1- Introduction

Field of Fluid Mechanics can be divided into 3

branches:
• Fluid Statics: mechanics of fluids at rest
• Kinematics: deals with velocities and streamlines
witout considering forces or energy
• Fluid Dynamics: deals with the relations between
velocities and accelerations and forces exerted by or
upon fluids in motion

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Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas of engineering and
science. Examples are:
• Biomechanics
– Blood flow through arteries and veins
• Ocean Engineering
– Movements of air currents and water currents
• Chemical Engineering
– Design of chemical processing equipment
• Mechanical Engineering
– Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment, pollution-control
equipment, etc.
• Civil Engineering
– Transport of river sediments
– Pollution of air and water
– Design of piping systems
– Flood control systems

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 Aerodynamics

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 Hydrodynamics

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 Bioengineering

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 Energy generation

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 Geology

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 River Hydraulics

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 Hydraulic Structures

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 23 OGEE Type Spillway – Panama Canal

 Water Resources

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 Pitot Tube (Velocity Measurement)

Henri Pitot
1695 - 1771

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 Tsunamis
• Tsunami: Japanese for “Harbour Wave”
• Created by earthquakes, land slides, volcanoes,
asteroids/meteors
• Pose infrequent but high risk for coastal regions.

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Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 27
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In rivers and streams... A tornado... an atmospheric vortex

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 Mixing (as in soups) Mixing milk in coffee...

Air as a transportation mean...

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 Water surface for boating... Flow of air around cars...

Water or gas in conduits... Pumps used to lift water...

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 Hydroelectric dams...

Canals used for irrigation ...

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 Water sports

Sports & Recreation

Auto racing Cycling

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 Will It Float?

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Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 35
 States of Matter
(V1 & V2)

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 STATES OF MATTER

SOLID LIQUID GAS PLASMA

Tightly packed, Close together Well separated Has no definite

in a regular with no regular with no regular volume or shape
pattern arrangement. arrangement. and is composed
Vibrate, but do Vibrate, rotate, Vibrate and of electrical
not move from and slide past move freely at charged particles
place to place each other high speeds
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 Some places where plasmas are found…

1. Flames

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 2. Lightning
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Sun: example of a star in its plasma state

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 B. Phase Properties

Particle Properties
Phase Proximity Energy Motion Volume Shape
Solid close little vibrational definite definite
Liquid close moderate rotational definite indefinite
Gas far apart a lot
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
translational
41
indefinite indefinite
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Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 43
 Characteristics of H20

1. Has cohesive behavior

2. Resists changes in temperature
3. Has a high heat of vaporization and
cools surfaces as it evaporates
4. Is a versatile solvent
5. Expands when it freezes

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 n Oceans and lakes don't freeze
n because of hydrogen bonding, water is
less dense as a solid than it is as a
liquid.
n consequently, ice floats.

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 Polarity
n polarity of water molecules results
in hydrogen bonding

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 Density of Ice

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 Consequences of hydrogen bonding in water
Ice floats because hydrogen bonds hold water molecules further
apart in a solid than in a liquid – density of ice is less than density
of water

Water Density at 0°C = 999.8 g/l

Ice Density at 0°C = 916 g/l

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 A Unique Characteristic of H20
• When liquid water is cooled, it contracts like
one would expect until a temperature of
4°C.
• Colder than that, it expands slightly until it
reaches the freezing point.
• When freezes it expands by about 9%.
• In liquid water each molecule is hydrogen
bonded to 3.4 other water molecules. In ice
each molecule is hydrogen bonded to 4
other molecules.
Mass g Volume cc Density g/cc
Water at 4°C 100 100 1.00
Ice at Zero of Fluid
Fundamentals 100Mechanics 108.7 49 0.92
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 50
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 51
Distinction between solids and
fluids

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 Sand: is it a Fluid?
– Sand can resist a limited shear stress
without flowing due to its internal
angle of friction (φ) as seen as a heap
when unloading sand.
– Sand pored over an inclined plane will
not move (due to the shear stress
induced by gravity) unless the angle of
inclination of the plane exceeds the
value of (φ) (and friction with bed).
– If honey is used instead of sand, it will
start flowing at any inclination
– Sand is not a fluid although it acts like a
substance that deforms continuously
when acted on by a shearing stress
(ON CONDITION that the magnitude
of this shear exceeds a limiting value)

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 Tar: is it a Fluid?

– At room temperature, tar pitch flows at a very slow rate, taking

several years to form a single drop out of a funnel. Tar appears to
be solid while in fact it is a very-high-viscosity fluid (very low rate of
deformation)
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 Normal Stresses on a Normal Stresses on a
solid FLUID
F F
F
δL δV
δL

L A A L V A

normal stress  F
A normal stress P  F
A
Long .Strain L / L
Vol .Strain V / V
E 
 K   P
V / V

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Modulus of compressibility
 Shear Stresses on a solid Shear Stresses on a FLUID

T=1s T=2s U
F T=0 F


A A
U

Shear stress t = F
AY dy
Shear stress t = F u
A t = m du dy
y
du
Shear strain = g t=1s
Rate of shear strain = g ·
g · = du dy = slope of v - profile
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rate of deformation (Flow)
56
 Flow
• Continuous deformation (du/dy) implies the occurrence of
FLOW
• Relative change of velocity of particles located at two adjacent
layers indicate a continuous deformation (du/dy)
• If all particles move with the same velocity, there is no flow
(example: translation or rotation)
Movement but not flow! Movement but not flow!

water

From our point of view these are related more to fluid statics!

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• Distinction between solids and fluids:
– A solid is “hard” and not easily deformed. A fluid is “soft” and
deforms easily.
– Fluids tend to take the shape and form of the container.
– Fluid is a substance that alters its shape in response to any
shear stress however small, that tends to flow or to conform
to the outline of its container. That includes gases and liquids
and mixtures of solids and liquids capable of flow.
– A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously
when acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude.

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● Molecules of solid closer together than those of
fluid
● Solid: intermolecular forces larger than in fluid
● Elastic solid
– deforms under load
– recovers original state when unloaded

● Plastic solid
– deforms under sufficient load
– continues deforming as long as load is applied
– does not return to original state

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Intermolecular forces in fluid not large enough to
hold elements together
● Fluid flows under slightest stress and continues
flowing as long as stress is present

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Distinction between liquids and
gases

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 Fluid types: Gas & liquid

If the fluid is a gas: it will expand filling all the

space vacated by the piston; gases can
expand without limit to occupy space
made available to them.

If the fluid is a liquid: as the piston is raised, the liquid can

expand only a small amount, and then it can expand no
more. What fills the space between the piston and the
liquid? Part of the liquid must turn into a gas by boiling, and
this gas expands to fill the vacant space.

Because of their closer molecular spacing, liquids normally

have higher densities, viscosities, etc., than gases. This
frequently leads to quite different behaviors of liquids and
gases.
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Fluids: liquid,Vapor, gas
1- LIQUID:
– A state of matter in which the molecules are relatively free to
change their positions with respect to each other but restricted
by cohesive forces so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume
And relatively incompressible.
– If external pressure removed, does not expand
– May have a free surface (subject to its own vapor
pressure)

2- VAPOR:
– Gas whose T and P very near the liquid phase
Ex. Steam is a vapor, state near that of water
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 3- GAS:
• a state of matter in which the molecules are practically
unrestricted by cohesive forces. A gas has neither definite
shape nor definite volume.
•Super-heated vapor, far away from liquid phase
• Volume of gas or vapor greatly affected by ΔT and ΔP
•Molecules farther apart
• Very compressible
•Tends to expand indefinitely completely fills any
vessel in which it is placed

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Common Fluids
Liquids:
water, oil, mercury, gasoline, alcohol
Gasses:
air, helium, hydrogen, steam
Borderline:
jelly, asphalt, lead, toothpaste, paint

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 Test Your Self

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 State if the following statements are right
or wrong
1. Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under
the action of shearing forces however small.
2. Fluid can resist shear only when moving.
3. Fluid is unable to retain any unsupported shape.
4. Fluid flows under its own weight and takes up the
shape of any enclosing container.
5. Fluid is a substance that flows under the action of
shearing forces.

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 6. If a fluid is at rest, then the forces on it are in balance.
7. A gas is a fluid that is easily compressed.
8. Gas fills any vessel in which it is contained.
9. A liquid is a fluid which is hard to compress.
10. A given mass of liquid will occupy a fixed volume,
irrespective of the container size.
11. A free surface is formed as a boundary between a
liquid and a gas above it.

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