
Chapter 2-06, Test M6 - Operational Shock Simulation Test.
3.3.3 It is emphasised that because materiel responses during take-off and landing are largely influenced
by the dynamic characteristics of the undercarriage and the mass of the aircraft, advice on test severities
should be sought from the aircraft manufacturer; and especially for the following conditions:
⎯ Temporary or repaired runways,
⎯ Catapult launch and arrested landing,
⎯ Vertical take-off and landing,
⎯ Ski-jump assisted take-off.
3.4.1 Aerodynamic flow: The vibration test procedure adopted for aerodynamic flow conditions should be
that of Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test. In all cases, information on test
severities based on in-flight measurements should be sought from the aircraft manufacturer.
3.4.2 Vortex flow: The use of generalised test severities is not appropriate for vibration arising from vortex
impingement, because its characteristics are unique to particular aircraft types, locations and flight
conditions. Suitable severities for design and testing should be obtained from the aircraft manufacturer. For
certain areas of high performance aircraft, vibration severities from this source are often the main
consideration when setting vibration test requirements. Although vortex impingement occurs relatively
infrequently and for short periods, over the life of an airframe, the accumulated duration can be significant.
The appropriate test procedure is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test,
adopting fixed sine or narrow band random excitation.
3.4.3 Critical flow/buzz/engine intake flow effects: Most aircraft installed materiel does not experience
vibration from these effects. Therefore generalised test severities are inappropriate. Advice should be sought
from the aircraft manufacturer on whether the materiel could experience vibration from any of these effects,
and if so, the levels to which the materiel should be tested.
3.4.4 Power plant mechanical effects: Generally power plants are purchased to a specific requirement with
regard to the generation of vibration. The appropriate aircraft engine requirements should be consulted and
used as the basis for setting test severities.
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Chapter 7-01
3.4.5 Jet-plume effects: For most materiel jet plume flow effects are adequately encompassed within the
vibration severities for aerodynamic flow. For sensitive materiel upon which jet plume noise impinges directly,
the appropriate acoustic test procedure should be that contained in Part 3, Chapter 2-08, Test M8 –
Acoustic Noise Test using a Reverberation Chamber, or in Chapter 2-09, Test M9 – Acoustic Noise
Test using a Progressive Wave Tube. Appropriate default severities would be 150 dB OASPL for materiel
close to the jet noise source and 140 dB OASPL for other locations. The associated acoustic test spectrum
is that specified in Part 3, Chapters 2-08 and 2-09. For materiel close to the jet noise source, but which is
not microphonic (ie: sensitive to airborne excitation), the use of mechanical testing may be appropriate. In
such cases the test procedure of Part 3, Chapter 2-01 Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test should
be used.
3.4.6 Cavities: If materiel is mounted within, or close to, a cavity which is open to the airstream, a specific
acoustic cavity resonance test may be necessary. Cavity resonances are predominantly sinusoidal in nature,
consequently the cavity resonance test consists of a series of acoustically generated sinusoids. Because of
the difficulties of deriving reliable amplitudes, test severities verified by measured values should be sought
from the aircraft manufacturer. An appropriate test procedure is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-08, Test M8 -
Acoustic Noise Test using a Reverberation Chamber.
The acceleration loadings arising from these conditions should be provided by the aircraft manufacturer.
When these loadings are unavailable, for initial design and evaluation purposes, the acceleration loadings
set out in Def Stan 07-85 Part 2 Section 7 [10] could be adopted. In some circumstances these loadings can
also be used as the basis for testing. However, dynamic testing is not normally undertaken as the adequacy
of many items of materiel can be satisfactorily demonstrated by analysis or static strength testing. When
dynamic testing is required it is normally undertaken in accordance with Part 3, Chapter 2-13, Test M13 -
Steady State Acceleration Test. This test is usually undertaken on a centrifuge although alternative test
facilities may be acceptable. Table 1 of this chapter shows examples environmental levels which may be
experienced by jet aircraft. This table cannot be used for design or test purposes.
3.6 Gunfire
3.6.1 Test options: Pulse and vibration test methods are available to simulate materiel responses arising
from aircraft gunfire. When materiel is situated in the near field (see sub-paragraph 2.5) pulse test methods
are usually considered as the only test option. However, it should be noted that for the pulse test methods,
considerable practical difficulties exist in producing a series of pulses to represent the blast effects of gunfire.
In the middle field, either pulse or vibration test methods may be used dependent upon the relative location
of the materiel to the gun muzzle. The vibration test methods are only applicable to materiel mounted some
distance from the gun muzzle where induced pulse characteristics are not discernible in the response
histories of measured data. In all other cases the preferred approach is to select an appropriate pulse test
method. It is not usually necessary to conduct tests for materiel situated in the far field. A suitable test
procedure is given in Part 3, Chapter 2-19, Test M19 – General Time History Replication Test.
3.6.2 Pulse methods: In general, pulse test methods could be more appropriate for skin mounted items.
However, the selection of a particular test method should be taken only after a review in some depth of the
particular needs of the materiel. Consequently, it is inappropriate to recommend pulse test methods for
specific applications. Also, it should be noted that all appropriate pulse test methods require measured data
to derive test severities. Although, in some cases, it may be practical to estimate amplitudes for initial
purposes using the pressure prediction procedures contained in Def Stan 00-970 Volume 1 Leaflet 501/5.
The following pulse test methods are candidates for selection:
a) Part 3 Chapter 2-06 Test M6 - Operational Shock Simulation Test. The software often used with this
test method may not be ideally suited to simulate aircraft gunfire and may need to be adapted for this
application.
b) STANAG 4370 AECTP 400 Method 405 – Gunfire [9]. This test method contains two pulse procedures.
1) Procedure 1 - Direct reproduction of measured data
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Chapter 7-01
2) Procedure 2 - Statistically generated data.
3.6.3 Vibration methods: Simulation of aircraft gunfire by vibration test methods may be undertaken by
super-imposing, on broad band random, four sinusoidal components or narrow band random components of
vibration. The frequencies of these sinusoidal or narrow band random vibration components are the
fundamental frequency of the gun firing rate and the next three harmonics. The narrow band random
vibration alternative is preferred to cover any variation in the gun firing rate. However, where the use of
narrow band is outside the capability of available vibration control and shaker systems then the use of
sinusoidal vibration is usually acceptable. Because of the wide ranging nature of the excitation
characteristics of aircraft gunfire, the provision of advice on ruggedness test severities is not appropriate.
Consequently, the vibration methods also require measured data from which to derive default severities.
Nevertheless, guidance which could be of assistance when deriving initial test severity estimates prior to
acquiring the necessary measured data is given in STANAG 4370 AECTP 400 Method 405 Annex D [9]. An
appropriate test method is given in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test.
In most cases the induced loadings arising from weapon launch can be treated as quasi-static loads.
However, in some cases these loadings may induce significant dynamic responses. Consequently, additional
shock and/or pressure blast testing may be required to simulate these effects. As these loadings are specific
to particular items of materiel, the provision of general advice regarding test methods and test severities is
inappropriate.

Refer to Part 5, Chapter 7-02, Annex B.
1.5
Vertical
1.0
Vibration (g pk)
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s)
1.5
Lateral
1.0
Vibration (g pk)
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s)
Figure 1 Example of Transients Occurring During a Normal Landing
130
Chapter 7-01
0.01
Vertical (0.256 g rms)
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2 Example of Vibration Occurring During Take-Off
135 dB 140 dB 145 dB 150 dB

155 dB
160 dB
165 dB
NOTE 1 Contours are of overall sound pressure levels from Tornado.
NOTE 2 The values are associated with use of two engines operating with afterburners, but do not include any effects
of reflections from the ground or the aircraft’s surface.
Figure 3 Typical Noise Contours Arising From Jet Plume Mixing
131
Chapter 7-01
0.04 0.03 0.025 0 .0 2 b a r

0.05
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.3
Other pressure contours from

outer to inner are:
0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 & 1.5 bar
NOTE 1 Peak gunfire blast over pressures due to the operation of a single gun on Tornado at an aircraft velocity of
350 m/s.
NOTE 2 Incident pressures will be 2 to 4 times the over pressure values.
Figure 4 Typical Peak Blast Overpressure Contours Due To Gunfire
132
Chapter 7-01
Table 1 Steady State Acceleration Example Environmental Levels for Materiel Installed in Jet
Aircraft
a. Highly Manoeuvrable (Agile) Aircraft
Installation Resultant Components of Acceleration Typical Manoeuvres

Acceleration Covered
(gn)
(gn)
Position Attitude x y z
Any Any 17* n/a n/a n/a n/a
Fixed 17 ±9 ±2.5 -14 Pull-out, landing,

assisted take-off
17 0 ±14 ±9 Roll, down gust
Fuselage Any 13* n/a n/a n/a n/a
Fixed 10 ±2.5 ±2 -9 Pull-out, spin, roll
13 ±9 ±2.5 -8.5 Landing, assisted

take-off
-5 +1 0 +4.5 Down gust
b. All Other Military Aircraft

Acceleration (gn) Covered
(gn)
Fixed 7 ±2.5 ±1 -6 Pull-out
4 +1 0 +3.5 Down gust
5 0 ±4 -2.5 Roll
Fuselage Any 6.5 n/a n/a n/a n/a
Fixed 6.5 ±2 ±1 -6 Pull-out, roll
-4 +1 0 +3.5 Down gust
NOTE * denotes in any direction.
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Intentionally Blank
134
Chapter 7-01
Annex A
Annex A
Considerations for the Assessment of Flight Data
A.1 Flight Vibration
A.1.1 Flight measured vibration data will rarely be available for all in-Service conditions. Therefore it is
useful to establish, where practicable, a working knowledge of the effects of various parameters on vibration
severity. This is usually achieved by the evaluation of the characteristics and trends of the dynamic
responses acquired from a well planned flight measurements programme.
A.1.2 Experience indicates the following parameters and trends are worthy of consideration.
a) Flight dynamic pressure: An important parameter influencing vibration severity of installed materiel is
flight dynamic pressure; which in turn is related to altitude and airspeed. Because vibration amplitude (g
rms) is proportional to flight dynamic pressure, this parameter is particularly significant when considering
severities for high performance jet aircraft. Investigations should be undertaken to examine the linearity
of overall root mean square (rms) vibration versus flight dynamic pressure and variations in spectral
profiles.
b) Mach number: Whilst the effects of airspeed are normally related to flight dynamic pressure, in some
instances the relationship may change at higher Mach numbers. Consequently it is prudent to establish
the relationship between vibration severity and Mach number in addition to the more usual relationship
with dynamic pressure.
c) Axis and location: Evaluation of the variations in vibration responses by axis and location is particularly
useful for installed materiel. The variations should be examined in terms of overall rms vibration and
spectral profile.
d) Payload configuration: The effects of payload configuration (total mass and distribution) on vibration
levels may require investigation where significant variation in payload configuration is likely to occur.
These effects should also be examined in terms of overall rms vibration and spectral profiles.
e) Vortex impingement: The effects of vortex impingement should be examined using plots of peak
amplitudes in the time domain. The onset and magnitude of the vibration responses cannot be readily
correlated with the usual monitored aircraft parameters.
f) Flight manoeuvres: These include non-stationary conditions such as wind-up-turns, but also take-off,
landing, reverse thrust etc. In all these cases, plots of peak vibration versus time together with spectral
profiles are usually appropriate.
g) Powerplant demand: Variations in this parameter and its effect on vibration severity may be especially
appropriate for materiel installed in VSTOL aircraft.
A.2 Gunfire
The parameters examined will depend upon the proximity of the materiel to the gun muzzle, i.e.: whether it is
located in the near, middle or far fields.
a) Near field: In the near field blast pulse effects will almost certainly be the dominant feature in the
measured dynamic responses. The extraction of the characteristics of the pulse effects is probably best
achieved in the time domain as the use of either frequency spectra and shock response spectra will
135
Chapter 7-01
Annex A
cause problems due to the presence of the background aerodynamically induced broadband random
vibrations.
b) Middle field: In the middle field materiel responses will be dominated by structural responses rather than
by the blast pulse effects. The nature of the responses will be broadband random with superimposed
“near periodic” components at the gunfire rate and subsequent harmonics, therefore it is appropriate to
evaluate the measured responses in the frequency domain. Accurate determination of these latter
components may require very narrow bandwidth analysis which may be incompatible with the
identification of the broader frequency range random vibration. Under such circumstances several
frequency spectra may be required, each aimed at quantifying a particular harmonic. Also, it may be
prudent to use mean square values to quantify the harmonics.
c) Far field: As gunfire is unlikely to generate materiel responses in the far field, specific recommendations
are not offered.
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Chapter 7-01
Annex B
Annex B
B.1 References
1 Estimation of the Surface Pressure Fluctuations in the Turbulent Boundary -

Layer of a Flight Vehicle, ESDU Data Item Number 75021.
2 Surface Pressures and Structural Strains Resulting from Fluctuations in the D R B Webb,
Turbulent Boundary Layer of Fairey Delta 2 Aircraft, RAE Tech Note 313, May A R Keeler and
1962. G R Alken
3. DEF STAN 00-970 Design and Airworthiness Requirements for Service Aircraft, -
Part: 1, Combat Aircraft, Section: 4, Design and Construction, supplement 25.
4. ESDU Data Sheets Acoustic Fatigue Series, Volumes 1 to 4. -
5. Noise and Vibration, Ch 14, p 307, Pub Ellis Horwood Ltd, 1982. Ed by R G White and J G
Walker
6. Acoustic Radiation from Two-Dimensional Rectangular Cut-Outs in -
Aerodynamic Surfaces, NACA TN 3487, August 1955.
7. A Theory of Acoustic Frequency and Resonance as Controlling Factors in A Shaw
Aerodynamics, ARC 12376, May 1949.
8. DEF STAN 00-970: Design and Airworthiness Requirements for Service -
Aircraft, Part: 1 Combat Aircraft, Section: 2, Flight, supplement 65.
9. STANAG 4370 AECTP 400 Method 405 Gunfire.. -
10. Def Stan 07-85. -
B.2 Bibliography
Time History Vibration Testing, RAE Tech Memo Aero 1791, March 1979. -
Buffet Excitation on Twin Stores at Subsonic and Transonic Speeds, DRA Tech D G Mabey, RNL Howath
Memo, AERO 2226, October 1991. and B Weir
Trials Report on No 114 Bomb Tail Vibration Investigation on a Tornado Aircraft, P Driffell and J C Copley
D/RAE (F)AW4/4/11/14.
Aircraft Equipment Random Vibration Test Criteria on Vibration Induced by Jet and J H Wafford and J F
Fan Exhaust Noise, Shock and Vibration Bulletin 43, Part 3, pp 141-151, 1973. Dreher
ESDU Data Sheet 87011,Prediction of Single-Stream Jet Noise in Flight from Static -
Circular Nozzle Data, Noise Series Volume 2.
Mil Std 810 Environmental Test Methods and Engineering Guidelines Method 519.3 – -
Gunfire.
Tornado Gunfire and the Dynamic Response of the BL755 Cluster Bomb Unit, RAE
Tech Report TR86059 1986.
The Responses of External Stores to Tornado Gunfire, RAE Report ST/17/1/4 1984.
Analysis of Vibration Measurements on XV 278 during 25mm Aden Gun Butt Tests,
BAe-KSD-N-HAR-1253 June 1985.
General Requirements for Equipment for Use in Aircraft, BS 3G 100(1972).
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Annex B
Intentionally Blank
138
Chapter 7-02
Chapter 7-02
Mechanical Aspects of Stores Carried Externally on Jet Aircraft
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be experienced by stores during
external carriage on fixed wing jet aircraft. For the purpose of this chapter, and unless otherwise stated, the
term "stores" is considered to include bombs, missiles, dispensers, torpedoes and pods. The vibration levels
experienced by stores during external carriage on high performance aircraft are often of such magnitude that
they have a significant influence on design.
1.2 The requirement for mechanical assessment of a stores key structural components, in combination
with environmental vibration testing for air carriage safety assessment clearance is described. In addition the
sources of excitation and the characteristics of the mechanical environments are described and guidance
given on the selection of test methods and severities.
1.3 Further information on the parameters influencing store vibration is included as Annex A. The
requirements for measured data, the use of scaling factors and the derivation of test durations are discussed
in Annex B. Buffet Vibration is discussed in detail in Annex C and Measured Buffet Vibration Spectra are
given in Annex D whilst Gunfire shock is discussed in Annex E. In Annex F elements of a mechanical
structural integrity assessment (SIA) are discussed, an idealised example presented and a summary of
mechanical SIA issues is given. Finally the References and bibliography are included as Annex G.
1.4 The mechanical environments to be addressed when considering the separation of the store from the
carriage aircraft are covered in Chapter 10-01. The mechanical environments relating to stores on
helicopters are included in Chapter 8-01.
1.5 Unless otherwise stated, all axes refer to store axes, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with
the direction of flight, i.e. forward.
2 Clearance of Stores for Air Carriage
2.1 Both environmental and structural clearance is required for air carriage of a store on an aircraft. It is a
misconception that environmental testing alone, even if part of an S3 test programme, is adequate for
clearance. Therefore, when considering the clearance requirement, all aspects of the stores ability to meet
the service requirement safely and remain suitable for service must be addressed. Environmental testing is
principally aimed at evaluating the safety and suitability for service of the store in terms of its energetic
components, whilst mechanical structural analysis and testing is aimed at the store strength to safely meet
its intended duty.
2.2 During air carriage of a store a range of mechanical inputs combine to cause complex mechanical
loading of components, the overall structure and energetic materials. These complex loads comprise
elements from static loading (self weight, general torque setting of bolts, residual strains etc.), quasi-static
loading (dynamic rigid body behaviour, direct and rotational loads), inertial loading, transient loading,
aerodynamic loading and vibration all of which combine to result in complex stress distributions. All load
components and their interactions must be considered in a structural integrity assessment (SIA) to be able to
confidently establish the capability of the store to withstand them. The mechanical assessment, often in
conjunction with some strength testing and the results from environmental testing / inspection are key
elements of the air carriage safety case. The safety case is further supported by other information such as
through life surveillance, breakdown and mechanical property evaluation which provides an in depth multi-
legged safety argument adding confidence to the air carriage safety case. This multi legged safety
assessment approach generally comprises of environmental characterisation, structural integrity
assessment, component & AUR testing, structural fatigue testing, sequential safety & suitability for service
(S3) environmental testing, surveillance and sometimes smart surveillance.
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2.2.1 Environmental Characterisation – The full range of environmental and operational conditions
affecting the complex loading of the store must be understood and characterised for inclusion in the SIA and
the environmental test programme. Typically, the store air carriage environment will need to be measured in
terms of the static, quasi-static, vibration, temperature and shock loading at specific locations on the
structure using a range of instrumentation including accelerometers, strain gauges and thermocouples etc.
To characterise the air carriage environment it is necessary to realistically define the location of the store on
the aircraft and the sortie profiles that the aircraft will fly through the stores intended life. This information
allows a flight test programme to be performed from which the environmental characterisation data is
collected. Analysis of the data provides the input to both the mechanical assessment and environmental test
programmes.
2.2.2 Structural Integrity Assessment – The mechanical assessment activities which combine under the
generic term of structural integrity assessment SIA are discussed below and in Annex F. Further information
on structural integrity assessment can be found in Chapter 4-07 of Part 2 of DEFSTAN 07-85. Suffice it to
say here that a full mechanical structural analysis of the key store components (such as attachment lugs,
joints and casings etc.) both singly and in the all-up-round configuration must be undertaken. This
mechanical analysis requires a thorough understanding of the store potential structural failure modes,
specification of the general and localised geometry, the component material properties, any inherent
structural defectiveness, the full range of complex loading, an analysis and assessment method and
definition of appropriate acceptance criteria. However SIA alone is not sufficient unless backed up by “all up
round” environmental testing. Additionally it is essential that the analyst is demonstrably competent in the
application of the accepted analysis and assessment techniques.
2.2.3 Component & AUR Testing – Dynamic mechanical structural testing of a store components in
isolation from a SIA assessment is generally considered inadequate to provide the necessary degree of
confidence for inclusion in the air carriage safety case. This is because the complex load and dynamic
structural interactions between the components in the all-up-round configuration cannot generally be
adequately replicated in the laboratory. Whilst laboratory all-up-round testing is considered appropriate and
necessary for air carriage environmental vibration testing, it is often inappropriate for dynamic mechanical
structural testing because of the need to fully replicate the complex operational loads using a fixture in the
laboratory and the attendant costs.
2.2.4 Structural Fatigue Testing – This can be undertaken using service load simulation and basic material
property tests. For service load simulation it is imperative that an accurate service load is used and
realistically applied to the service item. This means that the store structure must to be constrained and the
service loads applied as they would during service. This requirement applies to all aspects of the test. A
significant number of test items and tests are required to provide a statistical justification of the results
achieved. The general problem with using a store for fatigue testing is the accurate application of the service
load environment (via electro-magnetic and hydraulic actuators) in a representative manner. This can be
technical difficult and financially expensive to implement on complex structures. Therefore, basic fatigue
property tests using simple specimens are used to replicate to the real fatigue environment. The problem
with using this technique is relating generally unrealistic load patterns used with simple specimens to the real
fatigue environment. However, this limitation is generally overcome by the application of factors such as
lower bound material properties data etc.
2.2.5 Sequential Safety & Suitability for Service (S3) Environmental Testing – Sequential environmental
testing provides essential information regarding the effect of various environments on the stores energetic
and other materials, which cannot be assessed in any other way and is discussed in detail later and in
Annex F. However, S3 environmental vibration testing alone must not be used to clear the store for air
carriage without evaluation of the dynamic mechanical structural behaviour when subject to the full range of
complex mechanical loads. Therefore, S3 testing will always need to be complimented by a structural
assessment using appropriate modelling, analysis and assessment techniques. The degree of analysis will
be dictated by the weapon potential failure modes and the components affected by them. For example
fatigue / fracture of structural components such as lugs and lug attachments will require modelling and
assessment in addition to component testing. Whilst other failure modes such as energetic material fretting
and powdering will require S3 testing applying the appropriate environmental conditions and loading with no
mechanical assessment.
2.2.6 Surveillance – It may not be possible to fully analyse or test the store to give an air carriage life with
the necessary degree of certainty. Even tailored environmental testing and a structural integrity assessment
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may fall short of providing a definitive store life with an adequate degree of confidence. Surveillance offers a
means of monitoring and evaluating potential failure mode degradation at regular intervals throughout the
stores life. This provides the added confidence to allow the store into service for a limited period and
strengthens the air carriage safety argument. Surveillance alone however cannot be justified as critical
sudden failure cannot be predicted without S3 and SIA and could result in the loss of the aircraft or worse.
2.2.7 Smart Surveillance – All of the above analysis, test and assessments come together into what has
recently been termed ‘smart surveillance’. This is where a limited life is initially ascribed to the store using S3
and SIA to bring it into service, but is then reviewed at regular intervals and extended in increments. Through
life surveillance consists of non-destructive examination, breakdown and inspection, material property
evaluation and live firings at specific review periods and is combined with additional environmental testing
and structural assessment as required. This incremental life assessment method offers a significant
reduction in the through life risk of operating the store.
3.1 Taxiing, Take-Off and Landing
3.1.1 Aircraft ground motions: During taxiing, take-off and landing, oscillatory transients are induced in a
store by action of the carriage aircraft traversing the airfield terrain. The transients are likely to be more
severe when temporary or repaired taxi-ways and runways are used. Generally, store responses are
dominated by low frequency components associated with the dynamic characteristics of the undercarriage,
together with rigid body modes (especially pitch) of the store/carrier assembly. These responses are
relatively benign, typically less than 1.5 g, and consequently are not considered further within this chapter.
Should further treatment be considered necessary, additional data on transients is given in Chapter 7-01.
3.1.2 Jet noise: Take-off involves high levels of engine power, which induces vibration and noise
conditions. The noise levels may be greater than those induced during flight because of ground reflections.
Some aircraft utilise reverse thrust devices during landing, which can induce particularly high levels of
localised noise and vibration in stores, albeit only for a few seconds. Figure 1 shows the typical responses at
the rear of a store as a result of impingement of redirected engine efflux occurring during the operation of a
reverse thrust device.
3.1.3 Vertical take-offs and landings: For VSTOL aircraft during vertical take-off or landing, efflux from the
engine nozzles may impinge on stores for a few seconds. In addition, and probably more importantly, jet
efflux reflected from the ground may impinge on the majority of the lower aircraft surface including stores
inducing severe vibration and noise conditions. Damage arising from such efflux can include fatigue in sheet
material, especially under rivets & bolts in cleats and stringers and at bend radii in stringers.
3.1.4 Ski-jump assisted take-off: For STOL aircraft the dynamic environment induced during the use of ski-
jump assisted take-off is of very low frequency and usually treated as a quasi-static aircraft loading condition.
Therefore this condition is not considered further in this chapter.
3.1.5 Catapult launches/arrested landings: Short duration oscillatory transients will be induced in a store
arising from an aircraft catapult launch or an arrested landing. In general, a catapult launch will show two
transient events corresponding to initial load application and catapult separation from the aircraft. Both
transient events possess a distinct oscillatory characteristic that is approximately sinusoidal and of relatively
low frequency, and which is determined by aircraft mass and landing gear damping characteristics. Arrested
landing conditions produce only a single transient with similar characteristics to catapult launch. While the
amplitudes of the transients associated with catapult launch/arrested landing are low, the long (several
seconds) periods of application permit these conditions to be treated as quasi-static aircraft loading
conditions and therefore are not considered further in this chapter.
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3.2 Flight Operations
3.2.1 General
The mechanical environments experienced by externally carried stores during flight carriage on fixed wing jet
aircraft are dominated by the vibration that originates from the relatively steady state aerodynamic flow
traversing the store’s external surface. Under certain flight conditions, other sources such as store buffet may
induce responses at wing, pylon or store mode frequencies that are more severe than those from steady
state aerodynamic flow. Further information on the effects of aerodynamic turbulence, engine intake flow and
jet plume effects can be found in Chapter 7-01. Further information on Store Buffet can be found in Annex C
and Annex D of this chapter.
3.2.2 Aerodynamic Flow
3.2.2.1 The most significant source of store vibration during straight and level flight is associated with
unsteady pressures in the airflow surrounding the store. The airflow over the store, particularly over the
forward regions, may be smoothly attached to the store, or it may be detached, as it usually is over the aft
regions of a store. The more severe vibrations experienced by stores are associated with detached flow. The
typical effects of attached and detached flow are illustrated in Figure 2. The dotted curve indicates
responses when the flow is mainly attached, while the solid curve indicates the effects following the onset of
detached flow; (this is applicable to large stores e.g. bombs, but is not always the case with slender missiles
that may be close to wing structure & fuselage structure, where there can be reasonable vibration levels at
the front of the store without being in significant buffet conditions, as the airflow at the front of the store may
not be smooth). Wind tunnel measurements indicate that unsteady pressures associated with detached flow
are greater by a factor of between 2 and 2.5 over a broad frequency range compared to those for attached
flow. These increased unsteady pressures can result in significantly increased vibration responses of skin
panel modes, for example, as indicated in Figure 2.
3.2.2.2 A characteristic of aerodynamic flow is that modes of vibration up to at least 3 kHz are excited. For
high modal density stores of circular cross-section the highest vibration amplitudes often occur around the
store ring mode frequencies. For low modal density stores where the responses are dominated by only a few
frequency peaks, the vibration amplitude at each peak is likely to be relatively high. High amplitudes at
specific modes may not be indicated by the overall vibration severity when presented in terms of g rms.
3.2.2.3 Vibration arising from the ‘normal’ aerodynamic flow traversing the external surface of a store has
been shown to be proportional to dynamic pressure, and moreover can be quantified with a high degree of
confidence. Knowledge of this relationship is important because it can be applied to estimate vibration
amplitudes. A typical relationship is shown in Annex A, Figure A1.
3.2.2.4 As the vibration excitation arising from the ‘normal’ aerodynamic flow over the store is essentially
broad band random in character, potential damaging effects are likely to be fatigue related, such as the
fretting failure of small mechanisms or electrical connections. For detached flow impinging on store external
panels, wings, and tail fins, vibration responses can be dominated by the few modes with which the flow
couples efficiently. In these circumstances fatigue failure of structures and attachments can occur relatively
quickly.
3.2.2.5 The physical parameters of a store and its disposition on the carriage aircraft can significantly
influence vibration responses arising from aerodynamic flow, although it is usually impractical to quantify
their interaction with the applied unsteady aerodynamic pressures to predict vibration responses. The
influence of store type and spatial location on vibration severities is discussed in Annex A.
3.2.3 Critical flow/vortex impingement: Critical flow arises where local aerodynamic flow is just sonic and
where a weak oscillating shock occurs. This local aerodynamic flow can induce high amplitude responses in
structure underneath the oscillating shocks. Localised vibration responses can also be generated by vortices
impinging on downstream store structure. In cases of vortex impingement, vibration responses have been
known to attain levels of up to 10 g pk over a frequency range of 500 to 2000 Hz. For either situation, should
a frequency of excitation coincide with (i.e. within 20%) a local resonance of the store, high amplitude
vibration may occur which could rapidly result in fatigue damage.
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3.2.4 Jet noise: Power plant induced vibration in externally carried stores arises predominately from the
noise generated by the turbulent mixing of the issuing jet. The most severe noise conditions for stores occur
at take-off due to high power demand and ground reflections. However, resulting store vibration amplitudes
are usually less than those induced by aerodynamic flow during high speed flight, but could be the dominant
vibration source for stores carried towards the rear of low performance aircraft. The characteristics of the
vibration responses are usually wide band random. Further details on jet noise are presented in
Chapter 7-01 sub-paragraph 2.3.
3.3 Effects of Cavities
3.3.1 Cavities may present a problem for stores that dispense their contents while attached to the carriage
aircraft because, when exposed to a grazing airflow, a cavity can be a significant source of noise and
vibration. The associated frequency spectrum can be wide in range and usually features sharp tones arising
from the excitation of acoustic modes relating to the dimensions of the cavity. The character and intensity of
the acoustic field for long shallow cavities are radically different to those for short deep cavities. The
pressure field from the latter can influence store release dynamics.
3.3.2 The acoustic tones set up in cavities may inflict significant fatigue damage very rapidly on panels
within the cavity and substructure behind the cavity.
3.3.3 The treatment of noise and vibration conditions arising from cavities is covered in more detail in
Chapter 7-01 and consequently is not addressed further in this chapter.
3.4.1 Externally carried stores will experience low frequency inertia loadings arising from aircraft
manoeuvres and gusts. These loadings are normally considered as quasi-static conditions. At a particular
store location on the carriage aircraft the loadings are determined from the vector sum of the six rigid body
aircraft degrees motions, i.e. vertical, lateral, longitudinal, roll, pitch and yaw. Moreover, the aerodynamic
loadings arising from the store are additive to the inertia loadings. The severity of these loadings is
dependent upon the configuration and performance of the carriage aircraft.
3.4.2 The most potentially damaging effect of these loadings is fatigue of the store structure in the vicinity
of its attachments or lugs, or of sub-assembly mountings within the store, or of the carriage equipment.
3.4.3 Store Buffet
3.4.3.1 Severe vibration responses can be generated in a store when the airflow excites the fundamental
bending modes of a store, or the rigid body modes of a store on its relatively flexible carriage equipment.
Wing mounted stores are particularly susceptible. Such conditions are known as ‘flight into buffet’ events and
are more likely to occur when the aircraft is exhibiting a high angle of attack [11]. Typical vibration responses
are shown for comparison in Figure 3 for a wing mounted slender missile on a high performance aircraft
during straight and level flight and when undertaking a wind up turn. The dominant vibration response
around 30 Hz is the missile's fundamental bending mode.
3.4.3.2 For relatively long and slender missiles, the vibration response levels arising from buffet events
can be the most severe the system will experience during its operational life. Due to the non-stationary data
characteristics of the responses arising from these events it is difficult to predict amplitudes with any
confidence, but at the forward section of a slender missile, vibration responses have been observed that
exceed 10 g pk in the time domain and 10 g2/Hz in a narrow band in the frequency domain. Moreover,
although the high vibration responses only occur for a few seconds during each buffet event, the resulting
amplitudes at the relatively low frequencies involved can generate sufficient displacements which, when
coupled with their potential rate of occurrence, can adversely influence the fatigue life of the missile
structure.
3.4.3.3 Flight into buffet events can excite aircraft wing bending or torsion modes thereby inducing rigid
body motions in wing mounted stores or missiles. Comparable vibration amplitudes under such conditions for
a 1000 lb store during straight and level flight and when undertaking a wind up turn are shown in Figure 4. In
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this case store responses in the vertical axis at the store's centre of gravity are seen to increase by more
than three orders of magnitude at low frequencies. The response at around 25 Hz is attributed to a wing
torsion mode. Further studies [1] on this response indicate that it is related to angle of attack and dynamic
pressure as shown in Figure 5. Vibration responses are more pronounced for forward mounted slender
missiles on outboard wing stations and can attain amplitudes comparable with those cited in the previous
sub-paragraph.
3.4.3.4 Further information on buffet can be found in Annex C and Annex D of this chapter.
3.5 Aircraft Gunfire
3.5.1 Significant dynamic responses can be induced in externally carried stores arising from the operation
of guns installed within the carriage aircraft or in external pods. While the total duration of these excitations is
relatively short, the amplitudes can be significantly higher than the vibrations arising during normal flight.
Moreover, the characteristics of the responses are significantly different to the vibrations arising from normal
flight conditions and may induce different failure modes.
3.5.2 Depending upon the carriage station of the store, vibration may arise from the blast emanating from
the gun muzzle, the recoil of the gun on its mounts and the motions of the ammunition in its loading system.
For externally carried stores the most significant of these mechanisms is usually blast. Typical vibration
responses of a store skin panel and internal materiel due to gunfire blast are illustrated in Figure 6. A
method of computing the magnitude of the blast pressure impinging on surrounding structure is detailed in
Def Stan 00-970 Volume 1 Leaflet 710/2 [2]. That leaflet also discusses the parameters affecting pressure
levels. Typical peak overpressure levels arising from operation of an aircraft gun are shown in Chapter 7-01.
A suitable test procedure for gunfire testing is given in Annex E of this chapter. However this annex does not
describe a blast test, which may be the more significant excitation action for thin wall structures.
3.5.3 The structural response of a store arising from gun blast depends upon the location of the store with
respect to the gun muzzle. These responses can be considered to have distinctly different characteristics in
each of the near, middle and far spatial fields.
3.5.3.1 Near field: The responses arising from gun blast when the store is situated near the gun muzzle
may be severe and dominated by the impulse of the blast pressure wave. In this region the peak blast
overpressures may exceed the dynamic pressures occurring in flight.
3.5.3.2 Middle field: The response of stores more distant from the gun muzzle, i.e. in the middle spatial
field, is largely influenced by the coupling of the pressure pulse with the dynamic characteristics of the store
structure. The character of the response at the store skin is still usually dominated by the blast impulses (as
illustrated in Figure 6). Within the store, responses may be dominated by the frequency associated with the
gunfire rate. As the blast pressure pulse is likely to have some influence, the vibrations contain contributions
from the subsequent harmonics of the frequency associated with the gunfire rate.
3.5.3.3 Far field: For stores situated away from the gun muzzle the blast impulses tend to become less
significant leaving only the periodic motions at the fundamental gunfire rate. Moreover, the vibration arising
from gunfire blast may not be readily discernible within the vibration levels arising from aerodynamic flow.
Consequently, the far spatial field effects of gunfire are relatively benign.
3.5.4 Considering the potentially damaging effects of gunfire, in the near field the blast pressure wave is
sufficient to cause the structural failure of panels and supports, or to induce fatigue failures in a very short
period. There is also the effect upon store internal equipment due to high vibration levels generated due to
the gunfire, either transmitted from the blast or through the store mountings. In the middle field the probability
of failures occurring may be dependent upon whether the responses are dominated by the amplitude of the
blast impulse or the frequency associated with the gunfire rate.
3.6 Launch of Adjacent Weapons
The launch of adjacent weapons can induce high levels of acceleration and pressure blast in nearby stores.
In most cases the induced loadings are considered as quasi-static conditions and are dealt with accordingly.
However, in some cases they can induce low frequency dynamic responses of the aircraft wing structure,
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which in turn may produce high store inertial loadings. Store attachment arrangements have been known to
fail under such conditions. Additional shock, vibration and/or pressure blast testing may be necessary to
simulate these effects, but as these loading conditions are project specific it is inappropriate to offer general
advice. Consequently, these conditions are not addressed further in this chapter.
4.1 Aerodynamic Flow
4.1.1 Test options: Aerodynamic excitation is distributed externally about the store surface. Consequently
it is difficult to simulate the effects of this excitation, particularly at higher frequencies, using the point
excitation techniques associated with mechanical vibrators. For this reason, use is often made of acoustic
excitation methods, but these methods alone may not be adequate to simulate responses at the lower
frequencies, and therefore may need to be augmented by a mechanical vibration test. If acoustic excitation
testing is not viable or available then mechanical excitation using shakers is usually acceptable provided that
steps are taken to ensure that the responses are satisfactory over the broad frequency range and along the
length of the store.
4.1.2 Acoustic testing: Acoustic excitation may be generated by producing acoustic pressure levels within
a reverberant chamber, or within a progressive wave tube. With either method a supplementary, preferably
simultaneous, application of mechanical excitation is usually required to cover the lower excitation
frequencies. The severities used when undertaking acoustic testing may be defined either as acoustic sound
pressure levels or store vibration responses. Because test levels defined in terms of acoustic sound pressure
levels require major assumptions, including those relating to the efficiency of the coupling of sound
pressures with store dynamic characteristics, test levels defined in terms of store vibration response levels
are preferred. Suitable acoustic test procedures are those of Part 3, Chapter 2-08, Test M8 - Acoustic
Noise Test using a Reverberation Chamber and Part 3, Chapter 2-09, Test M9 - Acoustic Noise Test
using a Progressive Wave Tube.
4.1.3 Mechanical testing: Mechanical excitation using vibrators may be used to cover the complete
frequency range, or to augment acoustic excitation at the lower frequencies. In reality the aerodynamic
excitation is distributed along the entire length of the store, therefore, it is preferable for the mechanical
excitation to be applied to more than one location along the store's longitudinal axis. If this approach is not
viable the application of the excitation through one location may be a possible alternative, although
significant over testing and consequential unrepresentative damage is almost certain to result at this
location. A suitable test procedure for mechanical testing is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 General
Purpose Vibration Test. Default severities for materiel carried externally on fixed-wing jet aircraft are given
in Chapter 2-03, Test M1, Annex A, Figure A31.
4.1.4 Combined environment testing: The need to simulate several environmental conditions
simultaneously within one test procedure is a common requirement for complete stores. Combined
environment tests that include vibration tests may be required for approval and/or for reliability purposes.
One such combined environment test is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-10, Test M10 - Combined Acoustic,
Temperature and Vibration, which allows mechanical vibration, acoustic and temperature conditions to be
applied simultaneously.
4.1.5 Ruggedness testing: This form of testing may be adopted for new qualification purposes where the
materiel is considered to be relatively insensitive to a more precise description of the in-Service conditions
and is capable of withstanding a degree of overtesting without prejudice to its design. Nevertheless, it is the
responsibility of the test specifier to confirm that the ruggedness test severities do fully accommodate the in-
Service conditions. The recommended ruggedness test severities for complete stores are shown in Part 3,
Chapter 2-01, Annex A Figure A31 and apply equally to stores mounted on pylons and wing tips or semi-
buried (conformal). These default severities have been found to be reasonably representative of most
Service conditions but may be unrepresentative for either unusually configured or constructed stores. In all
cases, it is emphasised that it is essential to use measured flight data to confirm test severities. However, it
may be possible to derive estimates of amplitude for initial design purposes by using the parametric scaling
factors presented in sub-paragraph 4.1.6 below.
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4.1.6 Empirical scaling factors: For this vibration environment, studies have been undertaken to permit
vibration amplitudes to be modified based on empirically derived scaling parameters using store and
operational information. Again, it is emphasised that values derived using empirical scaling parameters
should be used only for initial design purposes and should be verified by flight measured data at a later
development stage. The scaling parameters are quoted in terms of decibels and are referenced to the
ruggedness default severities referenced in sub-paragraph 4.1.5 above They are equally applicable to
acceleration power spectral density amplitudes using 10 log G(f)/G(f)ref and the overall (rms) vibration levels
using 20 log g.gref.
4.1.6.1 Flight conditions: Scaling of flight conditions for airspeed and/or altitude is the most common
adjustment of vibration amplitude likely to be required, for which a suitable scaling parameter is dynamic
pressure. Studies have shown that the rms store vibration is directly proportional to the flight dynamic
pressure, as demonstrated in Annex A, Figure A1. The ruggedness default severities described in
sub-paragraph 3.1.5 can be scaled as shown in Figure 7. The quoted relationship between the vibration
amplitude and flight dynamic pressure is not precise for all flight conditions. The main influence is the
efficiency by which the unsteady pressures couple with the structure. In practice, only small changes in rms
store vibration occur due to mounting configuration and aircraft. However, if a better relationship than that
quoted is known then it should be used. The use of dynamic pressure to scale vibration amplitude has been
shown to be valid up to around Mach 1.2, but evidence suggests that it operates effectively well beyond this
value. (This can be pessimistic as the grms / q can significantly reduce at supersonic conditions, compared
to the same q conditions sub-sonically, therefore extrapolation of subsonic data into the supersonic regime
should be avoided).
4.1.6.2 Store structure and configuration: There is no universal structural parameter to scale store
vibration amplitude to account for different store types and configurations. Four parameters that could be
applied are indicated in Figure 8. The most common parameter used is density, but it does not have general
applicability, nor is it always accurate. Nevertheless, it is suggested that, unless a specific structural
parameter is known to be more effective, density should be used. The range of known validity for each of the
structural parameters is set at the limits of the scales in Figure 8. These values are essentially the range for
which available data have been shown to apply. While the extremes of these ranges should not be
considered acceptance or limit values, care should be taken when stores exhibit parameters outside these
ranges.
4.1.6.3 Location and axis: Although the relationship between location or axis and vibration amplitude will
be store dependent, general distributions are applicable in most circumstances. Suitable adjustment factors
for the forward, mid and aft store body are quoted in Figure 9. The information presented for the axial axis
should not be taken as indicating that a test is always necessary in this axis.
4.1.6.4 Spectral profile: When design information is available the Ruggedness test spectral profile should
be modified to one representative of in-Service conditions. The spectral profile shown in Figure 10 relates to
aerodynamic unsteady pressures associated with straight and level flight. The spectral shape is modified by
use of a scaling parameter based on store thickness and radius. This suggested spectral profile
enhancement would normally apply only to a Ruggedness amplitude for complete stores. Observations
suggest that the spectral profile proposed is at its most accurate with high modal density stores. With low
modal density stores the spectral profile is usually dominated by large amplitudes at a few frequencies and
can be significantly different to that shown in Figure 10.
4.1.6.5 Multiple carriers: A general adjustment factor for use with multiple carriers is +3 dB. This factor
applies to double and triple store arrangements of conventional cross-section and store shape. It does not
encompass situations where severe restrictions to the aerodynamic flow produce significant increases in
magnitude at particular response frequencies.
4.2 Critical Flow/Vortex Impingement
4.2.1 Because vibration responses arising from critical flow and vortex impingement are specific to
particular store/aircraft configurations, the provision of generalised guidance with respect to the test
configuration and test severities is inappropriate. Moreover, as amplitudes of 10 g pk are not uncommon, it is
important that flight measurement trials are undertaken whenever it is suspected that an aircraft/store
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configuration could be subjected to these conditions, so that any resulting vibration responses can be
characterised.
4.2.2 Vibration responses generated by vortex impingement tend to be sinusoidal in nature. Also the
frequency of the response may vary considerably (up to 2 kHz), as a function of the flight condition.
Consequently, assuming that both the amplitude and frequency characteristics of the vibration responses
can be quantified, it is likely that the preferred method will be a swept frequency sinusoidal vibration test as
included in Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test. As there is often only minor coupling
of the vibration responses, this test may usually be undertaken separately from that for ‘normal’ aerodynamic
flow effects.
The acceleration loadings arising from these conditions should, where possible, be provided by the aircraft
manufacturer. When these loadings are unavailable, for initial design and assessment purposes the loadings
set out in Def Stan 07-85 Part 2 Section 7 [10] could be adopted. In some circumstances those inertial and
aerodynamic loadings can also be used as the basis for testing when factored appropriately. However,
dynamic testing is not normally undertaken as the adequacy of many items of materiel can be adequately
demonstrated by analysis or by static strength testing. When dynamic testing is required it is normally
undertaken in accordance with Part 3, Chapter 2-13, Test M13 - Steady State Acceleration Test. This test
is usually undertaken on a centrifuge. When insufficient information is available to perform tailored testing,
default acceleration loadings are presented in Table 1 and should be verified by information supplied from
the aircraft manufacturer. These default severities and are essentially those previously contained in BS 3G
100 (1972) [3].
4.3.1 Store Buffet
4.3.1.1 The test for stores to represent flight into buffet uses mechanical excitation, and historically, is
usually undertaken separately from that for ‘normal’ aerodynamic flow effects. This goes back to the
assumption that buffet is a condition that can be avoided or is specific to a certain set of flight conditions.
However more recently we consider the magnitude of low frequency buffet which occurs with the background
aerodynamic vibration and then how the buffet levels increase with flight condition. There is evidence that
these actions should not be split, unless it can be demonstrated that the fatigue of a component is only
affected by either buffet or aerodynamic vibration but not both. Vibration is normally applied through the
aircraft attachment arrangement but application through the store external surface may be an acceptable
alternative. A suitable separate buffet test method is given in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 General
Purpose Vibration Test. The test control strategy should recognise that the maximum vibration responses
usually occur at the extremities of the store.
4.3.1.2 In the absence of flight measured data the default severities given in Part 3, Chapter 2-01 Test
M1, Annex A, Figures A32 to A35 should be adopted. However, because the vibration responses arising
from buffet manoeuvre conditions are specific to particular store/aircraft configurations, it is strongly
recommended that flight measurement trials are conducted to identify and characterise the resulting vibration
responses.
4.3.1.3 In some circumstances two or more vibration responses with significant amplitudes may be
observed at different frequencies within the 20 to 150 Hz frequency range and sometimes higher. Such
responses could arise from a fundamental bending mode of the store, together with a rigid body mode of the
store suspension system or an aircraft wing torsion (or bending) mode. In this situation it is recommended
that the store is tested to all significant response amplitudes observed within the 20 to 150 Hz frequency
range or the measured frequency range of concern, whichever is the greater.
4.3.1.4 Further information on buffet vibration is contained within Annex C and Annex D.
4.4 Jet Noise
4.4.1 For current high performance aircraft the unsteady pressures arising from aerodynamic effects will
usually be of larger amplitude than the acoustic pressures arising from the power plant. Consequently, jet
147
Chapter 7-02
noise effects are only likely to be significant for stores mounted on low performance aircraft or in close
proximity to an engine. Default severities for stores very close to the power plant noise source are 140 dB
OASPL and 130 dB OASPL for other locations. For stores close to power plant noise on high performance
aircraft e.g. under-fuselage stores, levels of 155-158dB are more likely to be measured. In such
circumstances data collection and test tailoring is essential.
4.4.2 Appropriate test methods are those of Part 3, Chapter 2-08, Test M8 - Acoustic Noise Test using
a Reverberation Chamber and Chapter 2-09, Test M9 - Acoustic Noise Test using a Progressive Wave
Tube. The relevant acoustic test spectra are specified in both test methods.
4.4.3 If during VSTOL operations it is possible for the jet plume to impinge on the external surface of a
store, advice on appropriate acoustic test seventies should be sought from the aircraft manufacturer, as test
levels of the order of 170 dB OASPL may be required to accommodate these conditions.
4.5 Aircraft Gunfire
4.5.1 Test options: Pulse and vibration test methods are available to simulate store and equipment
responses arising from aircraft gunfire. When a store and/or its equipment is situated in the near field (see
sub-paragraph 3.5) pulse test methods are usually considered as the only test option. However, it should be
noted that for the pulse test methods, considerable practical difficulties exist in producing a series of pulses
to represent the blast effects of gunfire. In the middle field, either pulse or vibration test methods may be
used dependent upon the relative location of the store and/or its equipment to the gun muzzle. The vibration
test methods are only applicable to stores mounted some distance from the gun muzzle where, for the
equipment in question, induced pulse characteristics are not discernible in the response histories of
measured data. In all other cases the preferred approach is to select an appropriate pulse test method. It is
not usually necessary to conduct tests for stores and equipment situated in the far field.
4.5.2 The appropriate test method is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-19, Test M19 – General Time History
Replication Test. The software often used with this test method may not be ideally suited to simulate aircraft
gunfire and may need to be adapted for this application.
4.5.3 Further information on Gunfire Shock is given in Annex E of this chapter.
148
Chapter 7-02
0.1
Axial (2.331 g rms)
Power Spectral Density (g /Hz)
0.01
2
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 1 Example Vibration Response of a Store Panel Directly Ahead of Aircraft Engines During
Reverse Thrust
Attached Flow Detached Flow

0.1
Panel Mode
Power Spectral Density (g2/Hz)
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
10 100 1,000 10,000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2 Typical Effects of Attached and Detached Flow on Skin Panel Vibration Responses
149
Chapter 7-02
1
Straight & Level (0.214 g rms)
Wind-Up-Turn (1.561 g rms)
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3 Comparison of Vibration of a Wing Mounted Slender Missile During Straight and Level
Flight and in Buffet Conditions on a High Performance Jet Aircraft
0.1
Straight & Level (0.881 g rms)
Wind-Up-Turn (1.521 g rms)
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
NOTE Both manoeuvres flown at a dynamic pressure of 420 psf
Figure 4 Comparison of Vibration of a Store During Straight and Level Flight and in Buffet
Conditions at 420 psf on a Wing Pylon on a High Performance Jet Aircraft
150
Chapter 7-02
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
750 0.5 g rms
700 0.4 (3 to 100 Hz)
650 0.3
600 0.2
Dynamic 550 0.1
Pressure 500 0.0
(psf) 450
400
15 16 17
350
12 13 14
300 11
8 9 10
7 Angle of Attack (Degs)
NOTE 1 Data acquired over the frequency range where store buffet was known to occur, i.e. 3 to 100 Hz.
NOTE 2 Data were acquired under near stationary conditions of buffet.
NOTE 3 Store externally carried on a wing pylon of an agile fast jet aircraft.
Figure 5 Example of Store Vibration as a Function of Angle of Attack and Flight Dynamic Pressure
151
Chapter 7-02
Displacement Response to Applied Gunfire Burst (10 rounds)
0.003
Equipment Response
0.002
Displacement (m)
0.001
-0.001
-0.002
Skin Response
-0.003
-0.004
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Time (s)
Acceleration Response to Applied Gunfire Burst (10 rounds)
200
Equipment Response
150
Acceleration (m/s²)
100
50
-50
-100
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time (s)
Figure 6 Example of Vibration Responses of a Store Skin Panel and Internal Materiel due to
Gunfire
152
Chapter 7-02
0
Scaling factor dB
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Flight dynamic pressure kPa (67kPa = 1400 psf)
Figure 7 Vibration Test Scaling Factors for Flight Dynamic Pressure
153
154
4.1.6
NOTE
Scaling Factors for Density Scaling Factors for Skin Mass / Surface Area
1.4 -12 dB -9 dB -6 dB -3 dB -0 dB 250 -12 dB -9 dB
Chapter 7-02
1.2
200
1.0
Figure 8
150 -6 dB
0.8
100
0.6 -3 dB
Store Mass (Tonnes)

Store Skin Mass (kg)
50 -1.5 dB
0.4
0 dB
0.2 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Store Volume (m³) Store Surface Area (m²)
Scaling Factors for Skin Thickness / Store Radius² Scaling Factors for Mass / Surface Area
45 1.4
-3 dB -1.5 dB -9 dB -6 dB
40
1.2
35
30 1.0 -3 dB
25
0 dB 0.8
20
0 dB
15 0.6
+3 dB
10
Store Mass (Tonnes)
+1.5 dB
0.4 +6 dB
Store Skin Thickness (mm)

5 +3 dB
Vibration Test Scaling Factors for Store/Missile Parameters

0 0.2
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Store Surface Area (m²)
Store Radius² (m²)
Factors to be applied to either the test spectrum PSD or overall g rms values, as stated in sub-paragraph
Chapter 7-02
Forward Middle Aft Tail

Vertical -3 dB -3 dB 0 dB +3 dB
Lateral -3 dB -3 dB 0 dB +3 dB
Longitudinal -6 dB -6 dB -3 dB 0 dB
NOTE Factors applicable to either the test spectrum PSD or overall g rms values.
Figure 9 Vibration Test Scaling Factors for Store/Missile Location and Axis
155
Chapter 7-02
This graph is drawn on log-log axes

Gp
-3 dB/oct
3 dB/oct
Gb
20 fp fc 2000
Frequency (Hz)
Parameter values:
Gp = 0.04 g2/Hz (see sub-paragraph 3.1.5)

Gb = Gp - 6 dB
t fp fc
2
r
< 0.003 100 1100
0.003 to 0.03 ⎡ t ⎤ fp + 1100

30000
⎢ 2⎥
⎣r ⎦
>0.03 1000 2000
where:
t = average skin thickness (m) of store/missile

r = average radius (m) of store/missile
NOTE Care needs to be exercised in the application of these data, because they have been found to be unreliable
in certain circumstances.
Figure 10 Vibration Scaling Test Factors for Store/Missile Spectrum Profile
156
Chapter 7-02
Table 1 Steady State Acceleration Default Levels for Stores/Missiles
a. Highly Manoeuvrable (Agile) Aircraft

(gn)
Fixed 17 ±9 ±2.5 -14 Pull-out, landing,

assisted take-off
17 0 ±14 ±9 Roll, down gust
Fuselage Any 13* n/a n/a n/a n/a
Fixed 10 ±2.5 ±2 -9 Pull-out, spin, roll
13 ±9 ±2.5 -8.5 Landing, assisted

take-off
-5 +1 0 +4.5 Down gust
b. All Other Military Aircraft

(gn)
Fixed 7 ±2.5 ±1 -6 Pull-out
4 +1 0 +3.5 Down gust
Fuselage Any 5 0 ±4 -2.5 Roll
6.5* n/a n/a n/a n/a
Fixed 6.5 ±2 ±1 -6 Pull-out, roll
-4 +1 0 +3.5 Down gust
NOTE * denotes in any direction
157
Chapter 7-02
Intentionally Blank
158
Chapter 7-02
Annex A
Annex A
Parameters Influencing Store Vibration
A.1 General
This annex provides information on the influence of store properties, store deployment conditions and aircraft
flight conditions on vibration severity.
A.2 Dynamic Pressure

The intensity of store vibrations arising from the relatively steady flow traversing the store external surface
has been shown to be related to dynamic pressure [4]. Moreover, provided that the aerodynamic flow around
a store remains reasonably stable the relationship between store vibration and dynamic pressure can be
quantified with a high degree of confidence. Knowledge of this relationship is particularly important, because
it can be applied very effectively to estimate vibration severities. A typical dynamic pressure versus vibration
severity relationship for external stores is shown in Figure A1.
A.3 Store Type

Store shape and construction are two of the most significant parameters influencing vibration amplitude. The
variation in vibration responses with store size and skin thickness is illustrated in Figure A2 to Figure A5.
The vibration responses are from similar locations on four different stores normalised to the same flight
conditions. Because it is difficult to quantify the effects of these parameters, extensive use is often made of
simple scaling parameters. Typical parameters used are store density, mass, surface area, skin thickness
and radius. Experience indicates that such parameters can be reasonably effective when used to indicate
trends in vibration amplitudes. Three examples are presented in Figure A6 to Figure A8. However, the
application of such parameters is limited, because a single parameter cannot describe effectively vibration
severities for all stores, or for the entire relevant frequency range. For this reason such parameters should
be used with care.
A.4 Location
The higher unsteady pressures towards the rear of a store usually result in increased vibration amplitudes in
that region. These higher amplitudes affect almost the entire frequency range of interest. In addition,
detached flow will occur in the aft region that will result in even higher amplitudes than would be expected
from attached flow alone. When detached flow is extensive it may couple with particular store modes and
produce a very significant increase in amplitude over a relatively narrow frequency band. Such effects are
exacerbated by fins. Variations of 8 to 1 have been noted in the overall vibration amplitude from the rear to
the front of a store. For specific store vibration modes the increase may be even greater [4] [5] [6]. Typical
variations in responses due to store location are shown in Figure A9.
A.5 Axis
For store structural locations, the shape of the store external surface, the distribution of the unsteady
pressure field and the store structural dynamic characteristics all contribute toward a trend which produces
lower vibration amplitudes in the axial (longitudinal) axis. This trend applies to the middle and higher
frequency range of interest. Typically amplitudes (wideband g rms) in the longitudinal axis are one half to
one quarter of those in the vertical or lateral axes. Variations in response amplitude between the vertical and
lateral axes are usually small. Typical effects of axis are shown in Figure A10.
159
Chapter 7-02
Annex A
A.6 Aircraft Type

The carriage aircraft type can have a large effect on store vibration levels. Figure A11, shows the equivalent
responses for the same store on different aircraft. Variations are often restricted to the low frequency region,
i.e. below 200 Hz. At higher frequencies the effects of aircraft type can be small. When the carriage aircraft
configuration significantly disrupts the airflow over the store, such as for conformal carriage stores, significant
changes to vibration responses may be expected to occur.
A.7 Aircraft Station

The effects of mounting stores at different stations on the carriage aircraft often produces large changes in
vibration amplitude and measured data must be used to derive test severities.
A.8 Store Mounting

The type of store mounting (ERU, MACE etc) may have some effect on store vibration amplitude. The effect
is usually small and limited to the low frequency region.
A.9 Multiple Carriers

The use of multiple carriers has been shown to increase store vibration amplitude, which appears to be a
consequence of the close proximity of the carried stores restricting aerodynamic flow, see Paragraph A10
below, rather than a characteristic of the carrier itself.
A.10 Adjacent Stores

Some carriage configurations place stores in very close proximity to each other. In these cases the
aerodynamic flow can be modified resulting in significantly increased store vibration responses [7]. Increases
in overall amplitude (g rms) of 2 to 3 have been noted [8], in conjunction with very large increases.
160
Chapter 7-02
Annex A
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
a. Vibration Responses from Five Different Flight Dynamic Pressures
10
0.1
100 1000 10000
Dynamic Pressure (psf)
b. Vibration Severity (Overall g rms) Versus Flight Dynamic Pressure
Figure A1 Typical Relationship Between Store Vibration and Flight Dynamic Pressure
161
Chapter 7-02
Annex A
Dynamic Pressure q = 1000 psf

0.1
0.01
PSD in 1/3 Oct Band (g²/Hz)
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A2 Example Vibration Response of a Medium-Size Store with High Skin Thickness

0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A3 Example Vibration Response of a Medium-Size Store with Medium Skin Thickness
162
Chapter 7-02
Annex A

0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A4 Example Vibration Response of a Medium–Size Store with Low Skin Thickness

0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A5 Example Vibration Response of a Large-Size Store with Low Skin Thickness
163
Chapter 7-02
Annex A
0.1
Max PSD in 1/3 Oct Band g²/Hz)
0.01
0.001
All data relate to a flight dynamic
pressure of 1000
0.0001
10 100 1000
Store Density (lb/ft³)
Figure A6 Typical Variation Between Store Density and Maximum PSD Response Amplitude
1
Max PSD in 1/3 Oct Band (g²/Hz)
0.1
0.01
0.001
All data relate to a flight dynamic
pressure of 1000 psf
0.0001
1 10 100
Store Weight / Surface Area (lb/ft²)
Figure A7 Typical Variation Between the Ratio of Store Weight to Surface Area and Maximum PSD
Response Amplitude
164
Chapter 7-02
Annex A
0.1
Max PSD in 1/3 Oct Band (g²/Hz)
0.01
0.001
All data relate to a flight

dynamic pressure of 1000 psf
0.0001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Skin Thickness / Store Radius (1/ft)
Figure A8 Typical Variation Between the Ratio of Skin Thickness to Store Radius and Maximum
PSD Response Amplitude

0.01
0.001
0.0001
Mid Store Location

Aft Store Location
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A9 Typical Variation in PSD Vibration Response Attributed to Measurement Location
165
Chapter 7-02
Annex A
Dynamic Pressure q = 1000

0.01
0.001
0.0001
Vertical
Lateral
Axial
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A10 Typical Variations in Vibration Response Attributed to Measurement Axis

0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A11 Typical Variations in Vibration Response Attributed to Aircraft Type
166
Chapter 7-02
Annex B
Annex B
Requirements, Scaling Factors and Test Durations for Measured Data
B.1 Requirements for Measured Data
B.1.1 A number of parameters influence store vibration severities, many of which cannot be predicted
with adequate precision. Consequently, the approach of deriving test severities from measured data is
adopted on most major materiel development programmes prior to testing for the purposes of final approval,
reliability and safety.
B.1.2 Flight measured vibration data is usually acquired for the following:
a) To characterise the vibration responses of a particular store during flight carriage. Generally the basic
vibration characteristics of a store in a particular configuration on a single mounting location can be
established from relatively few flights.
b) To quantify the effects of particular flight conditions. In the majority of cases these effects can be
quantified with a high degree of confidence. Having quantified the effects, store vibration amplitudes can
be interpolated and possibly extrapolated as required.
c) To identify worst case vibration severities. Changes in the vibration inducing mechanism may result in
significant increases in general or localised store vibrations. Such changes may arise from increased
levels of detached flow, critical flow or vortex impingement.
B.1.3 The generation of test severities from measured data requires a significant quantity of data to be
acquired across the aircraft flight envelope and across the range of permissible aircraft parameters, e.g.
Mach, q, angle of attack, Nz. The need for a suitable set of data requires that a full understanding of the
capability of the aircraft is obtained and how this is likely to influence the store environment. This is best
achieved where possible in conjunction with the aircraft design authority.
B.1.4 It is difficult to comply with the above requirements absolutely, because of the number and nature of
the aerodynamic loading actions. In order to acquire all the information a relatively large number of
measurements within a store would be required. Practical constraints usually prohibit the allocation of all but
a few measurements to determine internal installed equipment responses. However, with the knowledge of a
store’s overall structural vibration characteristics, and confidence that no unanticipated mechanisms are
causing significant vibration, reasonably good estimates can be made for the vibration amplitudes of internal
installed equipment.
B.1.5 The following sub-paragraphs give advice on how flight measured data can be verified and specific
conditions identified.
B.1.5.1 Trend Analysis: In the analysis of the data from the trials it is important to develop a trend analysis
of how the vibration levels change with flight condition. It is common for some parts of the frequency range to
be affected by certain parameters to a greater or lesser extent than other frequency ranges. For example the
vibration levels in the lower frequency (0-150Hz) may be significantly affected by Angle of Attack. Although
the contribution to RMS acceleration of the total spectra may be minimal, this may induce large stresses in
the store. As such, trend analyses can be performed on sections of the spectra to develop a more accurate
trend analysis of the data. Once these various trend analyses have been developed, they can be combined
to re-constitute the total frequency spectra.
B.1.5.2 Data enveloping: Enveloping of the frequency spectra is generally required to enable a rational
definition of the test spectra to be specified. This should be developed in such a manner that consideration of
the increase in the RMS of the original data is considered such that significant over testing is specified.
Equally enveloping must consider variation between aircraft, measurement accuracy and store variability.
167
Chapter 7-02
Annex B
B.1.5.3 Normalisation for flight condition: In order to eliminate the effects of flight condition, dynamic
pressure can be used as a suitable scaling factor. Initially the task is to identify records which do not appear
to follow a consistent relationship with dynamic pressure. To this end preliminary work can utilise a scaling
factor derived from overall vibration severity (rms). The lack of a consistent relationship may arise from
defective data. It could also arise because changes in flight condition have resulted in either changes in air
flow or the presence of other loading mechanisms. Therefore any inconsistencies regarding changes in
spectral shape are usually worth investigating.
B.1.5.4 Aircraft configuration/store location effects: Depending upon the position of the store on the
aircraft, additional conditions may influence the aerodynamic flow on the aircraft, e.g. intake spillage, flap &
slat positions and undercarriage position. The proximity of other stores also needs to be taken into account
and the effects on aerodynamic flow and wing responses from these other stores should be measured. It is
generally recommended that initially, a subset of conditions should be measured with additional stores to
assess significant impacts. Comparison of responses normalised to the same flight condition from different
carriage configurations can often indicate a change in the aerodynamic loading mechanism.
B.1.5.5 Variations with location within a store: When a store is in free field aerodynamic flow, and the
excitation is attached flow alone, the responses would be expected to increase gradually towards the rear of
the store. In practice, some detached flow occurs, usually towards the rear of the store, resulting in a greater
increase in severity than would be anticipated from attached flow. This increase can be used to quantify
partially the degree of detached flow.
B.1.5.6 Sortie profile and mission mix profile: To define test durations at the derived test severities,
information on how the aircraft is to be flown in service is required. Information including the number, type
and severity of required manoeuvres within a mission and the proportion of total life in each mission type is
required to enable durations at the various severity levels to be calculated and defined.
B.1.5.7 The final definition in terms of spectral levels and durations should reflect the measured data (with
appropriate safety factors applied) and minimise the level of time compression used to avoid the application
of un-representative vibration levels.
B.2 Use of Scaling Factors with Measured Data

The scaling factors presented in sub-paragraph 4.1.6 of this chapter can be applied to measured flight data
in addition to ruggedness default severities, provided the following points are observed:
a) The data should be acquired from a sufficient number of main structural locations to characterise the
store’s overall vibration responses (including measurements at lateral and vertical locations towards the
rear of the store).
b) The data should be acquired over a range of straight and level flight speeds (each of not less than 30
seconds duration to meet signal processing requirements).
c) The data formats should include envelopes of approximately 1Hz to 2Hz bandwidths.
d) The spectral maximum g rms values should be compared with spectral values obtained from
computation of the mean plus 2.8 standard deviations.
e) A degree of test conservatism should be incorporated.
B.3 Test Durations from Measured Data
B.3.1 The procedure presented below allows the duration of different sorties or missions to be reduced to
an equivalent duration for testing purposes. The reduction is achieved by deriving a duration at the highest
mission vibration amplitude that would produce an equivalent fatigue damage to the actual mission
amplitudes and durations. Information on aircraft altitude and airspeeds are used to create a dynamic
168
Chapter 7-02
Annex B
pressure profile for the total mission. Using the relationship between dynamic pressure and overall (rms)
vibration level a vibration amplitude profile for the mission can then be derived. From this profile the highest
amplitude severity can be identified. Using the Miner-Palmgren hypothesis the effective duration for each
phase of the mission can then be deduced by referring the amplitude, in each phase, to the highest value
identified. The sum of all the individual effective durations for each phase of the mission will give the total
equivalent test duration.
B.3.2 Different missions can be compared by referencing the highest vibration amplitude for each mission
to the overall highest from all the missions to be considered. The highest vibration amplitude and the highest
equivalent test duration should be adopted for test purposes. A schematic view of the procedure for deriving
equivalent test duration is shown in Figure B1. This figure shows the reduction of a theoretical mission
profile to its highest vibration amplitude and equivalent duration.
B.3.3 The reduction from flight conditions to dynamic pressures can be undertaken with the aid Figure B2
(metric) or Figure B3 (Imperial). The following expression was used to derive dynamic pressure for the
curves depicted in Figure B2 and Figure B3:
1 1
Dynamic pressure q = ρ0V 2 = γpM 2
2 2
Where:
ρ0 = atmospheric density at sea level
V = equivalent air speed
p = air pressure at specified altitude
M = true Mach number of aircraft
γ = ratio of specific heats = 1.4.
B.3.4 When scaling vibration severities from flight test results, it is necessary to ensure the dynamic
pressure is calculated using the correct airspeed in terms of knots or Mach number. If aircraft indicted
airspeed is used, and compressibility effects need to be included, then the following equation scales the
measured Mach number to dynamic pressure.
1 2 p ⎡ M2 M4 ⎤
q= a ρ0 M 2 ⎢1 + + ⎥
2 p0 ⎢⎣ 4 40 ⎥⎦
where:
q = dynamic pressure
M = aircraft indicated Mach number
p = air pressure at the specified altitude
p0 = air pressure at sea level
ρ0 = atmospheric density at sea level
a = speed of sound at sea level.
B.3.5 As an aid to illustrate typical inputs to this procedure, a number of sortie (or mission) types,
extracted from Mil-Hdbk-781, are presented in tabular form as Table B1. The tables also indicate equivalent
169
Chapter 7-02
Annex B
mission durations relative to dynamic pressures that could form the basis of test durations. When deriving
test durations using this procedure the nominated project specific sortie (or mission) types will need to be
acquired from the procurement agency. It needs to be emphasised that the detailed material in Table B1 is
strictly for illustrative purposes and that the use of the stated values as test durations could not be supported
by UK (or US) agencies. Further guidance on the process to derive test durations using the Miner-Palgren
hypothesis is given in Chapter 8-01, Annex B.
Measured g rms vs Q Characteristic Mission Profile

10 6 1.2
Vibration (overall g rms)
5 1.0
Altitude (km)
Mach No.
1 4 0.8
3 0.6
0.1 2 0.4
1 0.2
0.01 0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
100 1000 10000
Dynamic Pressure (psf) Time (Minutes)
Vibration (overall g rms) vs dynamamic pressure Dynamic Pressure Profile
Dynamic Pressure (kPa)

Dynamic Pressure (psf)
2000 100
1500 75
m
Qi 1000 50
g rms
Qi = g rms Qmax
Q max 500 25
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (minutes)
Equivalent fatigue damage equation Vibration Severity Profile

2.0
(Miner-Palgrem hypothesis)
g rms
max
1.5
n
g rms i
1.0
Tequiv = Ti
g rms max 0.5
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
where i denotes some straight & level condition
Time (minutes)
Notes Equivalent Mission Duration

2.0
This procedure is only appropriate for straight

and level flight. 1.5
Default value for exponent m = 1 1.0

Total equivalent duration:
20 minutes at 1.5 g rms
0.5
Default value for exponent n = 5
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (minutes)
Figure B1 A Schematic View of the Procedure for Deriving Equivalent Durations
170
Chapter 7-02
Annex B
Equivalent airspeed (kts)

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
12000
550
600
10000
650
Pressure altitude (m)
8000 700
750
800
6000
4000
2000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Mach Number
Dynamic pressure (kPa)

5 10 15 20 30 40
12000
50
10000 60
70
Pressure altitude (m)
8000 80
90
100
6000
4000
2000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Mach Number
Figure B2 Flight Condition and Dynamic Pressure (Metric)
171
Chapter 7-02
Annex B
Equivalent airspeed (kts)

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
40000
550
35000 600
30000 650
Pressure altitude (ft)
700
25000 750
800
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Mach Number
Dynamic pressure (psf)

100 200 300 400 500 600 800
40000
1000
35000 1200
1400
30000
1600
Pressure altitude (ft)
25000 1800
2000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Mach Number
Figure B3 Flight Condition and Dynamic Pressure (Imperial)
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Table B1 Examples of Mission Types and Durations (Sheet 1 of 3)
Mission Type Mission Total Maximum Equivalent Mission Duration (mins)

Definition: Mission Mission Relative to Dynamic Pressures of:
Mil Hdbk- Duration Dynamic
Mission 1000 psf 1400 psf
781 figure (mins) Pressure
Maximum
number (psf)
Low-low-low 57 140 640 8.72 0.92 0.17
High-low-high 58 143 1033 7.19 8.44 1.57

Attack Aircraft
Close support 58 226 865 22.69 10.95 2.04
High-high-high 59 156 273 65.14 0.10 0.02
High-low-low- 60 168 882 10.52 5.62 1.05

high
Ferry 57 305 193 285.00 0.08 0.01
Seek and 57 415 117 317.00 0.01 >0.01

attack
Anti-Submarine Warfare Aircraft
Surface 57 460 515 0.83 0.03 0.01

surveillance
Investigate/ 58 445 713 0.78 0.14 0.03

attack
Investigate/ 58 430 700 3.72 0.63 0.12

intermediate
Mine laying 58 315 700 5.12 0.86 0.16
High-high-high 59 245 149 38.67 >0.01 >0.01
Ferry 57 600 110 567.00 0.01 >0.01
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Mission Type Mission Total Maximum Equivalent Mission Duration (mins)

Mil-Hdbk- Duration Dynamic
Mission 1000 psf 1400 psf
781 Figure (mins) Pressure
Maximum
Number (psf)
Penetration 58 159 1033 4.22 4.95 0.92

Electronic Counter-
Measures Aircraft
Stand-off 58 160 217 66.15 0.03 0.01
Ferry 57 275 172 242.00 0.04 0.01
Low-low-low 57 150 700 10.15 1.71 0.32
Escort 58 204 1021 8.17 9.07 1.69
High-low-low- 58 187 1033 30.33 35.60 6.62

high
Fighter Aircraft
Close support 58 233 891* 1.22 0.69 0.13
High-high-high 59 115 285 10.16 0.02 >0.01
Air defence/ 59 119 641* 4.09 0.44 0.08

capture
Low-low-high 59 152 1116 10.21 17.70 3.39
Intercept 61 50 694 5.94 0.96 0.18
Ferry 57 260 172 232.00 0.04 0.01
NOTE * Indicates a portion of the mission occurs above Mach 1
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Mission Type Mission Maximum Total Equivalent Mission Duration (mins)

Mil- Hdbk- Duration Dynamic
781 Figure (mins) Pressure Mission
1000 psf 1400 psf
Number (psf) Maximum
Low-low-low 57 145 700 12.65 2.13 0.40

Reconnaissance Aircraft
High-low-high 58 215 1158 4.66 9.68 1.80
Low-low-high 59 143 1116 25.41 44.05 8.19
High-subsonic 59 160 285 61.61 0.012 0.02
High- 62 100 592 8.66 0.63 0.12
supersonic 57 275 167* 245.00 0.03 0.01

Ferry
Low-low-low 57 147 444 6.77 0.12 0.02

refuel
Tanker Aircraft
Strike refuel 57 112 302 35.81 0.09 0.02
High-low-high 58 186 604 32.44 2.62 0.49

refuel
NOTE * indicates a portion of the mission occurs above Mach 1.0
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Annex C
Buffet Vibration
C.1 Purpose
The purpose of the buffet vibration test method is to replicate the short duration vibration environment for
wing or fuselage mounted materiel on aircraft during flight induced buffet vibration. The materiel, hereafter
referred to as stores, is typically electro-mechanical systems, subsystems, bombs, missiles, Electronic
Countermeasure (ECM) pods, and fuel tanks. Buffet vibration is a high amplitude vibration occurring during
limited flight manoeuvres due to aerodynamic flow and structural vibration modes.
C.2 Application
C.2.1 This annex includes discussion of the buffet phenomenon, the causes, and aggravating factors.
The flight manoeuvres that generate buffet are identified and the relative effects due to store type, aspect
ratio, mass, and location are discussed. Interaction between the host aircraft wing or fuselage and the store
vibration modes are also addressed. The buffet vibration test method is applicable where stores are required
to demonstrate adequacy to resist buffet vibration safely without unacceptable degradation of the store
performance and/or structure.
C.2.2 Buffet vibration occurs as a result of unsteady aerodynamic pressure acting on aircraft structures,
including the externally carried fuselage or wing stores. Another possible source of store vibration in buffet is
the excitation of the store skin panels and store fins if equipped. Such responses are highly dependent upon
the structural details of the particular store, and not suitable for generalised test methods. The extent of the
induced vibration on the store depends primarily upon the following factors.
a) Flight Condition. The angle of attack of the host aircraft is a key parameter influencing the response of
the store in buffet. During straight and level flight, stores will be excited by aerodynamic flow over
exposed surfaces. A boundary layer will form at the store nose that becomes turbulent and thicker
downstream, thus imparting vibration energy to the store. The nature of the turbulent airflow is
predominantly low frequency excitation. Short duration aircraft combat or high-speed manoeuvres result
in loading from centrifugal, gravitational, and aerodynamic forces that induce additional vibration
excitation in the store.
b) Aircraft Configuration. The location the store is mounted on the aircraft and number of other stores
present in the airflow around the store will influence the susceptibility to buffet. Wing mounted stores
generally experience more buffet excitation than under-fuselage stores. The total combined mass of a
particular weapon load installed on the aircraft will influence its agility in manoeuvring and also influence
the overall dynamic response behaviour and the magnitude of buffet induced responses.
c) Aircraft and Store Dynamic Characteristics. The modal response characteristics of the aircraft and of the
installed store will influence the amplitude of vibration response. Buffet can be problematic for flexible
high aspect ratio stores because either the store, or their installation, can possess low frequency modes
less than 100 Hz. These modes can be associated with:
1) Store bending.
2) Rigid body motion of the store arising from the flexibility of its carriage equipment.
3) Rigid body motion arising from aircraft wing bending and torsion.
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C.3 Limitations
Accurate laboratory simulation of buffet vibration requires adequate fixturing for the airframe, store mounting,
and matching of test equipment and test item impedance to the actual in-service conditions. Common
limitations of the laboratory simulation procedures are below.
a) Simulation of the actual in-service buffet environment may not be possible because fixture limitations or
test equipment physical constraints prevent the satisfactory uniform application of the vibration
excitation to the test item at all locations.
b) Current vibration control equipment may not be able to simulate the measured vibration due to a non-
Gaussian or transient vibration environment.
c) The test method initial test severities may not be applicable to high aspect ratio stores with a variable
diameter along the store length.
d) The test method initial test severities do not include internal store generated vibration excitation.
C.4 Test Guidance
C.4.1 Effects of the Environment
A large number of parameters influence the maximum dynamic response of a wing or fuselage mounted
store. Accurate prediction and characterization of the response to eliminate problems also has several
approaches. In general, the measurement of flight data for required mission flight profiles, modal analysis,
and analytical modelling can adequately predict the potential for failures on specific airframes and stores.
The following list is not intended to be all-inclusive but provides examples of problems that could occur when
materiel is exposed to the buffet vibration environment.
a) Structural or fatigue induced failure of the store mounting points on the airframe or store.
b) Failure of internal store components.
c) Reduction of the store in-service life due to severe dynamic environment.
d) Aircraft flight manoeuvre limitations due to coupling of airframe and store motions.
C.4.2 Choice of Test Procedures
C.4.2.1 The test method procedures are designed to reproduce the primary low frequency dynamic
responses measured in flight of complete assembled stores and to provide realistic laboratory simulation of
relevant mission flight conditions through the use of vibration and temperature conditioning. For the test
method, aircraft stores are divided into two classes, low and high aspect ratio (AR). These two classes also
each contain separate wing and fuselage mounted stores. The cases indicated in Table C1 are covered in
the test method. The dimensionless aspect ratio is defined in Equation 1 as the ratio of the store length to
diameter.
C.4.2.2 In general, stores can be categorized as low aspect ratio (AR< 7, stiff structure) or high aspect
ratio (AR >15, flexible structure). The low AR materiel, generally bombs or heavy structure, has a higher
fundamental first bending mode than high AR stores, generally missiles or rockets. Consequently, the first
bending modes for low and high AR stores are approximately 200 Hz and 60 Hz respectively. There is not a
clear division between high and low AR stores. Any store with a first bending mode frequency of
approximately 200 Hz or greater can be treated as a low AR store, regardless of the specific AR.
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Table C1 General Store AR and Fundamental Frequency
Aspect Ratio Store Fundamental Frequency,

Fn (typical), Hz
Low, AR < 7, stiff store Fn > 200 Hz

AR between 7 to 15 Dependent on Fn
High, AR > 15, flexible store Fn ~ 60 Hz
Aspect Ratio (AR) = Store Length / Store Diameter [1]
C.4.2.3 The dominant vibration response for the low AR store during buffet will generally be in a rigid body
mode of the mounting platform. An important exception to this is when the store does not have a uniform
cross-section, such as laser-guided bombs with slender front guidance unit sections compared to the
warhead sections. Such cases demand special attention to determine the lowest bending mode frequency,
which may be that of the entire guidance unit bending on the warhead section. For other store types, the
most significant mode may be bending of the store’s tail on the centre section.
C.4.2.4 The induced buffet vibration for a high AR store is coupled between the platform modes and the
store modes. Thus, flexible stores are more prone than stiff stores to the induced buffet excitation
amplification because of the low frequency excitation characteristics of buffet vibration. The above categories
of modal response are not mutually exclusive. In particular, a high AR store-bending mode may be close to
wing torsion or bending modes, giving rise to a severe buffet vibration environment.
C.4.2.5 Interaction between the modes of vibration, the dynamic excitation, and other factors can combine
to create situations where buffet becomes a major consideration for the store design. A worst-case
installation could involve a high AR store at an outboard wing station of an agile aircraft. Or, a least
problematic installation could be a low AR store carried on a fuselage station of a not very agile aircraft.
C.4.2.6 Store vibration responses arising from buffet vibration are usually confined to frequencies from 5
to 400 Hz. The vibratory energy will be imparted by aerodynamic excitation encountered in–service over the
surface area of the store. For practical purposes the effects of buffet vibration can be simulated with
mechanical excitation alone; the higher frequency acoustic driven excitation is excluded for the low
frequency motion simulation.
C.4.3 Use of Measured Data
Where practical, air carriage data should be used to develop buffet test levels. It is particularly important to
use air carriage data where precise simulation is the goal. Sufficient air carriage data should be obtained to
adequately describe the conditions being evaluated and experienced by the store. Examples of measured
store buffet vibration response for high and low aspect ratio, and wing or fuselage mounted stores are given
in Annex D.
C.4.4 Measured Store Buffet Vibration Data Available
C.4.4.1 Several considerations exist for a store or airframe test program with scheduled data acquisition.
When defining the aircraft flight profile for data acquisition, it is important to ensure that flight manoeuvres
expected to generate buffet are included, wind-up-turns, steady heading sideslips, vectored thrust in flight,
etc. It is also important that instrumentation transducer locations are selected for buffet vibration laboratory
simulation. In particular, it is important that any relevant store, pylon and aircraft structural modes are
identified that could be expected to respond to buffet vibration, so that accelerometers or other transducers
can be positioned accordingly. In most cases, measurements at the extremities of the store should be given
a high priority for this purpose. Through knowledge of the structural dynamics of the store, pylon and aircraft
are of great value when interpreting the measured flight responses. Such knowledge would be gained from
either an analytical finite element analysis or preferably experimental modal analysis of the store in its
carriage configuration on the aircraft.
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C.4.4.2 Typical signal processing techniques currently used for identifying flight events can be deficient for
identifying and quantifying critical buffet vibration conditions. Two particular issues arise with buffet, which
are problematic in terms of signal processing. The first is the short duration of the event. The second is the
limited bandwidth over which the buffet vibration takes place. It is recommended that the g rms time history
be used for identifying buffet vibration events within the complete measured time history should employ a
restricted frequency bandwidth covering only the modes likely to be excited during buffet excitation, typically
5 to 500 Hz. It is also essential that the time history record lengths are adequate to meet the appropriate
data processing error criteria. When quantifying the effect of buffet in an ASD format, the data should be
analysed up to 500 Hz. However, because data are likely to be non-stationary, appropriate care must be
taken when computing and interpreting ASD data.
C.4.4.3 When developing a test severity from measured data an acceptable approach is to construct a
random spectrum test with a tailored severity. For each buffet manoeuvre condition, obtain the ASD that best
describes the vibration responses, taking into account the possible non-stationary properties of the data. Use
the ASDs generated to assemble a credible worst-case ASD by overlaying the individual ASDs and
enveloping by a number of straight-line segments.
C.4.4.4 For each mission only a short time will be spent in buffet vibration. Similarly, during the entire life
of the store only a short period (minutes) may be spent in actual buffet. Therefore, the worst-case ASD
should be used for each buffet excursion and aggregated over the total number of missions. It should be
noted that the spectrum of random vibration commonly generated in test facilities is Gaussian, the software
control algorithms are based on Gaussian excitation. It is recommended that buffet vibration data be
checked to conform to a Gaussian distribution and if found not to be so the PSD amplitude should be
corrected. Techniques for time domain replication may provide better laboratory simulation accuracy but
require extraordinary management manipulation for test equipment procurement funding.
C.4.4.5 For high aspect ratio stores not only can buffet generate high vibration responses, but the buffet
environment exposure times can be significant in terms of the total air carriage life of several hundred hours
during multiple mission deployment. Additionally, high aspect ratio stores are more likely to be exposed to
severe manoeuvres because of the mission flight profile for high performance aircraft. For stiff stores,
however, buffet vibration amplitudes are likely to be lower than flexible stores, but the exposure times in
terms of total air carriage life are also likely to be lower, such as several hours air carriage.
C.4.4.6 High and low aspect ratio store vibration amplitudes arising from the effects of buffet vary over a
wide range on a given aircraft as well as between aircraft. Therefore, buffet vibration test severities should
be based upon in-service flight vibration measurements. The worst case high aspect ratio store on the wing
of high performance aircraft necessitates the tailored testing approach. Nevertheless, for initial design and
other purposes the use of generic severities may be necessary for preliminary design.
C.4.5 Measured Store Buffet Vibration Data Not Available
Annex A provides example generic ASD spectra based upon measured data for each of the four store types
described in this test method. These generic spectra are not to be used for testing, they are examples only.
As a minimum, tailoring of the fundamental vibration mode frequencies is desired for a specific aircraft and
store. The test specifications permit the use of initial estimates of wing, structural, and store modal
frequencies, but these estimates are suggested only for design formulation; the final test should be based
upon experimental data or analytical modelling, for example finite element analysis. In the absence of any
measured data the severities given in Test M1, Chapter 2-01 of Part 3 may be used for preliminary
evaluation.
C.4.6 Sequence
C.4.6.1 The buffet vibration test is designed for the simulation of the primary environmental effects that are
induced in complete assembled stores during external carriage on fixed wing aircraft. However, should a
store need to be exposed to any additional environmental tests, then the order of application of the tests
should be compatible with the life cycle environmental profile.
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C.4.6.2 The effects of buffet may affect performance when the store is tested under other environmental
conditions, such as temperature. Stores that are likely to be sensitive to a combination of environments
should be tested to the relevant combinations simultaneously. If the simultaneous environment test is
considered non-essential or impractical to configure, a single store should be exposed to all relevant
environmental conditions sequentially.
C.4.6.3 The order of application of tests should be considered and made compatible with the store Life
Cycle Environmental Profile. If doubts concerning the sequence of testing, buffet vibration testing should be
undertaken first, or in conjunction with air carriage vibration testing.
C.5 Severities
Development of generic buffet vibration test levels is a complicated process because of the potential for
complex interactions between the store and the aircraft. As a result, there is the potential for extreme
dynamic response levels, which can be inappropriate as default test levels for all stores and airframes. For
example, stores of non-uniform cross section are outside the scope of the default severity. The non-uniform
mass may create, or interact with other modes, and induce a resonance condition that is not included in the
default test schedules. In compiling the default test severities, consideration has been given to aircraft wing
modes and store rigid body or bending modes. Consequently, the default severities set out in Annex A of
Test M1, Chapter 2-01 of Part 3 should not be considered all embracing, but are offered as a way forward
for initial design and development purposes. When available, measured data or analytical models should be
used to define the primary mode frequency and/or the ASD amplitude peak level. Annex D provides
comparisons of in-service measured buffet conditions. It also provides guidance on factors influencing
aircraft vibration. As shown, the induced vibration energy is a function of both the store type and location. A
rigid, low aspect ratio, store on an aircraft fuselage location is the least severe. A flexible, high aspect ratio,
store on a flexible wing location is the most severe. This comparison is based only on the initial test severity
schedules and may not apply for the actual aircraft or store under consideration. Annex A of Test M1
provides a summary of the default buffet vibration levels.
C.6 Information to be Provided in the Test Instruction
C.6.1 Compulsory
a) The technical identification of the store.
b) The definition of the store.
c) The type of test: development. qualification. or other.
d) The method of store mounting.
e) The orientation of the store in relation to the laboratory test axis.
f) If store operating checks are to be performed and when.
g) The initial and final checks. specify whether they are to be performed with the store installed on the test
facility.
h) Other relevant data required to perform the test and operating checks.
i) The vibration control strategy. and test reporting requirements.
j) The monitor and control points or a procedure to select these points.
k) The definition of test severity.
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l) The indication of failure criteria.
m) The method to account for tolerance excess in the case of large stores and a complex fixture.
n) Any other environmental conditions at which testing is to be carried out if other than standard laboratory
conditions.
o) The pre-conditioning time.
p) The operation or non-operation of the store during testing.
q) The requirements for operating checks if applicable.
r) The tolerances and control limits.
s) Other details required to perform the test.
C.6.2 If Required
a) The specific features of the test assembly (vibrator, fixture, interface connections etc.).
b) The climatic conditions if required if other than standard laboratory conditions.
c) The effect of gravity and the consequential precautions.
d) The value of the tolerable spurious magnetic field.
e) Tolerances if different to those specified in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, sub-paragraph 4.7.
C.7 Test Conditions and Procedures
C.7.1 Test Controls
C.7.1.1 Precursor Trials: Control of the test conditions is derived from the store dynamic response.
Therefore, a dynamically representative store should be made available for precursor trials in order to
establish the required excitation conditions. Precursor testing is essential to assess the dynamic behaviour of
the store and test equipment. The maximum response experienced at the store extremities should be limit
controlled and it is essential that the vibration control position corresponds to measured air carriage data.
Buffet vibration testing should be undertaken in the vertical, transverse, and longitudinal directions. In some
cases cross coupling will ensure that adequate vibration amplitudes are generated in the transverse or
longitudinal axis.
C.7.1.2 Control Strategy & Options: It is recommended to test for the effects of buffet separately from tests
designed to represent the effects of straight and level flight. The test control strategy should recognise that
the maximum vibration responses usually occur at the extremities of the store and that limit control will be
necessary. Buffet testing should be performed as a controlled response at a position, which corresponds to,
measured air carriage data, preferably adjacent to the fixture. The vibration control strategy should be in
accordance with Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 sub-paragraph 4.2.
C.7.2 Store Operation
C.7.2.1 When specified in the Test Instruction or relevant specification, during in-service simulations, the
store should be operated and its performance measured and noted.
C.7.2.2 Tolerances: The test tolerances and related characteristics associated with buffet vibration testing
should be in accordance with Part 3, Chapter 2-01, sub-paragraph 4.7.
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C.7.2.3 Installation Conditions of Test Item: The installation conditions of the test item associated with
buffet testing should be in accordance with Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1, sub-paragraph 4.2
C.7.3 Test Preparation
The test preparation of the test item associated with buffet testing (pre-conditioning and operational checks)
should be in accordance with Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1, sub-paragraph 4.5.
C.8 Evaluation of Test Results

The test item performance shall meet all appropriate specification requirements during and following the
application of the buffet vibration.
C.9 References and Related Documents
Vibration and Acoustic Test Criteria for Captive Flight of Externally Carried Aircraft
1 Piersol, Allan G
Stores AFFDL - TR-71-158, December 1971.
Prediction of Dynamic Environments for Airborne External Stores During Aircraft Heaton, P.W., and
2
Straight and Level Flight i.e.S, 41st Annual Technical Meeting, May 1995. Czuchna, J.S
Airborne Store Captive Cruise Vibration Spectral Variations Scaling, Proceedings Heaton, P.W., and
3
of the 65th Shock & Vibration Symposium, November. 1994. G.P.White,
Czuchna, J.S., L.E. Pado,
Comparison of Prediction Techniques Airborne Store Captive Cruise Vibration,
4 R.M. Hauch, and
Proceedings of the 65th Shock & Vibration Symposium, November 1994.
G.P. White
The Derivation of Procedures to Estimate Vibration Severities of Airborne Stores,
5 Richards, David P.
Proceedings of the Institute of Environmental Sciences, May 1990
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Annex D
Annex D
Measured Buffet Vibration Spectra
D.1 Measured Buffet Vibration Spectra
D.1.1 This Annex contains several examples of measured store flight vibration data to illustrate the
amplitude and spectral differences in store vibration during buffet conditions. The primary spectral peak in
these plots is shown to be in the 10 to 100 Hz bandwidth region addressed by this test method. There are in
some cases additional higher frequency resonance peaks, however the amplitude of these secondary peaks
is typically a factor of 10 times or more lower in amplitude than the primary peak. If required, a full bandwidth
simulation may be possible with combined mechanical and acoustical simulation equipment. The main
objective for the buffet vibration test method is the simulation of the low frequency regions in which the buffet
vibration amplification occurs.
D.1.2 The data also illustrates the possible problems in the use of the default test severities given in
Test M1, Chapter 2-01 of Part 3 as design criteria without actual in-service measurement data. The generic
test spectrums may fail to simulate an additional vibration mode, such as wing torsion. The amplitude ratio
between the store and wing modes also may not be representative of the in-service buffet conditions.
D.1.3 Figure D1 and Figure D2 are vibration data for a low aspect ratio (AR ≈ 5) wing store. Vibration
spectra from the instrumented store during straight and level flight (S&L) and when undertaking a wind-up-
turn (WUT) are shown in Figure D1. Both data sets are for a 420 psf dynamic pressure flight manoeuvre. In
this case the store response in the vertical axis at the store centre of gravity can be seen to increase by
more than three orders of magnitude at low frequency. In this case, the store is being driven by vibration of
the aircraft’s wing in buffet; the response near 25 Hz is due to a wing torsion mode. Further data from this
particular airframe and store combination indicate that the vibration response of the store is also related to
the aircraft angle attack and flight dynamic pressure as shown in Figure D2.
0.1
506 3652 1992 1 10 1 1 1813
S&L 420 psf 0.881 g rms

WUT 420 psf 1.521 g rms

0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure D1 Low Aspect Ratio (AR ≈ 5) Wing Store, Straight-Level Flight and Buffet
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0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
750 0.5 g rms
700 0.4 (3 to 100 Hz)
650 0.3
600 0.2
Dynamic 550 0.1
Pressure 500 0.0
(psf) 450
400 16 17
350 13 14 15
300 11 12
9 10
7 8 Angle of Attack (Degs)
NOTE 1 Aspect Ratio approximately 5, stiff store.
NOTE 2 Data acquired over the 3 to 100 Hz frequency range where store buffet was known to occur.
NOTE 3 Data acquired under stationary buffet conditions.
Figure D2 Store Vibration as a Function of Angle of Attack and Flight Dynamic Pressure
D.1.4 Vibration responses from straight and level flight (S&L) and buffet conditions for a high aspect ratio
wing store are shown in Figure D3. The store fundamental bending modes in the vertical and lateral axes
are near 60 Hz, and these modes dominate the ASD for buffet conditions. Specifically, the figure shows data
from the store nose, where it can be seen that the difference in amplitude at 60 Hz is about 20. Aircraft wing
modes are not as prevalent in this data as in Figure D1. The lack of wing modes could be due to the limited
range of flight conditions included in these flights, and/or the significant differences in the two aircraft’s wing
construction and dynamic behaviour. The vibration peak centred near 8 Hz is believed to be a wing bending
and/or store pitching motion.
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0.1
533 3727 1993 206 8 3 3 495

Power Spectral Density (g²/Hz) S&L 0.213 g rms
0.01 WUT 0.532 g rms
0.001
533 3727 1993 206 7 3 3 487

0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure D3 High Aspect Ratio Wing Store, Straight-Level Flight and Buffet
D.1.5 Figure D4 is flight vibration data for a high aspect ratio (AR ≈ 17) wing store. Store vibration data
from straight and level flight (S&L) and a wind-up-turn (WUT) are presented in the figure. The main spectrum
difference is the store response amplification at the store first bending mode, 50 Hz, which is approximately
60 times higher than straight and level flight; 0.3 g2/Hz in buffet compared to 0.005 g2/Hz during level flight.
10
532 3726 1993 208 3 4 4 222 532 3726 1993 208 4 4 4 234
S&L 1.078 g rms
1 WUT 2.199 g rms
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure D4 High Aspect Ratio (AR ≈ 17) Wing Store, Straight-Level Flight and Buffet
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D.1.6 Figure D5 and Figure D6 are vibration data for a high aspect ratio (AR ≈ 18) store during straight
and level flight (S&L), a wind-up-turn (WUT), and carried under-wing and under-fuselage. When carried
under the aircraft wing, the Figure D5 store vibration data indicate that the dominant response in buffet is at
the store fundamental bending mode of approximately 33 Hz. No major wing or pylon modes appear to be
excited by either of the two manoeuvres. As expected, the buffet vibration responses of the store carried on
a fuselage station in Figure D6 are much lower than when the store is mounted under-wing.
529 3723 1993 202 2 3 3 464

S&L 0.214 g rm s
WUT 1.561 g rm s
0.1
0.01
529 3723 1993 202 1 3 3 448

0.001
0.0001
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure D5 High Aspect Ratio (AR ≈ 18) Wing Store, Straight-Level Flight and Buffet
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529 3723 202 2 8 8 473 530 3724 201 2 9 9 444

Fuselage Centre 0.464 g rms
Inboard Wing Pylon 1.015 g rms
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure D6 High Aspect Ratio (AR ≈ 18) Wing and Fuselage Store During Buffet
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Annex E
Annex E
Gunfire Shock
E.1 Scope
E.1.1 Purpose
E.1.1.1 This Annex provides an overview and guidance for laboratory simulation of a gunfire environment
based upon a form of factored time history replication (THR) and Shock Response Spectra (SRS) pulse
methods.
E.1.1.2 The methodology in this Annex combines elements of Annexes A & C from Method 405 of AECTP
400 to include statistical assessment of measured data and the application of appropriate factors in tailored
multi-level test specifications.
E.1.1.3 Both THR & SRS methods utilise measured materiel response data from environmental trials
(generally based upon operational usage profiles) in a laboratory test on an electro-dynamic vibration exciter
under closed loop control.
E.1.1.4 The THR and repetitive pulse SRS methods are considered to be most appropriate in meeting the
gunfire shock environmental testing requirements. Although, whichever method is chosen it will be
necessary to consider a two-stage test approach allowing for a preliminary investigation followed by
implementation of the defined gunfire shock test specifications. This is particularly important when testing
energetic materials.
E.1.1.5 The THR method implementation is generally preferred over an SRS approach, as it is considered
to provide the most direct representation of the gunfire shock environment. Positive benefits are that the
damage potential of this test format would most closely match that of the in-service environment and that it is
relatively simple to include factors in the test to take into account the possible effects of unknowns and to
build in a margin of confidence. Moreover, test laboratories can readily implement this method.
E.1.1.6 GFS can occur on fixed wing and rotary wing platforms. In general the gun is mounted with its axis
aligned to the fuselage on a fixed wing platform. Whilst on rotary wing platforms the gun axis can be
traversed in both pitch and yaw. This gun movement complicates the GFS environment seen by the materiel
and often a two level test may be required to accommodate the highest and mean GFS levels. This
approach is necessary to reduce the risk of over test.
E.1.2 Application
E.1.2.1 Both THR and SRS pulse techniques have applications and benefits as described in Annex A and
Annex C of Method 405, AECTP 400, respectively and are directly applicable to the reproduction of single
point materiel response. The essential feature of the methodology described in this Annex E compared to
those described in AECTP 400, Method 405 is the inclusion of statistically derived factors applied to the
gunfire shock test specifications and the application of closed loop control. The factors provide confidence
that the materiel has been adequately tested whilst avoiding over testing, removal of repeatability issues and
provision of an allowance for variations between platforms. Other variables included are minor structural
variations, weather conditions and repeatability, variations in the blast pressure dependent upon the shell
charge, load configuration and station to station. The application of closed loop control ensures repeatability
within defined limits.
E.1.2.2 Acceleration is considered the most appropriate measurement parameter. However, it is

necessary for the velocity and displacement to be optimised in the control process to ensure that the
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dynamic range of the measured materiel response is consistent with the dynamic range of the control and
electro-dynamic shaker system.
E.2 Development & Practical Considerations
E.2.1 Initial Considerations
E.2.1.1 Gunfire shock represents a difficult test to replicate within the environmental test laboratory.
Particularly because of the complex characteristics of the excitation, the differences encountered when
attempting to simulate the gunfire shock to operational conditions and the general lack of quality measured
data to allow tailored testing. Therefore, when considering the development of a gunfire shock test
specification it is essential to have a comprehensive description of the real operational gunfire shock
environment, an understanding of the test methodology to be used, definition of the control strategy and
ample measured data under operational conditions at potential control locations on the supporting structure
and the materiel.
E.2.1.2 Depending upon the severity of the gunfire shock response levels, it may be necessary to define
the test specification in terms of a two level test. This approach has the advantage of minimising the potential
for over testing and can more accurately describe the operational gunfire shock environment, particularly
where the gun axis can be moved as is the general case for rotary wing aircraft. The logic for partitioning the
data into a two level test can be based upon the proximity of the gun muzzle to the materiel and the relative
time spent in the location. The test specification can then be defined in terms of the highest and mean
materiel GFS response levels. Examples where a two level test was essential are provided later in this
Annex.
E.2.1.3 The nature of gunfire shock means that accelerated testing is not appropriate and real time testing
at the specified test levels is essential.
E.2.1.4 Electro-magnetic shaker controllers from different manufacturers exhibit a range of characteristics
and capabilities. Therefore, it is necessary to determine, prior to developing the gunfire shock control
strategy, if time history replication or single pulse replication can be achieved. Clearly if single pulse
replication cannot be achieved it will be necessary to specify a series of pulses to form a pulse train time
history or use the measured time history.
E.2.1.5 The magnitude of the gunfire shock response is generally likely to be high and impedance
mismatches between flight and test configurations, system non-linearity’s etc, and evaluation of the test
specification make a preliminary precursor test stage essential.
E.2.2 Preliminary Testing
E.2.2.1 The objectives of the preliminary test stage include verification of the proposed test methodology,
which most closely reproduces the gunfire shock test specification and establishment of the optimum control
strategy / limits and levels. During the preliminary stage it is also necessary to:
a) Establish that the gunfire shock test specification can be applied to the materiel in three mutually
perpendicular axes in turn at extremes of temperature.
b) Demonstrate the adequacy of the control methodology.
c) Establish the control location suitability and control limits.
d) Establish the gunfire shock input test specification levels to achieve those specified at reference
locations on the materiel.
E.2.2.2 When undertaking the preliminary test stage it is essential to utilise dynamically equivalent
materiel to that to be tested during the live stage. This is necessary to replicate the dynamic response.
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E.2.2.3 Successful completion of the preliminary stage then allows the specified gunfire shock test
programme to proceed to the live test stage with a high degree of confidence. A typical gunfire shock test
programme is shown in Figure E1 below.
Preliminary Stage I
Inert Materiel
GFS Test
Test Hot Test Cold

Test at Ambient
Temperature
+20 Deg C
Evaluate Preliminary
Stage I Results
• Fixture Design
Measurement Locations
Control Strategy
GFS Test Specification
etc.
Specify Control Strategy,

Levels & Limits for Stage
II Live)
Live Materiel GFS

Test Stage II
Test Hot Test Cold
Test Complete
Figure E1 Typical Stage I & II Gunfire Shock Test Programme
E.2.3 Statistical Assessment
E.2.3.1 In data characterisation and parametric studies, the amplitude and characteristics of gunfire shock
responses are generally seen to be highly repeatable for a given firing condition, although some variations
can be apparent in both the firing rate and the resulting amplitudes. These variables are considered to be
important and should be present in the test definitions. This can be achieved by adopting a statistical
approach. The measured data should be subject to an analysis to determine the basic statistics of the
gunfire shock pulse trains, including mean, standard deviation (s) and absolute maximum response. These
data are then used to define the factor necessary to allow for variations based upon ns, where n. relates to
the chosen margin of safety. Typical data from a study to achieve a two level test is shown in Figure E2
below.
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Worst Firing Case Mean Firing Case
140 140
120 120
100 100
Amplitude (g pk)
Amplitude (g pk)
80 2*sigma 80 2*sigma
mean mean
60 Abs max 60 Abs max
40 40
20 20
0 0
Rocket Rocket Rocket Launcher Launcher Launcher Rocket Rocket Rocket Launcher Launcher Launcher
Nose Nose Lat Tail Long Fwd Vert Fwd Lat Fwd Nose Nose Lat Tail Long Fwd Vert Fwd Lat Fwd
Vert Long Vert Long
Monitoring Position Monitoring Position
Figure E2 Typical Gunfire Shock Amplitude Statistics
E.2.3.2 In this case the two-sigma level encompassed the absolute maximum response amplitude and
was therefore chosen as the factor to be applied to the mean level. A further requirement is to accommodate
test variations in the pulse shape and in the firing rate.
E.2.3.3 There are three methods available to define the pulse train:
a) A Single Pulse from SRS.
b) Mean Single Pulse From a Measured Time History.
c) Multiple Pulse Measured Time History.
These methods are described in Section 3.
E.2.4 GFS Test Implications
E.2.4.1 To simulate the operational gunfire shock data in the laboratory requires the use of a suitable
vibration control system. This system must be capable of accepting sufficiently long GFS time histories at
adequately high sampling frequencies, i.e. minimum of 20 kHz. The control signal might be in the form of an
entire burst or duplicated individual pulses output at the appropriate firing rate. In general, typical gunfire
shock tests will require high peak acceleration levels at high frequency where significant non-linear effects
will have to be accommodated by the control algorithms employed. The control system must also be capable
of creating bursts of shock data to simulate sequences of gunfire interleaved with periods of rest as defined
in the overall test procedure.
E.2.4.2 Ideally the specified gunfire shock pulse sequence would be implemented directly by the controller
maintaining full bandwidth. However, current technology may not allow direct application of GFS data at the
minimum sampling frequency requirement of 20 kHz. Therefore, the data collected during operational use
may require pre-processing to convert /decimate it for use with the vibration control system within the
laboratory. This decimation process will require a time-data editing tool. The operational measured data
sample rate must also be matched to the vibration control system with suitable anti-alias filters applied during
the conversion.
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E.2.4.3 The pre-processing should also ensure that the GFS data set does not exceed shaker limits and
meets the requirement for zero start and end conditions for acceleration, velocity and displacement. Failure
to take the velocity and displacement conditions in to account may result in excess end of record transients
that could over stress the test item or electromagnetic shaker system. A useful pre-process function to help
meet end point conditions is a high pass filter that removes DC and other erroneous low frequency effects
from the operational measured data. Following this pre-processing an assessment should be made of the
final data set to ensure it still adequately matches the original specified sample data in terms of time
waveform shape, amplitude characteristics and spectral content.
E.2.4.4 A single control point must be defined because of the use of time waveform control. This is where
the test waveform will match the specified data set defined. Other points on the materiel, i.e. reference
points, should also be monitored to verify that adequate responses are achieved. It is also essential to
monitor control and some response reference locations using the same sampling frequency as used in
collecting the original operational data to assess potential Bias Errors and non-linear effects on peak
response levels.
E.2.5 Time History Data Manipulation
E.2.5.1 Some controllers are limited to block sizes in the region of 8000 data points compared to a gunfire
shock data capture requirement of at least 20 kHz. This can leave a shortfall in the definition of the shock
test specification, which will need to be addressed by decimation. The problem with decimation is its effect
on peak amplitude due to Bias Error, the magnitude of which will depend upon the peakiness of the data.
Therefore, in the cases where decimation is required it is essential to independently measure the control and
response time histories at the appropriate sampling frequency (20 kHz) to ensure that an over-test is not
generated.
E.2.5.2 The decimated time history is then conditioned by high pass filters to account for the control issues
including the need to minimise low frequency velocity effects to protect the electromagnetic shaker. Typically
it may be necessary to include a high pass filter above 10 Hz, to remove low frequency rigid body effects,
which translate to large low frequency displacements. Additional low frequency effects introduced by the
materiel support structure or the fixture can also affect the control capability by effectively merging the
individual gunfire shock pulses. This can be overcome by the inclusion of a high pass filter with a cut off
frequency above the offending structural response. Due to gunfire shock effectively being a high frequency
phenomenon the application of a high pass filter up to approximately 100 Hz should not significantly affect
the potential failure modes of the materiel. The criterion where one pulse should decay to approximately –
60dB before the next pulse is initiated offers a guide in determining an appropriate high pass filter cut-off
frequency. When applying a high pass filter care must be exercised to ensure that no potential gunfire shock
materiel failure modes are removed from the resulting modified gunfire shock test.
E.2.5.3 Additional time history conditioning may be necessary to meet the displacement, velocity and
acceleration limit requirements of the proprietary test equipment (controllers, amplifiers, electromagnetic
shakers). Typically the removal of any DC offsets introduced which directly affect the electromagnetic shaker
over travel. This can occur by the summation of residual displacement with each successive pulse unless
accounted for and corrected at the completion of each pulse in the time history. Having conditioned the test
specification time history it is then profile fitted to include the application of control limits.
E.2.5.4 The control issues affecting the gunfire shock test accuracy should be assessed and any remedial
actions taken during the preliminary investigation.
E.2.6 Fixturing and Control Considerations
E.2.6.1 As well as meeting the general fixture design requirements associated with shock and vibration
testing of materiel, the high ‘g’ levels which can be associated with gunfire shock, dictate a rigid attachment
of the materiel and or its support arrangement to the electromagnetic shaker. However, it is essential to
maintain the actual mechanical impedance between the materiel and its support structure as deployed whilst
ensuring good energy transfer to the materiel under test. Where possible use should be made of the
operational components in the fixture design to achieve these potentially contradictory design requirements.
Additionally it will be necessary, where possible to include any non-linear joints and interfaces the effects of
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which may only become apparent during the application of the gunfire shock full level test specification, e.g.
rattling of a missile within a launcher tube.
E.2.6.2 Often the rigid attachment to the electro-magnetic shaker results in improved energy transfer
compared to the operational case. This can also be due to different load paths where the input energy is
applied via a pressure loading during operational conditions compared to a mechanical loading in the
laboratory. In the case where control is achieved on the fixture opposed to the materiel, the enhanced
energy transfer will need to be accurately assessed during preliminary testing to avoid potential over-testing.
This could result in a fractional gunfire shock test specification to achieve the specified response on the
materiel.
E.2.6.3 During preliminary testing the materiel is installed in the test fixture and rigidly mounted to the
electromagnetic shaker head expander or slip table. It is essential to ensure that the materiel used is
dynamically equivalent to that used to collect the operational gunfire shock response data and to be tested
during the live test stage. A piezoelectric accelerometer is installed at the control location in the axis of
excitation either on the materiel or the test fixture. All accelerometer locations must be equivalent to those
used during the operational gunfire shock data gathering.
E.2.6.4 The system response (materiel, fixture, electromagnetic shaker interface and electromagnetic
shaker) is qualified by excitation of the system (e.g. complex sine waves) and measurement of the dynamic
response at the control location. The closed loop system Transfer Function is then calculated. It should be
noted that iterations might be necessary at different excitation levels to achieve an acceptable Transfer
Function. Having defined the system response characteristics they are used to condition the test
specification time history and testing can begin. In order to achieve the desired control accuracy of the
gunfire shock test it is necessary to apply a range of incremental inputs starting at a significantly reduced
level, typically –12dB and increasing to the full level. At each input level increment the controller iterates to
the test specification progressively improving the system response to that of the gunfire test specification.
E.2.6.5 When controlling the gunfire test from the fixture it might not be necessary to test at the specified
full level, because of the potential for an enhanced energy transfer between the fixture and the materiel
compared to that measured during operational testing. In this case it will be necessary to monitor the
materiel response at the specified location and tailor the control input level to achieve the specified materiel
response. This may result in a fractional input test requirement. Measurement of the fractional input test level
to achieve the specified gunfire shock response of the materiel is achieved by incrementally increasing the
input level until the specified materiel response level is achieved. Depending upon the fixture / materiel
transfer function will the fractional input level need to be applied to achieve the specified materiel gunfire
shock response. Determination of the appropriate control input level is a prime objective of preliminary
testing. A good test is achieved by consistently meeting the specified materiel response and generally
requires the control signal to be +1dB above that necessary to achieve the desired materiel GFS response.
E.2.6.6 Further testing is then necessary to ensure consistency of the response. For control at locations
both on and off the materiel it is necessary to monitor the control and response locations at the original
operational sample rate (20 kHz) and compare the time history response to the test specification. This is
necessary because of the high frequency nature of gunfire shock and the necessity for the data decimation
process, which potentially introduces Bias Errors, which unchecked can result in significant over-testing in
terms of peak ‘g’.
E.2.6.7 A further issue to be addressed is associated with long gunfire bursts. Here the control signal
block size limit often applies to the entire burst. Therefore, unless partitioning of the input time history is
undertaken too few samples will be available to describe each shock pulse in a long burst. A practical limit of
approximately one second applies for most controllers. Hence if a five second burst is required to be tested it
will be necessary to duplicate a one second burst five times. This method can also be adopted to improve
the frequency resolution of individual pulses by shortening the burst length (in the limit to a single pulse).
However, care must be exercised when employing this method since the gunfire rate must be maintained
throughout the test and this method may drastically reduce the achievable repetition rate.
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E.2.6.8 Two methods of control that can be adopted to achieve the specified GFS test are:
a) Control Method 1 - Single Test Pulse Replication. This method employs the controller to output a single
pulse repeated at the gunfire rate.
b) Control Method 2 - Test Time History Replication. This method employs the controller to output a
multiple pulse time history.
E.2.6.9 The individual pulse used in Method 1 can be derived from either a pulse taken close to the mean
value of the train in which it occurred or from the SRS method. This pulse is then factored, e.g. up to nσ, and
then repeatedly applied in the test at the correct nominal firing rate by the controller. Method 2 involves either
the selection of a series of pulses taken from the measured mean time history data, incorporating a
statistically derived factor, e.g. at the nσ level, or by synthesising a pulse train from a single pulse as
described in Method 1. This pulse train is then directly applied to the materiel by the controller.
E.2.7 Control Time History Verification
E.2.7.1 Verification that the gunfire shock test specification has been met at the control location and on the
materiel (if they are different) is an important issue. The complexity of gunfire shock means that a degree of
pragmatism needs to be applied in any comparative assessment. The methods available for comparison
generally fall into two categories, namely subjective and analytical.
E.2.7.2 Subjective comparisons include overlaying the respective time histories and coming to a
judgement of similarity based upon overall shape, reversals, peak levels and decay characteristics. Applying
a similar comparative methodology based upon SRS assesses the frequency content. In both cases only
general comparisons can be made and replication cannot be expected to be precise. Furthermore, it is
important to establish that a similar excitation range has been achieved during test as was measured under
operational conditions. Whilst at first sight a subjective comparison seems to be crude this method should
not be underestimated.
E.2.7.3 Analytical methods of comparison could include time history parameters e.g. Temporal Moments,
SRS, Damage Criteria including Fatigue Damage Spectra and Rainflow techniques. These methods are
further discussed in Paragraph E.4.
E.3 Gunfire Shock Test Methods
E.3.1 Single Pulse SRS Duplication Gunfire Shock Test Method
E.3.1.1 The single pulse SRS method is presented in Annex C of Method 405 from AECTP 400 (edition 2)
where its scope and development is comprehensively described. The SRS method shown in Figure E3,
assumes that the measured materiel response time history can be decomposed into an ensemble of
individual pulses. The measured time history is partitioned into high and low level test bands from which a
statistical assessment is undertaken to determine the mean and standard deviation.
E.3.1.2 For the chosen time history selected from the measured data set, maxi-max SRS are computed
over the ensemble of pulses using various damping factors to assist in characterizing the frequency content
of the individual pulses. The SRS mean is also computed over the ensemble of pulses for each damping
factor to further characterize the materiel response pulses. Using the information from the SRS, an
acceleration time history is synthesized using, wavelets or damped sinusoids. The SRS based acceleration
response time history is then used as the characteristic gunfire materiel response pulse, and input to the test
item at the firing rate of the gun. If the control system cannot implement repetitive single pulses at the gun-
firing rate it will be necessary to synthesise a gunfire burst time history by duplication of the single pulse.
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Establish appropriate operational Gunfire Shock

Time History
Separate the measured data into individual

pulses & compute the SRS
Use Q=10, 25, 50 & 100
Take account of the Bias Error Requirement
Compute the statistical mean of each of the SRS

at respective damping factors
Compare the mean SRS for each damping and

determine the predominant frequencies
Choose the mean SRS calculated with the most

appropriate damping factor
Compute the mean & standard deviation for the

entire measured data set
Apply a factor to the mean SRS

('n’ standard deviations)
Generate time history for the factored SRS

using wavelets or damped sinusoids
No Does the
No
Re- generate factored time history
time history compare with the measured
operational
data
Yes
Use factored SRS & Time History

In GFS Test Specification
Figure E3 Gunfire Shock Single Pulse Test Specification Methodology
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E.3.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the single pulse SRS gunfire shock method are discussed in
Method 405 of AECTP 400. However, the principal advantage of the SRS method is that it lends itself
directly to a generalised test specification and provides an improved statistical assessment using the SRS
(across the frequency range) rather than simply the ‘g’ pk available in the time history replication methods.
Suffice it here to consider the factored single pulse SRS method, which is summarised as follows:
a) Generation of SRS’s from the individual pulses within the selected gunfire shock response time history.
These SRS’s are then overlaid and the spread analysed statistically to give the mean SRS and its
associated standard deviations.
b) The mean SRS is then factored and the time history generated using wavelets or damped sinusoids. The
factor having been derived from the statistical spread of pulses within the operational gunfire shock
response data set. This factor will be in the form of the mean level + nσ (standard deviation). The choice
of ‘n’ will depend upon the spread of gunfire shock ‘g’ pk amplitudes and the level of confidence required
in the final test.
c) The single factored pulse is then duplicated to replicate the desired gunfire shock test specification time
history either:
1) Directly by using the electro-magnetic shaker controller to repeat the single factored pulse at the
gunfire repetition rate in closed loop mode, or
2) Indirectly by duplicating the single pulse to form a replicate time history and following the procedure
described below, also in closed loop control mode.
E.3.1.4 It should be noted that verification of the SRS technique time history with measured data is
essential because the SRS provides a non-unique time history solution depending upon the analysis
variables selected.
E.3.2 Single Pulse Replication
E.3.2.1 The Single Pulse Replication method is shown in Figure E4. Either a single level test or a multi-
level specification may be required depending upon the platform and gun configuration. In the case of a
multi-level test the measured time history is partitioned into high and low shock level test bands from which a
statistical assessment is undertaken to determine the mean and standard deviation. The single pulse method
requires selection of a mean pulse from the mean data set to which a factor is applied. The factor applied is
based upon the mean and standard deviation, i.e. nσ /mean level.
E.3.2.2 The factored pulse is then duplicated at the GFS firing rate for the specified time duration by the
controller or the single pulse can be duplicated to allow THR as described above.
E.3.2.3 The flow diagram which describes this process is shown in Figure E4, with the resulting pulse
train specification.
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START
Select a representative pulse train (min 10

shots) from flight data. (See Figure E5.)
Calculate the mean (m) and standard

deviation (σ) of the abs max g peak of pulse.
Identify a pulse closest to mean in terms of

absolute maximum g pk. (See Figure E6.)
Factor to nσ Level
Amp = Amp × 〈1 + nσ / m)
Create required pulse train by

duplication. (See Figure E7.)
END
Figure E4 Single Pulse Replication
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140
120 P re F a c to re d L a u n c h e r F w d V e rt g
100
80
60
40
Amplitude (g)
20
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1
T im e (s )
Figure E5 Measured Data
14 0
C h B 0 6 : I/B L a u n c h e r F w d V e r t g
12 0
10 0
8 0
6 0
4 0
Amplitude (g)
2 0
0
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 .3 0 .3 1 0 .3 2 0 .3 3 0 .3 4 0 .3 5 0 .3 6 0 .3 7 0 .3 8 0 .3 9 0 .4
T im e (s )
Figure E6 Pulse Close to Mean
1 4 0
L a u n c h e r F w d V e rt g
1 2 0
1 0 0
8 0
6 0
4 0
Amplitude (g)
2 0
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1
T im e ( s )
Figure E7 Factored Data= Mean Time History (1+nσ /m)
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E.3.3 Time History Replication
E.3.3.1 The Time History Replication method is presented in Part 3, Chapter 2-19 of DEFSTAN 00-35
and in Annex A of Method 405 of AECTP 400. Either a single level test or a multi-level specification may be
required depending upon the platform / gun configuration. In the case of a multi-level test the measured time
history is partitioned into high and low shock level test bands from which a statistical assessment is
undertaken to determine the mean and standard deviation.
E.3.3.2 THR can be achieved ether from duplicating a single pulse or selecting a representative section of
the measured GFS time history. The single pulse method is described in sub-paragraph E.3.2. In the case
of a continuous series of pulses it is necessary to define a mean representative record length consistent with
the gun firing duration from the measured time history at the appropriate level. The application of a factor
depends upon the maximum amplitude of the measured pulses. If the maximum amplitude of the measured
time history is greater than the synthesised pulse train no factoring is required. However, if the maximum
amplitude of the measured time history is less than the synthesised pulse train then the measured pulse train
is factored by maximum measured/maximum synthesised amplitude.
E.3.3.3 The flow diagram which describes this process is shown in Figure E8, with the resulting pulse
train specification.
E.3.3.4 This method provides a faithful representation of the operational measured data and allows a
direct comparison with the measured GFS data.
START
Select a representative pulse train & calculate

mean and σ values. (See Figure E9.)
Calculate the abs max g pk of the measured

pulse train (A1). (See Figure E10.)
Calculate the abs max g pk (A2) of the

synthesised pulse train
A1 > A2
No Factoring Calculate
Required Factor
Apply F to Pulse Train.

(See Figure E11.)
END END
Figure E8 Time History Replication
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140
100
80
60
40
Amplitude (g)
20
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1
T im e (s )
Figure E9 Measured Time History (Un-factored)
140
120 L a u n c h e r F w d V e rt g
100
80
60
40
Amplitude (g)
20
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1
T im e (s )
Figure E10 Synthesised Pulse Train
140
100
80
60
40
Amplitude (g)
20
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1
T im e (s )
Figure E11 Factored Pulse Train
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E.4 Validation
E.4.1 General
Each of the validation methods described in this section address different parameters associated with a
shock pulse. To gain a comprehensive assessment of the likeness of two pulses it is necessary to employ all
of the methods described and interpret the results in terms of overall acceptability of the GFS testing
process. These methods provide the analyst with a quantitative assessment in conjunction with the
qualitative assessment, thereby adding confidence to the verification process. The analyst is responsible for
using the verification methods to construct a comprehensive argument to support acceptability of the GFS
test to the appropriate authority.
E.4.2 Subjective Time History Comparison
E.4.2.1 The time history comparison between two pulses, nominally the GFS test specification and the
desired materiel’s response, offers a subjective method of assessment. The parameters compared are as
follows:
a) Pulse overall ‘g’ pk level where the maximum ‘g’ pk from both pulses is compared to ensure that the
specified test level has been achieved. This comparison will need to be performed on all of the pulses
within the specified pulse train to ensure consistency. As a general requirement at least 80% of the
response pulses within the pulse train must equal or exceed the GFS test specification. This limit
accommodates errors which can be introduced to the first pulse within the GFS specified pulse train due
to controller issues. Often it is necessary to exceed the test specification by +1dB to ensure this
consistency requirement is met.
b) Decay rate and pulse shape – Here the GFS test specification pulses are compared to the materiel’s
responses to ensure that the specified decay rate is achieved and there is similarity in the overall pulse
shapes. Since this process is performed on a subjective basis an acceptable limit is difficult to define
and often some pragmatism is required from the analyst.
c) Duration and number of oscillations – To ensure the GFS response is adequately met it is essential to
ensure that the materiels response (in terms of the pulse reversal time) is similar to that specified. Also
the number and amplitude of the cycles directly affect the potential damage. Without using a Rainflow
method (considered later in this section) it is difficult to quantify the reversals. However, it is possible to
measure the time duration of the cycles and perform a comparison to gain a subjective understanding of
the number of cycles and their general distribution within the response pulse compared to the test
specification.
E.4.2.2 It is recognised that these comparisons are subjective, however they should not be
underestimated in achieving a comparison between the specified and response pulse trains provided a
degree of pragmatism is applied.
E.4.3 Shock Response Spectrum (SRS)
E.4.3.1 SRS comparisons between the GFS pulse train test specification and the materiel response offers
an analytical method to compare the entire frequency response.
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1 s t o f 1 0 G u n f ir e S h o c k R e s p o n s e P u ls e
20
15
10
0
g
-5
-1 0
-1 5
-2 0
0 0 .0 2 0 .0 4 0 .0 6 0 .0 8 0 .1
T im e (s e c )
1 0 t h o f 1 0 G u n f ir e S h o c k R e s p o n s e P u ls e
20
15
10
0
g
-5
-1 0
-1 5
-2 0
0 .9 0 .9 2 0 .9 4 0 .9 6 0 .9 8 1
T im e ( s e c )
Figure E12 Pulse 1 & Pulse 10 Taken From a 1 Second Pulse Train of 10 Pulses.
E.4.3.2 A simple visual comparator is to overlay the materiel’s response SRS with that specified for given
pulses within the pulse train. A limit associated with the variation between the two SRSs can be applied and
it is suggested that a tolerance of ±3dB be adopted. However, this limit is relatively subjective and should be
left to the discretion of the analyst. An example of the SRS method is provided by comparing two pulses
taken from the same response pulse train as shown in Figure E12. Clearly similarity between pulses within
the same pulse train is a requirement of the GFS test.
E.4.3.3 An overlay of the SRS of pulses 1 and 10 is shown in Figure E13. Here it can be seen that there is
a high degree of similarity across the entire frequency range. However, to allow a more detailed comparison
the difference between the two SRSs is shown in Figure E14. The presentation of SRS difference shows
clearly those areas of the spectrum which are of concern and do not coincide with the test specification. This
allows the analyst to assess the differences in terms of potential damage and thus make an assessment of
their influence in determining an acceptable GFS test. This presentation of the data allows a limit to be
directly applied, which is potentially more sensitive than that associated with direct SRS data.
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100
10 SRS1
TOL +3dB
g
TOL -3dB
1 SRS10
0.1
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure E13 Overlay of SRS Pulses 1 & 10 Within the Munition Response Pulse Train
1.6
1.4
1.2
1 Ratio
Ratio
0.8 TOL 3dB

0.6 TOL -3dB
0.4
0.2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Frequency (Hz)
Figure E14 SRS Difference Between Pulses 1 and 10
E.4.3.4 A numerical comparison of the SRSs is provided by the Goodness of Fit (GOF) parameter.
Where:
N
GOF = 1 / N ∑ ( SRS m − SRS r ) 2 / SRS r
2
Where,
GOF = Goodness of Fit
SRSm = Measured SRS
SRSγ = Reference SRS
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The GOF will have a value, which varies between 0 and 1 for the ± 3dB tolerance band. If the test SRS is the
same as the Reference SRS at all frequencies, then the GOF is zero.
E.4.3.5 In conclusion the SRS method can be considered as a relatively crude comparator but offers an
improvement on simply comparing the GFS specification and response time histories. However, SRS
method used in conjunction with the time history comparison allows an analytical comparison thereby
improving confidence and verification of the GFS test method.
E.4.4 Temporal Moments
E.4.4.1 The shock response spectrum has its own limitations and is often subject to misuse. One of the
most serious limitations of the SRS is that it can be derived from a range of time histories and it says nothing
about the duration of the event. The shock test waveform often has higher peak amplitude, a shorter duration
and a much larger velocity change than the measured environment, which can lead to serious over-test. One
way to assess this is to calculate Temporal Moments of the shock time history.
E.4.4.2 The ith temporal moment mi(a), of a time history, x(t), about a time location, a, is defined as:
∞
mi ( a ) = ∫ (t − a) [ f (t )] dt
i 2
(1)
−∞
E.4.4.3 The moments prove to be very useful to describe simple time history shapes and to describe the
envelope of more complicated shock time histories.
E.4.4.4 If the central moments are defined about a time, τ, that produces a zero first moment, useful
information can be derived from these moments to compare the time history waveforms.
E.4.4.5 The first five moments (0-4) about τ are given special names and defined as:
a) The zero order moment ( m0 ) is called ‘Time History Energy’. This value is the integral of the magnitude
squared of the time history that can be considered as the variance of the signal.
b) The first moment ( m1 ) normalised by the energy gives the time where the centre of the shock waveform
is located and is called ‘Centroid’
c) The second moment ( m2 ) normalised by the energy is defined as the mean square duration of the shock
waveform. The rms duration is useful to describe the duration of complex waveform where more
conventional definitions of duration are difficult to apply. As with probability distribution, most of the
significant part of the transient is expected to be within plus or minus a few rms durations of the centroid
(τ).
d) The third central moment ( m3 ) normalised by the energy is defined as the skewness. Skewness is a
parameter that describes the shape of the function. A positive skewness indicates a time history that has
high amplitudes on the left of the centroid and a long low amplitude tail on the right of the centroid.
Waveforms that are symmetrical about the centroid have zero skewness.
e) The fourth central moment ( m4 ) normalised by the energy is called Kurtosis. Kurtosis is useful for time
histories whose envelopes have more than one maximum and can be a descriptor of where the peaks in
the envelope of the time history occur.
E.4.4.6 To produce a conservative test, the energy, centroid, rms duration, skewness and kurtosis should
be kept as close to the actual environment as possible. Also each parameter offers a means of analytically
comparing the GFS test specification with the achieved materiels dynamic response.
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E.4.4.7 An example of the use of Basic Statistics (BS) and Temporal Moments (TM) as a comparator is
given by again comparing the first and tenth pulse in the 1 second time history set out in sub-paragraph
E.4.1 above. In this case the first five temporal moments have been calculated for both GFS pulses and the
results are given in Table E1 below.
E.4.4.8 These results are shown pictorially in Figure E15 where the Temporal Moment for each pulse is
shown along with the basic statistics including the pulse maximum, minimum, mean, variance and standard
deviation. This method of presentation provides a fast and powerful way of observing the similarity between
the pulses on which verification assessment can be based.
Table E1 Time History Parameters for GFS Pulses 1 & 10 from the Same Pulse Train
Parameter Pulse 1 Pulse 10
BS – Max Value 15.917 16.014

BS – Min Value 15.163 15.114
BS - Mean 0.438 0.413
BS - Variance 9.383 7.039
BS - SD 3.063 2.653
TM - Energy 9.570 7.207
TM - Time 0.028 0.034
TM – RMS Duration 0.012 0.014
TM - Skewness 0.015 0.019
TM - Kurtosis 0.021 0.027
100
10
Pulse 1
1
Pulse 10
TM gy
d
e
e
e
BS ue
s
s
s
ss
im
lu
St
ea
nc
si
io
si
es
r
l
Va
ne
to
ne
Va
S_
at
to
_T
_M
ia
ur
ur
ur
w
_E
ar
ax
w
in
_K
ke
SD
_K
ke
_V
_M
M
TM
_S
_S
TM
_
BS
BS
M
BS
BS
0.1
TM
_R
BS
TM
0.01
Figure E15 Temporal Moment for Pulses 1 & 10 in Conjunction with Basic Statistics
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E.4.4.9 The results show a high degree of similarity between the pulses and demonstrate the power of the
Temporal Moment method in the verification of GFS testing.
E.4.5 Rainflow Cycle Count
E.4.5.1 The methods discussed above provide information relating to the similarity between pulses. Use of
the Rainflow technique provides information relating to the relative damage likely to be caused by the various
pulses. Therefore, this method offers an important extension to the verification process.
E.4.5.2 Fatigue lives of specimens are determined from constant amplitude tests. Real structures seldom,
if ever, experience constant amplitude loading. Therefore, some type of cycle counting scheme must be
employed to reduce a complex irregular loading history into a series of constant amplitude events. The
Rainflow Cycle Counting (RCC) method is used to extract closed loop cycles that are relevant for fatigue
analysis.
E.4.5.3 Considering the two pulses described above, the Rainflow distribution of pulses 1 & 10 are shown
overlaid and as difference in Figure E16 and Figure E17 respectively. Here it can be seen that there is a
high degree of similarity except for a small number of large amplitude excursions associated with the first
pulse. Generally the high amplitude excursions account for the majority of the potential damage which marks
the first pulse as significantly different and potentially more damaging. This is further quantified by means of
the Relative Damage Index (RDI):
RDI =RCC(i)* Range(i)/Max Range
The RDI for pulses 1 and 10 are 11.5 and to 5.18, respectively.
180
160
140
120
Cycles
100 Cycle P1
80 Cycle P10
60
40
20
0
13
17
21
25
29
33
37
41
45
49
53
57
61
1
5
Range
Figure E16 Overlay of the Rainflow Distribution of Pulses 1 & 10
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Annex E
15
10
5
Cycles
13
17
21
25
29
33
37
41
45
49
53
57
61
1
-5
-10
-15
Range
Figure E17 RCC Difference Pulses 1 & 10
E.4.6 Fatigue Damage Spectrum (FDS)
E.4.6.1 Use of the Rainflow method clearly shows the importance of considering the potential damage
associated with each pulse. The variation in the potential damage of each pulse can be further assessed by
consideration of the Fatigue Damage Spectrum (FDS).
E.4.6.2 When a vibration excitation is applied to a mechanical system made up from a range of single
degree of freedom resonators, the Fatigue Damage (FD) for this system excited by a deterministic signal, as
defined by Miner’s Law, or the probability of FD for a random signal can be calculated. The Fatigue Damage
Spectrum is the curve that represents variation of ‘FD’ as a function of the natural frequency of the system of
single degree of freedom resonators, for a given damping value (b).
E.4.6.3 FDS offers a simple visual comparator of the potential damage associated with each pulse. The
FDS associated with pulses 1 and 10 defined above are shown overlaid in Figure E18. Inspection of this
figure shows differences particularly at low frequencies, which is consistent with the Rainflow results.
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1E-20
1E-22
1E-24
1E-26
1E-28
Pulse 1
1E-30
D
Pulse 10
1E-32
1E-34
1E-36
1E-38
1E-40
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure E18 FDS Overlay of Pulses 1 & 10
E.5 Check List for Gunfire Shock Ground Test
E.5.1 Precursor Testing
a) Establish the structural integrity of the rig.
b) Determine the optimum control parameters and strategy.
c) Evaluate the rig and fixture dynamic behaviour including relevant interfaces.
d) Establish if the shock input is capable of reaching full level.
e) Establish if the test rig assembly is capable of control at full level.
f) Demonstrate the specified shock response spectrum can be achieved with the ± 3dB limits.
g) Demonstrate instrumentation calibration and integrity.
h) Select control point on the shaker base plate or materiels structure.
i) Determine the rig and control system dynamic response characteristics in terms of the system transfer
function. This is achieved by exciting the structure with random excitation, measuring the response at
the control point and analysing over the frequency range of the SRS. The resulting transfer function is
then used to shape the electro-magnetic shaker drive signal to achieve the required shock pulse. Note
the low level random excitation will not generally detect non-linear effects exhibited by the rig and
materiel.
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Annex E
j) Apply the shock pulse train to the structure at a reduced level, (e.g.–12dB) and increase to full level in
stages.
k) Compare both the response time history with those specified as acceptance criteria at the control point
and at relevant points on the materiels structure.
l) Confirm optimum location of the control point.
m) If the results show that the specified shock pulse train is not being adequately achieved it may be
necessary to consider the following:
⎯ Alternative control positions.
⎯ Reduction or redistribution of rig mass.
⎯ Modify fixture and or interface arrangements.
⎯ Application of other damping levels used to calculate the SRS.
⎯ Alternative decimation sample points.
⎯ For SRS - Phasing and damping of the damped sinusoids used to construct the shock pulse.
⎯ Use of an electro-magnetic shaker with higher thrust.
⎯ Alternative control system.
⎯ Multiple shock strategy.
⎯ Relaxation of Control limits.
⎯ Etc.
E.5.2 Live Testing
a) Confirm the control parameters derived during the precursor test.
b) Conduct low level testing to validate the precursor test results prior to undertaking the full live test
programme.
c) If appropriate apply fractional control levels.
d) Perform live testing.
E.6 Time History Replication - Example

a) Establish the appropriate operational gunfire shock time history to be used as the basis of the test
specification.
b) Select a representative pulse train and calculate the mean, standard deviation and maximum gpk.
c) Calculate the absolute maximum gpk for the entire measured data.
d) Apply a test namely: if the maximum gpk amplitude is less than nσ then apply a factor of nσ/A. If the
maximum gpk amplitude is greater than nσ then apply a factor of 1.
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e) Apply the factored / unfactored time history as the test GFS specification.
f) Develop the GFS test specification including specification of test method and control limits.
g) Undertake precursor testing.
h) Compare the measured test response at the control and reference locations with the GFS test
specification.
140
100
80
60
40
Amplitude (g)
20
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1
T im e ( s )
Measured Time History (Un-factored)
140
100
80
60
40
Amplitude (g)
20
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1
T im e ( s )
Synthesised Pulse Train
Figure E19 Time History Replication
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E.7 Repetitive Pulse SRS – Example

The following sub-paragraphs illustrate the application of the procedural steps associated with the Repetitive
Pulse SRS test specification method.
specification.
b) Separate the measured data into individual pulses and compute the SRS using various Q factors. Take
account of the Bias Error requirement.
c) Compute the statistical mean of the SRS at respective damping factors.
d) Compute the mean SRS for each damping and determine the predominant frequencies.
e) Choose the mean SRS calculated with the most appropriate damping factor.
f) Compute the mean and standard deviation for the entire measured data set.
g) Apply a factor of ns to the mean SRS.
h) Characterise the factored SRS time history using wavelets or damped sinusoids.
i) Compute the factored time history and compare with the measured operational data. Iterate to an
acceptable fit.
j) Develop the GFS test specification including specification of test method and control limits.
k) Undertake precursor testing.
l) Compare the measured test response at the control and reference locations with the GFS test
specification.
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1000
100
10
SRS (g)
0.1
Individual Shot Mean
Individual Shot Mean +2σ
0.01
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure E20 Repetitive Pulse SRS
Rocket Nose Mean Rocket Nose FactorFactored

ed
Rocket Nose Mean Rocket Nose
50.00
60
40.00
30.00 40
20.00
20
10.00
0.00 0
g
-10.00
-20
-20.00
-30.00 -40
-40.00
-60
-50.00
0.00 0.02 0.04 0. 06 0.08 0.10
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Time (sec) T i me ( s e c )
Time (sec) Time (sec)
VMEAN TIME HISTORY (MEAN + 2σ ) TIME HISTORY
Figure E21 Mean Time History
E.8 Single Pulse Replication – Example

specification.
b) Select a representative pulse train from the measured data.
c) Calculate the mean and standard deviation and maximum g peak value of each pulse.
d) Identify a pulse closest to the mean in terms of maximum gpk.
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e) Factor the pulse by nσ /m.
f) Create the required factored pulse train by pulse duplication and compare with measured operational
data.
g) Develop the GFS test specification including specification of test method and control limits.
h) Undertake precursor testing.
i) Compare the measured test response at the control and reference locations with the GFS test
specification.
140
C h B 0 6 : I/B L a u n c h e r F w d V e rt g
120
100
80
60
40
Amplitude (g)
20
0
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 .3 0 .3 1 0 .3 2 0 .3 3 0 .3 4 0 .3 5 0 .3 6 0 .3 7 0 .3 8 0 .3 9 0 .4
T im e (s )
Pulse Close to Mean
140
L a u n c h e r F w d V e rt g
120
100
80
60
40
Amplitude (g)
20
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
-1 0 0
-1 2 0
-1 4 0
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1
T im e ( s )
Factored Data= Mean Time History (1+nσ /m)
Figure E22 Single Pulse Replication
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Annex F
Annex F
Mechanical Structural Integrity Assessment
F.1 Part 1- Principal Elements and Techniques

Air carriage clearance of weapons relies upon environmental testing and mechanical assessment of the key
structural components, as shown in Figure F1 below. This places considerable emphasis on in-service
monitoring and the application of mechanical structural integrity assessment (SIA) methods
Certification, Operation & Life Extension

Safety Case
Mechanical Environmental
Assessment Testing
Figure F1 Assessment Routes
F.2 Multi-Legged Assessment Methodology
F.2.1 In general, a safety and suitability for service case considers various inputs, each of which form a
leg of a multi-legged argument, where the case is judged on the basis of the strengths and weaknesses of
each leg. Typically the legs of the mechanical safety and suitability for service case can be provided from a
combination of test and assessment, including modelling techniques and use of codes. These combine as
shown in Figure F2 below.
Equipment Safety & Suitability for Service Case
In-service Assessment Environmental Condition Mechanical

Inspection Modelling
Trials Codes Testing Monitoring / Assessment
Surveillance
Figure F2 Techniques Used in a Multi-Legged Safety Assessment
F.2.2 The safety assessment case can include simple testing, finite element modelling, full scale testing
and mechanical assessment procedures. The mix of techniques employed to reach a conclusion will vary
from case to case and depend upon the complexity of the weapon and the consequences of failure.
Furthermore, where analytical techniques are employed verification and validation will need to be undertaken
using experimental data as appropriate.
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F.3 Mechanical Assessment Process
F.3.1 Mechanical assessment can be represented by a process flow chart as shown in Figure F4. The
process consists of three parts; definition of scope, detailed assessment and conclusions.
F.3.1.1 Part 1 - Definition of scope is the specification of the assessment requirements from a
consideration of existing information. It is essential to have well defined objectives with a clear specification
of the required level of confidence in the assessment. The key stages in this part of the assessment are:
a) Determination of the objectives & direction/emphasis of the assessment. This can be influenced by the
criticality, reliability or safety requirement of the item under test, and any financial constraints, time limits
or lack of information.
b) Definition of required duty of the weapon.
c) Determination of failure criteria and what constitutes unacceptable failure (where it is difficult to define
the failure criteria environmental or mechanical testing may be necessary to help define it).
d) Evaluation of the required confidence.
e) Systematic reduction of the problem to a size that can be tackled in detail by only considering the critical
components and failure mechanisms of concern for the expected loading conditions. This may require a
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) or redundancy analysis to identify critical regions.
f) Documentation, cost benefit assessment, review and agreement of the key stakeholders.
F.3.1.2 Part 2 - The detailed assessment has four key steps, namely:
a) Loading mechanisms and external forces assessment.
b) Component response properties definition.
c) Forced response estimation.
d) Integrity assessment.
F.3.1.2.1 The input requirements and output results from these steps are determined from consideration
of the assessment objectives. A variety of information is available to be utilised at this stage which have
been briefly described earlier. These can simplistically be categorised as theoretical methods, laboratory
testing and monitoring. The quality of personnel involved with the assessment is a key factor in achieving the
objectives. An experienced engineer is required to make judgements as to the level of uncertainties, aided
where appropriate by techniques such as probabilistic risk assessment. It may be necessary to refine the
assessment by repeating the steps g to j to reduce the level of uncertainty.
F.3.1.3 Part 3 - An assessment is considered to be concluded when a definitive statement can be made
that a store is either safe or safe and serviceable or not. This statement can be qualified with a degree of
confidence and by comparison with the target probability or confidence requirement defined in Part 1. A
clearly drawn, quantifiable, concise and unambiguous conclusion should be recorded.
F.4 Detailed Review of SIA Inputs
F.4.1 Mechanical SIA combines a range the technical issues, as shown in Figure F3, to determine if a
stores structure and the energetic materials can adequately sustain the complex loads likely to be
encountered during air carriage and remain safe and suitable for service.
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Annex F
F.4.2 Assessment in conjunction with testing provides the degree of assurance necessary for release to
service and combined with in service surveillance allows air carriage operation through life and possible
extension beyond design life. This ANNEX describes the range of techniques which comprise mechanical
SIA and how they combine to form an input to the air carriage safety argument and safety case.
Inspection
• NDE
Monitoring • Ultrasonic Materials
• Mag. Particle
& Measurements • Failure Diagnosis
• Eddy Current
• Vibration • Defect Diagnosis
• PD (AC/DC)
• Temp & Pressure • Micro-structure
• Radiography
• Strain • Mechanical Props
• Replication
• Displacement • Metallography
• Dye Penetrant
• Corrosion • Replication
• Etc.
• Etc. • Chemical Analysis
• Etc.
Mechanical
Assessment
Stress Analysis Safety Assessment
• Design Evaluation • Design Assessment
• Theoretical Modelling Dynamics • Safety Assessment
• Fracture Mechanics • Safety Case Preparation
• Structural behaviour
• Equipment Testing • Probability Risk Assessment
• Theoretical modelling
• Failure Assessment • Life Extension Assessment
• Modal Analysis
• Defect Assessment • Repair / Replacement
• Fluid Dynamics
• Etc. • Operational Constraints
• Aerodynamics
• Etc.
• Data Analysis
• Fatigue Assessment
• Equipment Testing
• Etc.
Figure F3 Mechanical Assessment Technical Issues
F.4.3 Mechanical Assessment
F.4.3.1 Mechanical assessment applies to all stages of a stores life from design to disposal. A complete
mechanical structural integrity assessment of a stores components is not generally economically viable.
Therefore, discrimination to identify the most critical components either in terms of safety and suitability for
service or economics is necessary. This is best achieved by undertaking a component audit and addressing
only those components or systems considered to be at risk. Where the store is complex and the failure
scenarios are difficult to identify or assurance of the weapons ability to withstand service loading is required
to a high degree of certainty, assessment will require a combined test and modelling approach. Furthermore,
engineering judgement is required to balance the contribution from the various elements of the overall
assessment. Assurance in the conclusions drawn from the mechanical assessment process is strengthened
by adoption of a multi-legged assessment strategy which provides redundancy and strength in depth. The
scope and confidence achieved using this approach is determined from identification of the failure modes
and their consequences, either in terms of safety and suitability for service or in economic terms.
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Annex F
F.4.3.2 All theoretical assessments include uncertainties and will need to be validated against
representative test results. Furthermore, in some cases environmental testing will be necessary as a final
assurance that safety and suitability criteria can be demonstrated. However, if mechanical assessment can
be performed to the necessary level of accuracy, there is considerable scope to limit testing to specific worst
case loading scenarios (defined using mechanical assessment) resulting in the potential for significant cost
savings. Clearly, attaining a satisfactory safety and suitability for service case must be set against cost; but in
general the chosen strategy will be optimised on the basis of the ALARP principle (As Low as is Reasonably
Practical) and attaining the required level of confidence in the safety case. The ALARP principle is derived
from a legal ruling, which accepts that risk reduction may cease when the cost of any further work becomes
grossly disproportionate to the benefits gained.
F.4.4 Inspection
F.4.4.1 Inspection includes metrology and non-destructive examination (NDE). Metrology covers all
aspects of dimensional measurement, whilst NDE refers to those techniques which characterise defects
without damaging the host structure. The principal NDE techniques used for weapons include surface
methods such as visual inspection and volumetric methods such as ultrasonics and radiography.
F.4.4.2 The position, size and orientation of defects are required as inputs to a mechanical assessment.
By determining the critical crack defect size, acceptance criteria for continued service or withdrawal from
service can be defined. NDE can be used to monitor structural degradation caused by initiation and
propagation of defects. Repeat inspections at specified time intervals, locations and threshold detection
requirements constitute an intermittent structural condition monitoring strategy. However, the formulation and
optimisation of an overall inspection strategy must be based on a mechanical integrity assessment.
F.4.4.3 The inspection needs to strategy considers how the store will fail; the potential for structural
degradation; the need for speculative inspections targeted at identified critical components; the possibility for
failure and the estimation of remaining life. If the mechanical assessment predicts a potential degradation of
the munition over an interval less than the predicted service life, then periodic inspection may be specified.
Where this cannot be achieved to the desired specification, concessions may be obtained by inspection of
similar components or by surveillance programmes. Clearly implementation of any condition monitoring
system must provide the necessary parameters to the required sensitivity.
F.4.4.4 This approach shifts from what has traditionally been a response to the discovery of unacceptable
defects, to one where sub-critical failures are tracked in a predicted fashion, allowing a life between
inspections to be allowed. In this way the inspection procedure is a primary input to the design, operation,
fault diagnosis, inspection, monitoring, surveillance and life extension strategy for the store.
F.4.4.5 For example inspection can be used to demonstrate that no structural degradation has taken place
in-service during a specified period and this could represent a central plank to a safety case. Continued
inspection as part of a surveillance programme can provide evidence that a degradation process may not
have reached a critical stage and is progressing at an acceptable rate. The frequency of inspection will be
determined by the degradation rate, which in turn will rely on an understanding of the degradation process
and time to reach a critical value.
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Annex F
No Undertake Speculative
Can Failure Occur? Inspections to Support
Diagnosis
Yes
Yes
Are Consequences Acceptable?
No
No Undertake Speculative
Is There Probable Cracking or Inspections to Support
Degradation? Diagnosis
Yes
1. Assess Life Yes

2. Is Life Greater Than Operation
Life?
No
Yes
Is Assured Life Less Than
Inspection Period? Can Condition Monitoring Yes
be Implemented?
No
No
Is Munition Inspectable? No
Yes Modify Operational

Constraints or Implement
Inspect As Specified By Design Modification
Assessment
Yes No 1. Can Safety Case be

Are There Any Significant Made?
Defects? 2. Is it Economical to
Continue Operation?
No Yes
Remove From Service Continue Operation In-

Service
Figure F4 Mechanical Assessment Inspection Strategy
F.4.5 Monitoring & Measurement
F.4.5.1 The use of monitoring and service load measurements is an important step to understanding and
quantifying the real environment seen by the store. This information adds confidence to the assessment
process by confirmation of the actual air carriage through-life conditions. Clearly implementation of any
monitoring system must provide adequate information relating to the physical parameters affected by the
degradation process. Furthermore, if through life monitoring is adopted the monitoring system must have
sufficient sensitivity to detect change and the possible onset of failure in time to take remedial action.
F.4.5.2 Monitoring and measurement records the response behaviour of the store to operational
conditions which for air carriage must be adequately defined in terms of sortie profiles. It is used for the
validation of the environmental requirements specification, to provide input parameters to the mechanical
assessment and for possible through life condition monitoring. Many parameters may be measured but those
of most interest for store include temperature, displacement, stress/strain, acceleration and wear. Monitoring
through life provides the historical data necessary to re-assess the air carriage life and establish the life
fraction. This is an essential factor in the strategy of incremental life assessment.
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F.4.6 Materials
F.4.6.1 For any structural integrity assessment it is essential to gain a detailed understand of structural
and energetic component material physical, chemical and mechanical properties. Mechanical properties
most generally used include tensile strength, hardness, creep, impact resistance, fatigue initiation and crack
propagation, fracture toughness, thermal fatigue, ductile/brittle transition and wear. Chemical properties
include corrosion, oxidation erosion and environmentally assisted cracking and physical properties include
thermal expansion etc. These properties are key inputs to the mechanical assessment and apply to all
stages of the stores life since they may degrade as part of the normal ageing process. Determination of the
mechanism and rate of degradation of material properties is central to establishing a graduated air carriage
life case. Periodic monitoring and prediction of material properties can be undertaken by direct examination,
surveillance and consideration for the underlying metallurgical and chemical mechanisms appropriate to
storage and operation.
F.4.6.2 The techniques used in the evaluation of materials properties involve either direct measurement,
appropriate monitoring schemes, or by correlation with the microstructure. Fatigue initiation and crack growth
rates (C & M) constants of the Paris Law, together with ∆ Kth Stress Intensity Factor, below which no crack
growth occurs, can be used to determine the critical crack size before failure is conceded in either the stores
structure or the energetic material. However, in the case of the energetic material appropriate material
properties and non-linear fracture mechanics techniques are required which are the subject of on-going
research. Use of fatigue and crack growth laws can be used to determine the inspection technique, interval
and surveillance programmes.
F.4.6.3 Structural materials are inhomogeneous and comprise a complex distribution of phases with
different chemical compositions and crystal structures. All properties are determined by the material
microstructure. This includes the overall chemical composition, the distribution of phases and microstructural
defects, and fine scale segregation of alloying and impurity elements. The microstructure is determined by
the overall chemical composition and the thermal and mechanical deformation, history. Evaluation of the
microstructure may be undertaken to various spatial resolutions ranging from the atomic scale of < 1nm to
several millimetres depending on the particular property of interest.
F.4.6.4 Microstructural examination techniques are categorised as direct and indirect. Direct techniques
include optical and electron optical metallography for characterisation of phase, elemental composition and
defect distributions. Indirect techniques include electron and x-ray diffraction for evaluation of
crystallographic structure of component phases. In addition, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy is commonly
used to provide elemental composition information. These techniques utilise conventional reflecting optical
microscopes, a range of electron microscopes (scanning electron microscope-SEM, transmission electron
microscope-TEM and electron probe microanalyses-EPMA) and x-ray diffractometer.
F.4.6.5 Direct examination of fracture surfaces or crack morphology within the microstructure provides a
powerful diagnostic tool for the identification of cracking mechanisms. This is essential for establishing the
appropriate material properties and assessment methodology for failure analysis of such defects. The
microstructure and defect morphology can be examined directly on the structure or from a plastic replica
taken from the defective component. Correct materials specification and defect diagnosis are essential
inputs to the structural integrity assessment.
F.4.7 Stress Analysis
F.4.7.1 Stress analysis is the process by which the distribution of strain and stress are determined
throughout the structure. Loading of the munition can be static, residual, quasi-static, transient, periodic or
impulsive (shock) at high and low temperatures. Structural dynamics describe the response of the munition
to the complex dynamic loading distributions. Such loading usually emanate from inertial effects, aero-
dynamic flow, acoustic and mechanical excitation.
F.4.7.2 Assessment of the weapons capability to meet the complex loading conditions is bounded by the
design envelope and the complexity of the analysis is determined by the consequences of failure. A
comparison of the stress analysis criteria, loading and ageing assumptions made during the initial design,
with the actual operational environment allows a comparative assessment to determine the scope for
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graduated life. Calculations in stress analysis and structural dynamics utilise a range of specialist
techniques. The choice depends upon the operating regime, geometry, application and the consequences of
failure. Common techniques include:
⎯ Finite element analysis.
⎯ Finite difference analysis.
⎯ Continuum mechanics.
⎯ Fracture mechanics.
⎯ Failure assessment codes.
⎯ Environmental testing and standards.
⎯ Analysis of operational measurements (residual stress, strain. stress, displacement etc).
⎯ Modal analysis.
⎯ Condition monitoring and trend analysis.
F.4.7.3 If a defect is present then a fracture mechanics approach can be adopted, based on materials
fracture properties. This requires an evaluation of the stress intensity factor which can be derived from
closed solutions (for standard cases) or from full 3D finite element evaluations, depending on the geometry
and application. If the structure is considered to be defect free then the assessment may follow a fatigue
design code approach. This will still require a stress analysis and materials properties including tensile,
fatigue etc. depending on the operational loading regime. Safety and suitability for service is judged against
meeting criteria specified in the design code.
F.4.7.4 Fatigue is generally considered in terms of high cycle - low strain or low cycle - high strain loading.
The mechanical integrity or fatigue durability of stores, components and equipment structures is assumed to
be known and non-defective when introduced into service. Assessment of the defect initiation degradation
mechanisms and service life can be assessed using traditional S-N or nominal stress and critical location or
local strain approach. Where fatigue durability is involved, as is the case for air carriage, analysis techniques
that model the loading cycles sequentially are required.
F.4.7.5 Commonly, a store relies on being non-defective for safe and serviceable operation and if the
energetic materials become cracked it is deemed to be unserviceable. Increasingly however, it has been
recognised that munitions containing a certain level of cracking can continue to operate safely. Cracks may
be allowed to grow provided that the safe life can be accurately assessed. The propagation of the cracking
would need to be monitored at regular intervals (the inspection period would be set so that the crack
propagation was small between inspections) and a suitable safety factor applied (based upon the time to
initiate a crack or the time for a crack to grow to its critical size). On this basis stores can be removed from
service in advance of failure using suitable safety factors (to account for statistical uncertainty in the life
estimation and inspection information) but not prematurely as can be the case without rigorous assessment.
F.4.7.6 In terms of mechanical assessment these can be considered to fall into the category of defective
and non-defective structures which combine as shown in Figure F4.
F.4.8 Service Load Simulation
Service load simulation relies on the measured complex load being accurately applied to the service item.
This means that the structure needs to be constrained and the service load applied as they would during
service. The general problem with this method is accurately applying the service load environment (via
electro-magnetic and hydraulic actuators) in a representative manner to a full scale store. This can be
financially very expensive and technical difficult to implement on complex structures. Furthermore, the testing
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must show statistical significance to justify the results which requires a significant number of tests to be
performed. It should be stated that environmental vibration testing is not a substitute for service load
simulation and the two test methods should not be confused. To overcome the problems with this test
method basic material property tests are used to provide the required material property data for an
assessment. Although these tests have their own problems by relating generally unrealistic load patterns
used with simple specimens to the real fatigue environment. However, this limitation is generally overcome
by the application of factors.
Requirements of Dynamic Stress and

Assessment Strain Information
Failure Criteria Failure Mode
Mechanical
Assessment
Experimental Testing Fracture Mechanics Non-Fracture Semi-Empirical

Based Assessment Mechanics Based Treatments
Assessment
Qualification Testing Codes etc
Linear Elastic Linear Plastic Combined Traditional S-N Approach Other Approach
Methods Methods
Structures Containing Non-Defective Structures

Existing Defects
Figure F5 Structural Assessment of Defective & Non-defective Store
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F.4.9 Failure Criteria
F.4.9.1 Stores deteriorate in a variety of ways which may be sudden or gradual over an extended time and
be reversible or irreversible. Damage or degradation of components or materials even when subject to
normal service environments will eventually bring about a critical failure mode. For this reason the weapon is
given a service life (including air carriage life). However, if the store is subject to an extreme event or the
environment is worse than predicted, the service life can be shortened.
F.4.9.2 A store is considered to have failed when it reaches a ‘failure state’. For an assessment or test to
be meaningful it is necessary to establish and define the failure criteria against which they can be judged.
There are a variety of mechanical structural failure criteria, which can be used depending upon the intended
loading; some of which are listed below:
⎯ The stress reaches the material yield in any part of the weapons structure. The stress reaches the
material ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or ultimate compressive strength (UCS) in any part of the
weapons structure. The elastic displacement of the weapons structure reaches some limiting value.
⎯ The strain reaches the material ultimate strain in any part of the weapon or components structure.
⎯ A structural member or whole weapon structure becomes unstable. The weapons structure starts to
collapse plastically.
⎯ A fatigue crack initiates and grows to a critical size.
⎯ An aerodynamic component begins to flutter.
⎯ Etc.
F.4.9.3 The failure criteria adopted in any particular case depend upon the nature of the weapons duty,
the event causing failure and the consequences of failure. To illustrate this let us consider a rocket motor
case made of high strength alloy. Under normal operating conditions it is required that the stresses are
below yield; displacements are not excessive; fatigue cracks do not reach critical size between inspections
and no component flutters. For an un-inspectable region in the rocket motor, it may be required that a fatigue
crack does not initiate during life.
F.4.9.4 In the context of stores, safe means that no catastrophic failure occurs and that the energetic
material can be disposed of safely. Serviceable means that the stores can remain in service and function
correctly when required. It is clear that different components making up the equipment will fail in different
ways with different consequences of failure. Possibly a component may be damaged but will not impair the
safety of the store or its serviceability. Therefore, yield stress, the onset of plastic collapse and even ultimate
stress in some parts of the structure may not constitute a failure state. Instead some limiting collapse
displacement or plastic strain could be used as the failure criterion.
F.4.9.5 Fracture can result from either a simple application of stress or by fatigue. Fatigue failures can
cause fracture of materials with little or no warning and occur when a material is subject to a large number of
cycles. Vibration fatigue is considered to be one of the principal store failure mechanisms. Repetitive shock,
such as that induced by gun fire, can lead to low cycle, high strain fatigue. Furthermore, the application of
high transient events (buffet) could be responsible for the initiation of cracks which then propagate under
normal flight conditions.
F.4.9.6 Friction or fretting failures occur by contact movement causing loss of material and heating. Loss
of material may cause structural weakness or looseness between mating surfaces. This is particularly
important in terms of the energetic material where friction between exposed surfaces can lead to powdering
and ‘hot spots’ with the possibility of ignition and /or explosive events. Fretting can cause the formation of
dust which may be more sensitive than the bulk composition and lead to a hazardous condition during
storage or operation of the store.
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F.4.10 Acceptance Criteria
There are three main elements that make up the acceptance criteria.
⎯ The required function of the store - what it must achieve.
⎯ The failure criteria - what constitutes unacceptable failure on safety and serviceability grounds? Is there
a condition where acceptable failure would be possible?
⎯ The required confidence - to avoid final conclusions of an assessment being qualified by arbitrarily
chosen degrees of confidence. The required confidence in the assessment should be chosen at the
start. This depends on the consequences of failure or level of criticality.
Failure criteria are thus part of the overall acceptance criteria. However, failure criteria are particularly
important in that they govern the choice of assessment route. Where it is difficult to define acceptance/failure
criteria environmental and mechanical testing may prove necessary.
F.4.11 Other Threats to Structural Integrity
F.4.11.1 Although fatigue is known to be the cause of approximately 95% of structural integrity failures,
particularly when coupled with mishandling, there are other threats to structural integrity that can act singly or
in concert. A selection of these must include corrosion, erosion, stress corrosion, corrosion fatigue, creep,
creep fatigue, wear, fretting and leakage.
F.4.11.2 All of these may be considered "sub-critical" failure mechanisms as they do not cause failure in
themselves but degrade resistance to critical failure gradually. In that sense, they all provide sequential
failure processes where failure by fracture or plastic collapse or buckling follows a sustained period of attack
by the sub-critical mechanism.
F.4.11.3 Where it is possible that more than one sub-critical mechanism can operate, the principle of
process competition applies in that which ever process provides the easiest and/or quickest rate of failure
will prevail. An example would be where a small crack grows under cyclic stress by corrosion fatigue until the
maximum stress intensity exceeds the threshold for stress corrosion cracking to occur at a higher crack
growth rate than corrosion fatigue. Finally, the crack grows to a size where the crack growth rate by stress
corrosion cracking is outstripped by the sonic rate of fracture as the maximum stress intensity exceeds the
fracture toughness. This scenario is in fact seen as a sequential process in which process competition also
takes place. In such a sequence, the areas of fracture surface due to corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion and
brittle fracture would be in inverse proportion to the life periods spent undergoing each process. In other
words, a fracture surface dominated by intergranular stress corrosion and cleavage fracture probably spent
90% of its life in producing the 2% of fracture surface area due to fatigue.
F.4.11.4 The sub-critical mechanisms of corrosion fatigue and creep fatigue are said to be synergistic
processes in that the mechanism cannot occur without both components and that each component
accelerates the other. For example, in corrosion fatigue, corrosion accelerates the rate of fatigue cracking
and the fatigue mechanism promotes more active corrosion.
F.4.11.5 It could be said that stress corrosion and creep are also synergistic processes as they both
require a static stress in order to operate and they both promote eventual failure at static stresses below the
UTS. Clearly, the structural integrity analyst may need to consider all these possibilities and their various
interactions.
F.4.12 Margin of Safety & Confidence Level
F.4.12.1 Historically mechanical structural integrity assurance has been provided by the incorporation of
large safety factors and redundancy in the design. The historical assessment approach, based primarily on
testing, by default identifies the majority of failure conditions. When adopting a mechanical assessment
approach, the failure criteria need to be specified during the initial stage of the assessment so that
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judgements about success or failure can be made. Safety factors are used to account for uncertainties in the
analysis, design and life assessment. Uncertainties arise because parameters such as loading, material
properties and structure dimensions are treated as constants but in reality vary thorough life. Operational
scenarios may change from the design case which necessitates a degree of tolerance to overload at the
design stage. It is therefore more likely to invoke a higher factor of safety at the design stage than at the end
of design life. An understanding of the operational history allows re-assessment of the design parameters
and recalculation of the safety factor. This is particularly important when considering residual air carriage life
and life extension.
F.4.12.2 The traditional approach in the aircraft industry is ultimate load design. Two load conditions are
considered; one corresponding to a serviceability limit, when the structure must still be serviceable although
some minor damage is permitted and an ultimate load condition which the structure must withstand without
collapsing. Stresses are calculated for the worst structural dimensions and worst possible loading conditions
(which may be derived statistically) and are then increased using proof and ultimate factors, which typically
range from 1.0 to 1.5 for the serviceability and ultimate conditions respectively. The stresses are then
compared with the material properties of the structure.
F.4.12.3 With the introduction of modern materials, such as advanced composites, some safety authorities
accept assessments using probabilistic techniques. The probability distributions for the applied load and for
strength are estimated and their overlap in terms of failure risk is calculated. The failure probability value
required to give an adequate safety margin is defined by the safety authority for each structure and depends
on its intended use.
F.4.12.4 When considering fatigue the uncertainties and assumptions in the calculation and test are also
allowed for by a factor, depending on whether the structure is considered to be ‘damage tolerant’ (fail safe)
or ‘safe life’. The predicted duration between inspections or the life of the item is reduced by dividing by a
factor which is typically 3 or 5 respectively.
F.4.12.5 To represent the dynamic mechanical stresses encountered in service environments, vibration
spectra derived from measured data are used. The underlying assumption associated with this methodology
is that the failure mechanism will be fatigue which is not necessarily true. Miner’s Rule is generally used to
equate vibration test times to air carriage service life and this is based on the fatigue assumption (which is
reflected in the empirically derived constants, 5 & 2.5, which are applicable to sinusoidal and random testing
respectively). Therefore, it is important to note that significant scope for error exists in using this approach
and the need for care in interpretation of the results cannot be over emphasised. For example, small
changes in the overall grms vibration level can drastically alter the predicted air carriage service life.
F.4.12.6 In contrast to the margin of safety approach, there is also a statistical measure which can be of
direct use in assessing the safety of munitions. This is the ‘notional probability of failure’. It is termed notional
because it is based on assumed and approximated probability distributions which allow for errors in the
assumptions, calculations etc.
F.4.12.7 A list of related documents can be found in Annex G.
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F.4.13 Part 1- Example: MECHANICAL STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY ASSESSMENT OF A

STORE DURING AIR CARRIAGE – Lug Pocket Thread Assessment
The following itemised mechanical structural integrity issues were addressed in meeting the air carriage
safety and suitability for service requirement of a 1000lb store attachment lug, lug pocket and casing when
carried on a fast jet.
1) Material Properties – The correct material properties of each key structural component were
established. In this case notched, rolled and forged plate with cut screw thread data. Typically
Tensile Strength, Hardness, S/N, Fracture Toughness, Young’s Modulus Etc.
2) Design Details & Tolerances – The design details of the lug, lug pocket and casing with their
tolerances were derived from the design drawings. Additionally the store to aircraft attachment
design details were defined.
3) Service Loading & Instrumentation - The complex loading cycles at key structural locations were
established from defined sortie profiles and operational flight testing in terms of measured
acceleration and strain data. These load cycles included elements from residual loads, direct pre-
loads, service loads (self weight, quasi-static inertia ‘g’, dynamic loads including rigid body and
modal etc.) Etc. The loads combined to form a load time history. The measured service loading
strain was related to the screw threads and casing defects using strain gauge rosettes attached to
the casing and lug pockets and a finite element model (FEM).
4) Modelling – The finite element model (FEM) was used to establish the nominal strain field for the
geometry of interest and define the stress concentration factors associated with the critical areas of
the design. This was achieved using nominal and the measured service loads. The complex strain /
stress in the vicinity of the points of interest in terms of the principle stress were related to the
measured far field strain in the form of a strain concentration factors.
5) Non Defective Structures S/N Life – The S/N life was influenced by:
i) Mean Stress,
ii) Residual Stress,
iii) Component size,
iv) Loading Type, Range & Duration,
v) Notches,
vi) Surface Finish,
vii) Surface Treatment,
viii) Etc.
6) Fatigue Testing – Fatigue testing of the structural components was not undertaken. This was
because service load simulation requires the store to be representatively constrained and an
accurate complex service load is applied. Any small deviation from the true service load or the
operational constraints can have a significantly unrepresentative effect on fatigue life. Also a
significant number of test specimens would be required to provide some statistical justification in the
results. This can be financially very expensive and technical difficult to implement on full scale
complex structures. The problem is overcome the use of fatigue data collected from simple
specimens for use in the mechanical integrity assessment. However, the limitation of this basic
property test technique is relating generally unrealistic load patterns applied and simple specimens
to the real fatigue environment. This limitation is generally overcome by the application of factors
such as the use of lower bound material properties data.
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In this particular example it was considered that the most appropriate method of life evaluation was
by the use of materials data, servicing loading, modelling and assessment.
7) Critical Defect Size – The critical defect size for a given material, geometry and loading regime
needs was established. This showed if manufacturing tolerances could induce failure and if the
production inspection regime was capable of detecting defects which could result in premature
failure. Also it provided a measure of the margin of safety for the given geometry between detection
of a defect and the onset of conceded failure or fast fracture.
8) Analysis – The far field operational strain histogram was derived from the strain time history using
the Rainflow technique. This strain histogram was then related to the point of interest via the stress
concentration factor and FEM.
For non-defective elements of the structure a strain life was used including S/N (nominal strain)
data or strain life (local strain approach). In the absence of operational strain data a Rayleigh strain
distribution (based upon the measured data) could have been used. The effects of mean and
residual stress as well as degradation mechanisms such as surface treatments were taken into
account.
For the casing which had buried inclusions a fracture mechanics assessment was performed. This
required knowledge of the initial and final defect size, stress intensity factor, operational stresses /
stress range etc. The critical crack size was determined and the effect of the inclusion defects
assessed. Life was assessed with the aid of the Rainflow analysis for both non-defective and
defective components.
9) Assessment – The mechanical SIA and assessment was considered in three parts, namely:
a) Part 1 – Scope
b) Part 2 – Detailed Assessment
c) Part 3 – Structural Integrity Conclusions
Each part was considered as a sequence of activities making up the flow chart given in Figure F5.
10) Safety Factors – The uncertainty associated with fatigue life assessment necessitated the use of
safety factors to be applied to the fatigue / fracture data.
11) Acceptance Criteria – The acceptance criteria was given for fatigue in terms of S/N data and
failure assessment diagrams for defective structures. The failure assessment diagram approach is
described in [6] & BSI Published Document 6493.
12) Safety Case - Combination of the measurement, analysis and assessment techniques into a
structural safety argument resulted in an acceptable structural safety case for the lugs, lug pockets
and the casing components. Further assessment of the environmental test data, inspection and the
implementation of a surveillance programme was necessary to achieve full air carriage clearance of
the store for a defined service life.
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F.4.14 Part 3- SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT MECHANICAL STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

ASSESSMENT CONCEPTS
F.4.14.1 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
⎯ Predominantly, dynamic loading leads to vibration induced fatigue which can initiate cracks, propagate
existing cracks and lead to eventual critical failure.
⎯ Fatigue is inherently a probabilistic process so that uncertainty in life prediction and structural integrity
assessment is handled through statistics and safety margins.
⎯ The uncertainty factor is reduced to a minimum when good quality materials property data and
measured loadings representative of service are available.
⎯ Depending on the consequences of failure and the availability of good quality measured data (or the
financial and time resources to obtain it), sometime a more pragmatic engineering approach can be
adopted to give a limited life in which initial assessments may be based on estimates of materials
response and notional service loadings.
⎯ Structures may be characterised as either non-defective or as containing pre-existing defects.
⎯ There are a range of possible failure modes which may be characterised as sudden or gradual; acting
singly, in sequence or synergistically and categorised as deriving from material, geometry, loading or
environment causes.
⎯ For components and structures that are known or assumed to be non-defective when introduced to
service, their structural integrity or fatigue durability can be assessed by one of two approaches: the S-N
(or nominal stress approach), or the critical location (or local strain) approach.
⎯ The S-N approach estimates total life without distinguishing defect initiation from propagation and
usually requires that the test data relate to the geometry of the structure under assessment; e.g. to
predict the life of a plate, generate an S-N curve for plate.
⎯ Material S-N curves are also generated from smooth specimen test campaigns. These S-N curves are
subsequently modified downwards (on the stress axis) to reflect the stress concentration effects of
notches and surface condition. Occasionally, such curves may be readjusted upwards again to reflect
the beneficial effects of surface treatment such as shot peening.
⎯ The local strain approach uses small scale standard specimens to estimate the life to defect initiation at
critical locations in potentially quite large structures.
⎯ In either the S-N or local strain approach cases, test data obtained under constant amplitude loading
can be used to estimate fatigue durability under real random loading.
⎯ In the absence of actual recorded data, for whatever reason, the Rayleigh distribution approach can be
used to describe pessimistically the amplitude distribution of stress cycles for life assessment, provided
there is an adequately measured starting point.
⎯ In many cases it is known that structures containing cracks can maintain structural integrity and the
cracks can even be allowed to grow provided that the finite fatigue life is accurately estimated.
⎯ Assessment of the risk of fracture from a discovered defect, or even a postulated one, requires the
technical discipline of fracture mechanics.
⎯ Components containing pre-existing defects, or cracks that have developed in service, need to be
assessed for structural integrity against the possibility of failure by plastic collapse.
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⎯ Under the action of cyclic loading, defects that have been initiated, or are pre-existing, can grow until
integrity is threatened by fracture or plastic collapse.
⎯ The appropriate analysis discipline depends on the proportion of the total fatigue life that is consumed in
initiation of a fatigue crack, growth of a fatigue crack and final failure. A simplistic approach is to
consider total fatigue life as the sum of initiation life plus propagation life; the final failure is usually only
a few cycles or even a quarter of a cycle.
⎯ The terms "high cycle fatigue" and "low cycle fatigue" (or sometimes "high strain -low cycle fatigue") are
somewhat arbitrary definitions that seek to differentiate between initiation dominated and propagation
dominated fatigue in order to select the appropriate analysis discipline. The crossover life between high
and low cycle is not clear cut but a typical value would be 10,000 cycles for many materials.
⎯ The uses of the S-N approach include:
⎯ Establishing a well defined fatigue curve for the purposes of design.
⎯ Determination of a fatigue strength at a specified life.
⎯ Demonstration of improved fatigue resistance from a material or surface treatment.
⎯ Acceptance of material for manufacturing purposes.
⎯ Answering questions posed by a service failure
⎯ The S-N life relationship is strongly influenced by:
⎯ Mean stress and residual stress.
⎯ Component size.
⎯ Loading type.
⎯ Notches.
⎯ Surface finish.
⎯ Surface treatment.
⎯ Corrosive environment.
⎯ A measured time series signal, or indeed an artificially created one or an industry standard sequence,
cannot be analysed for fatigue life estimation directly. An intermediate stage is to identify or extract
fatigue cycles from the time series.
⎯ The basic premise of the linear damage accumulation concept is that a fatigue cycle in a random
sequence does the same damage as if it were part of a constant amplitude sequence, i.e. there are no
effects of cycle history. This concept works very well under random loading for the local strain approach
but not at all well for crack propagation where pronounced history effects occur. It is also applied to the
S-N approach even though that approach consists of both initiation and propagation and for S-N
behaviour of welds, it is virtually all propagation.
⎯ The local strain approach also utilises Rainflow cycle counting and Miner's Rule, but with a number of
important differences. Principally, it is a low cycle fatigue life assessment method where the stresses
and strains at the fatigue initiation site are plastic. The method always utilises materials property data
obtained from standard tests conducted under the constraints of strain control.
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⎯ The process of translation from nominal to local stress and strain utilises "Neuber's Rule" which states
that the product of nominal stress and strain, each multiplied by Kf, is equal to the product of the local
stress and strain.
⎯ The strain-life method assumes similitude between the material in a smooth specimen tested under
strain-control and the material at the root of a notch. For a given loading sequence, the fatigue damage
in the specimen and the notch root are considered to be similar and so their lives will also be similar.
⎯ If a material is repeatedly cycled between fixed strain limits one of several things may happen
depending on its nature and initial conditions of heat treatment. The material could respond in any one
of the following ways:
⎯ It could cyclically harden,
⎯ It could cyclically soften,
⎯ It could remain stable,
⎯ It could soften or harden depending on strain range.
⎯ It is also interesting to note that whilst stabilisation of hysterisis loops can consume 10 - 20% of total life
in a constant amplitude test, a single large overload in service can produce an immediate change from
the monotonic curve to the cyclic. It is sobering to think that assembly or use of a machine or component
could cause an instant reduction of yield strength of up to 50%.
⎯ It is interesting to note that the ratios of cyclic yield to UTS are in the region of 0.5. This is consistent
with the observation from the nominal stress approach that the endurance limit for steels is about one
half the UTS and also supports the view that endurance limit and cyclic yield are closely related if not
the same and that the S-N curve is a special case of the strain life curve.
⎯ The transition life represents the point at which a stable hysterisis loop has equal elastic and plastic
components. At lives less than the transition, plastic events dominate elastic ones and at lives longer
than the transition elastic events dominate plastic ones. From this point of view, therefore, the transition
life represents a very convenient and important way of delineating between the low and high cycle
fatigue regimes.
⎯ The fracture mechanics approach to failure, based on the stress intensity factor, Kl relies on the so
called "similitude concept" which basically claims geometry independence by stating that the crack tip
stress field is controlled by K and that, for cracks in dissimilar structures, if the K is the same, then the
response is the same. This allows the behaviour of small scale specimens to represent large scale
structures on the basis of K similitude.
⎯ Methods of obtaining K solutions include:
⎯ Text book compendia e.g. the collection edited by Murakame,
⎯ Software libraries including n Code Kraken, PDA P/Fatigue, Electricity Generation Companies
Fracture One, FractuREsearch Nascrack and others,
⎯ Indirect methods including compounding, superposition, uncracked stress distribution method and
even engineering guesswork,
⎯ Weight function methods,
⎯ Detailed finite element analysis with crack elements,
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Chapter 7-02
Annex F
⎯ The rate of fatigue crack growth per cycle, da/dN, is controlled by the cyclic range of stress intensity, ∆K.
This developed into the "Paris Law":
da/dN = C . ∆Km where C and m are considered material properties.
⎯ A particularly important concept for structural integrity of structures containing defects is the existence of
a fatigue crack growth threshold below which cracks are effectively non-propagating.
⎯ In low stress (linear elastic) situations, the growth of fatigue cracks governs useful life leading to the
"defect tolerance approach" to design which necessarily also implies regular inspection and
assessment. In service, fatigue loading is nearly always random and the operating environment is nearly
always corrosive or aggressive in nature.
⎯ In service, fatigue crack growth is complicated by a number of effects that can only be accurately
modelled on a cycle by cycle basis. These effects include:
⎯ Crack closure,
⎯ History,
⎯ Notches,
⎯ Static fracture,
⎯ Corrosive environment.
⎯ The initial crack size, to which individual cyclic crack extensions are cumulatively added, is modelled to
ensure that:
⎯ The crack size is not too small to be handled by the concepts of fracture mechanics i.e. it does not
violate the assumption of isotropic continuum by being smaller than a metallurgical feature such as
grain size.
⎯ The crack size at the start of the propagation phase is equal to the crack size at the end of the
initiation phase i.e. critical location fatigue analysis can be combined with fracture mechanics crack
growth analysis with ensured continuity to give total fatigue life.
⎯ Discovered or postulated defects can be assessed for "significance" against acceptance criteria laid
down in standards or industry procedures. However, the component or structure need not be
unacceptable simply because it contains defects.
⎯ It is advisable to maintain materials property information as a single entity or record in a materials

database and to include most if not all of the following:
⎯ Material name (and alternative names),
⎯ Details of chemical composition and manufacturing process route,
⎯ Yield or proof stress,
⎯ UTS,
⎯ Fracture toughness,
⎯ Stress corrosion threshold,
⎯ Work hardening coefficient and exponent,
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Annex F
⎯ Hardness,
⎯ Parameters of the S-N curve,
⎯ Parameters of the cyclic stress-strain curve,
⎯ Parameters of the strain-life curve,
⎯ Parameters of the fatigue crack growth behaviour (environment specific),
⎯ Fatigue crack growth threshold behaviour (environment specific).
⎯ Wherever possible, an assessment of the variability of material parameters should be made; specifically,
the standard error for the intercepts of S-N curves, of strain life curves and of fatigue crack growth
curves (the C parameter) should be available.
⎯ The quality of materials data is at least as crucial as the quality of time series data for fatigue
assessments and literature sources should be examined carefully for compliance with testing standards.
The possibility of a mismatch should also be examined, even though the material name and
specification is the same, as a change of production mode may make the available data outdated and
unsafe.
⎯ In the absence of actual test data, and without the time or finance to obtain it, a last resort may be to
estimate the required fatigue and fracture properties for the structural integrity assessment from other
known properties. This is possible but it should be remembered that they are only estimates and that the
accuracy of any fracture calculation or fatigue life prediction is very susceptible to errors in material
properties.
⎯ Through many years of experience, particularly with steels, empirical relationships between fatigue and
tensile properties have been developed. These relationships are not soundly based in science; however,
they remain useful tools for engineers for assessing fatigue performance.
⎯ It is often difficult to gain access to measured cyclic properties. For this reason, a lot of effort has been
put into finding ways of relating monotonic properties, of which there is an abundant supply, to cyclic
properties. The approaches have all been empirical but have provided some approximations which are
useful. The procedure is usually referred to as the method of universal slopes and can be applied to any
metal.
⎯ In the absence of measured material parameters that describe both the fatigue crack growth rate and
the threshold condition, the British Standards Institute Published Document PD6493 (1991)
recommends the worst case estimates.
⎯ Acceptance of structural integrity assessments requires detailed documentation with references to

agreed procedures and may be subject to legal agreement between the parties involved or be covered
by more global health and safety or product liability legislation.
⎯ A particularly common theme in the codes discussed above is the design assessment of the fatigue life
of welded structures using S-N design curves. However, it is apparent that the fitness for purpose
approach, whereby fracture mechanics assessments of real flaws are undertaken, has become
accepted in modern codes of practice.
⎯ Although fatigue is generally accepted to be the cause of approximately 95% of structural integrity
failures, particularly when coupled with human carelessness, ignorance or brutality, there are other
threats to structural integrity that can act singly or in concert. A selection of these must include
corrosion, erosion, stress corrosion, corrosion fatigue, creep, creep fatigue, wear, fretting and leakage.
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Chapter 7-02
Annex F
⎯ The most common structural material is steel and all steels corrode in aqueous environments, including
fresh air. Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which metal dissolves as the anodic process in a
battery like cell reaction balanced by a cathodic process which could be hydrogen production or
hydroxide production from the reduction of water or oxygenated water respectively. In steel/water
systems, the steel surface has a slimy layer of red rust (hydrated ferrous oxide) underneath which is an
adherent layer of black oxide (Fe3 O4).
⎯ Under thermal activation, materials can slowly deform under constant stresses, well below the UTS, and
eventually fail. Prior to failure, unacceptable dimensional changes and distortions occur which may
impair structural integrity and performance.
Corrosion fatigue is defined as the synergistic conjoint action of corrosion and fatigue processes where the
synergy is that fatigue enhances corrosion rates and corrosion enhances fatigue rates. The effect is
manifested as a promotion of crack initiation and an enhancement of crack propagation rates. The
mechanism of corrosion fatigue varies but it is not such a specific phenomenon as stress corrosion cracking
(SCC). In other words, quite specific material/environment systems exhibit stress corrosion but slight
changes to either the material or the environment can confer immunity to SCC. Corrosion fatigue on the
other hand, is an almost universal phenomenon.
235
Chapter 7-02
Annex F
Intentionally Blank
236
Chapter 7-02
Annex G
Annex G
G.1 References
1. Estimation of the surface pressure fluctuations in the turbulent boundary -

layer of a flight vehicle Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU) data item
number 75021
2. DEF STAN 00-97007-85 - Aeroplanes. Volume 1 Leaflet 710/2 -
3. BS 3G 100 (1972) - General Requirements for Equipment for Use in Aircraft -
4. Vibration and Acoustic Test Criteria for Captive Flight of Externally Carried A G Piersol
Aircraft Stores. AFFDL-TR-71-158, 1971
5. The Derivation of Procedures to Estimate Vibration Severities of Airborne D P Richards
Stores, Procs of 36th ATM i.e.S 1990
6. A Research Study of Store Vibration Data Acquired External Flight Carriage D P Richards
on Fixed Wing Jet Aircraft. , Hunting Engineering Report TP 28819/1, Sept
1980
7. Buffet Excitation on Twin Stores at Subsonic and Transonic Speeds, DRA R N L Howarth,
Technical Memorandum AERO 2226, October 1991 D G Mabey and B Weir
8. Trials Report on No 114 Bomb Tail Vibration Investigation on a Tornado P Driffell and J C Copley
Aircraft, D/RAE(F)AW4/4/11/14
9. STANAG 4370 AECTP 400 edition 3 Method 405 - Gunfire -
10. DEF STAN 07-85 Design Requirements for Weapons and Associated -
Systems
11. Vibration of Stores and Missiles during Captive Flight Carriage into Buffet, D Charles and M P Neale
Proceedings, Institute of Environmental Sciences, 1997
G.2 Bibliography
ESDU Data Sheets Acoustic Fatigue Series. Volumes 1 to 4. -

Compendium of Modal Densities for Structures F D Hart and K C Shah,
NASA Contractors Report
CR 1773, 1971.
The Effects of Tail Fins on the Vibro-acoustic Environment of Externally Carried J F Dreher
Aircraft Stores, Shock and Vibration Bulletin No 41 Supplement, December 1970.
Captive Flight Acoustic Test Criteria for Aircraft Stores. Shock and Vibration Bulletin A Burkhard
No 43, 1973.
Statistical Analysis of the Vibration Responses of Externally Carried Aircraft Stores, C Haden & R Esher
Israel Journal of Technology, Vol 14, 1976.
An Assessment of Results Obtained From the Initial Vibration Store Flight Trials, D A Williams
CIT Report COA-DA-133, Feb 1977.
Carriage Equipment and Fins, CIT Report COA-DA-102, November 1983. D Charles
Modelling Realistic Environmental Stresses on External Stores, Journal of H W Allen
Environmental Sciences, Sept 1985.
237
Chapter 7-02
Annex G
Summary of Random Vibration Prediction Procedures, NASA Report NASA-CR- R L Barnoski,

1302, 1968 A G Piersol,
W F Van Der Laan,
P H White & E F Winter
A Captive Store Flight Vibration Simulation Project, Procs of 36th ATM i.e.S 1990 E A Szymkowiak and W
Silver
DEF STAN 00-970 Design Requirements for Aeroplanes. Volume 1, Leaflet 501/5 -
Environmental Test Methods and Engineering Guidelines, Mil Std 810E, July 1989.
G.3 Related Documents
G.3.1 Some general guidance on fatigue testing, including component testing and statistical matters, is
given in BS3518, Parts 1 & 5 which are available as draft revisions. BS3518 also contains guidance on
material property testing, specifically strain controlled testing to derive the parameters for the local strain
approach and fracture mechanics tests.
G.3.2 Other British Standards (there are also US counterparts) include:
⎯ BS5447 - Fracture toughness testing,
⎯ BS7270 - Strain controlled testing,
⎯ BS6835 - Fatigue crack growth rate testing,
⎯ DD18 - Fatigue crack growth threshold determination,
⎯ DD2 - Dynamic force calibration for fatigue test machines.
G.3.3 There are several openly available national standards or industry specific codes of practice which
consider structural integrity assessment. These codes are:
⎯ Various sections of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code,
⎯ BS 5500:1991, the British Standard Specification for Unfired Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels,
⎯ BS5400:Part 10:1980, the Code of Practice for Fatigue of the British Standard Specification for
Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges,
⎯ The former Central Electricity Generating Board's 'R6' procedure for the Assessment of the Integrity
of Structures Containing Defects,
⎯ PD 6493:1991, a Published Document of the British Standards Institution (BSI) on Guidance on

Methods for Assessing the Acceptability of Flaws in Fusion Welded Structures,
⎯ The United Kingdom Department of Energy Guidance Document on the Design, Construction and
Certification of Offshore Installations,
⎯ Lloyds Register Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Ships,
⎯ Det Norske Veritas Rules for the Construction and Classification of Steel Ships.
238
Chapter 7-03
Chapter 7-03
Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Propeller Aircraft
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be experienced by materiel deployed
on fixed wing propeller aircraft. The sources of excitation and characteristics of the mechanical environments
are described. Information is contained in Annex A on propeller vibration sources and in Annex B on the
parameters influencing propeller and engine induced vibration. Guidance is provided on the selection of
relevant test methods and test severities. References and bibliography are included as Annex C.
1.2 The chapter encompasses both internal and external items of materiel. However, the following
aspects are not included in this chapter:
a) Engines and associated equipment: For information on the self-induced environments experienced by an
engine and its associated equipment, reference should be made to the engine manufacturer.
b) Airframe and other primary structure. For information on structural loading and environmental severities
related to these structures, reference should be made to the aircraft manufacturer.
1.3 Unless otherwise stated, the environmental descriptions relate to the interface between the materiel
and the aircraft. All axes relate to aircraft axes, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with the direction
of flight, i.e. forward.
2.1.1 Materiel can be expected to experience transient excitations and continuous vibration as a
consequence of aircraft movements about an airfield. The transient excitations are caused by the aircraft’s
wheels traversing the inevitable irregularities in the taxi way surfaces. The amplitudes of these transients and
the continuous vibration will be influenced principally by aircraft speed and size of the aircraft wheels and the
quality of the surfaces. The responses are dominated by the low frequencies associated with the dynamic
characteristics of the undercarriage and the mass of the aircraft.
2.1.2 As airfield surfaces are normally of good quality and aircraft movements are controlled by
procedures, vibration amplitudes resulting from airfield movements are usually benign and overall
significantly less severe than those occurring in-flight. However, this may not be the case when temporary or
repaired taxi-ways are used. In such cases it can be expected that a significant increase in the amplitudes of
the transients will occur, but they are unlikely to be more severe than those occurring during take-off and
landing on temporary or repaired runways.
2.1.3 During ground running and airfield movements the noise and vibration arising from the engine and
propeller can become significant. The mechanisms causing such effects are addressed in
sub-paragraph 2.3.
2.1.4 Although the environment arising from airfield movements is considered to be benign, the low
amplitude responses experienced by materiel could cause damage through fretting fatigue mechanisms.
2.2.1 Normal conditions: During take-off and landing, short duration oscillatory transients may be induced
in the installed materiel. These transients arise mainly from the aircraft traversing runway surface
irregularities at speed. The materiel responses are dominated by the low frequencies associated with the
compliance of the undercarriage and the mass of the aircraft, and again, can be considered as benign. Take-
off and landing usually involves high levels of engine power, which in turn may induce vibration and acoustic
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Chapter 7-03
noise conditions. These related aspects are dealt with in sub-paragraph 2.3. Because materiel responses
arising from normal take-off and landing are largely dictated by the characteristics of the undercarriage
system, any potential damaging effects on installed materiel are likely to be associated with displacements at
low frequencies or fretting fatigue mechanisms.
2.2.2 Temporary or repaired runways: Response amplitudes are likely to be more severe when temporary
or repaired runways are used. Where necessary, advice on amplitudes should be sought from the aircraft
manufacturer. However, any test methods used to simulate these conditions are likely to be similar to those
recommended for normal take-off and landing conditions.
2.2.3 Catapult launch and arrested landing: Oscillatory transients will be induced in materiel during a
catapult launch and/or arrested landing of an aircraft. In general, catapult launch generates two transient
shock events corresponding to initial load application and catapult separation from the aircraft. Responses to
these events have a distinct oscillatory nature, approximately sinusoidal, again at a relatively low frequency
determined by aircraft mass and undercarriage dynamic characteristics. Arrested landing conditions produce
only a single transient but with similar characteristics to that of catapult launch. At installed materiel locations,
the pulse durations associated with catapult launch and arrested landing are relatively long and therefore
these transients are usually treated as quasi-static conditions. Where these conditions are relevant, advice
on amplitudes should be sought from the aircraft manufacturer.
2.3 Flight Operation - Propeller Effects
2.3.1 The action of the propellers and engines is usually the major source of vibration for this type of
aircraft. However, vibration measured at any point in the fuselage may be the sum of several sources and
mechanisms, some of which generate vibration directly, whilst others generate noise which includes vibration
when impinging on the aircraft’s structure. Further information on vibration and noise sources arising from
propeller actions is given in Annex A.
2.3.2 The vibration environment associated with propeller aircraft comprises a broad band random
vibration spectrum, upon which is superimposed relatively strong forcing centred around the fundamental
and harmonics of propeller blade passing frequencies. Vibration can also be evident, usually at relatively low
levels, at frequencies associated with propeller shaft rotation. Periodic vibration at the propeller blade
passing frequencies may amount to 90% of the overall g rms in the frequency bandwidth up to 2000 Hz. The
severity of the background random vibration is usually low.
2.3.3 Because of the diverse nature and interactions of the vibration and noise sources, vibration spectra
for materiel deployed on propeller aircraft can possess features which may be complicated to predict, e.g.
the cancelling or enhancement of certain propeller blade passing harmonics. Examples of vibration spectra
obtained during cruise conditions are illustrated in Figure 1 to Figure 4 for four different aircraft. The relative
severity of vibration at propeller blade passing frequencies for these aircraft [5] is illustrated in Figure 5.
2.3.4 Although the vibration components at propeller blade passing frequencies appear sinusoidal over
short periods, over longer time periods, variations occur in the amplitudes and frequencies of these
components. These variations arise from the sources identified in Annex A and engine speed changes. It
should also be noted that, because of manufacturing and installation tolerances, seemingly identically sited
materiel will possess somewhat different dynamic response characteristics. Therefore, for the purpose of
simulation, narrow band random is generally preferable to sinusoidal vibration.
2.3.5 The frequency of the first blade passing periodic component of vibration usually occurs in the range
50-100 Hz. This range may coincide with some of the lower structural modes of vibration of an item of
materiel, especially where materiel is installed on flexible mounts. Significant response displacements could
arise from such a coupling, which in turn could result in collision damage to the materiel.
2.3.6 The severity and character of the vibration environment experienced by a particular item of materiel
installed at a specific location in a propeller aircraft can depend on a number of parameters, such as aircraft
type, flight condition, etc. The effects of these parameters are discussed in Annex B.
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2.4 Flight Operation - Aerodynamic Flow
2.4.1 Another source of vibration, but less significant for propeller aircraft, is that associated with the
turbulence in the airflow surrounding the aircraft. The airflow over the structure may be smoothly attached to
it, or it may be detached; these two conditions producing significantly different vibration excitations. Vibration
arising from aerodynamic flow is addressed in Chapter 7-01.
2.4.2 As the vibrations arising from aerodynamic turbulence are broad band random, the potential
damaging effects encountered are typical of those from this class of excitation e.g. brinelling, fretting, high
cycle fatigue etc. Detached flow can result in a significant increase in efficiency by which particular modes
are excited. As a result, the amplitude of response of certain modes can increase by several orders of
magnitude which may lead to rapid structural failure due to fatigue.
2.5 Flight Operation - Vortex Impingement
At certain conditions of angle of attack, side-slip and airspeed, it is possible for vortices originating from parts
of the aircraft to impinge on downstream structure. The characteristics of these vortices are such that high
amplitude structural vibrations of an almost periodic nature may arise. The nature of the excitation implies
that the excitation will be transitory and rarely occurs for more than a few seconds at any one time. However,
during the life of an aircraft the total number of such occurrences may be significant. The resulting vibration
characteristics, severities and areas of airframe affected will be unique to aircraft type. The potentially high
levels of vibration could result in low to medium cycle fatigue.
2.6 Cavities
A cavity, such as an aircraft weapons bay, exposed to a grazing airflow passing the aircraft can be a
significant source of both noise and vibration. The frequency spectrum of such disturbances can be
broadband and usually features sharp peaks over a broad range of frequencies. The main peaks arise from
the excitation of acoustic standing waves which are a direct function of the dimensions of the cavity and its
contents. The frequencies of the standing waves can be calculated with some confidence from standard
formulae [6] [7]. The majority of the less dominant standing waves are usually harmonics of the main waves
and can persist up to quite high orders. The amplitudes of the pressure fluctuations are less easily estimated
because they are affected by geometrical factors such as the sharpness of the edges of the cavity, the
direction of flow over the cavity and the contents of the cavity. The contents of the cavity can have the effect
of making the main resonant peaks less discernible whilst increasing the level of the background broad-band
“noise” which is always present. The high acoustic energy associated with the unsteady pressures can
induce significant responses in panels and installed materiel within a cavity. Panels have been known to fail
very rapidly under such conditions.
2.7.1 Materiel will experience low frequency acceleration loadings due to flight manoeuvres and gusts.
These are normally considered as quasi-static loadings for design and test purposes. At a particular aircraft
location the loadings arise mainly from the vector sum of the six "rigid body" aircraft degrees motions, i.e.
vertical, lateral, longitudinal, roll, pitch and yaw. In some cases these could be amplified by the dynamic
motions of the lower frequency aircraft modes.
2.7.2 Generally the flight accelerations are a specified design requirement for a particular aircraft type and
hence are well defined early in design. These accelerations are usually constrained by flight limits or the
aircraft control system, and form the basis for aircraft fatigue analyses. In some cases these loadings may
cause deflections of sufficient magnitude to prevent proper operation of mechanisms.
2.8 Gunfire
Significant responses can be induced in aircraft structure and installed materiel from the operation of guns
installed either within the aircraft or in external pods. Although the duration of these responses is relatively
short, the amplitudes can be several orders of magnitude greater than the vibrations arising during normal
flight. Moreover, the characteristics of the responses can be significantly different to the vibrations occurring
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Chapter 7-03
during normal flight conditions, and may induce different failure modes. Details of gunfire mechanisms
causing dynamic mechanical responses are presented in Part 3, Chapter 2-19, Test M19 - General Time
History Replication Test and Chapter 7-02, Annex E.
2.9 Launch of weapons
The launch or firing of weapons can, in certain circumstances, induce high level of shock, vibration and
pressure blast in aircraft structure and installed materiel. However, because materiel responses are highly
weapon and platform specific, it is inappropriate to discuss particular dynamic response characteristics.
3 Test Methods and Severities Selection
3.1 General
3.1.1 The following sub-paragraphs provide recommended treatments, in terms of test methods and
Because the vibration associated with the effects of airfield movements is relatively low, it is often considered
in conjunction with other more severe conditions such as flight operation (see sub-paragraph 3.4 below).
Where testing is considered appropriate advice is given in Chapter 7-01, sub-paragraph 3.2.
3.3.1 The vibration severities associated with take-off and landing are considered in conjunction with
those of normal flight (see sub-paragraph 3.4 below).
3.3.2 It is unusual to conduct tests that replicate the landing shock severities. However, when testing is
required a decaying sinusoidal waveform test would normally be used. A suitable test method is Part 3,
Chapter 2-06, Test M6 - Operational Shock Simulation Test. The default severities are presented in
Chapter 7-01, sub-paragraph 3.3.
3.4 Flight Operation - Propeller and Aerodynamic Flow
3.4.1 The recommended test type, for vibration arising from propeller and engine, is a broad band random
vibration test with superimposed narrow bands. However, the use of wide band random vibration with
superimposed sinusoidal components is a marginal but acceptable alternative. The frequency of these
narrow bands (or sinusoids) will depend upon aircraft type and engine characteristics.
3.4.2 When materiel is destined for installation in one aircraft type which has fixed speed engines, the
recommended format for simulation is a broad band random spectrum upon which is superimposed narrow
band random vibration peaks to represent the effects of propeller blade passing frequencies.
3.4.3 When materiel is destined for installation in an aircraft type that has a variable speed engine, then
the simulation should take into account the appropriate frequency range of blade passing frequency and its
significant harmonics. This may involve sweeping the narrow bands.
3.4.4 The appropriate test method is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration
Test. The vibration severities for materiel fitted within the aircraft should be derived from measured data.
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Chapter 7-03
3.5 Flight Operation - Vortex Impingement
Although vortex impingement only occurs infrequently and for short periods over the life of an aircraft
airframe, the accumulative duration of the predominantly narrow band random vibration, or alternatively
sinusoidal vibration, can be sufficient to warrant a test. However, the use of generalised default severities is
not appropriate for vortex impingement, because the associated vibration characteristics are unique to
particular aircraft types, locations and flight conditions. The appropriate test method is that given in Part 3,
Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test. The test procedure selected (e.g. fixed or swept
frequency, narrow band random or sinusoidal) should be the one that is compatible with the characteristics
observed at the materiel location.
3.6 Cavities
If materiel is mounted within, or close to, a cavity which is open to the air stream, a specific acoustic cavity
resonance test may be necessary. Cavity resonances are predominantly sinusoidal in nature; consequently
the cavity resonance test consists of a series of acoustically generated sinusoids. Because of the difficulties
of deriving reliable amplitudes, test severities verified by measured values should be sought from the aircraft
manufacturer. An appropriate test procedure is that of Part 3, Chapter 2-08, Test M8 - Acoustic Noise Test
using a Reverberation Chamber.
The acceleration loadings arising from these conditions should be provided by the aircraft manufacturers.
When these loadings are unavailable, for initial design and evaluation purposes the acceleration loadings set
out in Part 2 of Def Stan 00-970 Volume 1 Part 2 [8] could be adopted. In some circumstances these loadings
can also be used as the basis for testing. However, dynamic testing is not normally undertaken as the
adequacy of many items of materiel can be satisfactorily demonstrated by analysis or static strength testing.
When dynamic testing is required it is normally undertaken in accordance with Part 3, Chapter 2-13, Test
M13 - Steady State Acceleration Test. This test is usually undertaken on a centrifuge although alternative
test facilities may be acceptable. When insufficient information is available, default acceleration loadings are
presented in Test M13, Paragraph 5 and should be verified by information supplied from the aircraft
manufacturer. These test severities and are essentially those previously contained in BS 3G 100 (1972) [9].
3.8 Gunfire
As significantly different responses arise from gunfire in each of the defined spatial fields a different
treatment is applicable for each field. Suitable treatments are presented in Chapter 2-19, Test
M19 - General Time History Replication Test.
In most cases the induced loadings arising from weapon launch can be treated as quasi-static loads.
However, in some cases these loadings may induce significant dynamic responses. Consequently, additional
shock and/or pressure blast testing may be required to simulate these effects. As these loadings are specific
to particular items of materiel, the provision of general advice regarding test methods and test severities is
inappropriate.

The derivation of test severities from measured data on fixed wing propeller is technically similar that used
for rotary wing aircraft. A suitable method is presented in Part 5, Chapter 8-01 - Mechanical Aspects of
Deployment on Rotary Wing Aircraft, Annex A.
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Chapter 7-03
Plane of the Propellers (Vertical) Spectrum Equivalent to 0.201 g rms

0.01
nR
2nR
0.001
0.0001
R
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
R = rotational frequency of the propeller shaft
n = number of propeller blades
Figure 1 Example of a Vibration Spectrum from a C130 Hercules Mk 1 Aircraft During Cruise

0.01
nR
0.001
R 2nR
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2 Example of a Vibration Spectrum from a Jetstream Mk 1 Aircraft During Cruise
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Chapter 7-03

0.1
0.01
nR
0.001 2nR
R
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3 Example of a Vibration Spectrum from an Islander Aircraft During Cruise

0.1
2nR
nR
0.01
0.001
0.0001
R
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 4 Example of a Vibration Spectrum from a BAe 748 Aircraft During Cruise
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Chapter 7-03
Figure 5 Examples of Vibration at Rotor Orders for Propeller Aircraft During Cruise
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Chapter 7-03
Annex A
Annex A
Propeller Vibration Sources
A.1 Mechanical Imbalance

Vibration can be caused by mechanical imbalance of a propeller and is apparent at the shaft rotation
frequency and subsequent harmonics. Imbalance can arise through the natural action of erosion over a
period of time. Routine aircraft maintenance should minimise this vibration, but some residual imbalance is
likely as it can be difficult to balance dynamically a variable pitch propeller.
A.2 Propeller Blade Modes

Propeller blade modes can be excited by forcing functions such as the air moving through the propeller disc
or by blade-wing interactions, which can cause vibration to be transmitted through the propeller's hub
bearing and into the aircraft's structure. This is unlikely to be a major source of vibration as designers will
attempt to minimise blade vibration to prolong the life of the propeller.
A.3 Airflow Interference

Vibration can be induced into the propeller blades, and transmitted to the aircraft's structure via the propeller
hub bearing, by the air flow streaming back from the propeller meeting an impedance caused by the
presence of the wing and its surrounding pressure field. This vibration occurs at a characteristic frequency
dependant on the number of interferences per revolution of the blade and the blade passing frequency.
Some harmonics may be missing in measured spectra because the resultant force acting on the blades is
the vector sum of the forces acting on the whole propeller, i.e. some harmonics may add and others subtract.
The significance of this source, which is only applicable when the propeller is located in front of the wing, is
dependant upon the longitudinal dimension between the propeller and the wing. The two bladed propeller is
most likely to generate blade-wing interaction effects.
A.4 Propeller Pressure Fields

Excitations arising from propeller rotation can be conveniently considered in two different regimes, that is
with the blades developing thrust and at zero thrust. In the latter case flow noise is produced which is usually
referred to as thickness noise. In the former condition thickness noise is still produced but this may be
augmented by another form of flow noise referred to as rotation or force noise.
a) Thickness noise. In the zero thrust case, noise is generated as a consequence of the finite thickness of
the propeller blades. This noise is generated by air moving out of the way of an advancing blade and
then returning after the blade has passed. The resulting pulsation of air acts as a classic noise source.
When considering this mechanism [1] [2] [3] [4] the propeller disc is seen to consist of a set of pulsating
sources with appropriate phase relationships. At the fuselage, this is perceived as a series of pulses
arriving at the blade passing frequency.
b) Rotation or force noise. When a blade develops thrust, additional flow noise may be generated by the
blade encountering disturbed airflow, such as vortices originating from the preceding blade. Usually
thickness noise dominates whether rotation or force noise is present or not. However, under certain
conditions this may not necessarily be the case because the rotation noise produced by a blade
developing thrust cannot be calculated as accurately as that for thickness noise. This is due in part to
the complicated nature of the velocity field of the airflow as it passes the propeller disc.
247
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Annex A
A.5 Vortices
Vortices are shed from the tips of rotating propeller blades. This mechanism produces a broad band noise
spectrum which is likely to peak at a frequency (f) associated with the Strouhal Number:
i.e. f = KV/d
where V = the rotational velocity of the blade tip
d = a dimension which typifies a blade chord
K = a constant.
Vibration effects arising from vortices would not be expected to be significant for an aircraft fitted with a
“pusher” propeller because of the directivity characteristic of vortex noise.
A.6 Directivity Effects

The sources of vibration, detailed above, are each characterised by a particular directivity pattern. Propeller
rotation noise is at a maximum in the plane of the propellers. Mechanical and aerodynamic imbalances also
tend be most significant close to the plane of the propellers. Effects of vortices shed from the tips of the
propellers are most apparent towards the rear of the aircraft. Blade thickness noise also tends to radiate
most strongly to the rear of the plane of the propellers. Figure A1, which shows aircraft structural vibration
spectra from positions at the plane of the propellers and at the rear fuselage of a Jetstream Mk 1 aircraft,
illustrates the effects of the directivity and the nature of the various sources discussed above. It can be seen
from this figure that periodic vibration, particularly at the blade passing frequency and its harmonics, is most
severe in the plane of the propellers, and that broad band vibration in the 500 to 1200 Hz range is most
severe at the rear of the aircraft.
Rear Fuselage (0.329 g rms) Plane of Propellers (0.459 g rms)

0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A1 Comparison of Typical Spectra from Forward and Rear Locations in a Jetstream Mk 1
248
Chapter 7-03
Annex B
Annex B
Parameters Influencing Propeller and Engine Vibration
B.1 Aircraft Type

Different aircraft can be expected to have different engine operating speeds, and to have different numbers
of propeller blades, leading to different blade passing frequencies, as illustrated in Figure 1 to Figure 4 of
this chapter. As a result, it cannot be expected that vibration data relating to one particular propeller aircraft
is applicable to another. This is somewhat different to the case of jet aircraft, where a prime parameter
governing vibration severity is flight dynamic pressure, i.e. aircraft speed. For propeller aircraft, parameters
associated with the aircraft itself, rather than its speed or the air through which the aircraft travels, most
significantly affect vibration severity. Some current propeller aircraft have fixed speed engines, i.e. the
engines are governed to within a few per cent of their nominal speed. For these types of aircraft, power
demand is achieved by the use of variable pitch propeller blades. Some aircraft, however, have fixed pitch
propellers but variable speed engines, e.g. reciprocating engines, although in these cases there are usually
recommended engine speeds for particular manoeuvres, e.g. take-off or cruise. Other aircraft may generate
the required power demand by varying both engine speed and propeller pitch. Materiel installed in an aircraft
with a variable speed engine would be expected to experience excitation over a wider frequency range than
its fixed engine speed counterpart. Blade passing frequencies are usually in the range of 60 to 100 Hz. This
results from a number of physical constraints, e.g. the propeller diameter, and the need to maintain efficiency
by avoiding supersonic blade tip speeds.
B.2 Flight Condition

For propeller and most other forms of aircraft, maximum vibration usually occurs during periods of maximum
power demand such as during take-off. Take-off is however a short duration event, typically 25 s. Climb can
also produce relatively high levels of vibration. Cruise is less severe in terms of amplitude, and descent can
be even more so. Vibration severity associated with landing can be as severe as take-off if reverse thrust is
applied, although the duration of this event is likely to be less than that of take-off, typically 10 s. While the
severity of cruise is relatively low, the blade passing frequency associated with this condition could
nevertheless be critical for particular materiel. Furthermore, cruise can be the most significant in terms of
inducing structural fatigue because of the long durations associated with this flight condition. The relative
severity of a variety of flight conditions is illustrated in Figure B1 in terms of the overall acceleration rms (2 to
2000 Hz) measured on an aircraft's structure. It can be deduced from this figure that vibration severity is
dependant on power demand. This deduction is broadly confirmed by the graphs of vibration versus power
demand presented in Figure B2 for a Jetstream Mk 1 aircraft.
B.3 Position In The Aircraft

Vibration severity is dependant upon the distance from the plane of the propellers, where vibration severity is
usually at a maximum. A diagram showing how vibration severity varies along the length of a Jetstream Mk 1
aircraft is presented in Figure B3. It can be seen that in this particular aircraft, vibration in the dominant
lateral axis at the rear of the aircraft is only around 25% of that in the plane of the propellers. Spectra relating
to positions in the plane of the propellers and at the rear of a Jetstream Mk 1 aircraft are compared in
Figure B1. From Figure B1 it can be seen that while the severity at frequencies related to propeller blade
passing is lower at the rear position, the severity of the broad band vibration is greater at the rear than in the
plane of the propellers. This broad band vibration is likely to be associated with vortex shedding and blade
thickness noise.
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Annex B
B.4 Materiel Mounting

Materiel mounting arrangements can influence its vibration response. Clearly it is desirable that designers
ensure that frequencies associated with the materiel do not coincide with propeller shaft rotation or blade
passing frequencies associated with the host aircraft. Whilst this may not be possible if the engine is a
variable speed type, at least the dominant frequencies which are present for the majority of the time, e.g.
during cruise, should be avoided. In practice, this can be difficult because of the number of significant blade
passing harmonics, as illustrated in Figure 1 to Figure 4 of this chapter.
B.5 Materiel Alignment

Considerable variations have been seen [5] in the relative severity of the three mutually perpendicular
measurement axes. While the most severe vibration tends to occur in either the vertical or transverse axis,
relatively high levels have been observed in the longitudinal axis, as illustrated in Figure 5 of this chapter.
This suggests that if flight measurements are being acquired, all three axes should be included.
B.6 Other Parameters

Differences in the vibration severity of nominally identical propeller aircraft have been attributed to
indeterminable structural differences. For example, in a survey comprising twelve flights on C130 (Hercules)
aircraft, involving different airframes, the coefficient of variation (standard deviation divided by the mean
value) was around 30% for the dominant frequency components. Such variations in severity need to be
taken into account when compiling environment descriptions or test specifications.
Figure B1 Examples of Hercules C130 Mk 1 Aircraft Vibration Severity for Various Flight
Conditions
250
Chapter 7-03
Annex B
Plane of the Propellers: Vertical Transverse Longitudinal

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Total Engine Power (SHP)
Figure B2 Example Vibration Severity Versus Power Demand for a Jetstream Mk 1 Aircraft
Figure B3 Example of the Variation of Vibration Severity Along the Fuselage of a Jetstream Mk1
Aircraft During Cruise
251
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Annex B
Intentionally Blank
252
Chapter 7-03
Annex C
Annex C
C.1 References
1 Zeitschrift Fuer Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, 31: Heft 1/2 (1951). Ernsthausen, E W
2 NACA Technical Note 679, 1938. Deming A F
3 Jahrbuch der Deutschen Luftfahrtforschung, 111:46 (1941). Ernsthausen, E W
4 Akustiche Zeitschrift, 6:245 (1941). Ernsthausen, E W
5 Vibration Survey of Four Propeller Driven Aircraft, Environmental Sciences Charles D
Group, Cranfield Institute of Technology, COA-EAS-45, March 1989.
6 Acoustic Radiation from Two-dimensional Rectangular Cutouts in Aerodynamic
Surfaces, NACA TN 3487, August 1955.
7 A Theory of Acoustic Frequency and Resonance as Controlling Factors in A Shaw
Aerodynamics, ARC 12376, May 1949.
8 DEF STAN 00-970 Design Requirements for Aeroplanes, Volume 1.
9 BS 3G 100 (1972) General Requirements for Equipment for Use in Aircraft.
C.2 Bibliography
Time History Vibration Testing. RAE Tech Memo Aero 1791, March 1979.
Mil Std 810C Environmental Test Methods and Engineering Guidelines. Method 5192
Gunfire.
Mil Std 810 D Environmental Test Methods and Engineering Guidelines. Method 519.3
Gunfire.
NACA Technical Note 3202, 1954. Hubbard H H
and Lassiter L W
Handbook of Noise Control. Harris C M and
McGraw-Hill
Zeitschrift der Sowjetunion, 9:57 (1936), (English translation, NACA Technical Memo Gutin L
1195 (1948).
Journal of Acoustics Society of America, 12:173 (1940); also NACA Technical Note Deming A F
747.
NACA Technical Report 996, 1950. Hubbard H H
and Regier A A
253
Chapter 7-03
Annex C
Intentionally Blank
254
Chapter 8-01
SECTION 8 - DEPLOYMENT ON ROTARY WING AIRCRAFT

Chapter 8-01
Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Rotary Wing Aircraft
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments encountered by materiel when deployed on or
installed in rotary wing aircraft such as helicopters. The sources of excitation and characteristics of the
mechanical environments are described and guidance is given on the selection of appropriate test methods
and test severities.
1.2 Advice is given in Annex A on the manipulation of measured data to compile test severities, together
with the use of measured data to compile a single composite laboratory test to accommodate a number of
helicopter types. Also addressed in Annex A are some important aspects of data processing techniques for
dealing with helicopter vibration characteristics. References and bibliography are included as Annex B.
1.3 Unless otherwise stated, the environmental descriptions relate to the interface between the aircraft
and the installed materiel. All axes relate to the host aircraft, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with
the direction of normal flight, i.e. forward.
2.1.1 During taxi operations around an airfield, a helicopter can be expected to experience vibration and
transient inputs arising from the interaction of the wheels of the helicopter's undercarriage with the surface of
the runway. The severity and character of these inputs will be dependent upon the mass of the helicopter,
the size of its wheels, the compliance of its undercarriage and the quality of the runway surface. This
environment is not applicable to all helicopter types, e.g. those types fitted with skids in place of wheels.
2.1.2 The response amplitudes of the vibrations arising from take-off and landing are generally
encompassed by those of flight. A possible exception is that of an arrested landing, as may occur on the
flight deck of ships.
2.2 Flight Conditions
2.2.1 For materiel installed either internally or externally on helicopters the dominant source of vibration
during flight is that associated with the main rotor blade passing frequency. Depending upon the position of
the materiel within the airframe, significant vibration response levels can occur at the frequencies of
associated higher harmonics and also, albeit usually at lower levels, the main rotor, and the tail rotor and its
blades. Excitation over a wide frequency range also arises from the action of other rotating components,
such as drive shafts, engines, pumps and gear tooth meshing.
2.2.2 A notation system has evolved for describing the various rotational frequencies. If R is the rotational
speed of the rotor and n is the number of blades on the main rotor, then the blade passing frequency is given
by nR, and subsequent harmonics are 2nR, 3nR, etc. Similarly, for the tail rotor, blade passing frequencies
are denoted by nT, 2nT, etc., where T is the rotational speed of the tail rotor and n denotes the number of
blades.
2.2.3 A typical vibration spectrum measured on a helicopter could include the following components:-
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Chapter 8-01
Source Frequency Range (Hz)

Ride motions, effects of turbulence 0-3
Main Rotor R 3-7
Fuselage bending modes 5-8
Rigid body modes of external stores on their carriers 6-20
Main Rotor blade passing nR 11-26
Tail rotor T, multiples of nR, tail drive shaft, pumps, 20-80
gearboxes
Tail rotor blade passing nT, Pumps, engines and 100-140
gearbox, output shafts
Main gearbox tooth meshing 450-700
Hydraulic pump piston frequencies 500-1000
Further gearbox tooth meshing frequencies 700-10 000
Engine turbine blades passing 10 000 plus
For a dual rotor helicopter such as the Chinook, a dominant frequency tends to be the frequency of
interaction between the two sets of blades, that is at 2nR. Blade passing frequencies (nR) for various
helicopters are given in Table 1. Helicopter engine speeds are governed generally to within 2% and so the
frequencies of the rotating components are similarly bounded.
2.2.4 Vibration can originate from several mechanisms associated with the action of the rotor system.
Some of these mechanisms generate vibration directly whilst others first generate noise which produces
vibration when it impinges on the helicopter's airframe. Because of the diverse nature of these sources, and
their interactions, measured vibration spectra can appear complicated and possess features which are not
easily explained, such as the cancelling or enhancement of certain blade passing harmonics. Further
information on the source and nature of helicopter vibration is given in Def Stan 00-970 Volume 2 Leaflet
501/1 [2].
2.2.5 Aerodynamic excitation of materiel, arising from the motion of the helicopter through the air, is not
deemed to be significant because of the relatively low flight speeds of helicopters. However, this may not
always be the case as blade technology improves and the speed of helicopters increases.
2.2.6 As for internally mounted materiel, that mounted externally experiences vibration which is
predominantly mechanically transmitted from the rotor hub. Down-wash from rotor blades is not regarded as
a significant excitation mechanism for external materiel. This is because, it is argued, it is the tips of the
blades that generate most lift, and therefore, when in its usual mounting sites, externally carried materiel will
tend to benefit from being in a region of less disturbed air.
2.2.7 Typical vibration histories from a store carried externally on a Sea King helicopter during straight and
level flight at maximum speed are presented in Figure 1. This figure presents data from the vertical,
transverse and longitudinal axes. Figure 2 shows a frequency analysis up to 500 Hz for the vertical axis
vibration history presented in Figure 1. In Figure 2 the excitation harmonics associated with the main rotor
blade passing frequency of the Sea King can be clearly seen. Consideration of such spectra, suggests that it
is realistic to characterise vibration associated with helicopters by discrete peaks superimposed upon a
background of wide band random vibration. A further frequency analysis of this data up to 3000 Hz is
presented in Figure 3. It can be seen from Figure 3 that responses above 200 Hz are at a very low level,
except for a peak centred around 700 Hz. This characteristic is typical for stores mounted on helicopters and
arises to some extent from the mechanical filtering imposed by the mounting arrangements. It should be
noted that this characteristic is not generic to all helicopter installed materiel.
2.2.8 Studies [1] have shown that flight conditions can have a significant influence on the vibration
amplitudes of helicopter equipment. For example:
a) Helicopter vibration usually varies with the speed of the helicopter, as illustrated in Figure 4. It should be
noted from this figure that maximum vibration does not always occur at maximum speed, but can be
associated with a sub-cruise speed.
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Chapter 8-01
b) The transition to hover from forward flight is generally the most severe flight condition. Moreover, the
severity of the transition to hover condition can exceed that of cruise by up to four times, even more for
high power to weight helicopters, albeit for only a few seconds. The transitory nature of this manoeuvre
is illustrated by the acceleration history presented in Figure 5. Effects of take-off and landing are not
significantly different to those associated with the hover condition.
2.3 Load Configuration
The attachment of massive items of materiel (particularly of stores) produces installed natural frequencies of
the materiel/mounting/helicopter combination. Problems of excessive vibration can occur if such frequencies
coincide with any of the major forcing frequencies, such as blade passing, associated with the host
helicopter. Mixed carriage loads of external materiel can also influence vibration severity, increases of 1.6
times that for single carriage have been observed.
2.4 Helicopter Variations
Observations from cabin measurements, the vibration characteristics of which are particularly applicable to
installed materiel, rank helicopters according to severity (wideband rms) in the order of Chinook, Lynx and
Sea King. However, data relating to externally carried stores on the Sea King and Lynx, indicate that Sea
King is the most severe. The variation in cabin vibration severity, i.e. best to worst, for samples of Lynx and
Chinook helicopters, has been seen to be up to 5:1 for the dominant frequency components. For a given
helicopter type, the variation in store vibration amplitude due to carriage station has been seen to vary by up
to 3:1.
Helicopters experience low frequency acceleration loadings arising from manoeuvres such as banked turns
or gusts. For design and test purposes, these loadings are usually considered as being quasi-static in
nature. Their effects can sometimes be amplified by their coupling with the lower frequency airframe modes
of vibration, although such coupling would be expected to be considered and prevented at the helicopter
design stage.
2.6 Gunfire
Materiel responses to gunfire are discussed in Part 3, Chapter 7-02.
This environment encompasses the launch of weapons from the host helicopter, e.g. the launch of TOW
missiles. The launch of weapons can subject the helicopter airframe to high levels of shock, vibration, blast
pressure and rocket motor efflux. These conditions are highly specific to particular weapon/helicopter
installations and therefore generalised guidance is inappropriate.
3.1 General
3.1.1 The following sub-paragraphs provide recommended treatments, in terms of test methods and
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Chapter 8-01
Testing to cover the effects of airfield movements is not usually necessary. Take-off and landing conditions
are covered in sub-paragraph 3.3 below dealing with flight vibration.
3.3.1 Test options: The two alternative methods for simulating these conditions are flight trials and
laboratory tests. Flight trials are potentially more realistic and may be the most convenient for large items of
materiel. Flight trials could even be essential if the materiel interacts significantly with the host helicopter.
Laboratory tests allow the simulation to be undertaken in closely defined and controlled conditions.
3.3.2 Materiel categories: For the purpose of defining laboratory vibration test severities, materiel deployed
on helicopters is categorised as heavy or lightweight. Materiel is categorised as heavy if its installation or
deployment significantly alters the helicopter's structural dynamic characteristics. Examples of heavy
materiel include torpedoes, radar scanners, winches, etc (see Figure 6). An example of an item of
lightweight materiel is a radio set. When there is doubt as to whether materiel should be categorised as
heavy or lightweight, materiel should be assumed to be heavy.
3.3.3 Lightweight general purpose materiel: Such materiel might be intended for use in more than one
helicopter type, or in more than one position in one particular type, and would be expected to be able to
tolerate a degree of over-testing, i.e. the materiel should be inherently robust. The vibration test severities
are dependent upon where the materiel is located. For the purpose of this chapter, helicopters are divided
into zones as follows:
⎯ Main structure, e.g. the fuselage.
⎯ Secondary structure, e.g. peripheral items such as tail fins, tail planes, undercarriage sponsons.
⎯ Positions close to engines, gearboxes or pumps.
These three zones are illustrated in Figure 6. The test method used should be that contained in Part 3,
Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test. Vibration default severities for materiel sited in
each of these zones should be derived from measured data. These test conditions constitute ruggedness
test conditions where it is impractical to relate test duration to the life of the materiel.
3.3.4 Lightweight helicopter specific materiel: Advice should be sought from the helicopter manufacturer
when vibration test severities are required for a particular helicopter type. These severities should include the
superimposed peaks associated with the blade passing frequencies upon the wide band random element. It
is noted that DEF STAN 00-970 Volume 2 Leaflet 501/2 [2] purports to give such levels based on simple
parametric equations. The test method used should be that contained in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 -
General Purpose Vibration Test. Test severities for lightweight equipment should be based on measured
data.
3.3.5 Heavy materiel: For materiel categorised as heavy, it is necessary to demonstrate that the installed
natural frequencies of the materiel do not coincide with the dominant forcing frequencies of the host
helicopter. Such coincidence can lead to excessive materiel vibration and increased stresses in the
helicopter airframe. It is assumed that all heavy materiel will be mounted onto the helicopter's primary
structure. The test method used should be that contained in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General
Purpose Vibration Test. Test severities for heavy equipment should be based on measured data.
3.3.6 Use of measured data: The derivation of vibration test severities from measured data is addressed in
Annex A. In particular, Annex A covers in some detail the derivation of vibration test amplitudes (Paragraph
A.2). Important aspects of data processing are covered in Paragraph A.4.
3.3.7 Composite laboratory test: Annex A, Paragraph A.3 addresses the use of measured data to
compile a single composite laboratory test to accommodate a number of helicopter types. The process
assumes that flight measured data are available for the required helicopter types.
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Chapter 8-01
Environmental testing is not normally necessary for these conditions because the adequacy of materiel can
usually be demonstrated by assessment or by static strength tests. When environmental testing is required it
should be undertaken in accordance with the Steady State Acceleration Test M13 defined in Part 3,
Chapter 2-13 of this Standard. Default severities for such tests are available in Test M13, Paragraph 5 as
well as in Def Stan 07-85 Part 2 Section 7 [15]. If it is not possible to utilise these severities, i.e. because the
loading situation is not fully defined, then the default severities defined in Part 3 of DEF STAN 07-85 (which
are derived from BS 3G 100 [3] can be used as an alternative. In any event, the values used for testing
should be confirmed by the helicopter manufacturer.
3.5.1 The treatment of the gunfire environment is discussed in Chapter 7-01, although, of course, that
chapter addresses the mechanical aspects of materiel installed in jet aircraft. Data have not been made
available on the response of materiel arising from guns installed on helicopters. An appropriate test method
for stores is given in Part 3, Chapter 2-19, Test M19 – General Time History Replication Test.
3.5.2 Conditions associated with the launch of weapons are highly specific and consequently generalised
test severities are inappropriate.
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Chapter 8-01
0.6
Vertical
Vibration (g pk) 0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (secs)
0.6
Lateral
0.4
Vibration (g pk)
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (secs)
0.6
Axial
0.4
Vibration (g pk)
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (secs)
Figure 1 Example Vibration Histories of an Externally Carried Store During Straight and Level Flight
on a Sea King Helicopter
260
Chapter 8-01
0.1
Resolution = 0.37 Hz
Averaging Time = 24.56 secs
0.01 Spectrum equivalent to 0.219 g rms
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2 Example of a Store Vibration Spectrum for External Carriage on a Sea King Helicopter
0.01
Resolution = 3.25 Hz
Averaging time = 27.97 secs
0.001 Spectrum equivalent to 0.227 g rms
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3 Example of a Store Wide Band Vibration Spectrum for External Carriage on a Sea King
Helicopter
261
Chapter 8-01
0.14
0.12
Overall g rms (0 - 200 Hz)
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Speed (kts)
NOTE Data from an externally carried store on a Lynx helicopter
Figure 4 Example of a Helicopter Vibration Versus Speed Characteristic
1.5
1.0
Vibration (g pk)
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (secs)
Figure 5 Example Store Vibration History for Transition from Forward Flight to Hover
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Chapter 8-01
Key
Key Zone Examples

Main structure Cabin, cockpit, fuselage
Secondary structure Tail fin, sponsons
Engines & gearboxes Engines, gearboxes (main, intermediate, tail)
Heavy equipment Torpedo, mast sight, winch, radar scanner
Figure 6 Helicopter Materiel Zones and Heavy Materiel
Table 1 Blade Passing Frequencies (nR) for Various Helicopters

Main Rotor Tail Rotor
Helicopter Rotation Number f1 , Rotation Number f1 ,
Speed, of Hz Speed, of Hz
Hz Blades Hz Blades
AH-64 (late Apache) 4.86 4 19.44 23.60 4 94.40
CH-47D (Chinook) 3.75 3 11.25 na na na
EH101 (Merlin) 3.57 5 17.85 16.18 4 64.72
Gazelle 6.30 3 18.90 96.20 13 1250.60
Lynx Mk 3 5.51 4 22.04 31.90 4 127.60
Lynx 7, 8 and 9 5.51 4 22.04 27.80 4 111.20
Puma 4.42 4 17.68 21.30 5 106.50
Sea King / Commando 3.48 5 17.40 21.30 6 127.80
AH-1 (Cobra) 5.40 2 10.80 27.70 2 55.40
AH-6J (Little Bird) 7.95 5 39.75 47.30 2 94.60
MH-6H 7.80 5 39.00 47.50 2 95.00
OH-6A (Cayuse) 8.10 4 32.40 51.80 2 103.60
OH-58A/C (Kiowa) 5.90 2 11.80 43.80 2 87.60
OH-58D (K. Warrior) 6.60 4 26.40 39.70 2 79.40
UH-1 (Huey) 5.40 2 10.80 27.70 2 55.40
UH-60 (Black Hawk) 4.30 4 17.20 19.80 4 79.20
NOTE The above list is not exhaustive and for any other aircraft considered, relevant data must be sought
from the design authority.
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Chapter 8-01
Annex A
Annex A
Derivation of Test Severities from Measured Data
A.1 Derivation of Vibration Test Amplitudes
A.1.1 The following procedure indicates how vibration test severities may be derived from measured data.
This procedure has been found to be satisfactory in a number of situations, however, no specific approach
can be expected to be universally successful. Nevertheless, the underlying logic of the procedure can be
considered to be generally applicable to all materiel carried internally or externally on helicopters.
A.1.2 The first part of the procedure to derive an environmental description, illustrated as a flow diagram
in Figure A2, comprises the following stages:
A.1.2.1 From the vibration spectra computed from the measured data, identify any critical installed natural
frequencies associated with the integration of the materiel with the helicopter. Deal separately with any
potential problems regarding the coupling of this frequency with any of the blade passing related
frequencies.
A.1.2.2 Select reference sites on the materiel, typically three on relatively stiff structure, one in each of a
set of orthogonal axes. Establish the g rms versus speed characteristic at these reference sites, thereby
confirming the vibration amplitudes at normal operating (Vno) conditions. It is convenient to present these
data in graphical form with amplitudes normalised with respect to that of a maximum as illustrated in Figure
A3. The maximum chosen should be appropriate for the materiel and its application; it is generally
appropriate to use the maximum flight speed, Vne, for this purpose.
A.1.2.3 Derive a description of the random vibration background spectrum for each reference site by
producing an 'overlay' PSD plot of all the measured flight conditions. It is to be expected that the g rms of this
background vibration will be relatively low. Consequently, an element of conservatism can be built in at this
stage with little adverse effect in terms of damage potential by including PSDs from both steady state and
transient flight conditions.
A.1.2.4 From peak hold spectra obtained from the measured data, produce two sets of g pk levels, i.e. one
set for steady state and one set for transient flight conditions, at the dominant forcing frequencies, e.g. nR,
2nR, etc. It is desirable to check that the g peak levels for the transient conditions are supplemented by the
peak levels observed from the acceleration histories for the more severe transient conditions, such as
transition to hover, to avoid their possible under-estimation.
A.1.2.5 Using the PSDs and listings of g peak amplitudes, quantify any trends in the data. Suitable areas
for investigation include the relative severity of flight conditions, relative severity of axes, effects of mixed
loads, and In-Ground-Effects (IGE).
A.1.3 At this point, the vibration amplitudes experienced by the materiel are quantified by direct
measurement for all the operational conditions included in the trial programme. To produce test spectra, the
second part of the procedure, the elements derived above need to be modified to represent an
acknowledged maximum severity level of an anticipated in-Service condition. Whilst in principle it is desirable
that test amplitudes representing limit conditions are expressed in terms of a probability of occurrence, e.g. 1
in 500 case or 2.88 sigma level, it is rarely practicable to do so rigorously because of the large amount of
data required to establish the statistics. Therefore, in most circumstances, recourse must be made to
engineering judgement when establishing limit conditions from measured data. However, it should be noted
that only in exceptional circumstances would test severities exceed those presented in sub-paragraph 3.2
of this Chapter.
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A.1.4 The transformation of the background random vibration related elements and the blade passing
frequency related elements of the environment description into test spectra is accomplished separately. The
logic for this approach comprises the following steps, shown in Figure A4 as a flow diagram.
A.1.4.1 The background random element of the environment description often needs to be simplified to
provide a practicable test spectrum. This is usually achieved by enveloping the measured spectra by a
number of straight line segments which follow the basic trend of the PSD characteristic. The resulting g rms
should represent the actual limit conditions or the nominated probability of occurrence, e.g. the 1 in 500
level.
A.1.4.2 The g peak amplitudes measured at the blade passing related frequencies nR and 2nR etc, are
considered separately for the steady state and transient flight conditions. For both sets of flight conditions,
amplitudes corresponding to the actual limit conditions or the nominated probability of occurrence, e.g. 1 in
500 level, should be established.
A.1.4.3 The values derived in sub-paragraph A.1.4.1 above, for the background random element, and
sub-paragraph A.1.4.2 above, for the steady state flight conditions of the blade passing related element, are
then reconsidered to determine whether any further enhancement of the levels is necessary to cover the
following helicopter parameters:
⎯ Flight condition.
⎯ Helicopter variations, both within a type and flight-to-flight.
⎯ Alternative carriage stations and load configurations.
⎯ Measurement position and axis.
The effects of these parameters are discussed in Paragraph 2 of this chapter. In practice, it is unlikely that
the background random element will require further enhancement to cover these parameters, but the blade
passing related components will usually require some adjustment.
A.1.5 The levels derived for the severe transient conditions in sub-paragraph A.1.4.2 above may exceed
by a considerable margin, typically by a factor of four, those for normal operating conditions (cruise).
Moreover, there is insufficient evidence to suggest that the variations affecting the steady state conditions
apply equally to the high amplitude transient conditions. Therefore, to avoid excessive and unrepresentative
test amplitudes it is suggested that the enhanced steady state levels, i.e. those that take into account the
variability parameters in sub-paragraph A.1.4.3 above, should form the basis of the test amplitudes. It
should be noted that such a strategy may not always be applicable, and therefore, each case should be
treated on its merits.
A.1.6 The resulting limit condition or test overall g rms should be compared to that relating to the Vno
condition. As a guide, the test g rms typically exceeds that at the Vno flight condition by a factor of between
2.5 and 3.5 times.
A.1.7 Amplitudes at blade passing frequencies have been derived from either peak hold spectra or
acceleration histories to avoid their possible underestimation in an PSD. Further information is given in
Paragraph A.4. For testing purposes, these g peak values may used directly as sinusoidal amplitudes, or
preferably, converted to PSD levels assigned to narrow band random components. This conversion is also
discussed in Paragraph A.4.
A.1.8 It is suggested that the bandwidth of the narrow bands should be 10% of the centre frequency, i.e.
for the Sea King helicopter with a blade passing frequency of 17.4 Hz, the bandwidth of the narrow bands
representing the first two harmonics of blade passing would be 1.74 and 3.48 Hz, respectively.
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A.2 Derivation of Test Duration
A.2.1 In order to avoid impracticably long test durations, it is general practice to invoke fatigue damage
laws, such as the Miner-Palmgren hypothesis, which is expressed as follows:
n
⎡S ⎤
t 2 = t1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣S2 ⎦
where t1 = the actual duration at the presumed level
n = slope of the fatigue (S/N) curve for the appropriate material). A value of 5 is preferred. (If PSD
levels are used in place of rms levels then the preferred value of n is 2.5.)
This expression is applicable to metallic materials such as steel and aluminium alloys which possess an
essentially linear stress-strain relationship. It is used with less confidence with non-linear materials and
composites. Although the expression has been shown to have some merits when applied to materiel, it
should be used with extreme caution if unrepresentative failures are to be avoided. On no account should
test levels be increased beyond the maximum levels that materiel may be expected to experience during its
service life.
A.2.2 It is first required to establish the major characteristics of the nominated or dominant sortie
profile(s), which will generally take the form of the percentage of time spent in particular flight conditions.
Based upon these detailed sortie profile(s), a simplified idealised profile can be derived by grouping together
conditions of similar severity. Suggested group headings are hover; sub-cruise; cruise and maximum. A
suggested classification of flight conditions is shown in Figure A3. By grouping flight conditions together in
this way, the percentage times spent in each of the three groups can be allocated.
A.2.3 Having derived the percentage durations as above, these data can be combined as indicated in the
table below to calculate the test time equivalent to an hours flying time. For the purpose of illustration relative
severities are taken from Figure A3. Using the Miner-Palmgren hypothesis, equivalent durations spent at
high-cruise levels are calculated for sub-cruise and cruise. These durations are then summed, as shown in
the following example:
Condition Severity Time

Index % Mins Equivalent
Hover 0.3 15 9.0 0.02
Sub-Cruise 0.6 20 12.0 0.93
Cruise 0.5 40 24.0 0.75
Maximum 1.0 25 15.0 15.0
Totals: 100 60.0 16.7
i.e. 16.70 minutes test is equivalent to 60 minutes flight time.
A.2.4 The basis for these steps is represented as a flow diagram in Figure A4.
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A.3 Composite Test for Several Helicopter Types
A.3.1 The following procedure, applicable when flight measured data are available, is suggested for
accommodating a number of helicopter types within one laboratory test.
A.3.2 Blade Passing Frequencies
A.3.2.1 Amplitude: As the blade passing frequency may be different for each helicopter type (see Table 1)
the formulation of one (composite) test to cover materiel for all possible helicopter types must inevitably
involve a degree of compromise. However, such a compromise may be acceptable in most applications. In
the preceding sub-paragraphs, it has been suggested that excitation at blade passing related frequencies be
represented by narrow band random vibration. It is further suggested that, for a composite test, these narrow
bands are swept across a sufficient frequency band width to cover the helicopter types under consideration.
In practice, the sweep range of the narrow band components could be expected to be about 10 Hz. It is
required, in this situation, that the sweep rate is sufficiently slow to permit any structural resonance to occur
at their in-service levels.
A.3.2.2 Durations: A further requirement regarding the sweeping narrow bands is that the test duration is
such that it adequately tests the materiel for each of the nominated helicopter types. All blade passing
frequencies within the swept bands should be tested for at least 30 minutes per axis. The test should not
need to exceed a duration of some 17 hours per axis, which in many instances represents a reasonable
maximum total test time.
A.3.3 Background Random
A.3.3.1 Amplitude. As the g rms of the random background vibration is relatively low, the PSD plots from
the various flight conditions, as derived above, can usually be overlaid for all helicopter vibration without
generating excessive levels. The resulting amplitudes can then be incorporated into a test spectrum using
the procedure described in sub-paragraph A.1.2.
A.3.3.2 Durations. The background random vibration is applied in conjunction with the narrow band
components as discussed in Paragraph A.2.
A.4 Important Aspects of Data Processing
A.4.1 The following sub-paragraph addresses some important aspects that arise when processing
helicopter vibration data.
A.4.2 Power spectral density (PSD) is the most commonly used data format and describes the spectral
content of vibration records. When the unit of measurement is acceleration it is also referred to as
Acceleration Spectral Density (ASD). Amplitude is commonly expressed as g2/Hz.
A.4.3 Typical parameters for the production of PSD data might be as follows:
Parameter Abbreviation Typical Value

Maximum frequency Fmax 200 Hz
Acquisition rate AQR 512 sps
Transform rate N 2048
Resolution bandwidth B 0.25 Hz
Record duration AQT 30 seconds
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A.4.4 The frequency range of 0.25 to 200 Hz and resolution bandwidth of 0.25 is sufficient to resolve the
lowest forcing frequency (R) and all the significant harmonics of blade passing. It should be noted that the
low frequency response of measurement systems using piezo-electric accelerometers and charge amplifiers
will not usually be linear below about 5 Hz. High frequency excitations such as those arising from the gear
tooth meshing lie beyond 200 Hz but are not present at significant amplitudes on externally carried stores,
for example.
A.4.5 Amplitudes from PSD plots are the result of two averaging processes, i.e:
a) Averaging in the time domain, according to the record duration (AQT).
b) Averaging in the frequency domain, according to the resolution bandwidth (B).
The results of these averaging processes can be handled differently to produce mean and peak hold
spectra. The following figure illustrates how a vibration record (time series) is divided into a number of blocks
according to the block length (T) and the total record length (AQT). A single block contains N samples where
N is the size of the Fourier Transform.
AQT Parameter Value

T
Record length AQT secs
Acquisition rate AQR sps

Vibration Amplitude (g)
Transform size N samples
AQR
Resolution bandwidth B = Hz
N
1
Block length T = secs
B
Time (secs) AQT

No. of blocks averaged
T
Figure A1 Illustration of PSD Parameters
A.4.6 After the data from each single block has been digitally sampled, according to the specified AQR, a
typical computer program producing PSD data might operate as indicated in Figure A5. At the completion of
the analysis of a vibration record, both a mean and a peak hold spectrum have been produced. The mean
PSD is the result of both the averaging processes described above.
A.4.7 The peak hold PSD has eliminated the effect of averaging in the time domain, but is still based on
frequency domain averaging. Peak hold spectra (= Equivalent Peak Spectra) are sometimes presented in
terms of g pk (peak) amplitude, although the measurements are based on the mean square value. In
deriving the g pk value a peak to rms ratio has to be assumed, usually a factor of √2 is used.
A.4.8 Where vibration test amplitudes at rotor order frequencies are given in terms of g pk, they are
suitable for sinusoidal representation. These peak levels are based on measured mean square acceleration.
Consequently, if it is desired to represent vibration at rotor orders by narrow band random peaks in
preference to sinusoids, the required g2/Hz values can be obtained as follows:
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Annex A
2
g2 1 ⎡ g pk ⎤
=
Hz B ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
where B, in this case, is the bandwidth of the narrow band peak.
NOTE The above expression does not constitute a general purpose sine to random conversion. It applies only in
this special case because the sine levels were originally based on measured mean square values.
A.4.9 Helicopter PSD levels are not meaningful unless the resolution bandwidth is specified. Helicopter
data is not always stationary and tends strongly for power to be concentrated around a set of discrete
frequencies, i.e. harmonics of blade passing. Consequently, the form of a PSD of helicopter data can be
sensitive to both record length and resolution bandwidth. This is in contrast to stationary wide band random
vibration, as usually exists for fixed wing jet aircraft.
A.4.10 Non-stationary manoeuvres are best processed into acceleration histories for the most reliable
characterisation. Equivalent Peak Spectra will not provide a true estimation of peak amplitude. There is often
a requirement for fine frequency resolution, e.g. to assist in recognising rigid body modes. Consequently,
relatively long block lengths are used, e.g. 0.25 Hz resolution implies a block length duration of four seconds.
In terms of the transitory nature of certain helicopter manoeuvres, four seconds is sufficiently long for the
maximum levels to be averaged down. To avoid under-estimation, records of non-stationary manoeuvres
should be treated separately as acceleration-time histories.
Figure A2 Derivation of an Environment Description from Measured Data
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Chapter 8-01
Annex A
Relative Vibration Severity
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Hover Sub-cruise Cruise Maximum
Take-off, Hover, Steady fwd speeds Steady fwd speeds & Steady fwd speeds &
landing, ground ops, from hover to 30 kts, turns from 30 kts to turns from Vno to Vne,
port & stbd spot turns, rearwards travel Vno climbs, transitions
sideways travel
Flight Condition Category
NOTE Vno denotes Velocity for Normal Operating & Vne Velocity Not to be Exceeded
Figure A3 Example of Classification of Flight Conditions and Relative Severity
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Annex A
Environment
Description
Identify the Nominated Factor g pk at

or Dominant Sortie nR, 2nr & 3nR
Simplify Sortie into a Envelope the Broad Band

Number of Flight Conditions Random Background
Vibration Spectra
Allocate the % Time in

Each Flight Condition
Tabulate Vibration Levels

and % Times for Each
Flight Condition
Apply Equivalent Specify

Damage Rule Required Life
Test Duration Test Spectrum
Test
Severity
Figure A4 Derivation of Vibration Test Severities from an Environment Description
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Annex A
Initialize Matrices
[A], [B] & [C]
Read g-t Data
Compute FFT
Result in [A]
Sum [A] into

Accumulator [B]
Compare [A] to [C]

Update [C] if An > Cn
More
Yes
Data
?
No
Normalize [B] wrt Normalize [C] wrt Scale [C] by an Assumed

Resolution Bandwidth Resolution Bandwidth Peak to Mean Square Ratio
Normalize [B] wrt

Number of Averages
Mean Peak Hold Equivalent Peak

PSD PSD Spectrum
Figure A5 Computation of Mean and Peak-Hold PSD
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Intentionally Blank
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Annex B
Annex B
B.1 References
1. Parametric Study of Air Armament Stores Carried Externally on Helicopters, Ref D Charles
COA-DA-1373, August 1988.
2. DEF STAN 00-970, Design Requirements for Aeroplanes, Volume 2, Leaflet
501/2.
3. BS 3G 100 General Requirements for Equipment for Use in Aircraft.
4. DEF STAN 00-970, Design Requirements for Aeroplanes, Part 2, Section 2
5. Def Stan 07-85
B.2 Bibliography
“The Structural Dynamic Interface Required for Developing Helicopter Target S T Crews
Acquisition Systems”, AGARD Conference Proceedings No.318, “Dynamic
Qualification Techniques”, 1981
“A Study of Vibration Problems Arising from the Carriage Of Torpedoes on E A Court and N
Helicopters”, Portsmouth Aviation Ltd, 1986 J Taylor
“Helicopter Component Vibration Testing”, 35th Annual Forum of the American S T Crews
Helicopter Society, 1979
“Army Helicopter Crew Seat Vibration - Past Performance, Future Requirements”, S T Crews
American Helicopter Society North-East Region National Specialists’ Meeting, 1981
“Environmental Vibration Testing of Helicopter Stores and Equipment to the D P Schrage and
Procedures Outlined in MIL-STD-810C”, 34th Annual Forum of the American R H Lutz
Helicopter Society, 1978
“The Dynamic Qualification of Equipment and Stores for Use with Rotary Wing G M Venn
Aircraft, AGARD Conference Proceedings No.318, “Dynamic Qualification
Techniques”, 1981
“Approach in Dynamic Qualification of Light Helicopter Stores and Equipment”, D Braun and
AGARD Conference Proceedings No.318, “Dynamic Qualification Techniques” J Stoppel
Random Data: Analysis and Measurement Procedures, 1971 Bendat and
Peirsol Wiley
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Intentionally Blank
276
Chapter 9-01
SECTION 9 - DEPLOYMENT ON SHIPS

Chapter 9-01
Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Surface Ships
1 Scope
deployed on or installed in surface ships powered by nuclear or conventional means. Materiel carried as
cargo is NOT covered in this chapter but can be found in Chapter 2-04 - Mechanical Aspects of Sea
Transportation up to Forward Base. Instead this chapter deals with materiel in the ‘deployed’ or ‘installed’
state, be it munitions loaded into ammunition racks, in loading mechanisms or loaded into the launcher itself
or materiel actually installed in the vessel.
1.2 The sources of excitation and the characteristics of the mechanical environments are described.
Information is contained in Annex A on the parameters influencing the mechanical environments. Guidance
is given on the selection of relevant test methods and derivation of test severities. The compilation of
derivations of test severities from measured data is presented in Annex B. Annex C and Annex D outline an
UNDEX assessment process. References and bibliography are included as Annex E.
1.3 The following aspects are not addressed in this chapter:
1.3.1 Hull design: This chapter refers only to surface ships of conventional hull design. Craft such as
hydra-foils and hovercraft are not included.
1.3.2 Hostile actions: Even though environments arising from hostile actions such as underwater or
nuclear attack may drive certain materiel design parameters, they are outside the scope of this Standard. For
guidance on such actions reference should be made to the procurement authority. For guidance on
underwater shock testing, refer to Part 3, Test M7 - Shock Testing for Warship Equipment and
Armament Stores and Annex C and Annex D of this chapter.
1.3.3 Propulsion systems: The environments experienced by materiel on the propulsion raft, induced by
the operation of the propulsion system, are excluded. Reference should be made to the procurement
authority for guidance. The environments at the raft/vessel interface are included.
NOTE Vibration amplitude levels in surface ships are relatively benign. Moreover, stealth requirements demand
ever-decreasing vibration levels. Another factor that acts to keep levels low is the vibration tolerance of the crew,
because unlike tanks, trucks or aircraft, a ship’s crew lives on-board, sometimes for several months at a time.
1.4 Unless otherwise stated, the environmental descriptions relate to the interface between the ship and
the deployed materiel. All axes relate to the host ship, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with the
direction of motion, i.e. forward.
2.1 General
The mechanical environments experienced by materiel arise from two basic sources, i.e. the action of
onboard machinery and the action of the sea. Materiel responses depend upon their location relative to the
various sources of excitation. For many weapon platforms, the dynamic environments can be most severe
under combat conditions. However, this is not necessarily so for ships, because the vibration environment
onboard (say) a submarine hunting frigate is expected to be benign. Vibration onboard ship will be low when
alongside a quay and when it uses power from a shore base. Vibration will be greater when the ship is at
sea, when it generates its own power for motion and services, and when the action of the sea will be
experienced.
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2.2 On-Board Machinery
2.2.1 The action of on-board machinery, including generators, transformers, propulsion engines,
gearboxes, rotating shafts and propellers will induce vibration in deployed or installed materiel. The vibration
characteristics of this machinery, as experienced by the materiel will typically comprise excitations at discrete
frequencies superimposed upon a background of broad band random vibration.
2.2.2 The excitations at discrete frequencies will correspond to the various rotational sources dependent
upon the position of the materiel relative to these sources. Often, vibration at the propeller blade passing
frequency, and its associated harmonics is relatively strong. These frequencies may change for different
speeds according to the type of ship. For example, some ships achieve different speeds by varying both
engine revolutions and propeller blade pitch angle according to a control law. A typical example of a vibration
spectrum originating from the aft area of an anti-submarine frigate is presented in Figure 2. This figure also
indicates the shaft order frequencies.
2.2.3 The broad band random component of a typical vibration spectrum will arise from the cumulative
effect of all activity onboard ship, the prevailing sea condition and the influence of the ship’s own dynamic
response characteristics.
2.2.4 Although the vibration environment on-board ship is, for most materiel, benign, it should be noted
that because of the operational deployment patterns for ships, materiel can be exposed to the environment
continuously for several months. Consequently, the most common failure mechanisms likely to be
encountered are of the time dependent variety such as high cycle fatigue, fretting and brinelling. These types
of failure are of particular relevance to flexible and lightly damped components, which may have resonances
in the range associated with a ship’s propeller blade passing frequencies.
2.3 Wave Slap
The effects of waves impacting on the ship’s hull, i.e. wave slap, can give rise to shock loadings. It is not
usually necessary to carry out tests for these conditions. Any shocks experienced by the materiel are likely to
be encompassed by those associated with handing events.
2.4 Sea Slamming
Slamming is a localised phenomenon occurring when the relatively flat underside of a ship’s hull slaps onto
the surface of the sea at a relatively high velocity when driving into heavy seas [1]. It is therefore more
applicable to materiel installed in the hull below the water line. Transient accelerations caused by slamming
in frigates and larger ships can reach 1 g. In smaller ships, e.g. mine-sweeper, transient accelerations up to
5 g have been recorded. It is not usually necessary to carry out tests for these conditions.
2.5 Ship Motions
The action of the sea can give rise to cyclical motion at low frequencies (periods of several seconds) in roll,
pitch and yaw. These motions are approximately simple harmonic with a natural period depending on the
characteristics of the ship. Examples of values of ship motion [1] for Sea State 7 are given in Figure 3.
Because the levels are so low it is not usually necessary to carry out tests for the purpose of materiel
integrity. However, tests are often undertaken on relevant sensitive materiel to satisfy operational
performance requirements.
2.6 Static Tilt
This environment is applicable to materiel installed in all regions of ships. Whilst there are no specific test
requirements, materiel is usually expected to operate at a permanent tilt of 30 degrees.
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2.7.1 The effects of blast, and to a lesser extent, recoil from a ship’s gun can cause shock responses in
nearby materiel. Blast is caused by the exit and rapid expansion of propellant gases following the emergence
of the projectile from the gun’s muzzle.
2.7.2 The blast pressure wave associated with the action of gunfire can cause structural damage to
materiel close to the gun’s muzzle, i.e. in the near field. Also in this area, materiel close to the muzzle, but
protected from the blast, may suffer the effects of the resulting mechanical shock associated with gun fire.
Further from the gun’s muzzle, i.e. in the far field, materiel may suffer the effects associated with intense low
frequency vibration corresponding to the gunfire rate. Possible adverse effects in this region could arise from
a coupling of the gun firing rate with structural modes of vibration or with the installed natural frequencies of
materiel. A more detailed treatment of gunfire is included in Part 3, Chapter 2-19, Test
M19 - General Time History Replication Test.
2.7.3 Gunfire conditions, and those associated with the launch of missiles, are highly specific to gun or
missile type, and so the provision of generalised information regarding the need for tests is inappropriate.
2.8 Underwater Attack
2.8.1 It should be noted that underwater explosions resulting from the action of mines, bombs, or missiles
in close proximity to a ship cause severe shock inputs to the whole ship. These conditions are likely to
represent critical design cases for a warship. The severe effect of underwater explosions results from the
incompressible nature of water that surrounds the hull, which closely couples the effect of an explosion to the
ship in a much more efficient way than does air in an aerial explosion. The effects of underwater explosions
can be described [2] in terms of shock response spectra at different positions in a ship, as illustrated in
Figure 4.
2.8.2 To protect against the effects of underwater attack, materiel is often fitted with shock mounts.
Unfortunately, materiel mounted using these devices can consequently possess installed natural frequencies
in the frequency range associated with onboard rotating machinery. If this coincidence of excitation and
response frequencies occurs, then excessive materiel displacements can result. Such coincidence can lead
to a degradation of the anti-shock mount and, possibly, to the materiel.
2.8.3 Throughout this document the term Underwater Explosion (UNDEX) is used to describe the dynamic
loads ensuing from underwater explosive detonation. Historically the descriptions, ‘underwater shock’ and
‘shock loading’ have been used incorrectly as general terms. Shock is just one effect that occurs from an
UNDEX event, and therefore forms one part of the total UNDEX induced loading as described below. A short
review of the physics and characteristics of an UNDEX event is provided below. Figure 1 illustrates the
event.
2.8.4 The UNDEX event consists of the early time shock and oscillating gas bubble effects. Following
detonation of a submerged explosive charge, or warhead, approximately one third of the explosive energy is
propagated into the surrounding fluid in the form of an acoustic pressure pulse. The peak pressure and the
decay rate are functions of the charge size, explosive type, and the distance from the point of detonation.
Similarly, quantities such as impulse and energy flux density, which are derived from pressure time data, are
dependent upon these quantities. The pressure pulse is typically characterised by a very fast rise time, a few
milliseconds, pressure peak followed by a slower pressure decay. The decay is generally modelled as
exponential, with the peak pressure being inversely proportional to the distance from the detonation point,
P≈1/distance. Near the detonation point, the pulse shock wave propagation velocity is typically three to five
times the 1500 m/s (4921 ft/s) speed of sound in water. The pressure peak, for a nominal distance from the
detonation, is in the range of 5 to 25 MPa (725 to 3626 psi), with an effective duration of 1 millisecond.
2.8.5 At the point of detonation the explosive event also introduces a volume of high pressure and
temperature gas into the fluid. This gas expands against the ambient hydrostatic pressure. The bubble
expansion attains considerable outward momentum, which overshoots the equilibrium condition, and an
oscillating gas bubble thus ensues. The principle effects from the gas bubble are considerable
incompressible flows of water radially out from the point of detonation, a flow which alternates direction as
the bubble oscillations develop. Each time the bubble reaches a minimum condition, a rebound phenomenon
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Chapter 9-01
occurs whereby a pressure pulse is propagated into the fluid. The action of migration of the buoyant bubble
and energy dissipation of each cycle ensures that the bubble rarely oscillates beyond two or three cycles.
Shock Wave
Gas Bubble Spray Plume
Plume
Air Blast Wave

Surface
Wave
Bubble
Oscillating &
Migrating Gas
Bubble
Shock Wave
Figure 1 UNDEX Shock Wave Characteristics
2.8.6 Traditional methods of considering UNDEX focus on the direct shock wave effects, and established
design methods have developed for considering this phase of the loading. While it is true that the shock
wave is a potentially severe damage loading, it is a relatively local phenomenon and only contains one third
of the total explosive energy. The remainder of the energy is dispersed with the secondary oscillating gas
bubble effects, which may provide more severe loading than the initial shock wave excitation. The oscillating
gas bubble can promote excitation of the fundamental flexural modes of the ship or submarine hull girder.
Additional structural loading occurs from the interaction of the gas bubble with the ship hull. Where the
underwater explosion is in close proximity to the hull structure, it subjects the hull structure, internal
equipment, and materiel to an extremely high intensity transient loading. This occurs from focusing the gas
bubble energy into a shape charge effect, generating a jet, which interacts with the hull. The consequence is
localised impulsive loading, which can be extremely severe. In contrast to the initial fast transient of the
shock wave, the flexural behaviour, commonly referred to as whipping, is global in nature, occurs over
several seconds, generates large displacements, and can represent a worst case loading condition.
2.8.7 There is little point in ensuring safety and suitability for service for the early time shock loading when
some seconds later a whipping or jet excitation compromises the materiel. The object of the assessment is
the materiel, thus the important issue is the interaction of the various UNDEX loads with the materiel. This
loading is dependent upon the following factors:
⎯ The low and high frequency interaction of the shock wave and the gas bubble with the vessel hull.
⎯ For the shock loading, the transfer function between the hull and the materiel stowage position. The
primary transmission path through the hull, bulkheads, decks, and stowage structure will progressively
modify the dynamic input from the explosive event.
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⎯ For whipping loads, the materiel survivability, which is driven by the gross flexural characteristics of the
vessel hull girder, the structural mass and stiffness distribution.
⎯ The material and construction of the vessel.
⎯ The inclusion of any shock or vibration isolation materials or devices.
⎯ The materiel stowage configuration.
3 Test Methods and Severities Selection
3.1 General
3.1.1 Sea trials or laboratory tests are possible means of testing materiel to be deployed on surface ships.
Sea trials are essential if the materiel interacts significantly with the dynamics of the ship and may be
preferred if the materiel is sensitive and inadequate data are available upon which to base laboratory test
severities to a satisfactory level of precision. An advantage of sea trials is that all units are in their correct
relative positions and all mechanical impedances are realistic. Consequently, sea trials can potentially
expose materiel to relevant failure mechanisms, which may not be the case for a laboratory test. In practice,
however, a sea trial is highly unlikely to be of sufficiently long duration to generate the time dependent failure
mechanisms associated with the effects of on-board machinery and propeller shaft frequencies.
Furthermore, the severity of mechanical environments onboard ship can depend upon the prevailing sea
state and this cannot be anticipated when trials are planned. The simulation of the environment in a
laboratory is usually viable for all but the largest items of materiel.
3.1.2 Excepting underwater attack conditions and gunfire conditions (which are dealt with in Part 3,
Chapter 2-19), the only mechanical environment identified for which testing may be required is that to cover
the vibration effects of on-board machinery including the propeller shaft.
3.2.1 Fixed and swept frequency sinusoidal test procedures as given in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test
M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test should be selected for this vibration environment. This test method is
applicable to materiel installed in all regions of surface ships including mast-heads, exposed upper decks,
protected compartments and in the hull below the water line (see Figure 5).
3.2.2 The vibration test comprises two parts, i.e. a sine sweep test and a sine dwell test. The sine sweep
test should be conducted first to determine the frequency of any significant materiel resonances in the test
frequency range. A resonance is deemed to be significant if its dynamic magnification factor (Q) exceeds
three.
3.2.3 Test severities for ships of mine sweeper size and above are given in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test
M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test, Annex A, Figure A28. Test severities for smaller ships are given in
Test M1, Annex A, Figure A29. These severities are intended for initial design purposes only and should be
used only in those cases where a precise simulation is unnecessary. The derivation of more precise test
severities from measured data is discussed in Annex B.
3.3.1 UNDEX assessment and testing relies on both laboratory experiments and analytical or modelling
methods. The choice of the equipment and analytical methods clearly depends on the type of materiel and
simulation or failure mode investigation. Choices of equipment and modelling vary from full-scale
experimental tests to scale laboratory response measurements. The appropriate test methods are outlined in
Part 3, Chapter 2, Test M7 - Shock Testing for Warship Equipment and Armament Stores.
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3.3.2 There are two levels of survivability considered for materiel carried in naval warships; the two levels
of function are summarised below. The vessel itself, and all equipment, has been designed to well
established shock resistant design guidelines. Therefore, the requirement exists to rationalise the UNDEX
design levels of the vessel with those for the materiel. Typically a warship is designed to fulfil a level of
function at a specific severity of attack. This is engendered in the concept of the Shock Factor:
Level I To fight - The ability to maintain a particular operational function.
Level II To float - Watertight integrity, or the point where uncontrollable flooding occurs.
3.3.3 For each of the two assessment scenarios, and ship design criteria, it is necessary to determine if
the materiel is safe and serviceable and determine what constitutes unacceptable failure. At Level II it is
necessary for the materiel to remain safe and not pose a threat to the watertight integrity of the vessel by the
initiation of a significant detonation or burning event. Premature ignition or detonation is considered to be a
worst-case condition and is clearly unacceptable. All materiel must be able to meet this failure criterion and
be capable of safe disposal following exposure to an event below the level II design criterion.
3.3.4 A further requirement may be imposed relating to the Level I ship design criteria. It should be
confirmed that a stowed or deployed materiel, at the level at which the fighting capability of the vessel is to
be maintained, will not impact upon the overall fighting capability of the vessel. For example, while the post-
shock state of the materiel may itself be safe, the materiel location on a stowage rack may impede the
handling of other weapons, thus compromising the fighting function of the platform in which it is stored. The
safety requirement must be maintained for both of the two ship design criteria levels including safe disposal.
The serviceability criteria varies with the requirement. It is often difficult to define when serviceability is lost
since it could be a gradual process, rapid, or catastrophic loss of function. In practice, it is necessary to
define zones where serviceability may be questioned, but in general serviceability should as a minimum be
maintained at Level I.
3.3.5 Further guidance on UNDEX assessment and tests can be found in Annex C.
0.001
R 2R 3R 4R 5R 6R 7R 8R 9R 10R 11R 12R 13R
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2 Example of Propeller Shaft Frequency Components in a Frigate’s Vibration Spectrum
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Roll (Unstabilised) Pitch Yaw Heave

Period Amplitude Period Amplitude Acceleration under Period Amplitude
(S) (deg) (S) (deg) Ship’s Motion (S) (m)
2
(deg/sec )
10 ±18 5 to 6 ±8 1.75 7 ±3.5
NOTE 1 All data relates to Sea State 7, significant wave height 6 to 9 m.
NOTE 2 These statistically significant values are defined as the average of the third highest peaks and there is a 13%
probability of exceeding these values.
NOTE 3 RMS values, which have a numerical value equal to half the significant value, are exceeded 60% of the time.
Figure 3 Example of ship motion data
1000
D
A
C
B
Acceleration (g pk)
100 B
10 A
1
10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 4 Example Shock Response Spectra due to Underwater Attack
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Masthead
Hull Protected Compartments Aft
Figure 5 Regions for Materiel Deployed on Surface Ships
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Annex A
Annex A
Parameters Influencing the Mechanical Environments
A.1 General
Measured vibration data on onboard machinery will rarely be available for all in-service conditions. Therefore
it is useful to establish, particularly for sensitive materiel, a working knowledge of the effects of parameters
that influence vibration severity. This is usually achieved by the derivation of empirical predictive models from
the measured data acquired from a well planned programme.
A.2 Ship Type
A.2.1 Size: Vibration amplitudes on small ships, such as motor torpedo boats, can be relatively high
because of their high performance. Also, being small means that transmission paths will be short from
machinery to installed materiel and so the attenuation of vibration will be limited. Whilst larger ships would be
expected to give rise to a more benign vibration environment than small ships, aircraft carriers are a special
case, because of their high performance and powerful propulsion systems. Where appropriate, aircraft
operations, such as take-off and landing, can also induce vibration and shock loads into the ship’s structure.
A.2.2 Propulsion systems: Modern ships are fitted with either gas turbine (for speed) or diesel engine (for
economic running), or both. The vibration environments associated with each of these types of engine are
different, e.g. a diesel will produce periodic vibrations at frequencies associated with the engine’s speed and
number of cylinders. Some ships are equipped with multiple engines per propulsion line. Differences in
vibration severity can be expected according to which engine configuration is in use. Ships with multiple
propulsion lines, i.e. propellers, can also experience beat frequencies due to small differences in their
rotational speeds.
A.3 On-Board Machinery
A.3.1 Speed: Vibration can be expected to increase with increasing speed, although maximum vibration
may not necessarily coincide with maximum speed. Improved correlation with vibration might be achieved
using power demand or the position of the Power Control Lever (PCL). Some ships respond to power
demands by altering both engine speed and propeller pitch according to pre-set control laws. Figure A1
presents data obtained from a frigate which illustrates how vibration can vary according to PCL setting;
corresponding ship speeds are also indicated on the figure.
A.3.2 Asynchronous running: Some ships are fitted with multiple propulsion lines and sometimes run with
only one line powered and one line “trailing”, called asynchronous running. Differences in vibration severity
between asynchronous and synchronous running can occur.
A.3.3 Engine configuration: Some ships are fitted with multiple engines per propulsion line. Differences in
vibration severity can be expected according to which engine configuration is in use.
A.3.4 Turns: Turns to port and starboard can be expected to be equally severe and of greater severity to
the equivalent ahead condition, as illustrated in Figure A2 and Figure A3.
A.3.5 Emergency quick-stop: This condition can be expected to give rise to relatively severe vibration, if
only for short durations. An acceleration (g rms) time history for an emergency stop is presented in
Figure A4.
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A.4 Actions of the Sea
A.4.1 Astern: Vibration associated with this condition can exceed that of full ahead, although as for the
quick-stop, vibration tends to be non-stationary in character.
A.4.2 Sea depth: For a given condition vibration is likely to be more severe in shallow compared to deep
water because of water pressure reflections from the sea-bed (see Figure A2). Shallow water is generally
regarded to be of depth less than five times the draught of the ship.
A.4.3 Sea state: The general vibration environment onboard ship can be expected to become more
severe with increasing sea state and arises from slamming, wave slap and increased demands on the
propulsion system. This characteristic of increasing severity is addressed in Chapter 2-04,
sub-paragraph 2.1.4. In rough seas, when the ship may roll and pitch, the depth of the propellers beneath
the water will change, possibly producing cavitation noise, which will modify the severity and characteristics
of the vibration.
Figure A1 Example Vibration Severity (g rms) Versus Power Demand
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Figure A2 Comparison of the Typical Effects of Various Ship Conditions
0.06
0.05
Overall g rms (2-200 Hz)
Helm on Steady in the turn

0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 50 100 150 200
Time (secs)
Figure A3 Example Ship Structural Vibration Response for a Starboard Turn
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0.06
0.05
Overall g rms (2-200 Hz)
Start of the quick-stop

0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (secs)
Figure A4 Example Ship Structural Vibration Response for a Quick-Stop
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Annex B
Derivation of Test Severities from Measured Data
B.1 Derivation of Vibration Test Amplitudes
B.1.1 This annex provides guidance on how vibration test severities may be derived from measured data.
Before attempting to derive vibration test amplitudes, it is important to know how vibration levels are
influenced by parameters such as ship’s speed. These parameters are discussed in Annex A.
B.1.2 The spectral characteristics of measured materiel vibration responses comprise a broad band
random background component on which is superimposed a series of narrow band peaks associated with
rotating machinery.
B.1.2.1 Broad band component: In general, it can be expected that the broad band random component,
i.e. the basic shape of PSD plots, will be stable with respect to most ship operating conditions.
B.1.2.2 Narrow band peaks: The frequency of the dominant narrow band peaks are likely to correspond to
the propeller blade passing frequency and its harmonics. Derivation of the amplitudes for these components
can be a problem if their frequency changes with speed. This can lead to an under-estimation of severity
because of averaging effects implicit in a PSD analysis. One solution is to gather data at a number of
constant speeds which can then be analysed separately. Alternatively, if the speed is not constant
throughout a record, evolutionary spectra (waterfall plots) can be used. Another approach is to use a tracking
filter locked on to a shaft revolution signal. In either case, the severity should be associated with the
resolution bandwidth to make the amplitude definition unambiguous. In extreme cases, the severity
associated with these peaks could be based on peak-hold spectra to avoid their severity being subjected to
averaging processes.
B.1.3 The broad band component and the narrow band peaks need to be modified to represent an
acknowledged severity level of an anticipated in-Service condition. Whilst in principle it is desirable that test
amplitudes representing such limit conditions are expressed in terms of a probability of occurrence, e.g. 1 in
500 case or 2.88σ level, it is rarely practicable to do so rigorously because of the large amount of data
required to establish the statistics. Therefore, in most circumstances, recourse must be made to engineering
judgement when establishing limit conditions from the measured data. As a guide, only in exceptional
circumstances would test severities exceed those presented above as general purpose test severities.
B.1.4 The transformation of the background random vibration and the narrow band peaks into test spectra
is accomplished separately. The procedure comprises the following stages:
B.1.4.1 The background broad band random component often needs to be simplified to provide a
practicable test spectrum. This can be achieved by enveloping the measured spectra by a number of straight
line segments which follow the basic trend of the PSD characteristic. The resulting g rms should represent
the limit condition or the nominated predicted probability of occurrence, e.g. the 1 in 500 level.
B.1.4.2 The amplitudes measured at the narrow band peak frequencies are considered separately for the
steady state and transient conditions. For both sets of conditions, amplitudes corresponding to the limit
condition or the nominated probability of occurrence, should be established. For some ships, these
frequencies may change according to speed. To recognise in a test spectrum that the frequency of these
components are speed dependent, the narrow bands should be swept over an appropriate frequency range.
Alternatively, the broad band spectrum could simply be shaped to accommodate these peaks, rendering the
narrow bands unnecessary, albeit at the cost of over-testing.
B.1.4.3 The values derived in sub-paragraph B.1.4.1 for the background random element and
sub-paragraph B.1.4.2 for the steady state conditions of the blade passing related element should then be
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reconsidered to determine whether any further enhancement of the levels is necessary to cover the following
parameters:
⎯ Ship condition, e.g. age and state of repair (maintenance),
⎯ Ship variations, both within and across types, as appropriate,
⎯ Alternative installation schemes,
⎯ Measurement position and axis.
In practice, it is unlikely that the background random element will require further enhancement to cover
these parameters, but the propeller blade passing related components may well need consideration.
B.2 Derivation of Test Duration
B.2.1 Test durations should be based upon the required life of the materiel and the usage profile of the
relevant ships.
B.2.2 In order to avoid impracticably long test durations, it is general practice to invoke equipment fatigue
damage laws, such as Miner’s Rule, which is expressed as follows:
n
⎡S ⎤
t 2 = t1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ S2 ⎦
then t1 = the actual duration at the presumed level
n = the exaggeration exponent (which is related to the fatigue (S/N) curve for the appropriate
material), a value of 5 is preferred.
(If ASD levels are used in place of rms levels then the equivalent value of n is 2.5.)
This expression is applicable to metallic materials such as steel and aluminium alloys which possess an
essentially linear stress-strain relationship. It is used with less confidence with non-linear materials and
composites. Although the expression has been shown to have some merits when applied to materiel, it
should be used with extreme caution if unrepresentative failures are to be avoided. On no account should
test levels be increased beyond the maximum levels that materiel may be expected to experience during its
service life.
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B.2.3 A simplified example of the derivation of a test duration using these ideas is given below:
Power Severity Time

Condition
(%) Index % Mins Equivalent
Ahead 100 0.8 10.0 6.0 2.00
Ahead 70 0.6 47.0 28.2 2.19
Ahead 40 0.4 10.0 6.0 0.06
Turns 100 1.0 5.0 3.0 3.00
Turns 70 0.8 25.0 15.0 4.92
Astern - 1.0 2.0 1.2 1.20
Quick stop - 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.30
Totals: 100.0 60.0 13.67
NOTE 1 13.67 minutes test is equivalent to 60 minutes in-Service.
NOTE 2 The ‘Severity Index’ for a condition is the overall g rms normalised with respect to the maximum measured
overall g rms (associated with astern running and emergency stop in this example).
B.2.4 As stated in sub-paragraph B.2.2, when attempting to accelerate a test as illustrated above, it is
held as good practice not to test at levels greater than those seen in-Service. However, as in this case
vibration levels can be very low, it may be permissible to further reduce the test duration by adopting a test
level higher than that associated with this particular environment. For example, levels associated with road
transport may be considered as a basis for testing.
B.2.5 The above method of calculating test durations would normally be applied subject to a maximum of
17 hours per axis
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Intentionally Blank
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Annex C
UNDEX Assessment Process
C.1 Assessment Outline

This Annex provides a detailed overview of how individual technical functions, or disciplines, associated with
UNDEX assessments may be combined to produce a unified methodology for performing an UNDEX
assessment of materiel. The framework for an UNDEX assessment process and the common steps
necessary to satisfy the requirements are defined. The process is directed specifically at the qualification of
materiel to meet the safe and suitable for service criterion, but can include service life extension and disposal
as described in STANAG 4570. There are three distinct phases to the UNDEX assessment process shown in
Figure C1. These three phases, can combine in an iterative way to refine the process, as more information
becomes available.
Phase 1 Definition of Scope

AECTP 200 & 400,
1A: Task Overview 1B: Acceptance DEF STAN 00-35,
Criteria Definition MIL STD 810,
GAM-EG-13
Grade Curves, Tailored
Assessment, Testing (live 1C: Task Definition 1D: UNDEX
& inert), Analysis (GC, Assessment Plan
Psuedo static GC,
Dynamic GC, FE) Documentation
Phase 2 Evaluation
Step 2A: Excitation 2B: Materiel
Properties
2C: Structural 2D: UNDEX

Response Assessment
Phase 3 Assessment Conclusions
A definitive statement that the integrity of

the materiel can or cannot be proven for
required duty and meet the safety and
suitability for service criteria within an
acceptable margin
Figure C1 UNDEX Assessment Process
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C.2 Phase 1 – Definition of Scope
C.2.1 This is the specification of the assessment requirement from a consideration of existing and
required information. It is essential to have well defined objectives for the UNDEX assessment as a starting
point, along with the desired level of confidence in the assessment. Four steps may be identified in this
phase of the work:
⎯ Task Overview.
⎯ Acceptance Criteria Definition.
⎯ Task Definition.
⎯ UNDEX Assessment Plan Documentation.
C.2.2 The scope should assess and include the availability of all relevant information. For example,
commercial off the shelf (COTS) materiel may not be supported by sufficient technical information to allow an
UNDEX assessment; the availability of representative test specimens may be restricted.
C.2.3 1A: Task Overview (Annex D1)
The aim of this step is to provide an overview of the objectives and requirements of the UNDEX assessment
using the ability to fight, move and float as guidance. Decisions taken on the objectives will affect the
direction and emphasis of the assessment performed in the later phases. For example, when safety is the
prime objective then failure conditions could be limited to those, which cause potential injury or loss of life.
Overall financial constraints, time limits, or lack of information may also influence objectives and UNDEX
assessment procedures.
C.2.4 1B: Acceptance Criteria Definition (Annex D2, D3 and D4)
C.2.4.1 Three main elements below make up the acceptance criteria. Failure criteria are part of the overall
acceptance criteria. However, failure criteria are particularly important since they govern the choice of
assessment route, as described later in this Annex. Where it is difficult to define acceptance or failure:
⎯ Define the required function of the materiel.
⎯ Define the failure criteria.
⎯ Define the required confidence criteria.
C.2.4.2 Environmental testing may prove necessary as part of the evaluation process. To avoid final
conclusions of an assessment being qualified by arbitrarily chosen degrees of confidence, the required
confidence in the assessment should be chosen at the start. This choice depends on the consequences of
failure and level of criticality.
C.2.5 1C: Task Definition (Annex D1, D3 and D4)
C.2.5.1 The objective of this step is to provide adequate planning and ensure that the assessment
commences with a comprehensive consideration of the work involved.
⎯ Systematic reduction of the problem to a size that can be completed.
⎯ Selection of the most appropriate method of assessment.
⎯ Identification of critical items or components.
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⎯ Identification of failure modes that are possible given the excitation mechanisms.
C.2.5.2 It may not immediately be obvious which components are critical to achieving and maintaining
safety and suitability for service. Techniques such as Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) or
Redundancy Analysis may be required to identify the critical regions. The components may further be
reduced in number by consideration of possible failure modes associated with the UNDEX excitation
mechanisms Each component will have its own margin of safety, and it is desirable to consider the range to
further reduce the assessment to the most critical components. Furthermore, there may be components,
which have an overriding influence on the safety of the system as a whole. For example, a warhead booster
may be more critical than other components, and will thus drive the safety assessment. Any assumptions
made which will reduce the problem size will ultimately need to be justified to the safety case officer and
documented.
C.2.5.3 The final step in Phase 1 is to fully document the task overview, acceptance criteria, and task
definition, including appropriate review and approval. Information on materiel components, excitation
mechanisms, and likely failure modes identified during this stage should be documented. If several
assessment cases have been identified for detailed assessment, then each should be considered
individually. For example, a materiel may be stowed differently in various vessel classes.
C.3 Phase 2 - Evaluation
C.3.1 The definition of tasks, with a cost benefit assessment, will enable selection of an appropriate route
to satisfy the objectives of the UNDEX assessment. The chosen assessment route may require refinement,
as further information becomes available, to complete the analysis in the definition of scope. The detailed
assessment leading to the decision on safety and suitability for service has four steps as shown below.
⎯ Step 2A - Excitation Mechanisms and External Forces
⎯ Step 2B - Materiel Properties Definition
⎯ Step 2C - Structural Response Estimation
⎯ Step 2D - UNDEX assessment.
C.3.2 The input requirements and output results from steps C.3.3 to C3.6 2A to 2D are determined by the
objectives of the UNDEX assessment and are described below. These steps can be accomplished through
the required combination of laboratory testing and analytical, or modelling, analysis. Discussion is presented
below on the two common methods to complete steps C.3.3 2A through C3.6 2D, I Testing only and II
Tailored testing with validated testing. For completeness, two other possible methods are described after
methods I and II but are not used further in this annex.
C.3.2.1 Method I - Testing Only
C.3.2.1.1 Full scale testing of inert materiel can readily be accomplished at several test facilities using
mechanical simulation test equipment or a floating test platform. Inert materiel structural testing can be
undertaken in accordance with BR 8541 and consistent with the guidelines for general Naval equipment in
BR 8470 and CB 5012 or using specific tailored testing. However, live energetic materiel testing is limited to
the use of mechanical simulation equipment such as shock, vibration, or drop test systems. Shock response
spectra, or waveform replication techniques using electrodynamic or servo-hydraulic test systems offer the
most accurately controlled test procedure. Either equipment type requires a defined input acceleration time
history within the limits of the exciter thrust, displacement and frequency bandwidth capability. Pyroshock
excitation, AECTP Method 415, may also be applicable. The equipment performance limitations can restrict
test capabilities for large low frequency displacements and high frequency excitation requirements. The use
of acceleration dynamic responses above the materiel isolation mount as the input control specification may
be desirable for the UNDEX test. Drop also tests provide a measure of general ruggedness, but the induced
loading, duration, and magnitude can be significantly different from measured shipborne UNDEX loading.
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This limits the correlation of drop test data to predicted UNDEX performance, particularly for dynamically
complex materiel. If the tests are definitive, the qualification test can form the basis of the UNDEX safety
case directly.
C.3.2.1.2 Full scale testing avoids using unproven scaling techniques, but unique test fixturing may be
necessary, which are costly and physically large. The fixturing and equipment may itself suffer significant
damage and be unusable for further tests. Procedures II, III, and IV may be necessary to extrapolate testing
data to inaccessible regions of the structure or materiel. Also testing may not be practical when considering
the combination of load cases necessary to establish the safety and suitability for service case. Annex D
provides further information on laboratory or experimental test equipment. Figure C2 below outlines the
assessment process for method I.
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Method I
Determine Test Levels

(Can be derived from analysis and or
grade curves or others)
Is it necessary to test
complete munition or is it NO Validated or
possible to test components Un-validated
& achieve valid safety case? Analysis
YES
Is munition NO
available?
YES
Live Testing if possible otherwise inert testing
Live Inert
Weight < 2T = Shock Table

NO Is shaker (Simulated UNDEX)
method
acceptable
Weight > 2T = Barge Tests
YES
Electro magnetic/Servo-
Hydraulic Shaker SRS Measured data from testing to
testing – limited input g confirm dynamic response levels
levels & frequency –
consider weight
Barge Test if
Available Assess test results and compare with
Drop Testing (validity acceptance criteria. Refer to Annex D
of drop testing should
be assessed)
Is UNDEX
assessment
satisfactory?
Annex D5
UNDEX assessment conclusions
Figure C2 UNDEX Assessment Method I
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C.3.2.2 Method II - Tailored Test and Validated Analysis
This method provides a balance between test and theoretical analysis. This ensures the most cost-effective
use of testing, combined with measured data to validate any analysis. The analysis allows extreme
environment cases to be considered which may not be feasible to investigate through laboratory testing. The
existence of measured data provides the safety case officer with improved confidence, in a cost-effective
manner; the number of test cases can generally be reduced. Testing may include modal as well as
qualification testing. Modal tests will require application of theoretical or empirical scaling laws if scale
models have been used. Figure C3 below outlines the assessment process for Method II.
C.3.2.3 Method III - Validated Analysis
Given the databases of UNDEX transient acceleration responses already existing, it is often possible to use
measured data from previous tests or experiments. Procedure III is similar to II, but uses historical data to
correlate with an existing model or data set. However, caution is required in the use of inadequately
documented measured test data. The validity of the historical data needs to be justified to the safety case
officer.
C.3.2.4 Method IV - Unvalidated Analysis
C.3.2.4.1 This option is the least desirable, but is the only possible course of action when tailored testing is
not possible and no relevant historical data exists. This procedure is only to be used as a last resort.
Theoretical developments and new computer simulations not requiring validation by future experiments are
included. The obvious increased level of uncertainty will attract increased scrutiny. The safety case officer
will require evidence of the validity of the approach, competence of the UNDEX assessment team, and a
proven track record in this type of analysis. The use of reliability error bands is a useful method of improving
confidence.
C.3.2.4.2 The more complex assessment methods should be aimed at reducing the uncertainties in the
UNDEX assessment procedure where higher risk situations are encountered. A combination of cost
limitations and acceptable degree of uncertainty will determine the UNDEX assessment procedure.
Assessment of uncertainties is often made on a subjective basis and an experienced engineer is required to
make these judgements aided where appropriate by suitable techniques. The detailed assessment has three
possible outcomes:
⎯ The assessment is acceptable, the materiel may have passed or failed, and the output from step 2D
forms the response in Phase 3.
⎯ The assessment is unacceptable because of an insufficient level of confidence in the UNDEX

assessment, and the decision is made to improve the assessment by repeating steps 2A to 2D until the
required degree confidence level is achieved.
⎯ The assessment is unacceptable due to a high degree of uncertainty, and the decision is made to
redefine the materiel stowage, or recommend alterations to the materiel. This will require redefining the
scope and repeating steps 2A to 2D.
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Method II
Is munition in-hull or out

Dry with hull? If the munition
spends significant time
Wet
where a direct waterborne
shock path exists, this must
be treated as a special case
What are
structures dynamic
properties?
Flexible
Rigid
Simple - Use simple lumped mass model Undertake FE analysis of FE analysis using fluid
munition and or storage method structural interaction methods
Complex - Use multiple MDOF lumped
mass model
No
Are the grade
curves
applicable?
Yes
Undertake FE analysis of munition and or storage method
Assess any whipping input loads by

consideration of platform design if required
Validate.
Tailored test data
Output: stress analysis of munition accel, velocity & disp space

envelope structural deformation in vicinity of explosive components etc
Is assessment No
acceptable? REASSESS
Annex D5
Yes
UNDEX assessment conclusions
Figure C3 Method II
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C.3.2.4.3 The accuracy of the four assessment steps should be increased until a satisfactory cumulative
level of confidence in the assessment procedure can be demonstrated. It is not essential to increase the
level of accuracy in all of the assessment steps simultaneously, only where a weakness is identified. The
UNDEX assessment flow diagram shown in Figure C2 and Figure C3 comprises the generalised steps 2A
to 2D, encompassing specific requirements. These steps are the same for generalised vibration assessment,
which allow integration of the two procedures. The following sections consider each key step.
C.3.3 Step 2A - Excitation Mechanism and External Forces (Annex D3.1)
The main excitation mechanisms are direct structure-borne shock and bubble induced whipping. Where the
materiel is stored or deployed with the vessel or is in a position where a direct fluid path exists, then this is a
special case. In such circumstances structure borne shock plus the direct shock wave loading need
consideration. It should be ascertained what combination of these excitation mechanisms is required to be
included in the UNDEX assessment. For example whipping would not be included for a fast patrol craft. In
general all ships need to be considered for shock but only high aspect ratio vessels are susceptible to
whipping. The levels associated with the excitation mechanisms can be taken from the Shock Grade Curve
Scheme, measured from experiment or derived from theoretical evaluation. The ‘worst case’ stowage
configuration and a range of ‘worst case’ UNDEX scenarios will generally require to be considered, although
these will vary on a case-by-case basis.
C.3.3.1 Procedure I - Analytical Methods
In an UNDEX assessment analytical methods can be used to relate the response of a materiel to a given
dynamic input excitation and define test-input data. This will often require a non-linear analysis accomplished
using finite elements and / or boundary element methods. These analytical methods are complex and require
sophisticated specialist software used by personnel with appropriate direct experience. Personnel
competency and associated QA should be specified and will depend upon the type of analysis and
assessment required. Validation and verification of the analysis techniques and UNDEX assessment is
essential and employ experimental data, Grade Curves, non-linear material properties and the extensive
historical shock database etc.
C.3.3.2 Procedure II - Experimental Methods
C.3.3.2.1 Experimental methods reduce the uncertainty associated with the UNDEX assessment and
analytical methods by the use of full scale and model trials. They deal with the real physical system, which
encompass non-linearity and the interaction effects. However, experimental testing and full-scale trials can
be expensive. They should be considered in terms of:
⎯ Qualification testing.
⎯ The requirement for verification and validation of the analysis.
⎯ Assessment of the potential cost benefit.
⎯ The number of scenarios, which need to be considered to evaluate the operational safety and suitability
for service requirement.
C.3.3.2.2 Considerable specialist knowledge, expertise and experience are required to specify, install,
operate and monitor equipment and interpret the data correctly.
C.3.4 Step 2B - Materiel Properties Definition (Annex D3.2)
A necessary prerequisite of an UNDEX assessment is the need to assess the dynamic properties of the
materiel, stowage support, and the ships structure (such as stiffness, mass, damping, frequency, mode
shape, etc.). This can be achieved by analytical and /or experimental methods.
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C.3.4.1 Procedure I - Analytical Methods for Dynamic Properties
C.3.4.1.1 For materiel and stowage which can be approximated to one or two degrees of freedom, simple
hand calculations using lump mass parameters are acceptable for determining the dynamic behaviour of the
materiel and its stowage support, provided that the material properties are known. This approach is included
in BR8541.
C.3.4.1.2 For multi-degree of freedom and more complex systems, finite element and modal analysis is
necessary. This requires the generation of a computer model, which represents accurately the geometric
and material properties of the materiel and its supports. Experience in finite element modelling and analysis
will reduce the uncertainties caused by an incorrect representation of the actual physical system. This
applies in particular to aspects, which are difficult or unnecessary to model accurately such as damping,
junctions at structural elements and non-linear behaviour of supports etc.
C.3.4.2 Procedure II -- Experimental Methods for Dynamic Properties
Dynamic properties can be determined by modal testing techniques. In brief this involves the excitation of the
component at low levels of vibration and the measurement of the response. The signal usually measured by
transducers placed on the component or by non-contact methods is analysed to provide the modal
frequencies, shapes and the damping characteristics. Modal testing techniques generally provide much more
accurate dynamic characteristics than analytical methods. However, since low vibrations are used to
determine modal characteristics they are essentially linear. The validity of using a linear representation will
need justification because of the high excitation levels associated with an UNDEX event.
C.3.5 Step 2C - Structural Response Estimation (Annex D3.3)
The external dynamic forces in conjunction with the dynamic properties will cause a dynamic response of the
materiel and its support. This response will be in the form of internal stresses and strains and these
parameters are essential for the UNDEX structural integrity assessment. Methods of evaluating dynamic
response may be either theoretical or experimental.
C.3.5.1 Procedure I - Analytical Methods for Structural Response
C.3.5.1.1 Dynamic response can be computed using the finite element technique. The computer model
generated to provide the dynamic characteristics can be utilised to calculate the dynamic responses.
Damping cannot be defined by an analytical method but can be estimated and included in the model.
Damping must always be included in the analysis and if no accurate damping levels are available it should
be estimated as the result of experience or measurement. For linear structural systems analysis techniques
such as modal superposition are adequate. However, for non-linear behaviour, non-linear finite element
methods and the use of direct time-integration techniques are required. Whereas non-linear approaches are
not necessarily required for all UNDEX analyses, those considering safety criteria are likely to be at high
shock factors, near or at hull lethality levels. These will invariably drive mounting structures, packaging, and
casings into plastic behaviour.
C.3.5.1.2 In the case of materiel, which can be represented as lump masses the Shock Grade Curves
Scheme can be applied directly, to obtain the forced response levels associated with shock and latterly a
crude representation of whipping effects.
C.3.5.2 Procedure II - Experimental Methods for Structural Response
C.3.5.2.1 Two uses of experimental testing are possible to monitor the structural response in an UNDEX
assessment: Full-scale testing and model testing.
C.3.5.2.2 Full scale testing is usually expensive but produces the most accurate results since all the
physical conditions are representative. UNDEX testing of inert materiel is possible but in the UK live testing
has historically largely been restricted to drop testing. With the improvement of vibration / shock controllers
and availability of high thrust electro-magnetic shakers it is now feasible to consider applying SRS methods
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for live materiel testing. The size of materiel capable of being tested using this method is governed by the
above mount shock level / time history, its weight and dynamic behaviour. Currently UNDEX testing using
this method has successfully been completed on materiel up to 900 kg. SRS testing applies equally to inert
materiel and provides realistic input shocks consistent with operational response time histories. A further
advantage of this method is that currently deployed dynamic test facilities can be utilised without costly
capital expenditure. However, both drop testing and SRS testing rely upon an understanding of the
operational input shock time history, which can only be derived from barge tests, full scale tests of inert
materiel or from theoretical models and the historical database.
C.3.5.2.3 With inert testing, where there are a number of support configurations or attack scenarios full
scale testing can be impractical. The usual form of testing is to use the actual materiel or a dynamically
equivalent replica supported in a representative manner. This is then tested at the pre-defined UNDEX
severity and strains and dynamic responses are recorded. Scale models may be used, but normal static
scaling procedures may be inappropriate. When considering the dynamic behaviour scaling factors are
difficult to determine, especially for complex components.
C.3.5.2.4 Before progressing to step 2D, the question as to whether the worst case has been considered
or not needs to be asked. If the answer is yes, one can progress to step 2D.
C.3.5.2.5 If the answer is no, consider whether a greater certainty could lead to a satisfactory UNDEX
assessment. Is so, then the test levels should be increased if possible. If this is not possible, the number of
load test cases/tests or the depth of analysis should be increased. Return to step 2A.
C.3.6 Step 2D - UNDEX Assessment (Annex D3.4)
C.3.6.1 Potential Damage Mechanisms
The dynamic and strain information obtained is generally for a fully operational materiel, which is defect free.
The values are used in combination with the requirements of the assessment and the chosen failure modes,
to select a suitable UNDEX assessment technique. Common failure mechanisms and modes are listed in
Section 2.1.1 & 2.1.2 of AECTP Method 419 and it is possible for them to be present either singly or
combined.
C.3.6.2 UNDEX Methods of Assessment
C.3.6.2.1 UNDEX assessment is an integrated multi-disciplinary activity combining experiment, test and
theoretical analysis.
C.3.6.2.2 The failure modes can be assessed using experimental testing, fracture mechanics based
analytical techniques, non-fracture mechanics based techniques, or semi-empirical treatments such as the
Shock Grade Curve Schemes.
C.3.6.3 Procedure I - Experimental Testing
An UNDEX assessment implies that if the materiel is able to sustain the stresses and strains imposed during
an UNDEX event, then it passes safety requirement at the ‘to float’ level and if it remains functional at the ‘to
fight’ level then it is considered serviceable. Testing full-scale prototypes either to service loads or to
destruction will give an indication of the likely failure modes and the factors of safety. Correlation with small-
scale tests is possible but uncertainty may be introduced due to scaling effects. Small scale testing is
generally used to obtain mechanical toughness properties for materials and is impracticable for live materiel.
Testing may take the form of simulated shock using test machines or barge tests.
C.3.6.4 Procedure II - Analytical Assessment Techniques
Can range from the application of simple analytical formulae to full-blown Hydrocode treatment of the fluid
structure interaction problem. The key is choosing a method of complexity consistent with the level of detail
required in the assessment. At the simple level direct solution of the equations of motion for simple rigid
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systems can suffice. Where flexible equipment and / or supports are included then the direct choice is the
use of finite element techniques whereby the load is provided from a Shock Grade Curve Scheme or an
experimentally measured input. Where the assessment necessarily needs to consider fluid structure
interaction it is possible to consider estimated hull inputs using Taylor plate theory. In reality fluid structural
interaction is considered with the more sophisticated yet still approximate techniques. These include the
cylindrical wave approximation, virtual mass approximation and the improved approximation inherent in the
doubly asymptotic approximation (DAA) family. The DAA approach is essentially a boundary element
approach, which considers the fluid field as a boundary wrap over a structural finite element model. For
scenarios where fluid volumes and cavities are significant increasing complexity is required and the only
acceptable choice in this instance is the use of a Hydrocode. Hydrocodes are specialist codes and are
currently ‘state-of-the-art’. Their use requires significant investment in expertise and hardware and
depending upon the maturity of the fluid structure coupling contained within, the results may not be any more
accurate than those of an approximate method.
C.3.6.5 Procedure III - Codes of Practice and Guidance Documents for UNDEX Assessment
There are currently no guidance documents or codes of practice applicable to tailored UNDEX assessment
of complex materiel. A range of documents are available which provide guidance and procedures applicable
to simple materiel and these include: AECTP 200 & 400, DEF STAN 00-35, MIL STD 810, GAM-EG-13,
BR 8470, BR 8472, BR 3021, CB 5021, NES 814, NES 1004.
C.3.6.6 Step 2D2 – Is UNDEX Assessment satisfactory? (Annex D5)
C.3.6.6.1 At this stage the question as to whether the UNDEX assessment is satisfactory or not needs to
be asked. Refer to Annex D5 for guidance. If the answer is yes, one can progress to phase 3.
C.3.6.6.2 If the answer is no, consider whether a greater certainty could lead to a satisfactory UNDEX
assessment. Is so, then the test levels should be increased if possible. If this is not possible, the number of
load test cases/tests or the depth of analysis should be increased. Return to step 2A.
C.4 Phase 3 – Assessment Conclusions

An UNDEX assessment is deemed to be complete when a definitive statement can be made that the
integrity of the materiel can or cannot be proven for required duty and meet the safety and suitability for
service criteria within an acceptable margin. This statement should be qualified with an assigned level of
confidence determined by the uncertainty factors associated with the particular steps taken in the UNDEX
assessment. Comparison with any target probability or confidence requirements defined in Phase 1 will also
influence the final statement. A clearly drawn, concise and unambiguous conclusion should be recorded. The
MOD safety case assessor will require well defined audit trails from the assessment start to conclusion. Any
conclusions drawn may be qualified by comparison with pre-determined, quantifiable criteria.
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Annex D
UNDEX Assessment and Test Considerations
D.1 Introduction
D.1.1 This Annex reviews the general considerations needed to determine an appropriate UNDEX
assessment process or test programme. Consideration of a range of in-service conditions and analysis
approaches will provide the necessary information to allow completion of the required documentation or
experimental tests. The questions specified are only guidelines, and additional topics may need to be
evaluated for individual UNDEX test programme or Test Instruction requirements. Fundamental questions to
start the process are defined below:
a) What is the required function of the materiel or components?
b) What constitutes an unacceptable failure?
c) Is there an acceptable failure scenario?
d) What is the required confidence in the conclusions of the assessment?
e) Is a safety case required, if so what category?
f) Is personnel safety involved?
g) If the consequences of failure are economic, how large is the potential loss?
h) What are the results of a fault consequence assessment?
i) Is post shock disposal of the materiel to be considered?
j) What level of serviceability is required?
k) Is the UNDEX assessment associated with new materiel, or a life extension case?
D.1.2 The most pertinent question is perhaps the definition of an acceptable and unacceptable failure.
The simplest condition for which materiel can compromise operations is by detachment from the mounting
point(s) during the UNDEX event, and becoming a “projectile” on the ship. Environmental simulation tests for
this condition are generally referred to as “crash hazard” tests. Therefore, captivity of the materiel, or shock
isolation hardware failure, is an important issue.
D.1.3 There are generally no circumstances where premature ignition or detonation of energetic material
can be tolerated for safety considerations. Explosive failure is self evident from a safety viewpoint, and can
only meet the watertight integrity requirement. However, safety could be compromised by a second order
event, such as fuel leakage, fuse instability, radioactive leakage, or any event which could impact upon the
efficient capability of the ship to meet it’s shock design criteria.
D.1.4 Furthermore, following an UNDEX event, the capability for safe handling, servicing, or disposal of
the materiel must exist. Increasing shock levels can be associated with a decrease in serviceability and
reliability. This introduces the concept of “safety levels” associated with the failure mechanism(s), and is
directly related to the safety case category required from the UNDEX assessment. The key criteria which
must be defined by the UNDEX assessment process, is determination if the materiel is safe or serviceable at
the required level (I, I, or III), to fight, move, or float respectively.
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D.2 Environmental Considerations
D.2.1 Does the UNDEX Assessment include transit by commercial ships?
a) How is the materiel packaged?
b) How is the materiel protected?
c) How is the materiel slung and loaded?
d) What events will the materiel be exposed to during loading and storage?
e) Where is the materiel stored?
f) Is the materiel stored above or below deck?
g) Is the materiel in a container?
h) Is there any form of dynamic isolation? (Elastomeric mounts, yielding constant force devices, crushable
materials, compliant structures etc.)
i) Can the materiel become a mechanical projectile?
j) Can the materiel create a personnel, equipment, or operational hazard?
k) What is the free travel and sway space?
l) What is the space envelope associated with the materiel storage position?
m) Can external mechanical bodies, as a result of UNDEX, affect the materiel?
D.2.2 Does the UNDEX assessment include stowage in a naval ships magazines?
a) What are the stowage arrangements and configuration?
b) Where and how will the materiel be stowed?
c) Where will the materiel be stored? - (Close to the hull, on deck, seating, above or below the waterline
etc.).
d) What structure is between the wetted hull and the storage position?
e) What is the shock loading path?
f) What is the free travel and sway space? i.e. what is the space envelope associated with the materiel
storage position?
g) Is there any form of dynamic isolation? (Elastomeric mounts, yielding constant force devices, crushable
materials, compliant structures etc.)
h) Can the materiel become a mechanical projectile? If not, how is the materiel restrained?
i) If the materiel is restrained can the restraint itself impose damage under high deceleration?
j) Can the materiel hazard other materiel, itself or personnel?, either by impact, leakage and electrical
hazard initiated by failure?
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k) Is the UNDEX assessment to include operational deployment- Naval ships (ready for use launcher
environment)?
l) Is the materiel located on the hull, deck, upper or lower deck?
m) Is there any isolation between the launcher and the ship structure?
n) At what axial position is the materiel located on the ship?
o) What are the boundary conditions in terms of the launcher structural dynamics?
p) Can any part of the launcher structure impinge on the space envelope of the materiel boundary (crushing
etc.)?
q) How is the materiel restrained? Is it merely gravity, interference or other physical restraint?
r) Does the materiel need to be judged on a case-by-case basis?
D.3 Potential Failure Modes

What are the Potential Failure Modes of the Materiel?
a) Detonation?
b) Deflagration, slow burn?
c) Fatigue, in particular at welds to parent metal?
d) Fracture?
e) Plastic collapse?
f) Leakage?
g) Instability and buckling?
h) Failure from initial imperfections?
i) Control or functional limits such as displacement limits?
j) Combined failure modes?
k) Collision and adequate space envelope?
D.3.1 Step 2A - Excitation Mechanisms and Forces
D.3.1.1 What excitation mechanisms are conceivable?
D.3.1.1.1 It is important to consider that any combination of the perceived excitation mechanisms, while
potentially damaging in themselves, will also have the potential to make the materiel a projectile. Captivity of
the materiel is an overriding requirement.
D.3.1.1.2 Derived from any of the excitation mechanisms and external forces the materiel could become,
or suffer impact from other detached materiel. Also, the materiel may still remain attached to the elastomeric
mounts but could exceed its allowable sway space and collide with other structures or materiel.
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D.3.1.1.3 Whipping is dependent upon the attack geometry and the geometric and dynamic characteristics
of the target. A long slender ship would generally be subject to whipping; a short landing craft would be
subject to severe sinusoidal rigid body motion. There are generally more instances where whipping motion
excitation is a concern than non-existent.
D.3.1.1.4 Hydrostatic pressure pre-load may be an important issue for submarine assessment cases.
General UNDEX dynamic excitations are below:
a) Shock,
b) Whipping,
c) Acoustic, fluid-acoustic coupling, acoustic shock waves,
d) Fluid phenomena - Bubble flow loading (incompressible fluid flow), cavitation,
e) Mechanical transmission,
f) Differential hydrostatic pressure,
g) Impact from drops, energetic missiles, collision, loss of captivity etc.,
h) Transient pressures.
D.3.1.2 What are the characteristics of these possible excitation mechanisms?
a) Steady state, transient or random,
b) Transient – acoustic,
c) Transient bubble,
d) Frequency range, broadband, narrow band,
e) Amplitude distribution and time distribution, i.e. maximum pulse magnitude & phasing,
f) Spatial correlation, uniform distribution, point loads.
D.3.1.2.1 When considering the characteristics of the possible excitation mechanisms the following should
be addressed.
⎯ The explosive type, depth and warhead size and attack angle.
⎯ The shock factor for the attack weapon.
⎯ The peak overpressure, impulse duration, and amplitude.
D.3.1.2.2 The shock factor, which may be expressed as a direct hull shock factor, keel shock factor or an
angle shock factor, is related to the energy flux density. From these considerations the input shock loading
can be defined.
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Shock Factor Parameter Fraction Shock Grade Curve Scheme

An explosive parameter The Shock Grade Curves Scheme relate to a given The Shock Grade Curves
related to the energy flux position and known input level. The parameter fraction Scheme can supply:
density from an UNDEX is a scaling constant to relate information at other
explosive event shock factors Acceleration
Velocity
Displacement
D.3.1.3 How Does the excitation change with operational variables?
⎯ Depth.
⎯ Time.
⎯ Attitude of impact: component or target of excitation.
⎯ Angle of attack.
D.3.1.4 What is the likely accuracy of the above estimates of excitation forces?
Estimation of the forces is based upon well established and validated techniques, and upon either empirical
equations, or from the Shock Grade Curve Scheme. The Shock Grade Curve Scheme is a distillation of a
very large database of ship and submarine dynamic responses to UNDEX events.
⎯ Are they based on direct measurement local to the structure or component?
⎯ If so, were the measurements made under worst-case conditions for each possible excitation?
⎯ If based on empirical formulae, can the use of the formulae be justified?
⎯ If theoretical, how has the theoretical model used been validated?
D.3.2 Step 2B - Component Dynamic Properties
D.3.2.1 Are dynamic material properties for materiel, packaging, and support structure, available?
⎯ Aerospace alloys, elastomeric mounts, seals etc?
⎯ If the information is not available where can it be found?
⎯ Is testing necessary - modal, shock, and static properties, UTS, Charpy etc.?
⎯ Is information available on the inter-connection of components?
⎯ Will the inter-connections effect the dynamic behaviour of the materiel or equipment i.e. friction across
bolted joints?
⎯ What test information is available to allow verification of FE or other models?
D.3.2.2 Are in-service measurements available covering the range of possible variables?
⎯ Force, time, acceleration, and amplitude.
⎯ Frequency.
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⎯ Variation in properties between nominally identical components (elastomeric mounts and

interconnections).
D.3.2.3 What are the boundary conditions of the component under assessment?
⎯ Isolated from other structures (free, rigidly fixed or damped).
⎯ Strongly coupled to other structures, which are not significantly dynamically influenced by the
component.
⎯ Strongly coupled to other structures, mutually interacting with them.
⎯ Does the materiel occupy a significant axial length? (since shock loading of a distributed system will be
phased) This is important both axially and athwartships.
D.3.2.4 Is it reasonable to assume linear behaviour in the excitation force range?
⎯ For low shock loads a linear system can be utilised. However, above a threshold shock factor a non-
linear assessment will be required.
⎯ For Non-linear mounting systems treatment of the mounts as linear isolators is not adequate.
D.3.2.5 Could the materiel have resonant frequencies in the excitation frequency band?
⎯ Higher frequency modes of the materiel may be excited depending upon the resonance characteristics.
⎯ Low frequency mounting systems may be susceptible to low frequency whipping inputs.
D.3.2.6 Is the modal density sufficiently high that the statistical analysis is applicable or is
individual modal properties required?
In general it is the first ten modes of the materiel structure, which will be significant. This limitation can be
considered to be a benefit in terms of the FE model and its validation since it is difficult to accurately validate
high order modes.
D.3.2.7 Are the component resonant frequencies high compared to the impact duration for a
transient excitations so that pseudo-static calculations are sufficient and no modal
properties are required?
⎯ If a Shock Grade Curve Scheme approach is adopted, only rigid body behaviour with no high frequency
components is considered. However, for flexible structures high frequency modes could be excited. The
interaction between components would then need to be evaluated. This is an important factor when
defining the need for tailored testing.
⎯ The pseudo static approach tends to lead to structural forces, which are conservative resulting in a
degree of pessimism. Therefore, pseudo static analysis should be treated with caution. However, this
approach is often used in the absence of a dynamic analysis and can result in unrepresentative
responses. Tailored assessment using modelling and test should be used where possible.
D.3.2.8 What are the mode shapes, relevant modes and the estimated (modal or averaged) damping
values?
⎯ Fundamental response mode,
⎯ Impulse response,
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⎯ Mechanical damping,
⎯ Fluid damping,
⎯ Acoustic radiation damping,
⎯ Are the damping sources lumped or distributed?
D.3.2.9 How will the above dynamic parameters be altered by environmental factors associated
with operation?
Including:
⎯ Shock assessment is primarily involved with gross movement where subtleties such as temperature are
second order. However, pre-load can have a significant effect when considering elastomeric isolators.
⎯ Temperature,
⎯ Pre-load changes at supports.
D.3.2.10 Variations in the characteristics between nominally identical components are likely. can
the possible spread be estimated?
In most cases it is not possible to estimate the spread of dynamic response characteristics. The nominal
design and build standard is generally consistent and is adopted. There are far more influential
approximations made in the assessment than considering a nominal spread in the materiel dynamic
properties characteristics e.g. the fluid / hull and structural load path can only be approximated.
D.3.2.11 What is the estimated accuracy of the frequencies, damping values and mode shapes?
⎯ Are they based on relevant measurements on a real component?
⎯ If theoretical, how has confidence in the relevance of the model been obtained?
⎯ If empirical, are the data / formulae applicable to those component in this environment?
D.3.3 Step 2C - Dynamic Response Determination
D.3.3.1 Are the measurements of the response under the correct environmental conditions
available?
⎯ Do they cover all excitations identified above?
⎯ Are they made under the most onerous of conditions?
⎯ Coincidence of structural and excitation frequencies for most lightly damped modes.
⎯ Highest coupling in terms of spatial match.
⎯ Conditions needed to promote onset of instabilities.
⎯ Impact conditions associated with highest forces.
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D.3.3.2 Can responses be estimated by extrapolating limited measurements from similar structures
or Materiel?
⎯ How has the extrapolation been justified?
⎯ What are the main parameters to which the response is sensitive?
⎯ What is the likely accuracy of the estimated response?
D.3.3.3 This is the basis of the Shock Grade Curve Scheme, which is limited to compact, rigid materiel.
The following questions will help in identifying if the materiel can be considered as rigid.
⎯ What is the aspect ratio of the materiel or collective materiel?
⎯ Are materiel supported individually or collectively?
⎯ Could individual materiel be removed for use?
⎯ Is the materiel or collection of materiel a flexible, multi-modal structure or is it rigid and compact?
Examples of a typical materiel or collection of materiel, which are rigid and compact, are shells, depth
charges, case of racked shells, Blow Pipe, Sea Wolf. Those, which can be considered to be flexible and or
distributed, include Tomahawk, torpedoes and air weapons.
D.3.3.4 If no direct measurements of the response are available, what theoretical estimates can be
made for each relevant excitation force?
This only applies to tailored assessments of flexible materiel described above. There are established,
validated and verified techniques for estimating the UNDEX loading on marine structures. The Shock Grade
Curve Scheme can be used for limited lump mass structural models or as inputs where it is deemed that fluid
structure interaction calculation is not required.
D.3.3.5 How sensitive is the response to known mechanical and excitation variables?
The Shock Grade Curve Scheme is relatively insensitive to mechanical changes, principally because of the
crude modelling capability. Tailored assessment may take account of the materiel structural geometry
thereby providing a more sensitive assessment.
D.3.4 Step 2D - Mechanical Integrity Assessment
D.3.4.1 Simple Materiel’s - Shock Grade Curve Scheme or Test Approach
For a simple materiel, a testing programme would be appropriated which covers the most onerous
conditions.
D.3.4.1.1 Are component endurance or failure data available under the most onerous conditions?
⎯ Are the results statistically meaningful?
⎯ Do all the parameters, which significantly affect the dynamic response or failure resistance, have
pessimistic values?
D.3.4.1.2 In calculating the endurance or likelihood of failure, how sensitive is the result to the
dynamic strength parameter used?
⎯ What is the safety margin on the allowable dynamic response?
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D.3.4.1.2.1 The Shock Grade Curve Scheme is insensitive to the dynamic and strength parameters used
and therefore it is difficult to scope the range of parameters.
D.3.4.1.2.2 It is very difficult to adequately define a safety margin using the Shock Grade Curve Scheme. An
approximation for whipping is included in the 1987 Shock Grade Curve Scheme but their accuracy can be
questioned since whipping is approximated simply by the inclusion of a low frequency sine residual
component in the tail of the specified impulse. In practice whipping response will be platform specific.
D.3.4.1.3 Are the results of this assessment acceptable in terms of the ability of the component to
meet the duty specified?
⎯ If not, is this because parts of the assessment are overly conservative? If so, initiate a detailed analysis
of these in Phase 2 of the analysis.
⎯ If not, what are the main options for improving the integrity as identified by the assessment and
sensitivity study?
⎯ Evaluate most likely options for improvement starting at question 1 again.
Both the Shock Grade Curve Scheme and tailored assessment using complex numerical methods will not
define if the materiel failure criteria. If the failure criteria are based upon structural damage these methods
are well placed to provide this, where the simple analysis will not. The Grade Curves are sufficient to
determine acceleration levels and the gross dynamic response for simple materiel. This can then be related
to survival or damage test levels (i.e. 30g over 10 ms can be predicted) and historical data associated with
weapon survival or failure used for comparative purposes. The tailored assessment and testing approach
can give the inertial load and structural behaviour in and around the materiel from which assessment of the
failure modes and likelihood of detonation may be assessed.
D.3.4.2 Complex Materiel - Shock Grade Curve Scheme or Test Approach
The added complexity of analysis methods to investigate the dynamic behaviour of complex materiel allows
the sensitivity of the result to dynamic and strength parameters to be assessed. This allows a range of ‘what
if’ questions to be investigated. However, this approach can be costly and a cost benefit analysis will be
required.
D.3.4.2.1 Are component endurance or failure data available under the most onerous conditions?
⎯ Are the results statistically meaningful?
⎯ Do all the parameters, which significantly affect the dynamic response or failure resistance, have
pessimistic values?
D.3.4.2.2 In calculating the endurance or likelihood of failure, how sensitive is the result to the
dynamic strength parameter used?
⎯ What is the safety margin on the allowable dynamic response?
D.3.4.2.3 Are the results of this assessment acceptable in terms of the ability of the component to
meet the duty specified?
⎯ If not, is this because parts of the assessment are overly conservative? If so initiate a detailed analysis
in Phase 2 of the process.
⎯ If not, what are the main options for improving the integrity as identified by the assessment and
sensitivity study?
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⎯ Evaluate most likely options for improvement starting at question 1 again.
D.4 Failure Criteria
D.4.1 What data are required to derive failure criteria?
⎯ Materials data
⎯ Geometry data
⎯ Environmental data
⎯ Fastenings
D.4.2 What failure criteria can be derived from available data, including component in-
service Experience?
⎯ What is the estimated probability of failure associated with these criteria?
⎯ Are there uncertainties that could make the failure criteria optimistic?
Shock assessment attempts to model the dynamic behaviour of a large section of the ship and predict its
dynamic response to complex transient inputs. The materiel, structure if flexible, will also require to be
modelled in some detail. The level of knowledge to achieve the desired objective is high and the analyses
are complex, non-trivial and should not be confused with static modelling. The level of controls, which must
be in place to manage the analysis and minimise the potential for error and the uncertainties, are high. The
objective of an UNDEX assessment must therefore be to refine the scope to the worst-case behaviour in
terms of safety assessment, suitability for service and influence the qualification testing programme.
D.5 Undex Assessment Verification and Validation
⎯ Is it economically viable to get test data?
⎯ Is it politically acceptable to get test data?
⎯ Is a materiel available to risk destruction?
⎯ Can a testing programme be influenced by modelling, thereby, only providing the minimum data to allow
validated results? Maximum load cases can be explored.
⎯ Is data derived from live materiel available or is only dummy materiel data available?
⎯ In which case, what method and criteria are to be used to determine if detonation is possible?
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Annex E
Annex E
E.1 References
1. Naval Engineering Standard NES 1004 Requirements for the Design and Testing of -
Equipment to Meet Environmental Conditions, Issue 1, 1987.
2. Tailoring Shipboard Environmental Specifications, R, Journal of the i.e.S. H Chalmers
E.2 Bibliography
British Standard BS 6632: 1985 “Measurement and Reporting of shipboard Vibration Data”. -
British Standard BS 6633: 1985 “Measurement and Reporting of Local Vibration Data of ship -
Structures and Equipment
British Standard BS 6634: 1985 “Overall Evaluation of Vibration in Merchant Ships”. -
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Annex E
Intentionally Blank
316
Chapter 9-02
Chapter 9-02
Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on Submarines
1 Scope
deployed on or installed in submarines (nuclear or conventionally powered).
1.2 The sources of excitation and the characteristics of the mechanical environments are described.
Guidance is given on the selection of relevant test methods and test severities. References and bibliography
are included as Annex A.
1.3 The following aspects are not addressed in this chapter:
1.3.1 Hostile actions: Even though environments arising from hostile actions such as underwater attack
may drive certain materiel design parameters, they are outside the scope of this Standard. For guidance on
such actions reference should be made to the procurement authority. Underwater attack is outlined in this
chapter but for further guidance, refer to Part 5, Chapter 9-01 - Mechanical Aspects of Deployment on
Surface Ships and Part 3, Chapter 2-07, Test M7 - Shock Testing for Warship Equipment and
Armament Stores.
1.3.2 Propulsion systems: The environments experienced by materiel on the propulsion raft, induced by
the operation of the propulsion system, are excluded. Reference should be made to the procurement
authority for guidance. The environments at the raft/vessel interface are included.
NOTE Vibration amplitude levels in submarines are relatively benign. Moreover, stealth requirements demand ever
decreasing vibration levels. Another factor that acts to keep levels low is the vibration tolerance of the crew, because
unlike tanks, trucks or aircraft, a submarine’s crew lives on-board, sometimes for several months at a time.
1.4 Unless otherwise stated, the environmental descriptions relate to the interface between the submarine
and the deployed materiel. All axes relate to the host submarine, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding
with the direction of motion, i.e. forward.
2.1 General
The operation of submarines gives rise to a range of mechanical environments. The severity of a particular
environment is influenced by the location of the subject materiel with respect to a source of the environment.
The following paragraphs address a number of generalised sources.
2.2 Submarine Motion - Vibration
2.2.1 Stealth considerations demand that submarines produce extremely low levels of vibration. Moreover,
operating procedures are optimised to ensure minimisation of noise. Factors that contribute to limiting such
dynamic responses are:
⎯ double skin construction,
⎯ surface coatings on hull outer surface,
⎯ laminar flow hull design,
⎯ careful balancing of rotating components,
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Chapter 9-02
⎯ fine bladed large diameter propellers,
⎯ isolation of machinery/equipment from main structure.
2.2.2 Vibration measured during submarine trials indicates the dominance of periodic vibration at
frequencies associated with the propeller blade passing frequency, i.e. the shaft rotation frequency multiplied
by the number of propeller blades. Since the speed of submarines is varied by controlling the shaft speed,
measured vibration severity will vary with the forward speed of the craft, as illustrated in Figure 1.
2.2.3 For materiel particularly sensitive to vibration, the usual approach for qualification using general
purpose default severities may not be appropriate. In such circumstances it will be necessary during materiel
development to characterise the environment pertaining to the particular installation. Both long term vibration
and transient events should be considered.
2.2.3.1 Long term vibration: The long term vibration environment at materiel locations will vary with the
forward speed of the submarine and will be dominated by the local structural response at the propeller blade
passing frequency. Typically, responses will be ± 0.1 g peak and of a periodic nature. An example of
vibration response on a submarine weapon bay structure as a function of the forward speed is shown in
Figure 1. With knowledge of the distribution of forward speed with operational time, a full description of the
long term vibration environment may be achieved. The procurement authority should be consulted to provide
the speed versus blade passing frequency relationship and the speed versus duration distribution.
2.2.3.2 Transient events: The effects of transient events such as adjacent weapon release cannot be
generalised and therefore specific measurements and/or analyses should be undertaken as appropriate.
2.3.1 The operation of on-board machinery has the potential to cause vibration that could be transmitted
to installed materiel. However, the requirement for silent operation dictates that such machinery is anti-
vibration mounted and usually sited on a raft. For information on permissible raft mechanical environment
severities, reference should be made to the procurement authority.
response frequencies occurs, then excessive materiel displacements can result. Moreover, such coincidence
can lead to a degradation of the anti-shock mount.
2.3.3 Although the vibration environment on-board submarines, for most materiel is benign, it should be
noted that because of the operational deployment patterns for submarines, materiel can be exposed to the
environment continuously for several months. Consequently, the most common failure mechanisms likely to
be encountered are of the time dependent variety such as high cycle fatigue, fretting and brinelling. These
types of failure are of particular relevance to flexible and lightly damped components, which may have
resonances in the range associated with the vessel’s propeller blade passing frequencies.
2.4 Hydrostatic Effects
Materiel subjected to diving pressure either inside or outside the pressure hull will, during sub surface
operation, be subjected to severe hydrostatic pressure. Materiel is expected to survive or operate as
required when subjected to the depth dependant system test pressure. Typically, materiel is expected to
withstand cyclic stress changes in the order of 2x104 cycles. It is not usually necessary to carry out tests for
this condition.
2.5 Water Motion
2.5.1 Subsurface fluid motion: Fluid motion of the sea in the vicinity of a submarine will cause the vessel to
adopt a rigid body cyclical motion at low frequencies in roll, pitch, yaw and heave. These cyclical motions
approximate to simple harmonic motion (SHM) with a natural period (of several seconds) depending upon
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Chapter 9-02
the characteristics of the vessel. Typical limit amplitude severities are indicated in Table 2 [1]. It is not usually
necessary to carry out tests for these conditions for the purpose of materiel integrity. However, tests may be
undertaken on relevant sensitive materiel to satisfy operational performance requirements.
2.5.2 Wave slap: During surface transit, wave motion will subject external structures situated above the
waterline, e.g. rudders, hydroplanes and masts to a severe distributed loading. This loading is usually treated
as a quasi-static condition. The choice of the design pressure loading is based on the implications of the
potential failure mode under consideration. If the failure would result in a breach of the pressure hull
boundary, then the design pressure should normally have a probability of occurrence of less than one in ten
thousand. If the failure would result in loss of system function only, then a probability of one in one hundred
is usually acceptable. Design pressures of 58.1 and 48.8 kPa respectively can arise from such a rationale.
The pressures are assumed to apply to the projected areas of the structures under consideration. It is not
usually necessary to carry out tests for these conditions.
2.6 Submarine Motion - Manoeuvres
Tactical manoeuvres adopted by some submarines can cause a “Snap Roll” condition, i.e. a sudden and
rapid rate of roll about the vessel longitudinal axis, which occurs during the initial transient phase of a
submerged high speed turn. Such manoeuvres produce a roll amplitude of up to ±25 degrees with a period
of around 7 seconds. It is not usually necessary to undertake tests for these conditions for the purpose of
materiel integrity. However, tests are often undertaken on relevant sensitive materiel to satisfy operational
performance requirements.
2.7 Static Tilt
Submarine operations may result in the vessel adopting an angle of heel or trim up to approximately
30 degrees for extended periods. Materiel is normally expected to be capable of satisfactory operation under
such circumstances. It is not usually necessary to undertaken tests for these conditions. However, tests are
often undertaken on relevant sensitive materiel to satisfy operational performance requirements.
2.8 Launch, Firing of Weapons and Countermeasures
Materiel may be subjected to the effects of launch and firing of weapons and countermeasures, particularly
when situated on the outer surface of the submarine, above the waterline, during surface operations. The
effects of such actions are specific to the particular location of the materiel and weapon in question, and
therefore the provision of generalised information regarding the need for tests is inappropriate.
2.9.1 Although not strictly the subject of this Standard, it should be noted that underwater explosions
resulting from the action of mines, bombs, or missiles in close proximity to a submarine cause severe shock
inputs to the whole vessel. These conditions are likely to represent critical design cases.
response frequencies occurs, then excessive materiel displacements can result. Such coincidence can lead
to a degradation of the anti-shock mount and, possibly, to the materiel.
3.1 General
3.1.1 Sea trials or laboratory tests are possible means of testing materiel to be deployed on submarines.
Sea trials are essential if the materiel interacts significantly with the dynamics of the submarine and may be
preferred if the materiel is sensitive and inadequate data are available upon which to base laboratory test
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Chapter 9-02
severities to an adequate degree of precision. An advantage of sea trials is that all units are in their correct
relative positions and all mechanical impedances are realistic. Consequently, sea trials can potentially
expose materiel to relevant failure mechanisms, which may not be the case for a laboratory test. However, a
disadvantage is that practical submarine operating conditions and prevailing sea states dictate the extent to
which sea trials can subject items of materiel to their design limit environments. Furthermore, a sea trial is
unlikely to be of sufficiently long duration to generate those time dependent failure mechanisms associated
with the effects of on-board machinery and propeller shaft frequencies. The simulation of submarine vibration
environments in a laboratory is usually viable for all but the largest items of materiel.
3.1.2 Excepting underwater attack conditions (which are not strictly within the scope of this Standard) and
gunfire conditions (which are dealt with in Chapter 7-01), the only mechanical environment identified for
which testing may be required is that to cover the vibration effects of on-board machinery including the
propeller shaft.
3.2.1 Fixed and swept frequency sinusoidal test procedures as given in Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test
M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test, Annex A, Figure A30 should be selected for this vibration
environment. This test is applicable for materiel deployed in all regions of a submarine.
3.2.2 The vibration test comprises two parts, i.e. a sine sweep test and a sine dwell test. The sine sweep
test should be conducted first, since it will also indicate the frequency of any significant materiel resonances
in the test frequency range. A resonance is deemed to be significant if its dynamic magnification factor (Q)
exceeds three.
3.2.3 Test severities, if required, should be derived from measured data.
4.1 General
The treatment of the derivation of test severities from measured data for submarines is similar to that for
surface ships, and is addressed in Annex B of Chapter 9-01.
0.12
0.10
Vibration (g pk)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Forward Speed (kts)
Figure 1 Example of Vibration Response Versus Forward Speed
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Chapter 9-02
Table 2 Example Submarine Motion Data
Type Roll Pitch Yaw Heave

Period Amplitude Period Amplitude Acceleration under Period Amplitude
(S) (deg) (S) (deg) Ship’s Motion (S) (deg)
(deg/sec2)
C 6 ±25 11 ±5 Small - insufficient 11 3
data
N 7 ±25* 11 ±5 11 3
NOTE 1 C denotes a conventionally powered submarine.
NOTE 2 N denotes a nuclear powered submarine.
NOTE 3 All data relates to Sea State 7, significant wave height 6 to 9 m.
NOTE 4 These statistically significant values are defined as the average of the third highest peaks and there is a 13%
probability of exceeding these values.
NOTE 5 RMS values, which have a numerical value equal to half the significant value, are exceeded 60% of the time.
NOTE 6 * denotes a snap roll manoeuvre
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Intentionally Blank
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Annex A
Annex A
A.1 Reference
1. Naval Engineering Standard NES 1004 Requirements for the Design and Testing of -
Equipment to Meet Environmental Conditions, Issue 1, 1987.
Now incorporated into DEF STAN 08-123 Requirements for the Design and Testing of
Equipments to Meet Environmental Conditions - Category 2
A.2 Bibliography
DPT Issue 1, Design Memorandum, April 1982. -
323
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Annex A
Intentionally Blank
324
Chapter 10-01
SECTION 10 - WEAPONS
Chapter 10-01
Mechanical Aspects of Air and Surface Weapons
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be encountered by air and land
weapons, including guided missiles, bombs and projectiles during their separation from the host platform and
during their autonomous flight to the target. The sources of excitation and characteristics of the mechanical
environments are described. Guidance is given on the selection of relevant test methods and test severities.
References and bibliography are included as Annex A.
1.2 Unless otherwise stated, the environmental descriptions apply to the weapon. All axes relate to the
weapon, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with the direction of motion, i.e. forward.
2 Characteristics of the Environment
2.1 Air Launch - Ejection Transients
2.1.1 Severe transient accelerations are induced in stores during release by cartridge powered ejection
release units (ERUs). The purpose of ERUs is to ensure the safe release of stores from high performance
aircraft. Other devices, such as the various gravity release units used for releasing stores from helicopters,
and rail launchers used for releasing some types of guided weapons from aircraft, do not themselves induce
significant transient loadings into stores.
2.1.2 Depending upon the particular aircraft/store combination, transients applied to stores by ERUs can
attain acceleration levels up to 40 g, whilst pulse shapes are broadly half sine and durations typically within
the range 10 to 40 ms. Ram ejection forces can attain 50 kN. An example of a ram force time history is
shown in Figure 1. Further information is contained in a US Navy report [1].
2.1.3 The relatively high amplitudes and long durations of these pulses often produce critical design load
cases, i.e. primary structural failures could result if these loads are exceeded. Consequently modelling
and/or test firings are used to derive project specific, i.e. tailored, load-time plots to which materiel is
qualified. General purpose or ruggedness levels for design are not appropriate for ejection transients.
2.2 Air Launch - Release Disturbance
2.2.1 During release of the store from an aircraft any asymmetric ERU ejection forces will cause significant
store pitching motions which will result in substantial aerodynamic pressure and acceleration forces being
imparted to the store. Stores released from deep cavities may also be subjected to such pitching motions.
2.2.2 Aerodynamic design requirements for stores should ensure that these release disturbance forces are
quickly damped out. Nevertheless, the applied forces experienced by the store can attain relatively high
amplitudes and long durations, which may produce critical design load cases, i.e. primary structural failures
could result if these loads are exceeded. Therefore modelling and/or wind tunnel testing are used to
establish project specific, i.e. tailored, loads to which the store is qualified. General purpose or ruggedness
levels are not appropriate for this condition.
2.3 Land Vehicle Launch
No additional severe weapon loadings are attributed to this launch mode, other than those associated with
materiel deployed on vehicles (see Section 6). However, a detailed knowledge of vehicle motions during
launch is usually essential for weapon performance considerations.
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Chapter 10-01
2.4 Ground/Silo Launch
2.4.1 During launch motor efflux reflections from the launch pad/silo surfaces can result in severe transient
acoustic and vibration levels throughout the store, which sometimes produce the highest operational
vibration levels.
2.4.2 The amplitudes and durations of these transients are, of course, unique to the particular store
design, and therefore it is not appropriate to recommend general purpose test methods or levels for these
events. Nevertheless, because high levels could be generated, it is important to conduct measurements as
early as possible to confirm design assumptions.
2.4.3 The severe vibration and acoustic environments from a ground or silo launch, although usually of
relatively short duration, can be a major cause of the mechanical failures of printed circuit boards and other
small electrical and mechanical devices.
2.5 Gun Barrel Launch
2.5.1 Very high acceleration forces, say, of the order of 20,000 g, can be induced longitudinally in gun
launched stores whilst traversing the length of the barrel. In addition, they can be subjected to high lateral
acceleration forces, often to a similar order of magnitude, and also to a very high spin rate. Therefore, these
stores require special and/or live firing facilities with which to undertake design proving and materiel
qualification trials, and consequently, general purpose test methods and test severities are not appropriate
for these conditions.
2.5.2 High acceleration, fast rise time shock environments, induced by events such as gun barrel launch,
can result in structural failures caused by stresswave effects, and electrical component failures, caused by
excessive inertia loadings.
2.6 Other Launch Modes
Other launch modes, such as the launch of a torpedo from a submarine tube and the launch of a munition
from the deck of a surface ship, are addressed in Chapter 10-02, sub-paragraph 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.
2.7 Powered Flight
2.7.1 During the powered flight phase certain missile elements and units, particularly those sited adjacent
to the motor system, may be subject to severe vibration arising from propellant combustion and gas
dynamics. This vibration often comprises two phases, i.e. a high level short duration period arising from the
boost phase, followed immediately by a lower level longer duration period arising from the sustain phase.
The amplitudes and characteristics of vibration responses tend to be project specific because of the
performance requirements of the missile/motor combination. Consequently, it is impractical to cover all
combinations in this chapter. However, the basic characteristics of typical vibration spectra are described
and typical severities are indicated.
2.7.2 For a missile powered by a solid propellant motor the observed vibration spectra for adjacent units
are predominantly broad band random and typically of the form illustrated in Figure 2, but propellant cavity
induced resonances may sometimes be evident as sine-like excitations. Liquid propellant motors also
produce at their nozzles predominantly broad band random vibration. However, in ramjet powered missiles
the observed vibration spectra on similarly sited units may be dominated by high amplitude excitations
arising from the inherent cavities as shown in Figure 3.
2.7.3 For units sited towards the rear of a high speed missile powered by a solid propellant motor, the
flight vibration levels can be the most severe that units will experience. Moreover, it should be noted that the
measured vibration spectra will include also the responses arising from the turbulent air flow traversing the
missile. An example of a vibration spectrum for units sited towards the rear of a missile is shown in Figure 4.
Acceleration responses (g rms) arising from turbulent airflow are generally proportional to dynamic pressure
(q), and are described in Chapter 7-02. For units sited towards the front of a high speed missile the vibration
levels arising from the motor may not be particularly severe, and may not differ significantly from those
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Chapter 10-01
arising from turbulent airflow. An example of a vibration spectrum for forward sited units is also shown in
Figure 4. The relatively high values at 80-90 Hz are attributed to the fundamental bending mode of the
missile. For units located towards the rear of a missile significant vibration levels extend out to frequencies of
around 5 kHz, whilst for forward located units the attenuation at the higher frequencies has effectively
reduced the frequency range to 2 kHz.
2.7.4 The severe vibration and acoustic environments from the powered flight phase, although usually of
relatively short duration, can be a major cause of the mechanical failures of printed circuit boards and other
small electrical and mechanical devices.
2.8.1 Whilst manoeuvring after launch a missile can be subjected to severe acceleration loads. Smart
submunitions may also incur such loads. The duration of such manoeuvres is relatively long and therefore
the maximum acceleration values can usually be treated as quasi-static load conditions. Because these
manoeuvres are unique for a missile type, no general purpose severities are suggested for these conditions.
2.8.2 Where novel thrust devices are used to induce missile manoeuvres, the forcing actions should be
evaluated for any significant transient accelerations.
2.9 Unpowered Flight
Few data are available on vibration levels during the unpowered flight phase of a missile or store.
Nevertheless, it is usually assumed that unpowered flight vibration levels will not exceed those during
powered flight, discussed above, or those during flight carriage, provided that the dynamic pressure and
Mach Number when unpowered do not exceed those for powered flight or flight carriage.
2.10 Separation and Staging
2.10.1 During missile separation and staging events the initiation of pyrotechnic devices, such as
explosive bolts and line cutting charges, often result in severe shock loadings, which can take the form of
stress waves and/or oscillatory acceleration transients.
2.10.2 Materiel sited close to a pyrotechnic source may be subjected to high amplitude stress waves. This
situation is likely where the measured acceleration data appear to be dominated by high frequency peaks,
such as those shown in Figure 5.
2.10.3 Materiel sited some distance from a pyrotechnic source will be subjected to the effects of the
structure responding to the excitation. This situation is identified from measured data where the responses
appear to be dominated by structural resonances, as is shown in Figure 6.
2.10.4 Comprehensive information on many aspects of pyrotechnic shock, including shock levels, their
measurement, attenuation and simulation, is contained in an i.e.S Tutorial [2]. Nevertheless, due to the
diverse nature of the shock mechanisms associated with pyrotechnic devices it is inappropriate to quote
general purpose severities for design or test purposes.
2.10.5 High acceleration, fast rise time, shock environments induced by events such as stage separation,
can result in structural failures caused by stresswave effects, and electrical component failures, caused by
excessive inertia loadings.
2.11 Spin
2.11.1 To increase stability some projectiles or submunitions are subjected to spin during release. Spin
rates vary considerably depending upon performance requirements. Therefore, it is inappropriate to
recommend general purpose test methods or spin rates. Special purpose test facilities, such as using a
motorised device to induce spin, may be necessary to induce the required high rates.
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Chapter 10-01
2.11.2 High spin rates will induce severe inertia loadings in the materiel which could produce electrical
component failures.
2.12 Parachute Retardation
2.12.1 Parachute retarded projectiles are usually subjected to two significant acceleration transients during
parachute deployment. The first transient is a snatch condition that occurs when the uninflated canopy is
arrested by the rigging lines at the instant of full deployment. The second transient arises from the rapid
increase in deceleration force during the inflation of the canopy. Both transients are illustrated in Figure 7
and comprise, in the main, relatively low frequency components. Therefore these transients can often be
treated as quasi-static load conditions.
2.12.2 The magnitude of these transient accelerations often provide critical design load cases. Therefore,
should these design loads be exceeded it is likely that primary structural failures will result.
2.12.3 It should be noted that transverse load components can be induced in a store from both snatch and
inflation events. Comprehensive information on parachute snatch and inflation loads is given in a USAF
report [3]. Due to the wide range of operational uses for parachute systems, it is inappropriate to quote
general purpose default severities.
2.13 Water Entry
These conditions are addressed in Chapter 10-02.
2.14 Submunition Ejection
2.14.1 To achieve the required deployment patterns, submunitions may be ejected from their host store by
explosive devices. Typically such devices comprise cartridge powered launch tubes or piston assemblies.
The acceleration transients arising from these devices can be severe, typically around 1000 g. Pulse
durations are of the order of 10 ms, whilst pulse shapes are broadly half sine in form. Since these ejection
devices are tailored to suit specific performance requirements, it is inappropriate to quote general purpose
design and default severities. However, test severities can usually be derived from theoretical predictions,
and where necessary supported at a later stage by experimental data.
2.14.2 The shocks arising from submunition ejection could produce relatively high inertia loadings on
electrical components and bending loads on the submunition structure.
2.15 Submunition Impact
2.15.1 Submunitions required to survive ground impact after deployment from a dispenser are likely to
experience high accelerations and fast acceleration rise times during such an event. An example of an
acceleration time history for a submunition during impact and penetration of concrete is shown in Figure 8,
where levels exceeding 50,000 g are experienced within 0.0001 secs.
2.15.2 High acceleration, fast rise time shock environments induced by events such as submunition
impact can result in structural failures caused by stresswave effects, and electrical component failures
caused by excessive inertia loadings.
2.16 Novel Approaches
It is not possible within this chapter to address all mechanical conditions and particularly those that arise
from novel approaches to weapon design. Moreover, it is usually necessary to conduct project specific data
acquisition programmes and to devise special test facilities for the conditions arising from novel approaches.
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Chapter 10-01
These conditions are usually dealt with using quasi-static structural analysis and test methods, because the
relatively long duration of the ejection pulse usually ensures that there is no coupling of the pulse with the
dynamics of the store structure. However, should it prove necessary to conduct dynamic tests for these
transients then the test method specified in Part 3, Chapter 2-06 Test M6 - Operational Shock Simulation
Test is preferred, but Chapter 2-03, Test M3 - Classical and Sine Waveform Shock may be suitable in
many cases, and particularly where the application of the exact pulse shape is unnecessary.
This condition is usually dealt with using quasi-static analysis, and when testing is necessary by the test
methods identified above for ERU ejection transients.
3.3 Powered Flight
3.3.1 When selecting a vibration test to simulate the powered flight condition, care must be taken not to
over specify the test level. In view of the very limited quantity of flight trials data available on which to base
vibration test levels there may be a tendency for the specification compiler to envelop the spectrum peaks
over the frequency bandwidth of interest, typically 100 Hz to between 2 kHz and 5 kHz. Enveloping spectrum
peaks will inevitably result in excessive rms g values, and hence in an indefensible over-test should the
specimen fail. Therefore, when compiling a test spectrum careful consideration should be given to balancing
g2/Hz levels with rms g values with the aim of producing reasonable levels for both quantities. Vibration
severities for initial design and test purposes should be derived from measured data.
3.3.2 Suitable test methods to accommodate this vibration environment can be found in Part 3, Chapter
2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration Test. Broadband random excitation may be acceptable for
many applications, but alternative excitations such as fixed sine (or narrowband random) on broadband
random may be preferable where sine-like excitations are identified.
3.3.3 Where particularly severe vibration levels are required the test method described in Part 3, Chapter
2-09, Test M9 - Acoustic Noise Test using a Progressive Wave Tube could be used to excite acoustically
the mechanical vibration responses within the missile units. Where close simulation for sensitive units is
necessary the test method described in Part 3 Chapter 2-10, Test M10 - Combined Acoustic,
Temperature and Vibration could be applied. In addition, an acoustic test such as that described in Part 3
Chapter 2-08, Test M8 - Acoustic Noise Test using a Reverberation Chamber or Chapter 2-09, Test
M9 - Acoustic Noise Test using a Progressive Wave Tube, may be necessary over certain rear sections
of the missile to cover the acoustic excitation emanating from the nozzle.
3.3.4 If the duration of the powered flight condition is relatively short, say less than 30 seconds, then the
statistical random sampling error should be checked to ensure that it is acceptable for the purpose of the
test. This error should not normally exceed 15%, which is equivalent to a bandwidth/sampling time product of
50, or 100 degrees of freedom. This check is important for qualification and production conditioning tests
where the severities applied need to be repeatable to close tolerances.
3.3.5 The particular characteristics of the severe vibration level and short duration generally associated
with missile powered flight generally precludes test tailoring of the form that increases other lower level
severities, using power laws, to these severe levels for the purpose of reducing test durations.
3.3.6 The high flight speed attained by a powered missile may cause a rapid increase in temperature,
particularly at the skin. Therefore, to ensure an adequate simulation it may be necessary to conduct a
combined vibration and temperature test, where the temperature aspects of the test cover any required
thermal shock conditions. Part 3, Chapter 2-10, Test M10 - Combined Acoustic, Temperature and
Vibration is designed to fulfil such requirements.
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Chapter 10-01
3.4.1 Although the pyrotechnic conditions resulting from separation and staging events may produce
complicated acceleration response histories, simulations are possible in many cases using the test method
described in Part 3, Chapter 2-06, Test M6 - Operational Shock Simulation Test.
3.4.2 In situations where stress waves could be induced in the materiel, test methods that subject the
materiel to acceleration transients are inappropriate; consequently, special purpose test apparatus is usually
necessary. One solution is to use a gas gun facility to fire projectiles at a platform on which is mounted the
materiel for testing. The test severity may be controlled by monitoring strain histories on the platform. The
preferred solution is to conduct a number of live firings, and to compensate for actual, rather than factored,
test levels by analysing the monitored default severities and the performance of the materiel on a statistical
basis.
Where coupling occurs between one of the parachute deployment transients and the dynamics of the
weapon structure a close simulation of the transient pulse may be justified, in which case the test method in
Part 3, Chapter 2-06, Test M6 - Operational Shock Simulation Test is applicable. However, the test
method described in Part 3, Chapter 2-03, Test M3 - Classical & Sine Waveform Shock should prove
adequate for most cases.
3.6 Submunition Ejection
With regard to the selection of test methods for submunition ejection, Part 3, Chapter 2-03, Test
M3 - Classical & Sine Waveform Shock should suffice for most applications, but where a closer simulation
is required the test method described in Part 3, Chapter 2-06, Test M6 - Operational Shock Simulation
Test is recommended.
3.7 Submunition Impact
Considerable development testing may be necessary to produce a satisfactory design of submunition to

accommodate the required impact conditions. This testing may require a purpose built gas gun or catapult
device which can in many cases provide a very realistic environment at a relatively low cost. Consequently,
special purpose test apparatus, rather than standardised test procedures, are usually more appropriate for
testing materiel to impact conditions.

The wide variety of mechanical conditions covered in this chapter precludes a detailed explanation of how
test severities can be derived for each condition from measured data. However, considerable guidance can
be obtained from the general chapter on this subject (see Chapter 11-01).
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Chapter 10-01
60
Piston diameter 26 mm
50
Gas pressure 930 bar
Ejection Force (kN)
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (ms)
Figure 1 Example of an ERU Ejection Transient
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
Spectrum equivalent to 0.802 g rms
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2 Example of the Spectral Response of Missile Units Installed Forward of a Solid Propellant
Rocket Motor
331
Chapter 10-01
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3 Example of the Spectral Responses of Missile Units Adjacent to a Ramjet Motor
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
Forward (1.04 g rms)

0.00001
Aft (3.14 g rms)
0.000001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 4 Comparison of Typical Spectral Responses of Missile Units at Forward and Aft Locations
Within a Solid Propellant Powered Missile
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200
150
100
Acceleration (g pk)
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Time (secs)
Figure 5 Example of a Shock Response History Close to the Pyrotechnic Source
30
20
Acceleration (g pk)
10
-10
-20
-30
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Time (secs)
Figure 6 Example of a Shock Response History Distant from the Pyrotechnic Source
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Rigging line Canopy opening

snatch force shock
Force
Time
a: Large canopy and short lines
Rigging line
snatch force
Canopy opening
shock
Force
Time
b: Small canopy and long lines
Figure 7 Examples of Parachute Inflation Force Histories
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100000
75000
50000
Acceleration (g pk)
25000
-25000
-50000
-75000
-100000
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Time (secs)
Figure 8 Example of Munition Impact and Penetration of Concrete
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Annex A
Annex A
A.1 References
1. Evaluation of the Harpoon Missile Shock Environment During Ejection Launch by Aircraft A G Piersol
Launchers, NWC China Lake CA., February 1977, ADA037067.
2. Pyrotechnic Shock, i.e.S Tutorial, ISBN 0-915414-90-2. -
3. Performance of and Design Criteria for Deployable Aerodynamic Decelerators, ASD-TR- -
61-579, W-PAFB.
A.2 Bibliography
(No items specifically identified under this heading.)
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Intentionally Blank
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Chapter 10-02
Chapter 10-02
Mechanical Aspects of Underwater Weapons
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter addresses the mechanical environments that may be encountered by underwater
weapons, such as torpedoes and mines whose targets are predominantly below the surface of the sea,
during their separation from the host platform and their autonomous progression to the target. The sources
of excitation and characteristics of the mechanical environments are described. Guidance is given on the
selection of relevant test methods and test severities. References and bibliography relevant to this chapter
can be found in Chapter 10-01.
1.2 Unless otherwise stated, the environmental descriptions apply to the weapon. All axes relate to the
weapon, with the positive longitudinal axis coinciding with the direction of motion, i.e. forward.
2.1.1 Severe transient accelerations are induced in stores such as torpedoes during release by cartridge
powered ejection release units (ERUs). The purpose of ERUs is to ensure the safe release of stores from
high performance aircraft. Other devices, such as the various gravity release units used for releasing
munitions from helicopters, do not themselves induce significant transient loadings into stores.
2.1.2 Depending upon the particular aircraft/store combination, transients applied to stores by ERUs can
attain acceleration levels up to 40 g, whilst pulse shapes are broadly half sine and durations typically within
the range 10 to 40 ms. Ram ejection forces can attain 50 kN. Further details and a reference are given in
Chapter 10-01, sub-paragraph 2.1.
2.1.3 The relatively high amplitudes and long durations of these pulses often produce critical design load
cases, i.e. primary structural failures could result if these loads are exceeded. Consequently modelling
and/or test firings are used to derive project specific, i.e. tailored, load-time plots to which materiel is
qualified. General purpose or ruggedness levels for design are not appropriate for ejection transients.
2.2.1 During release of a munition from an aircraft any asymmetric ERU ejection forces will cause
significant pitching motions, which will result in substantial aerodynamic pressure and acceleration forces
being imparted to the weapon. Munitions released from deep cavities may also be subjected to such pitching
motions.
2.2.2 Aerodynamic design requirements for weapons should ensure that these release disturbance forces
are quickly damped out. Nevertheless, the applied forces experienced by the munition can attain relatively
high amplitudes and long durations, which may produce critical design load cases, i.e. primary structural
failures could result if these loads are exceeded. Therefore modelling and/or wind tunnel testing are used to
establish project specific, i.e. tailored, loads to which the munition is qualified. General purpose, or
ruggedness levels are not appropriate for this condition.
2.3 Tube Launch
2.3.1 Munitions such as torpedoes launched from a submarine are likely to be subjected to the shock
arising from compressed gas effects within the launch tube. Typically, acceleration severities along the
longitudinal axis can attain peak values of around 25 g with durations around 20 ms. Peak values in the
transverse axes can reach 32 g with durations around 15 ms.
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2.3.2 The magnitude of these accelerations often provide critical design load cases. Therefore, should
these design loads be exceeded it is likely that primary structural failures will result.
2.4 Deck Launch
2.4.1 Munitions launched from the deck of a surface ship may be subjected to shock loadings in the
longitudinal axis of up to 60 g. The durations of these loadings are typically of the order of 8 ms.
2.4.2 The magnitude of these accelerations often provide critical design load cases. Therefore, should
these design loads be exceeded it is likely that primary structural failures will result.
2.5 Other Launch Modes
Other launch modes such as land vehicle, ground/silo and gun barrel are addressed in Chapter 10-01,
sub-paragraphs 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5 respectively.
2.6 Powered Underwater Motion
2.6.1 During powered underwater motion munitions such as torpedoes will experience vibration induced
by water traversing the external surfaces, and also self induced vibration arising from out of balance motors
and drive gear. However, tactical considerations dictate that acoustic propagation from such munitions is
extremely small, and therefore significant design effort is expounded to minimise all vibration sources. The
vibration characteristics are expected to be predominantly sinusoidal, whilst acceleration amplitudes are
likely to be within 1 g over the frequency range 20 to 500 Hz.
2.6.2 The vibration environment during powered underwater motion could possibly be a cause of
mechanical failures of printed circuit boards and other small electrical and mechanical devices.
2.7 Underwater Manoeuvres
Whilst manoeuvring after launch a munition such as a torpedo can be subjected to sustained acceleration
loads. The severity of such loads is determined by tactical considerations, but in general they are unlikely to
exceed 15 g.
2.8 Un-Powered Motion
For tactical reasons munitions such as mines or torpedoes may spend extended periods during which they
are un-powered and undergo only subsidiary motion arising from previous powered or deployment phases.
Any sources of vibration will be shut down to minimise acoustic propagation and detection. Therefore, the
mechanical environment can usually be assumed to be limited to that of hydrostatic pressure, which is
generally covered by static analysis.
2.9.1 During munition separation and staging events the initiation of pyrotechnic devices, such as
explosive bolts and line cutting charges, can result in severe shock loadings, which can take the form of
stress waves and/or oscillatory acceleration transients.
2.9.2 Further information and a reference on this subject is contained in Chapter 10-01,
sub-paragraph 2.10.
2.10 Spin
2.10.1 To increase stability some projectiles or submunitions are subjected to spin during release. Spin
rates vary considerably depending upon performance requirements. Therefore, it is inappropriate to
recommend general purpose test methods or spin rates. Special purpose test facilities, such as using a
motorised device to induce spin, may be necessary to induce the required high rates.
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2.10.2 High spin rates will induce severe inertia loadings in the materiel which could produce electrical
component failures.
2.11.1 Parachute retarded munitions such as mines or torpedoes may be subjected to two significant
acceleration transients during parachute deployment. The first transient is a snatch condition that occurs
when the uninflated canopy is arrested by the rigging lines at the instant of full deployment. The second
transient arises from the rapid increase in deceleration force during the inflation of the canopy.
2.11.2 Further information and a reference on this subject are contained in Chapter 10-01,
sub-paragraph 2.12. However, as underwater munitions are not normally deployed from high performance
aircraft, loadings arising from parachute inflation are unlikely to exceed those arising from submarine launch
tubes, i.e. less than 25 g.
2.12 Water Entry
2.12.1 It is to be expected that response accelerations of torpedoes during water entry are dependant on
parameters such as impact velocity, impact angle and nose geometry. As an indicator, at a store nose, peak
acceleration levels of around 3000 g have been measured for water impact velocities of 80 m/s. An example
of a water entry time history and a shock spectrum is shown in Figure 1, both of which demonstrate the high
frequency acceleration components usually observed from measurements for this condition.
2.12.2 High acceleration, fast rise time shock environments induced by water entry or impact can result in
serious structural failures caused by stress wave effects, and can result in electrical component failures due
to excessive inertia loadings.
2.13 Submunition Ejection and Impact
These conditions are addressed in Chapter 10-01, sub-paragraphs 2.14 and 2.15 respectively.
2.14 Novel Approaches
It is not possible in this document to address all the environmental conditions and particularly those that arise
from novel approaches. Moreover, it is usually necessary to conduct particular data acquisition programmes
and to devise special test facilities for the conditions arising from novel approaches.
These conditions are usually dealt with using quasi-static structural analysis and test methods, because the
relatively long duration of the ejection pulse usually ensures that there is no coupling of the pulse with the
dynamics of the store structure. However, should it prove necessary to conduct tests for these transients
then the test method specified in Part 3, Chapter 2-06, Test M6 - Operational Shock Simulation Test is
preferred, but Chapter 2-03, Test M3 - Classical & Sine Waveform Shock may be suitable in many cases,
and particularly where the application of the exact pulse shape is unnecessary.
This condition is usually dealt with using quasi-static analysis, and when testing is necessary, by the test
methods identified above for ERU ejection transients.
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3.3 Tube Launch
The pulse shape associated with tube launch can sometimes be covered by two separate half sine pulse
tests having different amplitudes and durations, for example, 25 g for 20 ms plus 10 g for 200 ms. In these
circumstances the related tests should be conducted using the procedure contained in Part 3, Chapter 2-03,
Test M3 - Classical & Sine Waveform Shock. However, in view of the magnitude of these pulses it is
preferred that measured values are used as the basis for munition qualification. Moreover, it is possible that
the pulse durations may be considered long enough to allow a quasi-static analysis for this condition, which
could obviate the need for shock tests.
3.4 Deck Launch
The pulse shape associated with deck launch can sometimes be represented by a half sine pulse test. In
these circumstances the related tests should be conducted using the procedure contained in Part 3,
Chapter 2-03, Test M3 - Classical & Sine Waveform Shock. The tests should be conducted in all three
major axes. However in view of the magnitude of these pulses, which can reach 60 g, measured values
should be used for munition qualification.
3.5 Powered Underwater Motion
3.5.1 A test to cover this environment is not always warranted. However if it is, then it should be a sine
sweep test conducted in accordance with Part 3, Chapter 2-01, Test M1 - General Purpose Vibration
Test.
3.5.2 Test severities, if required, should be derived from measured data.
3.6 Underwater manoeuvres
These conditions are usually covered by static analysis. However, should an acceleration test be warranted
then it should be carried out in accordance with Part 3, Chapter 2-13, Test M13 - Steady State
Acceleration Test. However in view of the possible high magnitude of the accelerations, it is preferred that
measured values are used as the basis for munition qualification.
3.7 Water Entry
3.7.1 It is not feasible to quote general purpose or ruggedness levels for this event. Test severities, if
required, should be derived from measured data. Such tests should be conducted in accordance with Part 3,
Chapter 2-03, Test M3 - Classical & Waveform Shock.
3.7.2 Tests leading to munition qualification should be based on measured values and preferably should
be carried out in accordance with the shock spectrum test procedure contained in Part 3, Chapter 2-06,
Test M6 - Operational Shock Simulation Test.

The wide variety of mechanical conditions covered in this chapter precludes a detailed explanation of how
test severities can be derived for each condition from measured data. However, considerable guidance can
be obtained from the general chapter on this subject (see Chapter 11-01).
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Chapter 10-02
1000
750
500
Acceleration (g pk)
250
-250
-500
-750
-1000
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Time (secs)
a. Shock History
400
300
Acceleration (g pk)
200
100
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency (Hz)
b. Shock response Spectrum (Q = 10)
NOTE The shock response spectrum in (b) has not been derived from the shock history in (a).
Figure 1 Example of Water Entry Shock
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Intentionally Blank
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SECTION 11 - MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT

Chapter 11-01
Measurement and Assessment of Induced Mechanical Environments
1 Scope
1.1 This chapter offers guidance in a generalised form on how data acquired from field trials can be
effectively processed and assessed to derive environment descriptions and test severities. The task may be
undertaken to:
a) establish the characteristics of an environment,
b) prepare a test specification in support of materiel qualification,
c) provide evidence to support the clearance of existing materiel for a new role,
d) investigate directly the effects of a particular environment on a sensitive item of materiel.
1.2 This chapter also discusses the comparison of measured environmental data from in-Service
conditions with estimated values used for design purposes, such as those specified in control documents
including the Environmental Requirement Specification (see Part 1, Chapter 2-02). The subject of data
gathering is covered in Annex A and signal processing in Annex B. References and bibliography are
included as Annex C.
1.3 The principles described in this chapter are applicable to most mechanical environments relevant to
defence materiel. However, the examples contained in this chapter are limited to vibration and shock
environments.
2 Documentation
2.1 When the Environmental Verification Plan (see Part 1, Chapter 2-02) contains a requirement to
conduct a data gathering trial, a Trials Requirement document or its equivalent will be raised. The Trials
Requirement document will define clearly the purpose of the trial, the standard of trials hardware to be
employed and the conditions under which data are to be acquired. In response to this document a Trials
Specification or equivalent document will detail in what form, how, and with what instrumentation, the data is
to be acquired.
2.2 It is advisable that the Trials Requirement document includes both instrumentation quality and signal
processing requirements, because data gathering, processing and assessment activities are strongly
dependant upon one another for success. Furthermore, it must be emphasised that any deficiencies in the
quality of the data cannot be compensated for during subsequent processing or assessment phases.
Conversely, good data can lead to erroneous conclusions if processed or assessed in an inappropriate
manner.
2.3 Before starting data gathering trials, it is important to define and ratify both the requirement and
specification documents, and to resolve any voids, ambiguities and uncertainties that may arise.
3 Data Gathering Trials
3.1 Data gathering trials should use the most representative trials hardware that is available. Usually final
build standard materiel is unavailable and therefore structurally dynamically correct materiel should be used
as the minimum acceptable standard.
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3.2 Before starting data gathering trials, it is important that functional checks are made on the
instrumentation. These checks, and other detailed aspects of the trial, should be made clear in the Trials
Specification document.
3.3 Additional advice on transducer selection, signal conditioning, recording techniques and data archiving
is given in Annex A.
4 Data Reduction
Data reduction should be carried out as specified in the Trials Requirement document. It is usual to start the
data reduction phase with a check on the adequacy of the data for processing. Following this, the data
should be fully characterised to gain the necessary confidence that it is suitable for subsequent assessment.
Advice on data processing plans, data adequacy checks, signal characterisation and processing, is given in
Annex B.
5 Derivation of Environment Descriptions
5.1 When undertaking an assessment of measured data with the purpose of compiling an environmental
description, it is important to focus on the purposes defined in the Trials Requirement document. All the
major characteristics and idiosyncrasies of the data should be identified, but the temptation to undertake
further investigations should be resisted to maintain cost effectiveness.
5.2 An environmental description is the characterisation in summary form of a particular in-Service

condition. It is considered to comprise the following two elements:
a) data, usually in graphical form, describing the effects of in-Service conditions as measured during trials,
b) information on parameters and trends that influence the severity of the environment.
5.3 The data describing the in-Service condition can often be presented in a number of formats. The
choice of format will be dependant upon the characteristics of the data and the use for which the description
is intended. For vibration data the format in regular use for conditions of a steady-state nature is Power
Spectral Density (PSD). The use of peak or rms values derived from the time domain vibration records,
remains a convenient means of comparing transient events. For shocks, time domain and Shock Response
Spectra (SRS) formats are commonly used.
5.4 Data in Spectral formats, such as PSD and SRS, possess inherent limitations which restrict
applicability to actual mechanical environmental conditions. Therefore, it is important that these limitations
are fully understood [1] [2] [3] prior to conducting assessments based on data presented in such formula.
5.5 The major parameters influencing the severity of the environment will be apparent on examination of
the trials data gathered. In the case of vibration environments a particularly influential parameter is the speed
of the trials vehicle. For shock environments the proximity of the impact or impulse applied is a dominant
parameter.
5.6 It is unlikely that a single set of field trials will be able to quantify adequately all the major parameters
that influence the severity of a particular environment. For example, the trials may of necessity be limited to
only one set of trials hardware, or some critical conditions are impractical to examine. In such cases,
estimates of the influence of these additional effects may have to be made to supplement those identified by
direct measurement.
5.7 The following list presents typical sets of in-Service conditions for which environmental descriptions
may be required:
a) sorties profile for an air carried weapon,
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b) flight vibration survey for an aircraft,
c) battlefield day data for a combat vehicle,
d) post launch phase for a ground launched missile,
e) vibration survey for a support ship.
5.8 Given an environmental description in the format outlined above, the environmental engineer is then in
the best position to compile test specifications and environmental inputs to design specifications. It should be
borne in mind that the values of the environmental parameters contained in these two specifications need
not to be the same (see Part 1, Chapters 2-01 and 2-02).
5.9 The following paragraphs are intended to assist the environmental engineer in the compilation of a
qualification test used for type approval or certification. However, many of the principles involved are similar
whether a test is required to demonstrate qualification, design adequacy, reliability or safety.
6 Derivation of Test Amplitudes
6.1 General
6.1.1 When considering demonstrating compliance with a condition specified in the Environmental
Requirement document, the test for that condition needs to adopt the appropriate limit amplitude severity, i.e.
the credible worst case severity. A good parallel can be drawn here with the limit load cases that form the
static inertia envelopes used as the basis for stressing components to aircraft manoeuvre conditions.
6.1.2 The limit amplitude severity will usually be based on the agreed credible probability of occurrence for
that environmental condition. Typically it is expressed in simple statistical terms, such as a 1 in 500 level or a
2σ (2 standard deviations) level. There can be no general statistical value for all environmental conditions,
because different performance and safety criteria are applicable to different types of materiel. For example,
single shot devices such as ground-to-ground missiles typically use 1 in 50 values, whereas materiel
exposed to the environment for long continuous periods, such as materiel installed in armoured personnel
carriers, typically use 3 σ values.
6.1.3 Whilst qualification testing is carried out to an agreed limit case, testing for safety purposes would be
expected to be carried out at a higher level, e.g. +3 dB on PSD. This factor provides increased confidence
that the higher levels that occur in-Service are covered.
6.1.4 In view of the complexity of most environmental conditions and the likely scarcity of good quality
measured data, it is probable that considerable engineering judgement will need to be exercised by the
environmental engineer to establish the limit test amplitude severities. Should simplistic statistical methods
be used to calculate test amplitudes, then it is important that the limitations of such methods are clearly
understood. For example, if the resulting standard deviations are to be realistic then the scatter of the
complete data set should be expected to form a normal distribution, rather than a discrete series of subset
groups of normally distributed data.
6.1.5 Whatever selected format of amplitude is used, great care should be taken when determining the
limit test amplitude for the critical environmental conditions, as the consequences of either under- or over-
testing to any significant degree are unacceptable.
6.1.6 When deriving the limit test amplitude for any condition, the environmental engineer will need to
consider the relevant additional factors needed to represent the broader perspective of in-Service use. For
example, the data set available may be limited to one sample of test hardware, or one hardware type, and
therefore to cover the more general in-Service requirement the level may need to be revised.
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6.1.7 It has to be recognised that for some materiel development programmes, the simulation in the
laboratory of the more complex environmental conditions is not warranted or cost effective. In such cases a
more simplistic overtest using general purpose levels may prove to be acceptable.
6.2 Vibration
6.2.1 Care should be exercised when using expedient straight line approximations to envelope measured
PSDs, and especially where those PSDs include different environmental conditions, measurement sites and
axes. Although this approximation may broadly generate the correct maximum PSD levels, the resulting root
mean square (rms) of the spectrum may be many times higher than that measured. If such an exaggerated
spectrum were applied to a test specimen, unrepresentative failures would almost certainly occur. Therefore,
it is generally recommended that the rms value of a test spectrum should not exceed the maximum
measured value by more than a factor of three times.
6.2.2 Again, to avoid excessive overtesting when using PSD, it is prudent to include in one test only those
conditions that generate similar response spectra. Moreover, particularly severe short duration conditions,
such as gunfire or buffet, should be given separate consideration to ensure a realistic test simulation (See
Chapter 7-02 - Stores carried externally on jet aircraft).
6.2.3 Where periodic functions are observed in the response spectra, it is recommended that they are
isolated from the random components and their amplitudes for testing be derived separately. The
environment description should have already established whether such responses are basically periodic, e.g.
sinusoidal, or narrow band random.
6.2.4 When deriving test spectra it should not be assumed that because similar PSDs have been
produced in the laboratory to those observed in the field that an adequate simulation has been achieved.
The use of PSDs may be regarded as a useful indicator of the general severity of the vibration environment
but not necessarily a precise indicator of load paths and stresses, and consequently of materiel failure
mechanisms.
6.3 Shock
Deriving test amplitudes for shock events, such as the initiation of pyrotechnic devices, requires considerable
attention by the environmental engineer, because of the inherent complex interactions between amplitude,
frequency and duration of the shock pulse. The environment descriptions should include shock response
spectra (SRS) to establish the major frequency characteristics, but due to their inherent limitation, SRS
should be used with care. Where possible amplitude-time histories should form the basis of the derivation of
limit test amplitude. Further advice on dealing with shock responses from pyrotechnic devices is given in
DEFSTAN 07-85 Part 2, Section 5 [7].
7 Derivation of Vibration Test Durations
7.1 It is preferable for materiel to be tested in real-time so that the effects of in-Service conditions are
simulated most effectively. However, in many instances real-time testing cannot be justified on cost grounds,
and therefore it is customary to use an acceptable algorithm to reduce test duration by increasing test
amplitude. Provided that fatigue is a significant potential failure criterion for the materiel under test, then this
practice is acceptable within strict limits, notably that test amplitudes are not over exaggerated (or
accelerated) simply to achieve short test durations. Such excessive amplitudes may lead to wholly
unrepresentative failures and cause suppliers to design materiel to withstand arbitrary tests rather than the
in-Service conditions. Therefore any reduction in test duration should be restricted to increasing the test
amplitude only to the limit severities derived for the in-Service conditions. Within this constraint considerable
scope usually exists for reducing test duration.
7.2 The most commonly used method for calculating a reduction in test duration is the Miner-Palmgren
hypothesis, i.e.:
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Chapter 11-01
n
t1 ⎡ S 2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
t 2 ⎣ S1 ⎦
where t1 = equivalent test time,
t2 = in-Service time for specified condition,
S1 = severity (rms) at maximum conditions,
S2 = severity (rms) at specified condition,
n = slope of the S/N curve for the appropriate material; a value of 5 is commonly used.
7.3 In many instances this rule appears to offer a satisfactory solution. However, caution should always be
exercised in its application because as already indicated, some methods of characterising vibration
severities, notably PSDs, do not necessarily reproduce under laboratory testing the same strain responses
as those experienced under in-Service conditions.
7.4 Given the necessary approximations and limitations of any analysis to equate accelerated tests to in-
Service conditions, it is difficult to justify long duration vibration testing for the qualification of materiel
intended for long in-Service periods. Consequently, when undertaking random vibration testing, a limit on the
total test time of 50 hours is recommended. Similarly, when conducting sine tests, a limit of 108 cycles is
appropriate.
8 Comparison of Measured Field and Laboratory Test Responses
8.1 General
The following paragraphs deal with the comparison of measured field vibration data with qualification
laboratory test response levels. Also addressed is the derivation of design values and design aid test levels.
8.2 Controlled Response Testing
8.2.1 It should be remembered that when conducting multipoint controlled response tests on materiel in
the laboratory, the reference response spectrum, which often consists of a series of straight lines, will not be
recognisable as a laboratory test response and therefore is not suitable directly for comparative purposes.
Consequently, it is usual to compare field trial responses with selected laboratory test responses.
8.2.2 When making comparisons between measured field data responses and laboratory vibration test
responses for the purpose of assessing the adequacy of the simulation, the responses chosen should be
structural sites that are capable of representing the major motions of the materiel under test. Only when an
adequate simulation has been demonstrated at system level is it reasonable to check the simulation, through
response comparisons, for sub-assemblies or components.
8.2.3 For some comparisons it may be necessary to take account of any differences in mounting
constraints that may have been necessary to undertake the vibration test.
8.2.4 When comparing data in spectral formats it is not uncommon at discrete frequencies for measured
values to exceed those to which the materiel has been tested. Such exceedancies arise in the main through
inherent limitations in the simulation method. In all cases it is important that these exceedancies are reported
and dealt with in a positive manner. A typical resulting action would be an additional test to cover any
deficiencies, or an appraisal by the supplier on the possible consequences of the exceedancies on identified
failure criteria, and hence on the performance and safety, of the materiel.
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8.3 Controlled Input Testing
There is no merit in comparing within an acceleration spectral format, measured vibration responses from
field data with values from a laboratory vibration input test specification. Such a comparison is an obvious
nonsense, but this practice is far from uncommon. The correct approach is to compare responses on the
materiel, i.e. to compare response data from field trial measurements with responses acquired during the
laboratory vibration input test, as per controlled response testing discussed in sub-paragraph 8.2.
8.4 Sub-Assembly Testing
8.4.1 The recommendations for comparing field trial measurements with laboratory vibration test
responses on sub-assemblies are identical to those for system testing and discussed in sub-paragraphs 8.2
and 8.3. However, if the field trial measurements exceed the laboratory vibration test results in the system
test (the preferred level of comparison), it may be possible to demonstrate that the exceedancies are
enveloped by higher sub-assembly vibration test responses (see sub-paragraph 8.5.2 below).
8.4.2 It is important when planning field data gathering trials to ensure that quality response
measurements are acquired from sensibly located transducer sites that allow satisfactory comparisons with
laboratory test responses for sensitive sub-assemblies.
8.5 Initial Levels for Design
8.5.1 It is often necessary in early phases of materiel development to estimate vibration limit values to
enable the design process to proceed. In such cases it is recommended that laboratory qualification test
levels are used to form the basis of these values, since they constitute important criteria to be met before the
materiel can be certified for Service use.
8.5.2 It is recommended that components and assembled units should be selected on their potential to
survive around twice the proposed qualification PSD test levels. Where confidence is insufficient the twice
times level should be verified through design aid testing. A useful practice invoked by many agencies is to
test complete sub-assemblies at twice the PSD amplitude of that for the whole system, to accommodate any
possible resonant conditions, and to provide confidence that the sub-assembly will subsequently pass the
whole system laboratory qualification test.
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Annex A
Annex A
Data Gathering
A.1 General
Measured flight data may be required at various stages of a materiel development programme. Often this is
necessary to validate early estimates which may have been used for preliminary vibration tests carried out to
gain flight clearances.
A.2 Transducers
A.2.1 The first element in the data gathering chain is the transducer, i.e. the device that will convert the
effects of interest to a varying proportionate voltage. A number of different types are available for different
applications. Of these types, the most popular is the piezo-electric accelerometer. Its widespread use stems
from a number of practical features including frequency range, sensitivity, general environmental robustness,
small size and low cost.
A.2.2 Unfortunately, accelerometers can produce signals due to parameters in addition to acceleration,
e.g. temperature and pressure. Movement of connecting cables, particularly of those between
accelerometers and their associated charge amplifiers can also give rise to erroneous results. It is essential
to ensure that precautions against these effects are taken.
A.2.3 It is generally desirable to mount accelerometers on to prime structure. This is to prevent responses
being swamped by, for example, panel modes or local resonances, which may not be of primary interest.
A.2.4 Care should be taken when fixing accelerometers to a structure since the type of mounting
influences the upper frequency limit of the results. For flight and other major trials, the most suitable
mounting of an accelerometer is achieved either by bonding or by a screw fastener. This can include the use
of small mounting blocks, made of Tufnol or aluminium. Such blocks, which can be shaped to fit contoured
surfaces, can be bonded to the test structure and the accelerometers fixed to them by their screw fastener.
This type of mounting is adequate for frequency measurement up to 2 or 3 kHz.
A.2.5 Alternative transducer mounting methods may be appropriate for different application; for example,
an ad-hoc modal investigation, when the upper frequency of interest may be less than 100 Hz. In such
circumstances, accelerometers may be attached using magnets or bees wax.
A.2.6 Another type of transducer in wide general use is the strain gauge. These devices are often
employed to acquire data to support fatigue life estimation. The proper fixing of strain gauges, often required
in physically awkward location, requires great care if reliable data is to be obtained. Furthermore, strain
gauge installations are often vulnerable to damage during the course of a trial and special attention should
be given to their physical protection. Strain gauges can give erroneous data due to temperature effects. This
problem can be exacerbated by the high levels of gain of approximately 1000 associated with certain types
of gauges. Dummy gauges can be used to compensate for these effects.
A.2.7 The number of transducers needed for a particular exercise wile depend upon the type of
equipment under test and the purpose of the exercise. For a small item, a tri-axial cluster or even a single
transducer may be adequate. An aircraft survey may involve over 50 transducers.
A.2.8 Generally, responses in the vertical, lateral and longitudinal axes should be measured at each
transducer site.
351
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A.2.9 Measurement system sensitivities should be set according to the particular environment under
consideration. In the absence of precise information, the default severities presented in this document can
be used as a guide, although actual values needed will depend upon many factors, e.g. aircraft type, location
in the aircraft, flight manoeuvre, measurement axis etc. Initial values of sensitivity can only be estimates.
A.2.10 The frequency range for general environmental work should be at least 5 to 2000 Hz. Whilst
excitation does not stop at 2000 Hz, displacements above this frequency are usually very small.
A.3 Signal Conditioning
A.3.1 The purpose of a Signal Conditioning Unit (SCU) is to condition transducer signals into a form
suitable for recording. In particular, the application of gain to the signals is usually desirable to exploit the
dynamic range of the recorder and so ensure the best possible signal; to noise ratio. Similarly, filtering out
unwanted high frequencies may be desirable. An SCU usually includes amplifiers and perhaps filters.
A.3.2 Further processing of signal prior to recording, e.g. to obtain velocity data from accelerometers, is
not recommended. It is better to record the measured parameter and maintain flexibility by carrying out such
operations subsequently on the recorded data.
A.3.3 In order to meet a requirement of recording signals from many transducers, time or frequency
multiplexing may be used. The SCU may incorporate the necessary multiplexor.
A.4 Recording of Data
A.4.1 Usually it is impractical to process data in real time. Although there are exception to this, e.g. in
some test house trials, transducer signals are usually recorded for processing at a later date. Under these
circumstances it is vital that not only is a suitable recording technique employed, but also that the supporting
documentation, e.g. tape log sheets, is complete and unambiguous.
A.4.2 Failure to accurately document exactly what was recorded during a trial, including transducer
position, axes, and sensitivities, can cause unnecessary delay and increased costs at the processing stage,
and may lead to erroneous conclusions.
A.4.3 Various methods of recording data are available. These fall into two main categories, i.e. analogue
and digital recording on to magnetic tape. These two methods are dealt with separately in the following
paragraphs.
A.4.4 The performance of magnetic tape recorders is adversely affected by a number of environmental
conditions which may be encountered in the course of trials work, e.g. dirt, extremes of temperature,
pressure and humidity. The tape transport mechanisms of recorders can also be affected by vibration, which
is an obvious disadvantage when measurement of that parameter is being attempted. This problem can be
countered by use of a vibration isolation system for the recorder.
A.5 Digital Recording
A.5.1 This process involves sampling and digitising analogue signals via analogue to digital converters
(ADC), and representing data as a stream of binary words. Prior to sampling, it is necessary to filter the
analogue signals to avoid possible aliasing problems being introduced at the digitisation stage [1]. A 12-bit
word length is commonly used which provides amplitude resolution of 1 in 4096 (0.02%). Whilst this is
excellent resolution, it is seldom achieved in practice because, to avoid signal clipping, typical utilisation of
an ADC may be around only 40%. It is unlikely that a vibration recording of adequate accuracy can be
achieved with less than a 12-bit word length.
352
Chapter 11-01
Annex A
A.5.2 A major advantage of digital recording is that, provided that the record quality is sufficient to enable
each recorded bit to be recovered, the recording and replay processes appear transparent. This feature is
unique to digital recording and makes the technique very attractive. A number of media for digital data
recording are available, including magnetic tape, solid state memory (RAM or EEPROM) and magnetic discs.
Of these types, magnetic tape is currently most popular.
A.5.3 Digital recording is presently a fast developing technology. The key capabilities of this recording
technique, i.e. digital word length and particularly packing density on storage media, are likely to increase
greatly in the next few years.
A.6 Analogue Recording
A.6.1 Analogue magnetic tape records may be made in either Direct of Frequency Modulation modes.
a) Direct recording: As its name suggests, direct recording involves recording analogue voltages directly on
to magnetic tape, with the addition of a very high frequency bias current to linearise the medium. In
order to correct variation from the ideal flat frequency response, a process of equalisation is necessary
during replay. As a result of the equalisation process, phase information between channels of data
becomes corrupted towards the upper and lower frequency bounds of the recording. This effectively
rules out the use of Direct recording when phase information is required, e.g. to obtain mode shapes.
Another adverse feature of this means of recording is its inability to record very low frequency signals.
Consequently, Direct recording is not normally used except when very high frequency data, greater than
say 10 kHz is required.
b) Frequency Modulation Recording: A more satisfactory, and hence more common, method of recording is
that of Frequency Modulation (FM). This process involves the modulation of a carrier frequency in
proportion to the amplitude varying incoming signal. By this means, frequencies present in the original
signal can be faithfully recorded down to zero, or dc, frequency. The penalty for this performance is a
reduced upper frequency limit than for Direct recording, e.g. 2.5 kHz for a tape speed of 7.5 ips on an
intermediate band recorder.
A.6.2 Under the FM system of recording, provided only that the frequency of the recorded signal can be
detected, the original signal can be recovered by process of demodulation during replay. Results are
unaffected by those types of distortions introduced by the recording medium. A potential disadvantage is that
any variation in the recording speed, e.g. resulting from vibration, appears incorrectly as amplitude during
replay. This may, however, be compensated for during replay, by means of a reference signal recorded
simultaneously with the data proper.
A.7 Calibration
A.7.1 Calibration is a critical part of a data gathering exercise. The procedure involves the recording of
known voltages on tape and logging the equivalent of those voltages in terms of physical units. By this
means, scale factors can be recovered during replay in terms of physical units per volt, e.g. g/V.
A.7.2 The preferred form of calibration is of multiple steady-state, i.e. dc levels. This permits the
sensitivity, sign and zero-offset of a signal to be estimated unambiguously. This kind of calibration can, of
course, only be used with a recording system capable of a dc response.
A.7.3 An alternative form of calibration is that using ac voltages, e.g. sine-waves. A potential difficulty lies
in how the amplitude of such signals are measured, e.g. by a true rms meter or by a spectrum analyser. The
former will take into account a full bandwidth, including harmonics, whereas the latter may only measure at
the specified frequency. Differences may be around 10%, depending upon the quality of the signal
generator. Similar differences may also be introduced by the characteristics of an analyser, windowing.
353
Chapter 11-01
Annex A
A.8 Record Lengths
A.8.1 When considering record lengths, an important fact concerns the statistical accuracy of certain
results obtained by processing. For random data, the accuracy associated with estimated mean values is
often expressed as the normalised variance error (σ). This quantity is dependent upon the analyser’s
resolution bandwidth (B) and the record length (T) according to the equation:
s 1
=
m BT
A.8.2 Typical values for B and T are 3 Hz and 30 seconds, respectively. These values correspond to a
variance error of 10%. In practice, frequency resolution may be traded off against amplitude accuracy, and
visa-versa, depending on particular requirements.
A.8.3 There are two approaches to recording flight responses, either continuously or intermittently when
records only made of particular conditions.
a) Continuous recording is generally recommended. This could require around 2 hours recording capacity.
An advantage of this technique is that any unexpected responses, which could occur between planned
manoeuvres, will be recorded. A potential problem with continuous recording is that care needs to be
taken to ensure that specific conditions can be recognised during replay. This is usually achieved by
means of an event channel. It is desirable that this be supported by a voice log.
b) When recording intermittently, each steady-state flight condition should be maintained to permit at least
a 30 s recording to be made. Non-stationary events, e.g. take-off, wind-up turns, may require longer
records to be made. When deciding upon record lengths, an allowance of a few seconds should be
made for the settling period of electronics to the switching transients. An advantage of this type of
recording is that these switching transients effectively annotate the tape records. Furthermore, it is
economic on tape usage.
A.9 Data Archiving

It is recommended most strongly that trial results are archived. This maintains the capability of checking
unexpected effects that may only emerge months after a trial. When data is processed digitally, it is desirable
to archive the digital processed data, e.g. PSD. Furthermore, in view of the cost of magnetic tape as a
fraction of the cost of a data gathering trial, the original tape records should also be archived. Environmental
conditions should be considered when choosing a site for a data archive.
354
Chapter 11-01
Annex B
Annex B
Data Processing
B.1 Data Processing Plan
B.1.1 A data processing plan should be compiled to meet the requirements defined in the Trials
Requirement document. The plan may need refining after checks for data adequacy (Paragraph B.2) and
signal characterisation (Paragraph B.3).
B.1.2 When processing significant quantities of data it is expedient to convert analogue data into digital
form, and to further reduce the data into time or frequency domain formats as discussed in the following
paragraphs.
B.2 Data Adequacy
B.2.1 It is useful as a precursor activity to produce from the measured data a relatively low fidelity time
history. This activity is often referred to as “quick look” and can be achieved using oscillograph (UV) records.
Such records can serve two purposes.
B.2.2 They provide a useful means of annotating the measured data, and facilitates checks against hand
written logs for the number of conditions and their durations, the position on tape of calibration signals, etc.
Used for this purpose it also forms a basis for discussions with the trial crew during debriefing.
B.2.3 They provide the basis for an elementary and qualitative data appraisal in terms of signal continuity
and general integrity, signal to noise ratio, amplifier saturation, etc. In addition, conditions producing high
severities or non-stationary data characteristics may be highlighted.
B.3 Signal Characterisation
B.3.1 Signal characterisation is undertaken primarily to establish the data formats that will be used to
meet the purposes of the Trials Requirement document. This activity also establishes confidence in the
measured data, and helps to confirm the data reduction plan. The data characterisation activity would involve
typically processing a limited quantity of data, probably that pertaining to the most severe conditions
identified from the “quick look” activity, in a range of different formats to establish those that are most
appropriate, and to identify their associated processing parameters, such as upper frequency limit and
resolution bandwidth.
B.3.2 Another objective of signal characterisation is to conduct sufficient work to ensure that the basic
trends of the data conform to expectations and to gauge the complexity of the total assessment task.
Confidence in the measured data can be gained at this stage by checking that the quality of the data is
adequate for the purposes of the assessment.
B.3.3 The major data processing formats are, for the time domain, time-histories and amplitude
probability and, for the frequency domain, power spectral density and SRS. Each these formats has its own
limitation and particular application. These aspects are discussed in many standard texts [1-6].
P P
B.3.4 This activity would also be used, where relevant, to examine further the measured data in terms of
its stationarity. In many cases, such an examination can be made by processing the data into a rms g versus
time format. Whilst it is desirable to select long record lengths to improve the statistical estimates of random
355
Chapter 11-01
Annex B
vibration, these lengths should be stationary to avoid the adverse effects of the averaging processes implicit
in spectral density based types of analysis.
B.3.5 Measured vibration data should be considered initially as having properties which may vary with
time. Whilst responses during some conditions would be expected to be of stationary character, this should
be verified. Problems associated with processing non-stationary data can often be avoided by the selection
or grouping of appropriate trial conditions for analysis.
B.3.6 During this activity it is important to identify potential problem areas so that an appropriate level of
analysis effort can be focused on those areas.
B.4 Data Processing
B.4.1 Having gained confidence in the data and established the preferred data formats, the processing of
the bulk of the gathered data may be undertaken in accordance with the data reduction plan.
B.4.2 Typically, the plan will call up two stages of data processing. The first stage will provide the bulk
data to enable a draft assessment to be compiled. The second stage will provide additional data and formats
to confirm the findings and may provide supplementary formats for supporting particular arguments.
356
Chapter 11-01
Annex C
Annex C
C.1 References
1. Handbook for Dynamic Data Acquisition and Analysis, Institute of Environmental -

Sciences, i.e.S-RP-DTEO 12.1
2. Random Data; analysis and Measurement Procedures, Wiley, 1971 J S Bendat and
A G Piersol
3. Engineering Applications of Correlation and Spectral Analysis, Wiley, 1980 J S Bendat and
A G Piersol
4. Applied Time Series Analysis, Wiley, 1978 R K Otnes and
L D Enochson
5. Random Vibrations and Spectral Analysis, Longman, 1975 D E Newland
6. The Analysis of Random Data, AGARD-AG-160-VOL 14, 1981 D A Williams
7. Def Stan 07-85 Design Requirements for Weapons and Associated Systems -
C.2 Bibliography
(No items specifically identified under this heading.)
357
Chapter 11-01
Annex C
Intentionally Blank
358
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Revision of Defence Standards
Defence Standards are revised as necessary by an up issue or amendment. It is important that users
of Defence Standards should ascertain that they are in possession of the latest issue or amendment.
Information on all Defence Standards can be found on the DStan Website www.dstan.mod.uk,
updated weekly and supplemented regularly by Standards in Defence News (SID News). Any person
who, when making use of a Defence Standard encounters an inaccuracy or ambiguity is requested to
notify UK Defence Standardization (DStan) without delay in order that the matter may be investigated
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Ministry of Defence

Defence Standard 00-35

Issue 4 Publication Date 18 Sept 2006

Environmental Handbook for Defence Materiel

SECTION 3 - HANDLING AND STORAGE

SECTION 4 - MAN MOUNTED AND PORTABLE

SECTION 5 - NON-MOBILE AND FIXED INSTALLATIONS

SECTION 6 - DEPLOYMENT ON LAND VEHICLES

SECTION 7 - DEPLOYMENT ON FIXED WING AIRCRAFT

SECTION 8 - DEPLOYMENT ON ROTARY WING AIRCRAFT

SECTION 9 - DEPLOYMENT ON SHIPS

SECTION 11 - MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT

Amd No Date Text Affected Signature and Date

This standard is raised to Issue 4 to update its content.

This standard supersedes the following:

AvP35 - Environmental Handbook for Guided Weapons - 1966 to 1974

DEF STAN 00-1 - 1969

DEF STAN 07-55 - Environmental Testing of Service Materiel - 1975

STANAG 2831 - 1977

Defence Standard 00-35 Issue 3

Part 4 has been modified to include updated climatic maps.

Part 6 has not been amended at this time.

Environmental Handbook for Defence Materiel - Part 5 -

3 Use of this Part

b) Handling and storage,

d) Munition delivery from the deployment platform to the target.

2 The Mechanical Environments

Upwards 0.5 g pk (excluding gravity)

Downward 0.5 g pk (excluding gravity)

2.2 Restrained Cargo

2.3 Loose Cargo

3 Test Method and Severities Selection

3.2 Materiel Carried as Restrained Cargo

3.3 Materiel Carried as Loose Cargo

Vertical (0.320 g rms)

Figure 3 Example Shock Responses Experienced by a Bedford Truck on an A Class Road

Shock Response Spectrum

Figure 4 Example Shock Response Spectra of a Shock Experienced by Bedford Truck on an A

0.000001 M class road at 75 kph

A&B Roads at 0 to 83 kph (0.320 g rms) M Road at 75 kph (0.388 g rms)

A.1 Materiel Carried as Restrained Cargo

A.2 Materiel Carried as Loose Cargo

1 Derivation of Environmental Descriptions and Test Severities from Measured D Charles

A Technical Summary of the Intermodal Environmental Study, Association of American -

2 The Mechanical Environments

2.2 Motion Along the Track

a) Vibration in the Vertical Axis:

Vehicle Vibration g peak

b) Vibration in the Lateral Axis:

Vehicle Vibration g peak

Tight coupled, fully braked train 0.2 g

Upwards 1 g (excluding gravity)

2.3 Shunting and Marshalling

2.4 Bounce and Jostle

3 Test Method and Severities Selection

3.2 Motion Along the Track

4 Derivation of Test Severities from Measured Data

Mean Impact Velocity in Band (mph)

Figure 1 Typical Distribution of Wagon Impact Speeds in a Marshalling Yard

Freq (Hz) PSD (g2/Hz)

5 kph Steady Speed

Figure 2 Example Rail Vibration Severity (ISO Container Vertical)

2 The Mechanical Environments