Designation: C1175 − 99a (Reapproved 2010)
Standard Guide to
Test Methods and Standards for Nondestructive Testing of
Advanced Ceramics1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation C1175; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope
1.1 This guide identifies and describes standard procedures
and methods for nondestructive testing of advanced ceramics
using radiology, ultrasonics, liquid penetrants, and acoustic
emission.
1.2 This guide identifies existing standards for nondestruc-
tive testing that have been determined to be (or have been
modified to be) applicable to the examination of advanced
ceramics. These standards have been generated by, and are
under the jurisdiction of, ASTM Committee E07 on Nonde-
structive Testing. Selection and application of these standards
to be followed must be governed by experience and the specific
requirements in each individual case, together with agreement
between producer and user.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the
standard. The inch-pound units given in parentheses are for
information only.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:2
E94 Guide for Radiographic Examination
E114 Practice for Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Straight-Beam
Contact Testing
E165 Practice for Liquid Penetrant Examination for General
Industry
E317 Practice for Evaluating Performance Characteristics of
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Testing Instruments and Systems
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee C28 on Advanced
Ceramics and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee C28.03 on Physical
Properties and Non-Destructive Evaluation.
Current edition approved Dec. 1, 2010. Published January 2011. Originally
approved in 1991. Last previous edition approved in 2004 as C1175 – 99a (2004).
DOI: 10.1520/C1175-99AR10.
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
the ASTM website.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
1
without the Use of Electronic Measurement Instruments
E494 Practice for Measuring Ultrasonic Velocity in Materi-
als
E569 Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Struc-
tures During Controlled Stimulation
E587 Practice for Ultrasonic Angle-Beam Contact Testing
E650 Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission
Sensors
E664 Practice for the Measurement of the Apparent Attenu-
ation of Longitudinal Ultrasonic Waves by Immersion
Method
E750 Practice for Characterizing Acoustic Emission Instru-
mentation
E797 Practice for Measuring Thickness by Manual Ultra-
sonic Pulse-Echo Contact Method
E976 Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of Acoustic
Emission Sensor Response
E999 Guide for Controlling the Quality of Industrial Radio-
graphic Film Processing
E1000 Guide for Radioscopy
E1065 Guide for Evaluating Characteristics of Ultrasonic
Search Units
E1079 Practice for Calibration of Transmission Densitom-
eters
E1106 Test Method for Primary Calibration of Acoustic
Emission Sensors
E1165 Test Method for Measurement of Focal Spots of
Industrial X-Ray Tubes by Pinhole Imaging
E1208 Practice for Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant Testing
Using the Lipophilic Post-Emulsification Process
E1209 Practice for Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant Testing
Using the Water-Washable Process
E1210 Practice for Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant Testing
Using the Hydrophilic Post-Emulsification Process
E1219 Practice for Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant Testing
Using the Solvent-Removable Process
E1220 Practice for Visible Penetrant Testing Using Solvent-
Removable Process
E1254 Guide for Storage of Radiographs and Unexposed
Industrial Radiographic Films
E1255 Practice for Radioscopy
E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
E1324 Guide for Measuring Some Electronic Characteristics
of Ultrasonic Testing Instruments
E1390 Specification for Illuminators Used for Viewing In-
dustrial Radiographs
E1411 Practice for Qualification of Radioscopic Systems
E1441 Guide for Computed Tomography (CT) Imaging
E1453 Guide for Storage of Magnetic Tape Media that
Contains Analog or Digital Radioscopic Data
E1570 Practice for Computed Tomographic (CT) Examina-
tion
E1647 Practice for Determining Contrast Sensitivity in Ra-
diology
E1672 Guide for Computed Tomography (CT) System Se-
lection
E1695 Test Method for Measurement of Computed Tomog-
raphy (CT) System Performance
E1781 Practice for Secondary Calibration of Acoustic Emis-
sion Sensors
E1817 Practice for Controlling Quality of Radiological Ex-
amination by Using Representative Quality Indicators
(RQIs)
3. Terminology
3.1 Definitions—For definitions of terms used in this guide,
refer to Terminology E1316, Section F for liquid penetrants,
Section I for ultrasonics, Section D for radiology, and Section
B for acoustic emission.
4. Significance and Use
4.1 This guide is a compilation of standards intended to
provide assistance in selecting appropriate nondestructive ex-
amination for advanced ceramics, and in turn, to provide
guidance for performing the examination, as well as ensuring
the proper performance of the equipment.
5. Apparatus
5.1 Use the equipment as specified in each standard.
6. Radiology
6.1 Terminology:
6.1.1 Terminology E1316, Section D, covers the consensus
definitions used to describe the various aspects of radiology of
materials.
6.1.2 Significance and Use—The identification and use of
common terms and definitions are necessary to ensure proper
communication between producers, examiners, and users of
both nondestructive examination equipment and techniques
and advanced ceramics.
6.2 Practice E1079 covers the calibration of transmission
densitometers used to perform radiographic film density mea-
surements.
6.2.1 Summary of Practice—Practice E1079 describes the
necessary apparatus (film strips and instrument), measurement
procedure, recording requirements, and periods of verification
for calibrating transmission densitometers.
6.2.2 Significance and Use—Attaining proper film density is
important to the establishment of valid radiographic film.
Practice E1079 provides a means of evaluating the reliability of
2
transmission densitometers used for the measurement of radio-
graphic film density. The test is not intended to qualify the
radiographs measured by transmission densitometers cali-
brated in accordance with this practice.
6.3 Guide E1000 is a guide for tutorial purposes only and
outlines the general principles of radioscopic imaging. This
guide describes practices and image quality measuring systems
for real-time and near real-time non-film detection, display, and
recording of radioscopic images. These images, used in mate-
rials inspection, are generated by penetrating radiation passing
through the subject material and producing an image on the
detecting medium. The image detection and display techniques
are nonfilm, but the use of photographic film as a means for
permanent recording of the image is not precluded.
6.3.1 Summary of Guide—Guide E1000 outlines the prac-
tices for the use of radioscopic methods and techniques for
materials examinations. It is intended to provide a basic
understanding of the method and the techniques involved. The
selection of an imaging device, radiation source, and radiologi-
cal and optical techniques to achieve a specified quality in
radioscopic images is described.
6.3.2 Significance and Use—Radioscopy is a versatile non-
destructive means for examining an object. It provides imme-
diate information regarding the nature, size, location, and
distribution of imperfections, both internal and external. It also
provides a rapid check of the dimensions, mechanical configu-
ration, and the presence and positioning of components in a
mechanism. It indicates in real-time the presence of structural
or component imperfections anywhere in a mechanism or an
assembly. Through manipulation, it may provide three-
dimensional information regarding the nature, sizes, and rela-
tive positioning of items of interest within an object, and can be
further employed to check the functioning of internal mecha-
nisms. Radioscopy permits timely assessments of product
integrity, and allows prompt disposition of the product based
on acceptance standards. Although closely related to the
radiographic method, it has much lower operating costs in
terms of time, manpower, and material. Long-term records of
the radioscopic image may be obtained through motion-picture
recording (cinefluorography), video recording, or “still” pho-
tographs using conventional cameras. The radioscopic image
may be electronically enhanced, digitized, or otherwise pro-
cessed for improved visual image analysis or automatic,
computer-aided analysis, or both.
6.4 Practice E1255 provides application details for radio-
scopic examination using penetrating radiation. This includes
real-time radioscopy and, for the purposes of this standard,
radioscopy where the motion of the test object must be limited
(commonly referred to as near-real-time radioscopy). Since the
techniques involved and the applications for radioscopic ex-
amination are diverse, this practice is not intended to be
limiting or restrictive, but rather to address the general appli-
cations of the technology and thereby facilitate its use.
6.4.1 The general principles discussed in Practice E1255
apply broadly to penetrating radiation radioscopic systems.
However, this document is written specifically for use with
X-ray and gamma-ray systems.
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
6.4.2 Summary of Practice—Manual evaluation as well as
computer-aided automated radioscopic examination systems
are used in a wide variety of penetrating radiation examination
applications. A simple manual evaluation radioscopic exami-
nation system might consist of a radiation source and a directly
viewed fluorescent screen, suitably enclosed in a radiation-
protective enclosure. At the other extreme, a complex auto-
mated radioscopic examination system might consist of an
X-ray source, a robotic test part manipulator, a radiation-
protective enclosure, an electronic image detection system, a
closed circuit television image transmission system, a digital
image processor, a video display, and a digital image archiving
system. All system components are supervised by the host
computer, that incorporates the software necessary to not only
operate the system components, but to make accept/reject
decisions as well. Systems having a wide range of capabilities
between these extremes can be assembled using available
components. Guide E1000 lists many different system configu-
rations.
6.4.3 While Practice E1255 outlines the approach to be
taken in applying radioscopic real-time examination tech-
niques, a supplemental document is required covering those
areas where agreement between the provider3 and user4 of
radioscopic examination services is required. Generally, those
areas are application-specific and performance-related, cover-
ing such areas as system configuration, equipment qualifica-
tion, performance measurement, and interpretation of results.
6.4.4 Significance and Use—As with conventional radiog-
raphy, radioscopic examination is broadly applicable to any
material or test object through which a beam of penetrating
radiation may be passed and detected, including metals,
plastics, ceramics, composites, and other nonmetallic materi-
als. In addition to the benefits normally associated with
radiography, radioscopic examination is a dynamic, filmless
technique, allowing the test part to be manipulated and imaging
parameters optimized while the test object is undergoing
examination. Recent technological advances in the area of
projection imaging, detectors, and digital image processing
provide acceptable sensitivity for a wide range of applications.
6.5 Test Method E1165 provides instructions for determin-
ing the length and width dimensions of line focal spots in
industrial X-ray tubes (see Note 1). This determination is based
on the measurement of an image of a focal spot that has been
radiographically recorded with a “pinhole” projection/imaging
technique.
NOTE 1—Line focal spots are associated with vacuum X-ray tubes
whose maximum voltage rating does not generally exceed 500 kV.
6.5.1 Test Method E1165 may not yield meaningful results
on focal spots whose nominal size is less than 0.3 mm (0.011
in. (see Note 2)). This test method may also be used to
determine the presence or extent of focal spot damage or
3
As used within this guide, the provider of radioscopic services refers to the
entity that physically provides the radioscopic services. The provider may be a part
of the same organization as the user, or an outside organization.
4
As used within this guide, the user of radioscopic services refers to the entity
that requires the radioscopic services. The user may be a part of the same
organization as the provider or an outside organization.
3
deterioration that may have occurred due to tube age, tube
overloading, and the like. This would entail the production of
a focal spot radiograph (with the pinhole method) and an
evaluation of the resultant image for pitting, cracking, and the
like.
NOTE 2—The X-ray tube manufacturer may be contacted for nominal
focal spot dimensions.
6.5.2 Significance and Use—One of the factors affecting the
quality of a radiographic image is geometric unsharpness. The
degree of geometric unsharpness is dependent upon the focal
size of the radiation source, the distance between the source
and the object to be radiographed, and the distance between the
object to be radiographed and the film. This test method allows
the user to determine the focal size of the X-ray source and to
use this result to establish source-to-object and object-to-film
distances appropriate for maintaining the desired degree of
geometric unsharpness.
6.6 Guide E999 establishes guidelines that may be used for
the control and maintenance of industrial radiographic film
processing equipment and materials. The provisions in this
guide are intended to control the reliability of the chemical
process only and are not intended for controlling the accept-
ability or quality of industrial radiographic films or of the
materials or products radiographed.
6.6.1 Summary of Guide—Guide E999 provides instructions
for the mixing of radiographic processing chemicals for both
manual and automatic processes and for their storage, replen-
ishment, and cautions about temperature, deterioration, and
contamination. Recommendations are provided for both
manual and automated processing of film. Instructions are
given for the activity testing of processing solutions and for
maintenance of records.
6.6.2 Significance and Use—Effective use of these guide-
lines aids in controlling the consistency and quality of indus-
trial radiographic film processing. Improper processing can
obscure the desired radiographic detail even though the proper
radiographic procedure may have been used. The necessity of
applying specific control procedures such as those described in
this guide is dependent, to a certain extent, on the degree to
which a facility adheres to good processing practices as a
matter of routine procedure.
6.7 Guide E1254 covers the control and maintenance of
industrial radiographs and unexposed films used for industrial
radiography.
6.7.1 Summary of Guide—Guide E1254 provides recom-
mendations for storage of unexposed film including tempera-
ture and humidity for both opened and unopened containers.
For completed radiographs, recommendations are relative to
testing for proper processing to minimize aging stain, to
enclosure (interleaving) materials, and to storage area condi-
tions including air impurities, temperature, humidity, and fire
resistance.
6.7.2 Significance and Use—Poor storage practice can ren-
der unexposed film unusable for radiography and exposed
radiographs can become so degraded as to be uninterpretable
for later reference. The provisions of Guide E1254 are intended
to control the quality of industrial radiographs and unexposed
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
films only and are not intended for controlling the acceptability
of the materials or products radiographed. The necessity for
applying specific control procedures such as those described in
this guide is dependent to a certain extent, on the degree to
which a user adheres to good processing and storage practices
as matter of routine procedure.
6.8 Guide E1390 provides the recommended requirements
for illuminators used for viewing film radiographs using
transmitted light.
6.8.1 Significance and Use—The function of the illuminator
is to provide sufficient illumination and viewing capabilities to
visually review industrial film radiographs by light transmitted
through them for the purpose of identification and interpreta-
tion of images.
6.9 Practice E1411 provides test and measurement details
for measuring the performance of X-ray and Gamma ray
radioscopic systems. Radioscopic examination applications are
diverse. Therefore, system configurations are also diverse and
constantly changing as the technology advances.
6.9.1 Practice E1411 is intended as a means of initially
qualifying and requalifying a radioscopic system for a specified
application by determining its performance level when oper-
ated in a static mode. System architecture including the means
of radioscopic examination record archiving and the method
for making the accept/reject decision are also unique system
features and their effect upon system performance must be
evaluated.
6.9.2 The general principles, as stated in Practice E1411,
apply broadly to transmitted-beam penetrating radiation radios-
copy systems. Other radioscopic systems, such as those em-
ploying neutrons and Compton back-scattered X-ray imaging
techniques, are not covered as they may involve equipment and
application details unique to such systems.
6.9.3 Summary of Practice:
6.9.3.1 Practice E1411 provides a standardization procedure
for the initial qualification and requalification of a radioscopic
system to establish radioscopic examination capabilities for a
specified range of applications.
6.9.3.2 Practice E1411 is intended for use in association
with a standard practice governing the use of radioscopic
examination, such as Practice E1255. (See 6.4.)
6.9.3.3 Practice E1411 specifies the procedures to be used in
determining the performance level of the radioscopic system.
Unique system features, including component selection, sys-
tem architecture, programmability and image archiving capa-
bilities are important factors and are taken into account in this
practice. The overall system performance level, as well as key
system features, are to be recorded in a qualification document
which shall qualify the performance level of the total radio-
scopic system.
6.9.4 Significance and Use:
6.9.4.1 As with conventional radiography, radioscopic ex-
amination is broadly applicable to the many materials and test
object configurations which may be penetrated with X-rays or
gamma rays. The high degree of variation in architecture and
performance among radioscopic systems due to component
selection, physical arrangement and test object variables,
makes it necessary to establish the level of performance which
4
the selected radioscopic system is capable of achieving in
specific applications. The manufacturer of the radioscopic
system, as well as the user, require a common basis for
determining the performance level of the radioscopic system.
6.9.4.2 Practice E1411 does not purport to provide a method
to measure the performance of individual radioscopic system
components which are manufactured according to a variety of
industry standards. Practice E1411 covers measurement of the
combined performance of the radioscopic system elements
when operated together as a functional radioscopic system.
6.9.4.3 Practice E1411 addresses the performance of radio-
scopic systems in the static mode only. Radioscopy can also be
a dynamic, real-time or near real-time examination technique
which can allow test-part motion as well as parameter changes
during the radioscopic examination process. The use of Prac-
tice E1411 is not intended to be limiting concerning the use of
the dynamic properties of radioscopy. Users of radioscopy are
cautioned that the dynamic aspects of radioscopy can have
beneficial as well as detrimental effects upon system perfor-
mance and must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
6.9.4.4 The qualification procedures are intended to bench-
mark radioscopic system performance under selected operating
conditions to provide a measure of system performance.
Qualification shall not restrict operation of the radioscopic
system at other radioscopic examination parameter settings
which may provide improved performance on actual test
objects.
6.9.4.5 Radioscopic system performance measured pursuant
to Practice E1411 does not guarantee the level of performance
which may be realized in actual operation. The effects of test
part-geometry and test part-generated scattered radiation can-
not be reliably predicted by a standardized test. All radioscopic
systems age and degrade in performance as a function of time.
Maintenance and operator adjustments, if not correctly made,
can adversely affect the performance of radioscopic systems.
6.9.4.6 The performance of the radioscopic system operator
in manual and semi-automatic radioscopic systems is not taken
into account in Practice E1411 and can have a major effect
upon radioscopic system performance. Operator qualifications
are an important aspect of system operation and should be
covered in a separate written procedure.
6.10 Guide E1441 provides a tutorial introduction to the
technology and terminology of CT. It deals extensively with
the physical and mathematical basis of CT, discusses the basic
hardware configuration of all CT systems, defines a compre-
hensive set of fundamental CT performance parameters, and
presents a useful method of characterizing and predicting
system performance. Also, extensive descriptions of terms and
references to publications relevant to the subject are provided.
6.10.1 Summary of Guide—Computed tomography (CT) is
a radiographic method that provides an ideal examination
technique whenever the primary goal is to locate and size
planar and volumetric detail in three dimensions. Because of
the relatively good penetrability of X rays, as well as the
sensitivity of absorption cross sections to atomic chemistry, CT
permits the nondestructive physical and, to a limited extent,
chemical characterization of the internal structure of materials.
Also, since the method is X-ray based, it applies equally well
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
to metallic and non-metallic specimens, solid and fibrous
materials, and smooth and irregularly surfaced objects. When
used in conjunction with other nondestructive evaluation
(NDE) methods, such as ultrasound, CT data can provide
evaluations of material integrity that cannot currently be
provided nondestructively by any other means.
6.10.2 Significance and Use:
6.10.2.1 Guide E1441 provides a tutorial introduction to the
theory and use of computed tomography. Guide E1441 begins
with an overview intended for the interested reader with a
general technical background. Subsequent, more technical
sections describe the physical and mathematical basis of CT
technology, the hardware and software requirements of CT
equipment, and the fundamental measures of CT performance.
Guide E1441 includes an extensive glossary (with discussion)
of CT terminology and an extensive list of references to more
technical publications on the subject. Most importantly, Guide
E1441 establishes consensus definitions for basic measures of
CT performance, enabling purchasers and suppliers of CT
systems and services to communicate unambiguously with
reference to a recognized standard. Guide E1441 also provides
a few carefully selected equations relating measures of CT
performance to key system parameters.
6.10.2.2 Guide E1441 is intended to satisfy two general
needs for users of industrial CT equipment: (1) the need for a
tutorial guide addressing the general principles of X-ray CT as
they apply to industrial imaging; and ( 2) the need for a
consistent set of CT performance parameter definitions, includ-
ing how these performance parameters relate to CT system
specifications. Potential users and buyers, as well as experi-
enced CT inspectors, will find Guide E1441 a useful source of
information for determining the suitability of CT for particular
examination problems, for predicting CT system performance
in new situations, and for developing and prescribing new scan
procedures.
6.11 Guide E1453 provides for the control and maintenance
of recorded and unrecorded media of analog or digital elec-
tronic data from industrial radioscopy.
6.11.1 Significance and Use:
6.11.1.1 The provisions of Guide E1453 intended to control
and maintain the quality of industrial electronic data from
radioscopy and unrecorded media only and are not intended for
controlling the acceptability of the materials or products
examined. It is further intended that Guide E1453 be used as an
adjunct to Guide E1000, Practice E1255, and Terminology
E1316. (See 6.1, 6.3, and 6.4, respectively.)
6.11.1.2 The necessity for applying specific control proce-
dures such as those described in Guide E1453 is dependent to
a certain extent on the degree to which the user adheres to good
recording and storage practices as a matter of routine proce-
dure.
6.12 Guide E-94 provides information for X-ray and
gamma-ray radiographic examination as applied to industrial
radiographic film recording.
6.12.1 Summary of Guide—The guide discusses preferred
practice and incorporates a bibliography for additional infor-
mation. It covers types of materials to be examined; radio-
graphic examination techniques and production methods; ra-
5
diographic film selection, processing, viewing and storage; and
maintenance of inspection records.
6.12.2 Significance and Use—Guide E-94 is generally ap-
plicable to available materials, processes, and techniques
where industrial X-ray films are used as the recording media.
Radiography will be consistent in sensitivity and resolution
only if the effects of all details of techniques such as geometry,
film, filtration, viewing, etc., are properly established and
maintained.
6.13 Practice E-1570 provides procedural information for
performing computed tomographic examinations.
6.13.1 The CT systems addressed in this practice utilize a
set of X-ray transmission measurements made along a set of
paths through the test object for many different directions.
Each of the transmission measurements is digitized and stored
in a computer, where they are subsequently normalized,
corrected, and reconstructed by one of a variety of techniques.
6.13.2 Summary of Practice
6.13.2.1 Practice E-1570 describes CT that can be used to
establish procedures for nondestructive testing and evaluation.
Requirements in this practice are intended to control the
reliability and quality of the CT images.
6.13.2.2 CT systems are composed of a number of subsys-
tems. The function served by each subsystem is common in
almost all CT scanners. The practice describes the following
subsystems: sources of penetrating radiation detector(s), me-
chanical scanning system, and computer system. The computer
system includes image reconstruction software/hardware, im-
age display/analysis system, data storage system, and operator
interface.
6.13.2.3 The practice describes and defines the procedures
for establishing and maintaining quality control of CT exami-
nation services.
6.13.2.4 The extent to which a CT image faithfully repro-
duces an object or a feature within an object is influenced by
spatial resolution, statistical noise, slice plane thickness, and
artifacts of the imaging system. Operating parameters should
strike an overall balance between image quality, inspection
time, and cost. These parameters should be considered for CT
system configurations, components and procedures. The setting
and optimization of CT system parameters are discussed in this
practice. Also, provided are methods for the measurement of
CT system performance.
6.13.3 Significance and Use—Practice E-1570 is applicable
for the systematic assessment of the internal structure of a
material or assembly. It may be used to prescribe CT operating
procedures. It provides a basis for the formation of a program
for quality control and its continuation through calibration,
standardization, reference samples, inspection plans and pro-
cedures. Typical applications of this practice are expected to be
for final acceptance examinations required by purchase order
or specification.
6.14 Practice E–1647 covers the design and materials
selection of a contrast sensitivity measuring gage used to
determine the minimum change in material thickness of density
that may be imaged without regard to spatial resolution
limitations when using a radioscopic imaging system.
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
6.14.1 Summary of Practice—E-1647 provides fabrication
details for the construction of contrast sensitivity measuring
gages and a method for calculation of the resultant contrast
sensitivity.
6.14.2 Significance ad Use—It is often useful to evaluate the
contrast sensitivity of a penetrating radiation imaging system
separately from spatial resolution measurements. Conventional
image quality indicators (IQIs) combine the contrast sensitivity
and resolution measurements into an overall performance
figure of merit that is often inadequate to detect subtle changes
in imaging system and performance. For example, in a high-
contrast image, spatial resolution can degrade with almost no
noticeable effect upon overall image quality. Similarly, in a
application in which the imaging system provides a very sharp
image, contrast can fade with little noticeable effect upon the
overall image quality. These situations may develop and go
unnoticed until the system performance deteriorates below
acceptable image quality limits. The contrast sensitivity gage
measures contrast sensitivity independent of the imaging
system spatial resolution limitations. The thickness recess
dimensions are large with respect to the spatial resolution
limitations of most imaging systems. The measurements cited
in E-1647 are appropriate of the qualification and performance
monitoring of radiographic and radioscopic imaging systems.
For ceramics or other nonmetallic materials, it will be neces-
sary to establish equivalence to the selected material used for
the gage.
6.15 E-1672 covers guidelines for translating application
requirements into computed tomography (CT) system
requirements/specifications and establishes a common termi-
nology to guide both purchaser and supplier in the CT system
selection process.
6.15.1 Summary of Guide—E-1672 describes the capabili-
ties and limitations of the various CT subsystems and identifies
the typical purchaser’s examination requirements that must be
met. These requirements factor into the system design. Some of
the requirements identified are the ability to support the size
and weight of the object to be examined; detection capability
for size of flaws (both spatial resolution and contrast discrimi-
nation); dimensioning precision; artifact level; throughput;
ease of use; and archival procedures. The guide also describes
the tradeoff between the CT performance as required by the
purchaser and the choice of system components and subsys-
tems.
The guide also covers some management cost considerations
as well as other recommendations related to the procurement of
CT systems.
6.15.2 Significance and Use—Guide E-1672 will aid the
purchaser in generating a CT system specification through the
conversion of purchaser’s requirements (for specific or general
examination application) to system components for preparation
of a useful specification for a CT system.
The guide is applicable to purchasers seeking CT scan
services.
6.16 E-1695 provides instructions for determining the spa-
tial and contrast sensitivity in X-ray and gamma-ray computed
tomography (CT) images.
6
6.16.1 Summary of Test Method—The determination of
spatial resolution and contrast sensitivity is based on examina-
tion of the CT image of a uniform disk of material. The spatial
resolution measurement is derived from an image analysis of
the sharpness at the edge of the disk. The contrast sensitivity
measurement is derived from an image analysis of the statis-
tical noise at the center of the disk.
6.16.2 Significance and Use
6.16.2.1 Two factors affecting the quality of a CT image are
geometrical unsharpness and random noise. Geometrical un-
sharpness limits the spatial resolution of a CT system, i.e., its
ability to image fine structural detail in an object. Random
noise limits the contrast sensitivity of a CT system, i.e., its
ability to detect the presence or absence of features in an
object. E-1695 allows the purchaser or the provider of CT
systems or services to measure and specify spatial resolution
and contrast sensitivity.
6.16.2.2 E-1695 provides a method that is more quantitative
and less susceptible to interpretation than alternative ap-
proaches because the required disk is easy to fabricate and the
analysis is immune to cupping artifacts. The method may not
yield meaningful results if the disk image occupies less than a
significant fraction of the field of view.
6.17 Practice E1817 describes methods of assessing the
image quality for radiological examination of unique materials
or processes, or both, for which conventional image quality
indicators (IQIs), such as thin plaques containing holes or
small-diameter wires, may be inadequate for controlling the
quality and repeatability of radiological images. Where appro-
priate, representative quality indicators (RQIs) also may rep-
resent criteria levels for the acceptance or rejection of discon-
tinuities whose images are displayed.
6.17.1 Summary of Practice—Practice E1817 provides ra-
tionale for the use of RQIs as well as details for the design and
use of RQIs.
6.17.2 Significance and Use:
6.17.2.1 The use of RQIs is a significant departure from
standard practice in industrial radiology because the RQI is a
custom design rather than a standard design and is dependent
on the application, material, and process, and therefore, cannot
be a simple plaque or wire. The use of an RQI provides
documented evidence that radiological images have the level of
quality necessary to reveal those nonconformances for which
the parts are being examined by assuring adequate spatial
resolution and contrast sensitivity in the areas of interest.
6.17.2.2 The designer also may use the RQI, when in
compliance with the requirements of E1817, to set accept or
reject criteria, as applicable to the part designed.
7. Ultrasonics
7.1 Terminology:
7.1.1 See Terminology E1316, Section I.
7.1.2 Significance and Use—The identification and use of
common terms and definitions are necessary to ensure proper
communication between producers, examiners, and users of
both nondestructive examination equipment and techniques
and advanced ceramics.
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
7.2 Guide E1065 describes measurement procedures for
evaluating certain characteristics of ultrasonic search units
(also known as “transducers”) that are used with ultrasonic
examination instrumentation. This guide describes means for
obtaining performance data that may be used to define the
acoustic and electric responses of ultrasonic search units.
7.2.1 The procedures are designed to measure search units
as individual components (separate from the ultrasonic test
instrument) using commercial search unit characterization
systems or using laboratory signal generators, oscilloscopes,
and analyzers.
7.2.2 The procedures are applicable to manufacturing ac-
ceptance and incoming inspection of new search units or to
periodic performance evaluation of search units throughout
their service life.
7.2.3 The procedures in Annexes A1 through A6 of Guide
E1065 are generally applicable to ultrasonic search units
operating within the 0.4 to 10 MHz range. Annex A7 is
applicable to higher frequency immersion search unit evalua-
tion. Annexes under development will be added to Guide
E1065 when approved and will apply to measurement of the
sound field patterns from angle-beam and contact straight beam
search units, alternative means for making measurements of
characteristics, and the like.
7.2.4 Summary of Guide—Guide E1065 defines equipment
and procedures for measuring the acoustical and electrical
characteristics of ultrasonic search units. Frequency response
and bandwidth characteristics may be determined by one of
two procedures for shock excitation and sinusoidal burst.
Procedures for other acoustical properties include relative
pulse-echo sensitivity, time response, and generated sound
field. Electrical characteristics include complex electrical im-
pedance and d-c resistance.
7.2.5 Significance and Use:
7.2.5.1 Guide E1065 is intended to provide standardized
procedures evaluating ultrasonic search units. It is not intended
to define performance and acceptance criteria, but rather to
provide data from which such criteria may be established.
7.2.5.2 These procedures are intended to evaluate the char-
acteristics of single element piezoelectric search units designed
for immersion, contact straight-beam, or contact angle-beam
examinations.
7.2.5.3 Implementation may require more detailed proce-
dural instructions in a format of the using facility.
7.2.5.4 The measurement data obtained may be employed
by users of Guide E1065 to specify, describe, or provide a
performance criteria for procurement and quality assurance, or
service evaluation of the operating characteristics of ultrasonic
search units. All or portions of the guide may be used as
determined by the user.
7.2.5.5 The measurements are made primarily under pulse-
echo conditions. To determine the relative performance of a
search unit as either a transmitter or a receiver may require
additional tests.
7.2.5.6 While these procedures relate to many of the sig-
nificant parameters, others that may be important in specific
applications may not be treated. These might include power
7
handling capability, breakdown voltage, wear properties of
contact units, radio-frequency interference, and the like.
7.2.5.7 Care must be taken to ensure that comparative
measurements are made and that users follow like procedures.
These conditions specified or selected (if optional) may affect
the test results and lead to apparent differences.
7.2.5.8 Interpretation of some test results, such as the shape
of the frequency response curve, may be subjective. Small
irregularities may be significant. Interpretation of the test
results is beyond the scope of Guide E1065.
7.2.5.9 Certain results obtained using the procedures out-
lined in Guide E1065 may differ from measurements made
with ultrasonic test instruments. These differences may be
attributed to differences in the nature of the experiment or the
electrical characteristics of the instrumentation.
7.2.5.10 The pulse generator used to obtain the frequency
response and time response of the search unit must have a rise
time, duration, and spectral content sufficient to excite the
search unit over its full bandwidth, otherwise time distortion
and erroneous results may result.
7.3 Practice E317 describes procedures for evaluating the
following performance characteristics of ultrasonic pulse-echo
testing systems: horizontal limit and linearity; vertical limit and
linearity; resolution-entry surface and far surface; sensitivity
and noise; and accuracy of calibrated gain controls.
7.3.1 Ultrasonic test systems using pulsed-wave trains and
A-scan presentation (radio frequency (rf or video)) may be
evaluated. The procedures are applicable to shop or field
conditions; additional electronic measurement instrumentation
is not required.
7.3.2 Practice E317 establishes no performance limits for
test systems; if such acceptance criteria are required, these
must be specified by the using parties.
7.3.3 The specific parameters to be evaluated, conditions
and frequency of test, and report data required, must also be
determined by the user.
7.3.4 This practice is intended primarily for the evaluation
of a complete testing system, including search unit, instrument,
interconnections, and fixtures. However, certain characteristics
of the instrument alone can be determined within the limita-
tions discussed.
7.3.5 Required test apparatus includes selected test blocks
and a precision external attenuator (where specified) in addi-
tion to the system to be evaluated.
7.3.6 Precautions relating to the applicability of the proce-
dures and interpretation of the results are included.
7.3.7 Summary of Practice:
7.3.7.1 A testing system to be evaluated comprises an
ultrasonic pulse-echo instrument, search unit, interconnecting
cables, and couplant; for immersion testing systems suitable
fixturing is required.
7.3.7.2 Test conditions are selected that are consistent with
the intended end-use of the inspection system, as determined
by the user.
7.3.7.3 The ultrasonic response from appropriate test blocks
is obtained, and presented in numerical or graphical form.
7.3.7.4 The test data can be used to characterize the related
system parameters in accordance with user requirements.
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
7.3.8 Significance and Use:
7.3.8.1 Practice E317 describes procedures applicable to
both shop and field conditions. More comprehensive or precise
measurements of the characteristics of complete systems and
their components will generally require laboratory techniques
and electronic equipment such as oscilloscopes and signal
generators. Substitution of these methods is not precluded
where appropriate; however, their usage is not within the scope
of this practice.
7.3.8.2 Practice E317 does not establish system acceptance
limits, nor is it intended as a comprehensive equipment
specification.
7.3.8.3 While several important characteristics are included,
others of possible significance in some applications are not
covered.
7.3.8.4 Since the parameters to be evaluated and the appli-
cable test conditions must be specified, Practice E317 should
be prescribed only by those familiar with ultrasonic NDT
technology and the required tests should be performed either
by such a qualified person or under his supervision.
7.3.8.5 Implementation may require more detailed proce-
dural instructions in the format of the using facility.
7.3.8.6 Selection of the specific tests to be made should be
done cautiously; if the related parameters are not critical in the
intended application, then their inclusion may be unjustified.
For example, vertical linearity may be irrelevant for a “go/no-
go” test with a flaw gate alarm, while horizontal linearity might
be required only for accurate flaw-depth or thickness measure-
ment from the CRT display.
7.3.8.7 No frequency of system evaluation or calibration is
recommended or implied. This is the prerogative of the using
parties and is dependent on application, environment, and
stability of equipment.
7.3.8.8 Certain sections are applicable only to instruments
having receiver gain controls calibrated in decibels (dB). While
these may sometimes be designated “gain,” “attenuator,” or“
sensitivity” on various instruments, the term “gain controls” is
used in Practice E317 in referring to those that specifically
control instrument receiver gain but not including reject,
electronic distance-amplitude compensation, or automatic gain
control.
7.3.8.9 These procedures can generally be applied to any
combination of instrument and search unit of the commonly
used types and frequencies, and to most straight-beam testing,
either contact or immersed. Certain sections are also compat-
ible with angle-beam, wheel, delay-line, and dual-search unit
techniques. Their use, however, should be mutually agreed
upon and so identified in the test report.
7.3.8.10 The validity of the results obtained will depend on
the precision of the CRT readings. This is assumed to be 60.04
in. (61 mm), yielding between 1 and 2 % of full scale (fs)
readability for available instrumentation having suitable screen
graticules and display sharpness.
7.4 Practice E664 describes a procedure for measuring the
apparent attenuation of ultrasound in materials or components
with flat, parallel surfaces using conventional pulse-echo
8
ultrasonic flaw detection equipment in which reflected indica-
tions are displayed on a cathode-ray tube in an A-scan
presentation.
7.4.1 The measurement procedure in Practice E664 is read-
ily adaptable for the determination of relative attenuation
between materials. For absolute (true) attenuation measure-
ments, indicative of the intrinsic nature of the material, it is
necessary to correct for specimen geometry, sound beam
divergence, instrumentation, and procedural effects. These
results can be obtained with more specialized ultrasonic
equipment and techniques.
7.4.2 Summary of Practice—Practice E664 describes a pro-
cedure for determining apparent attenuation by measuring the
decay of multiple back reflections of longitudinal ultrasonic
waves introduced into specimens with flat, parallel surfaces by
the immersion technique.
7.4.3 Significance and Use:
7.4.3.1 The measurement of apparent attenuation in materi-
als is useful in applications such as the comparison of heat
treatments of different lots of material or the assessment of the
degradation of materials due to environment.
7.4.3.2 Several different modes of wave vibration can be
propagated in solids. Practice E664 is concerned with the
attenuation associated with longitudinal waves introduced into
the specimen by the immersion method.
7.4.3.3 Practice E664 allows for the comparison of the
apparent attenuations of geometrically similar specimens.
7.4.3.4 For the determination of apparent attenuation, the
procedures described herein are valid only for measurements in
the far field of the ultrasonic beam.
7.5 Practice E494 covers a test procedure for measuring
ultrasonic velocities in materials with conventional ultrasonic
pulse echo flaw detection equipment in which results are
displayed on an A-scan cathode ray tube. This practice de-
scribes a method whereby unknown ultrasonic velocities in a
material sample are determined by comparative measurements
using a reference material whose ultrasonic velocities are
accurately known.
7.5.1 Summary of Practice—Several possible modes of
vibration can propagate in solids. The procedure in Practice
E494 is concerned with two velocities of propagation, namely
those associated with longitudinal (v1) and transverse (vt)
waves. The longitudinal velocity is independent of sample
geometry when the dimensions at right angles to the beam are
very large compared with beam area and wave length. The
transverse velocity is little affected by physical dimensions of
the sample.
7.5.2 Significance and Use:
7.5.2.1 Ultrasonic velocity measurements are useful for
determining several important material properties. Young’s
modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, acoustic impedance, and
several other useful properties and coefficients can be calcu-
lated for solid materials with the ultrasonic velocities if the
density is known as shown in Appendix X2 of Practice E494.
NOTE 3—Factors including techniques, equipment, types of material,
and operator variables will result in variations in absolute velocity
readings, sometimes by as much as 5 %. Relative results with a single
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
combination of the above factors can be expected to be much more
accurate (probably within a 1 % tolerance).
7.5.2.2 More accurate results can be obtained with more
specialized ultrasonic equipment, auxiliary equipment, and
specialized techniques. Some of the supplemental techniques
are described in Appendix X2 of Practice E494.
7.6 Practice E797 provides guidelines for measuring the
thickness of materials using the contact pulse-echo method at
temperatures not to exceed 200°F (94°C).
7.6.1 Practice E797 is applicable to any material in which
ultrasonic waves will propagate at a constant velocity through-
out the part, and from which back reflections can be obtained
and resolved.
7.6.2 Summary of Practice:
7.6.2.1 Thickness (T) when measured by the pulse-echo
ultrasonic method is a product of the velocity of sound in the
material and one-half of the transit time (round trip) through
the material:
Vt
T5
2 wearface, and electrical connector comprise the search unit.
where:
T = thickness,
V = velocity, and
t = transit time.
7.6.2.2 The pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument measures the
transit time of the ultrasonic pulse through the part.
7.6.2.3 The velocity in the material under test is a function
of the physical properties of the material. It is usually assumed
to be a constant for a given class of materials.
7.6.2.4 One or more reference blocks are required having
known velocity, or of the same material to be tested and having
thicknesses accurately measured and in the range of thick-
nesses to be measured. It is generally desirable that the
thicknesses be “round numbers” rather than miscellaneous odd
values. One block should have a thickness value near the
maximum of the range of interest and another block near the
minimum thickness.
7.6.2.5 The display element (CRT (cathode ray tube), meter,
or digital display) of the instrument must be adjusted to present
convenient values of thickness dependent on the range being
used. The control for this function may have different names on
different instruments, including range, sweep, material cali-
brate, or velocity.
7.6.2.6 The timing circuits in different instruments use
various conversion schemes. A common method is the so-
called time/analog conversion in which the time measured by
the instrument is converted into a proportional d-c voltage
which is then applied to the readout device. Another technique
uses a very high-frequency oscillator that is modulated or gated
by the appropriate echo indications, the output being used
either directly to suitable digital readouts, or converted to a
voltage for other presentation.
7.6.3 Significance and Use:
7.6.3.1 The techniques described in Practice E797 provide
indirect measurement of thickness of sections of materials not
9
exceeding temperatures of 200°F (94°C). Measurements are
made from one side of the object, without requiring access to
the rear surface.
7.6.3.2 Ultrasonic thickness measurements are used exten-
sively on basic shapes and products of many materials, on
precision machined parts, and to determine wall thinning in
process equipment caused by corrosion and erosion.
7.7 Practice E114 covers ultrasonic examination of materi-
als by the pulse-echo method using straight-beam longitudinal
waves introduced by direct contact of the search unit with the
material being examined and is applicable for the development
of an examination procedure agreed upon by the users of this
practice.
7.7.1 Summary of Practice:
7.7.1.1 A series of electrical pulses is applied to a piezo-
electric element (transducer) that converts these pulses to
mechanical energy in the form of pulsed waves at a nominal
frequency. This transducer is mounted in a holder so it can
transmit the waves into the material through a suitable wear
surface and couplant. The assembly of transducer, holder,
7.7.1.2 Pulsed energy is transmitted into materials, travels in
a direction normal to the contacted surface, and is reflected
back to the search unit by discontinuity or boundary interfaces
that are parallel or nearly parallel to the contacted surface.
These echoes return to the search unit, where they are
converted from mechanical to electrical energy and are ampli-
fied by a receiver. The amplified echoes (signals) are usually
presented in an A-scan display on a cathode ray tube (CRT),
such that the entire round trip of pulsed energy within the
resolution of the system may be indicated along the horizontal
base line of a CRT by vertical deflections corresponding to
echo amplitudes from each interface, including those from
intervening discontinuities. By adjustment of the sweep (range)
controls, this display can be expanded or contracted to obtain
a designated relation between the CRT signals and the material
reflectors from which the signal originates. Thus, a scaled
distance to a discontinuity and its displayed signal becomes a
true relationship. By comparison of the displayed discontinuity
signal amplitudes to those from a reference standard, both
location and estimated discontinuity size may be determined.
Discontinuities having dimensions exceeding the size of the
sound beam can also be estimated by determining the amount
of movement of a search unit over the examination surface
where a discontinuity signal is maintained.
7.7.2 Significance and Use—Types of information that may
be obtained from the pulsed-echo straight-beam practice are as
follows:
7.7.2.1 Apparent discontinuity size (see Note 4) by com-
parison of the signal amplitudes from the test piece to the
amplitudes obtained from a reference standard.
NOTE 4—The term “apparent” is emphasized since true size depends on
orientation, composition, and geometry of the discontinuity and equip-
ment limitations.
7.7.2.2 Depth location of discontinuities by calibrating the
horizontal scale of the CRT screen.
7.7.2.3 Material properties as indicated by the relative
sound attenuation or velocity changes of compared items.
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
7.7.2.4 The extent of bond and unbond (or fusion and lack
of fusion) between two ultrasonic conducting materials if
geometry and materials permit.
7.8 Practice E587 covers ultrasonic examination of materi-
als by the pulse-echo technique, using continuous coupling of
angular incident ultrasonic vibrations.
7.8.1 Summary of Practice:
7.8.1.1 An electrical pulse is applied to a piezoelectric
transducer that converts electrical to mechanical energy. In the
angle-beam search unit, the transducer is generally a thickness
expander that creates compressions and rarefactions. This
longitudinal (compressional) wave travels through a wedge
(generally a plastic). The angle between the transducer face and
the examination face of the wedge is equal to the angle
between the normal (perpendicular) to the examination surface
and the incident beam.
7.8.1.2 When the examination face of the angle-beam
search unit is coupled to a material, ultrasonic waves may
travel in the material. The angle in the material (measured from
the normal to the examination surface) and mode of vibration
are dependent on the wedge angle, the ultrasonic velocity in the
wedge, and the velocity of the wave in the examined material.
When the material is thicker than a few wavelengths, the waves
traveling in the material may be longitudinal and shear, shear
alone, shear and Rayleigh, or Rayleigh alone. Total reflection
may occur at the interface. In thin materials (up to a few
wavelengths thick), the waves from the angle-beam search unit
traveling in the material may propagate in different Lamb wave
modes.
7.8.1.3 Practice E587 describes the apparatus, calibration
techniques, and examination techniques for generating and
applying angle-beam longitudinal waves, angle-beam shear
waves (transverse waves), surface waves, and Lamb waves.
7.8.2 Significance and Use:
7.8.2.1 All ultrasonic modes of vibration may be used for
angle-beam examination of material. The material forms and
the probable flaw locations and orientations determine selec-
tion of beam directions and modes of vibration. The use of
angle beams and the selection of the proper wave mode
presuppose a knowledge of the geometry of the object, the
probable location, size, orientation, and reflectivity of the
expected flaws; and the laws of physics governing the propa-
gation of ultrasonic waves. Characteristics of the examination
system used and the ultrasonic properties of the material being
examined must be known or determined.
7.9 Guide E1324 covers procedures for electronically mea-
suring the following performance-related characteristics of
some sections of ultrasonic instruments:
7.9.1 Power Supply Section:
7.9.1.1 Line regulation,
7.9.1.2 Battery discharge time, and
7.9.1.3 Battery charge time.
7.9.2 Pulser Section:
7.9.2.1 Pulse shape,
7.9.2.2 Pulse amplitude,
7.9.2.3 Pulse rise time, pulse length, and
7.9.2.4 Pulse frequency spectrum.
7.9.3 Receiver Section:
10
7.9.3.1 Vertical linearity,
7.9.3.2 Frequency response,
7.9.3.3 Noise and sensitivity, and
7.9.3.4 dB controls.
7.9.4 Time Base Section:
7.9.4.1 Horizontal linearity, and
7.9.4.2 Clock (pulse repetition rate).
7.9.5 Gate/Alarm Section:
7.9.5.1 Delay and width,
7.9.5.2 Resolution,
7.9.5.3 Alarm level,
7.9.5.4 Gain uniformity,
7.9.5.5 Analog output, and
7.9.5.6 Back echo gate.
7.9.6 Practice E1324 complements Practice E317 (see 7.3),
and is not intended for evaluating the performance character-
istics of ultrasonic examination instruments on the inspection/
production line. No access to internal circuitry is required.
7.9.7 Summary of Guide—The electronic performance of
each section is measured by identifying that portion of the
electrical circuit of the instrument which comprises the section,
applying the recommended stimulus or load, or both, and
performing the required measurements using commercially
available electronic test equipment. These data are then sum-
marized in tabular or graphical form as performance-related
values which can be compared with corresponding values of
other ultrasonic examination instruments or of values for the
same instrument obtained earlier.
7.9.8 Significance and Use:
7.9.8.1 The recommended measurement procedures de-
scribed in Guide E1324 are intended to provide performance-
related measurements that can be reproduced under the speci-
fied test conditions using commercially available test
instrumentation. These measurements indicate capabilities of
sections of the ultrasonic examination instrument independent
of specific transducers or examination conditions. Measure-
ments are made from normally available connectors or test
points so that no access to internal circuitry is required.
Further, Guide E1324 is not intended for service, calibration, or
maintenance of circuitry for which the manufacturer’s instruc-
tions are available. It is intended primarily for pulse echo flaw
detection instruments operating in the nominal frequency range
of 100 kHz to 25 MHz. Measurements on instruments utilizing
significantly higher frequency components may require alter-
nate techniques and instrumentation.
7.9.8.2 These procedures can be applied to the evaluation of
any pulse-echo ultrasonic examination instrument which can
be described as a combination of the electronic sections
discussed in Guide E1324.
7.9.8.3 An ultrasonic examination instrument that cannot be
completely described as a combination of the electronic
sections discussed in Guide E1324 can be partially evaluated.
Each portion of the ultrasonic examination instrument that is
evaluated must fit the description for the corresponding sec-
tion.
7.9.8.4 Guide E1324 is meant to be used by electronic
personnel to evaluate the electronic system components and
not the ultrasonic system characteristics.
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
8. Liquid Penetrants
8.1 Terminology:
8.1.1 See Terminology E1316, Section F.
8.1.2 Significance and Use—The identification and use of
common terms and definitions are necessary to ensure proper
communication between producers, examiners, and users of
both nondestructive examination equipment and techniques
and advanced ceramics.
8.2 Practice E165 covers procedures for liquid penetrant
inspection of materials.
8.2.1 Summary of Practice:
8.2.1.1 Liquid penetrant inspection methods provide a
means for the detection of discontinuities that are open to the
surface. In general, a liquid penetrant is applied evenly over the
surface of the part being tested and allowed to enter disconti-
nuities. After a suitable dwell time, the excess surface penetrant
is removed and the part dried. A developer is then applied that
draws the entrapped penetrant out of the discontinuity, staining
the developer. The test part is then inspected visually to
determine the presence or absence of indications.
8.2.1.2 The selection of a particular method and type of
penetrant inspection procedure depends upon the nature of the
application, conditions under which the inspection is to be
performed, availability of processing equipment, and type of
materials to perform the inspection.
8.2.1.3 Processing parameters, such as precleaning, penetra-
tion time, etc., are determined by the specific materials used,
the nature of the part under inspection (that is, size, shape,
surface condition, alloy), type of discontinuities expected, etc.
Liquid penetrant inspection methods indicate the presence,
location, and, to some extent, the nature and magnitude of the
detected discontinuities.
8.2.2 Significance and Use—Liquid penetrant processes are
nondestructive testing methods for detecting discontinuities
that are open to the surface. They are applicable to in-process,
final, and maintenance inspection. They can be effectively used
in the inspection of nonporous metallic materials, both ferrous
and nonferrous, and of nonporous, nonmetallic materials such
as ceramics, plastics, and glass. Discontinuities open to the
surface such as cracks, seams, laps, cold shuts, laminations,
through leaks, or lack of fusion are indicated by these methods.
8.2.3 Practice E165 also provides a reference for the fol-
lowing:
8.2.3.1 A reference by which the liquid penetrant inspection
processes recommended or required by individual organiza-
tions can be reviewed to ascertain their applicability and
completeness.
8.2.3.2 A reference for use in the preparation of process
specifications dealing with the liquid penetrant inspection of
materials and parts. Agreement by the purchaser and the
manufacturer regarding specific techniques is strongly recom-
mended.
8.2.3.3 A reference for use in the organization of the
facilities and personnel concerned in the liquid penetrant
inspection.
8.2.3.4 Practice E165 does not indicate or suggest standards
for evaluation of the indications obtained. It should be pointed
out, however, that after indications have been produced, they
11
must be interpreted or classified and then evaluated. For this
purpose there must be a separate code or specification or a
specific agreement to define the type, size, location, and
direction of indications considered acceptable, and those con-
sidered unacceptable.
8.3 Five separate test methods for liquid penetrant exami-
nation have been recognized and documented to provide
specific instructions for procedures. Review of the individual
test methods should provide guidance for the selection and
performance of a test method for application to a given
advanced ceramic. The test methods also provide a reference
by which specific processes recommended or required by
individual organizations can be reviewed to ascertain applica-
bility and completeness and for use in preparation of process
specifications.
NOTE 5—Fluorescent penetrant examination should not follow a visible
penetrant examination unless the procedure has been demonstrated and
qualified, because visible dyes may cause deterioration or quenching of
fluorescent dyes.
NOTE 6—Requirements for the developer step in the various test
methods may be omitted by agreement between purchaser and supplier.
8.3.1 Test Method E1208 covers procedures for fluorescent
liquid penetrant examination using the lipophilic post-
emulsification process.
8.3.1.1 Summary of Test Method—A post-emulsifiable,
liquid fluorescent penetrant is applied evenly over the surface
being tested and allowed to enter open discontinuities. After a
suitable dwell time, the excess surface penetrant is removed by
applying the lipophilic emulsifier and the part is water rinsed
and dried. If an aqueous developer is to be employed, the
developer is applied prior to the drying step. A developer is
applied to draw the entrapped penetrant out of the discontinuity
and stain the developer. The test surface is then examined
visually using a black light in a darkened area to determine the
presence or absence of indications.
8.3.1.2 Significance and Use—Liquid penetrant examina-
tion methods indicate the presence, location, and, to a limited
extent, the nature and magnitudes of the detected discontinui-
ties. This test method is normally used for production exami-
nation of critical components or structures when removal of
excessive amounts of penetrant from discontinuities using a
water-washable process can be a problem and when the use of
a hydrophilic remover is impractical.
8.3.2 Test Method E1209 covers procedures for water-
washable fluorescent penetrant examination of materials.
8.3.2.1 Summary of Test Method—A liquid penetrant is
applied evenly over the surface being tested and allowed to
enter open discontinuities. After a suitable dwell time, the
excess surface penetrant is removed with water and the surface
is dried prior to the application of a dry or nonaqueous
developer. A developer is then applied, drawing the entrapped
penetrant out of the discontinuity and staining the developer. If
an aqueous developer is to be employed, the developer is
applied prior to the drying step. The test surface is then
examined visually under black light in a darkened area to
determine the presence or absence of indications.
8.3.2.2 Significance and Use—Liquid penetrant examina-
tion methods indicate the presence, location, and, to a limited
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
extent, the nature and magnitude of the detected discontinui-
ties. This test method is normally used for production inspec-
tion of large volumes of parts or structures, where emphasis is
on productivity. This test method has a wide latitude in
applicability when extensive and controlled conditions are
available. Multiple levels of sensitivity can be achieved by
proper selection of materials and variations in process.
8.3.3 Test Method E1210 covers procedures for fluorescent
penetrant examination using the hydrophilic post-
emulsification process.
8.3.3.1 Summary of Test Method—A post-emulsifiable,
liquid fluorescent penetrant is applied evenly over the surface
being tested and allowed to enter open discontinuities. After a
suitable dwell time and prerinse, the excess surface penetrant is
removed by applying a hydrophilic emulsifier, and the surface
is rinsed and dried. A developer is then applied, drawing the
entrapped penetrant out of the discontinuity and staining the
developer. If an aqueous developer is to be employed, the
developer is applied prior to the drying step. The test surface is
then examined visually under black light in a darkened area to
determine the presence or absence of indications.
8.3.3.2 Processing parameters such as precleaning, penetra-
tion time, prerinsing, hydrophilic emulsifier concentration, etc.,
are determined by the specific materials used, the nature of the
part under examination (that is, size, shape, surface condition),
type of discontinuities expected, etc.
8.3.3.3 Significance and Use—Liquid penetrant examina-
tion methods indicate the presence, location, and, to a limited
extent, the nature and magnitude of the detected discontinui-
ties. This test method is normally used for production exami-
nation of critical components, where reproducibility is essen-
tial. More procedural controls and processing steps are
required than with other processes.
8.3.4 Test Method E1219 covers procedures for fluorescent
penetrant examination using the solvent-removable process.
8.3.4.1 Summary of Test Method—A liquid fluorescent
penetrant is applied evenly over the surface being tested and
allowed to enter open discontinuities. After a suitable dwell
time, the excess surface penetrant is removed with a solvent
and the surface is dried prior to the application of a nonaque-
ous, wet, or liquid film developer. If an aqueous developer is to
be employed, the developer is applied prior to the drying step.
The developer draws the entrapped penetrant out of the
discontinuity, staining the developer. The surface is then
examined visually under black light to determine presence or
absence of indications.
8.3.4.2 Significance and Use—Liquid penetrant examina-
tion methods indicate the presence, location, and, to a limited
extent, the nature and magnitude of the detected discontinui-
ties. This test method is intended primarily for portability and
for localized areas of examination, utilizing minimal equip-
ment, when a higher level of sensitivity than can be achieved
using visible penetrants is required. Surface roughness may be
a limiting factor. If so, an alternative process such as post-
emulsified penetrant should be considered when grinding or
machining is not practical.
8.3.5 Test Method E1220 covers procedures for visible
penetrant examination using the solvent-removable process.
12
8.3.5.1 Summary of Test Method—A liquid visible-dye
penetrant is applied evenly over the surface being tested and
allowed to enter open discontinuities. After a suitable dwell
time, the excess surface penetrant is removed by wiping with a
solvent and the surface is dried. If an aqueous developer is to
be employed, the developer is applied prior to the drying step.
A developer is then applied, drawing the entrapped penetrant
out of the discontinuity, staining the developer. The test surface
is then examined visually to determine the presence or absence
of indications.
8.3.5.2 Processing parameters, such as precleaning, penetra-
tion time, etc., are determined by the specific materials used,
the nature of the part under examination (that is, size, shape,
surface condition), and type of discontinuities expected.
8.3.5.3 Significance and Use—Liquid penetrant examina-
tion methods indicate the presence, location, and, to a limited
extent, the nature and magnitude of the detected discontinui-
ties. This test method is intended primarily for portability and
for localized areas of examination using minimal equipment.
Surface roughness may be a limiting factor. If so, an alternate
process, such as water-wash visible or post-emulsified pen-
etrant, should be considered when grinding or machining is not
practical.
9. Acoustic Emission (AE)
9.1 Terminology:
9.1.1 See Terminology E1316, Section B.
9.1.2 Significance and Use—The identification and use of
common terms and definitions are necessary to ensure proper
communication between producers, examiners, and users of
both advanced ceramics and nondestructive examination
equipment and techniques.
9.2 Practice E569 provides guidelines for acoustic emission
examination or monitoring of structures that can be stressed by
mechanical or thermal methods.
9.2.1 Summary of Practice—Acoustic emission examina-
tion of a structure usually requires application of a mechanical
or thermal stimulus. Such stimulation produces changes in the
stresses in the structure. During stimulation of a structure, AE
from discontinuities (such as cracks and inclusions) and from
other areas of stress concentration, or from other acoustic
sources (such as leaks, loose parts, and structural motion) can
be detected by an instrumentation system, using sensors which,
when stimulated by stress waves, generate electrical signals.
9.2.2 Significance and Use—The basic functions of an AE
monitoring system are to detect, locate, and classify emission
sources. In addition to immediate evaluation of the emissions
detected during the application of the stimulus, a permanent
record of the number and location of emitting sources and the
relative amount of AE detected from each source provides a
basis for comparison with sources detected during the test and
during subsequent stimulation.
9.3 Guide E650 provides guidelines for mounting piezo-
electric acoustic emission (AE) sensors.
9.3.1 Summary of Guide—This guide provides guidance on
sensor selection, surface preparation, mounting fixtures, meth-
ods of ensuring adequate contact of the sensor with the
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
interrogated surfaces (with pressure or coupling agents), and
verification of response after mounting and activation of the
sensor.
9.3.2 Significance and Use—The methods and procedures
used in mounting AE sensors can have significant effects upon
the performance of those sensors. Optimum and reproducible
detection of AE requires both appropriate sensor-mounting
fixtures and consistent sensor-mounting procedures.
9.4 Practice E750 is used for testing and measuring operat-
ing characteristics of acoustic emission electronic components
or units.
9.4.1 Summary of Practice—This practice identifies the
electronic instruments and describes the procedures for deter-
mining instrumentation bandwidth, frequency response, gain,
noise level, threshold level, dynamic range, signal overload,
dead time, and counter accuracy of AE equipment.
9.4.2 Significance and Use—This practice is intended for
application to periodic calibration or usage in the event of a
malfunction of AE instrumentation. It is not intended for
frequent, routine checks of the instrumentation.
9.5 Guide E976 is used for determining the reproducibility
of response of acoustic emission sensors.
9.5.1 Summary of Guide—This guide defines simple eco-
nomical procedures for testing or comparing the performance
of acoustic emission sensors. The procedures allow the user to
check for degradation of a sensor or to select sets of sensors
with nearly identical performances.
9.5.2 Significance and Use—Acoustic emission data is af-
fected by several characteristics of the instrumentation. The
most obvious of these is the system sensitivity. Of all the
parameters and components contributing to the sensitivity, the
acoustic emission sensor is the one most subject to variation.
This variation can be a result of damage or aging, or there can
be variations between nominally identical sensors. To detect
such variations, it is desirable to have a method for measuring
the response of a sensor to an acoustic wave. Specific purposes
for checking sensors include: (1) checking the stability of its
response with time; (2) checking the sensor for possible
damage after accident or abuse; (3) comparing a number of
sensors for use in a multichannel system to ensure that their
responses are adequately matched; and (4) checking the
response after thermal cycling or exposure to a hostile envi-
ronment. It is very important that the sensor characteristics be
always measured with the same sensor cable length and
impedance as well as the same preamplifier or equivalent. This
guide presents several procedures for measuring sensor re-
sponse. Some of these procedures require a minimum of
special equipment. The procedures are not capable of provid-
13
ing an absolute calibration of the sensor nor do they ensure
transferability of data sets between organizations.
9.6 Method E1106 covers the requirements for the absolute
calibration of AE sensors.
9.6.1 Summary of Method—This method describes appara-
tus and procedures for measuring the frequency response of a
sensor to waves, at a surface, of the type normally encountered
in AE work. The transducer voltage response is determined at
discrete frequency intervals of approximately 10 kHz up to 1
MHz. The input is a given, well–established displacement
normal to the mounting surface.
9.6.2 Significance and Use:
9.6.2.1 Transfer Standards—One purpose of this method is
for the direct calibration of displacement transducers for use as
secondary standards for the calibration of AE sensors for use in
nondestructive evaluation. For this purpose, the transfer stan-
dard should be high fidelity and very well-behaved and
understood. If this can be established, the stated accuracy
should apply over the full frequency range up to 1 MHz.
9.6.2.2 Application Sensors—This method may also be used
for the calibration of AE sensors for use in nondestructive
evaluation. Some of these sensors are less well-behaved than
devices suitable for a transfer standard. The stated accuracy for
such devices applies in the range from 100 kHz to 1 MHz and
with less accuracy below 100 kHz.
9.7 Practice E1781 covers requirements for the secondary
calibration of AE sensors.
9.7.1 Summary of Test Method—The procedures in this
practice for secondary calibration yield the frequency response
of a sensor to waves of the type normally encountered in
acoustic emission work. The source producing the signal used
for the calibration is mounted on the same surface of the test
block as the sensor under testing (SUT). Rayleigh waves are
dominant under these conditions; the calibration results repre-
sent primarily the sensor’s sensitivity to Rayleigh waves. The
sensitivity of the sensor is determined for excitation within the
range from 100 kHz to 1MHz. Sensitivity values are usually
determined at frequencies approximately 10 kHz apart. The
units of the calibration are volts per unit of mechanical input
(displacement, velocity, or acceleration).
9.7.2 Significance and Use—The purpose of this practice is
to enable the transfer of calibration from sensors that have been
calibrated by primary calibration to other sensors.
10. Keywords
10.1 acoustic emission; advanced ceramics; equipment cali-
bration; flaw detection; liquid penetrants; measurement of
properties; nondestructive testing; radiography; radiology; ul-
trasonics
 C1175 − 99a (2010)
ASTM International takes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection with any item mentioned
in this standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any such patent rights, and the risk
of infringement of such rights, are entirely their own responsibility.

This standard is subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee and must be reviewed every five years and
if not revised, either reapproved or withdrawn. Your comments are invited either for revision of this standard or for additional standards
and should be addressed to ASTM International Headquarters. Your comments will receive careful consideration at a meeting of the
responsible technical committee, which you may attend. If you feel that your comments have not received a fair hearing you should
make your views known to the ASTM Committee on Standards, at the address shown below.

This standard is copyrighted by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959,
United States. Individual reprints (single or multiple copies) of this standard may be obtained by contacting ASTM at the above
address or at 610-832-9585 (phone), 610-832-9555 (fax), or service@astm.org (e-mail); or through the ASTM website
(www.astm.org). Permission rights to photocopy the standard may also be secured from the ASTM website (www.astm.org/
COPYRIGHT/).

14